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TCXXXX10.1177/0040059914553207Council for Exceptional ChildrenTeaching Exceptional Children
research-article2014
OF
TEC
Research-Based
Educational Practices for
Students With Autism
Spectrum Disorders
This article originally appeared in the January/February 2011 issue of TEC
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has include: (a) engagement in repetitive 3, with the average onset at 15 months
become the fastest growing disability in activities and stereotyped movements, (Hutton & Caron, 2005). One aspect of
TEACHING Exceptional Children, Vol. 47, No. 2, pp. 94–102. Copyright 2014 The Author(s). DOI: 10.1177/0040059914553207
the United States, with current (b) poor eye contact, (c) difficulty autism that distinguishes it from other
prevalence rates estimated at as many as socializing with others, (d) resistance disabilities is that the term refers to a
1 in 150 children. This increase in the to changes in daily routines, and (e) spectrum or multiple types of similarly
number of students identified with ASD unusual responses to sensory related disorders. Hence, the disability
has significant implications for public experiences such as loud noises is more commonly referred to as
schools. The most popular research- (Individuals With Disabilities autism spectrum disorder (ASD), with
based educational practices for teaching Education Act [IDEA], 2008). Although symptoms ranging from mild cognitive,
this population, explored in the pages the intelligence quotient (IQ) social, and behavioral deficits to more
that follow, include applied behavior distribution for specific types of autism severe symptoms in which children
analysis (ABA); the Developmental, resembles that of the general may suffer from intellectual disabilities
Individual-Difference, Relationship-Based population, there appears to always be and be nonverbal. There are five
method (DIR/Floortime), the Picture significant differentiation between subtypes of ASD.
Exchange Communication System written and oral language skills,
(PECS); social stories, and (e) Treatment marked emotional difficulties Autistic Disorder
and Education of Autistic and recognized by parents and teachers but
Approximately one third (35–40%) of
Communication Handicapped Children not by the students themselves, and
children with autism are nonverbal
(TEACCH). sensory problems similar to persons
(Mesibov, Adams & Klinger, 1997). The
who function at a much lower
majority of students diagnosed with
In 1990, while amending the cognitive level (Barnhill, Hagiwara,
autism have IQ scores categorizing
Education for All Handicapped Myles, & Simpson, 2000). As a result,
them with intellectual disability, with
Children Act, Congress expanded the children with autism, regardless of
only one third (25–33%) having an IQ
number of disability categories eligible whether they are high or low
in the average or above-average range
to receive special education services in functioning, have difficulty with peer
(Heflin & Alaimo, 2007).
public schools by including autism. relationships and understanding social
Autism is a developmental disability situations (Kasari, Freeman,
Asperger’s Syndrome
that significantly affects an individual’s Bauminger, & Alkin, 1999).
verbal and nonverbal communication Individuals with Asperger’s syndrome
as well as social interaction. It is typically do not exhibit delays in the area
Autistic Spectrum Disorders
typically evident before age 3, and of verbal communication, and often
adversely impacts a child’s educational Autism is a disorder that adversely develop large vocabularies. However,
performance. Other characteristics affects a child’s communication, they do show impairments in their ability
commonly associated with autism socialization, and interests prior to age to understand nonverbal communication
Discrete Trial Training Intervention that focuses on managing Increased levels of: www.helpingtogrow
(DTT; Lovaas, 1987) a child’s learning opportunities by • Cognitive skills .istores.com
teaching specific, manageable tasks • Language skills www.aba
until mastery in a continued effort to • Adaptive skills .insightcommerce.net
build upon the mastered skills. • Compliance skills www.adaptivechild
Time requirement: 20–30 hours per For ages: Approximately 2–6 .com
week across settings years These commercial sites
provide opportunities to
purchase programs and
adaptive equipment.
Lovaas Method Intervention that focuses on managing Increased levels of: www.lovaas.com
(Lovaas, 1987) a child’s learning opportunities by • Adaptive skills Official site for Lovaas
teaching specific, manageable tasks • Cognitive skills Institute that provides
until mastery in a continued effort to • Compliance skills detailed information
build upon the mastered skills. • Language skills about Lovaas method,
Time requirement: 20–40 hours per • IQ success stories, services
week. • Social functioning and products available.
For ages: Approximately
2–12 years
Social stories (Gray, Personalized stories that systematically Increased levels of: www.thegraycenter.org
1993) describe a situation, skill, or concept • Pro-social behaviors This site provides
in terms of relevant social cues, For ages: Approximately information about
perspectives, and common responses, 2–12 years resources available
modeling and providing a socially through the Center,
accepted behavior option. including products on
Time requirement: Time requirements how to make and use
vary per story; approximately 5–10 social stories. The site
min prior to difficult situation also provides general
information about
autism and research
that supports the use of
social stories.
Treatment and Intervention that supports task Increased levels of: www.teacch.com
Education of Autistic completion by providing explicit • Imitation The site is operated
and Communication instruction and visual supports in a • Perception through a division of
Handicapped Children purposefully structured environment, • Gross motor skills the University of North
(TEACCH; Schopler & planned to meet the unique task needs • Hand–eye coordination Carolina Department
Reichler, 1971) of the student. • Cognitive performance of Psychology and
Time requirement: Up to 25 hours per For ages: Approximately provides links to
week (during the school day) 6 years–adult regional centers,
programs and services,
as well as access to
current research and
publications supporting
the method.
In order to promote success, ABA children who received ABA therapy parent. It enables caregivers, educators,
programs require consistent, intense, were eventually able to attend classes and clinicians to plan an assessment
sometimes almost constant feedback with their non-disabled peers. This and intervention program that is
and correction of a child’s behavior. research suggests intensive ABA tailored to the specific needs of the
Therefore, intense one-on-one interventions implemented early in a child and their family. It is not less an
instruction is recommended at the child’s development can result in intervention than a method of analysis
beginning of the intervention (e.g., long-term positive outcomes. ABA and and understanding that helps organize
20–30 hours per week), and parent DTT have an extensive body of many intervention components into a
participation is crucial to help ensure research that supports its use academic comprehensive program (Wieder &
learned behaviors generalize across and behavior interventions for children Greenspan, 2001).
environments (e.g., home and school). with ASD (Simpson, 2004) as well as A vital element of the DIR model is
As the new behavior replaces the old other intellectual disabilities (Iwata Floortime (Wieder & Greenspan, 2001).
behavior and becomes more automatic, et al., 1997), and are considered to be Floortime serves both as an
the parent or teacher implementing the scientifically based practices for intervention and as a philosophy for
intervention must methodically lessen treating individuals with ASD interacting with children. It aims to
interaction and feedback with the child (Simpson, 2005). create opportunities for children to
during the targeted behavior. experience the critical developmental
Lovaas (1987) reported that nearly stages they are lacking through
Developmental, Individual-
half (47%) of the children in the ABA intensive play experiences. It can be
Difference, Relationship-Based
program achieved higher functioning in implemented as a procedure within the
Approach Model/Floortime
comparison to only 2% of the control home, school, or as a part of a child’s
group not receiving treatment. Though The Developmental, Individual different therapies. A Floortime
this particular study was criticized for Differences, Relationship-Based model program initially involves one-on-one
questionable research practices, it has (DIR; Wieder & Greenspan, 2001) is a experiences between the parent or
since been replicated with similar comprehensive, interdisciplinary caregiver and the child. These
results (Cohen, Amerine-Dickins, & approach to treating children with experiences are typically 20- to
Smith, 2006; Howard, Sparkman, disabilities, specifically those with 30-minute periods when parents
Cohen, Green, & Sanislaw, 2005). This ASD. It focuses on the child’s literally get on the floor with their
body of research includes several individual developmental needs, children and interact and play in a way
studies which reported half (50%) of including social-emotional functioning, that challenges typical behaviors (e.g.,
the children with ASD treated with communication skills, thinking and repetitive movements, isolation,
ABA prior to age 4 showed significant learning processes, motor skills, body inappropriate play) and encourages
increases in IQ, verbal ability, and/or awareness, and attention span. The appropriate, interactive play and
social functioning (Lovaas, 1987). Even DIR model serves as a framework to socialization through parent-directed
those who did not show dramatic understand the developmental profile modeling and prompting.
improvements had significantly better of an infant or child and the family by This intervention aims to train
improvement than matched children in developing relationships and parents and teachers to engage the
the control groups. In addition, some interactions between the child and emotions of even the most withdrawn