Direction of propaeation Direction of diffracted wwavefiont © ~ pinracted | FIGURE 2-11 Diffraction. (a) Perspective view. (b) Propagation vectors 2-34 Diffraction Diffraction is another process that causes light rays to bend, (hat is, to deviate from a straight line). It is often used in the same way that refraction is used. The diffraction phencmenon is used in a number of optical components such as lasers and optical filters. Diffraction occurs when a light wavefront is blocked by a sharp object. Figure 2-11 illustrates an obstructed wavefront and ' the diffracted wave. The angle of diffraction # depends on the wavelength > of : the incident light. The result of this relationship between 0 and A is that the diffracted light is diepersed much like light refracted through a prism, giving rise to the rainbow effect (Figure 2-12).eee Color spectrum FIGURE 2-12 Dittraction by wavelength. Remember that diffraction and refraction are two distinctly different phenomena. Diffract asmall hole sauate mith alternating opaque and transparent slits. A simple vote te aiftsction grating is shown in Figure 2-13. "The distance betacen ate slits S is constant over the whole plate. 5 is of the order of mageitude of 2 Light Passes through the slits and is diffracted 110 xisualize a reflective diffraction grating, protend that the slits in Figure 2-18 are actually reflecting surfaces, The cumulative effet os the rejection from all the reflective strips results in @ diffracted mawegeny that travels in the general direction back FIGURE 213 Dittraction rating,Chapter 2 ‘The law governing the transmissive diffraction grating is demonstrated in Figure 2-14. A monochromatic light (single wavelength X) is incident on the grating at anglo 0,, Many diffracted waves are produced. The one proceeding in the direction of the incident light is called the zero-order wave. Other waves of different orders (such as first order or second order) are diffracted at distinctly different angles. Next, the laws governing only the first-order wave are covered. pittaction A trating onder diffrseton @ JL Reflesive tips magi f t tet ordor io FIGURE 2-14 Light diffraction by a diffraction grating. (a) Transmissive diffraction grating. (b) Reflective diffraction grating.creer: Optical Raya ‘The relationship among the wavelength A, the grating spacing (or distance bebween slits) 8, the angle of incidence 0,, and the angle of diffraction 0, is given in Equation 2-12: m X (NS) = sin 6, + sin 04 e412 ‘where m can be +1, +2, and so forth. With m = 1, Equation 2-12 can be rewritten sin 9 = NS — sin @, (242a \ ‘The angle of diffraction (first order) can be found from | 4 = sin“WS ~ sin 0) (2p EXAMPLE 2-7 Tn Figure 2-14, 0, = 30° and $ = 13 am. 1. Find the diffraction angle (first order) for A = 0.82 pm. 2. Find the diffraction anglo for 4 = 1.5 um. Solution 1. dg ~ sin (0.62/1.9) ~ sin 30] sin“! 0.131 = 7.5" . 2, sin-{(L.5/1.3 ~ sin 30] = sin * 0.654 = 40.8° | The two rays are illustrated in Figure 2-15. Dtraction grating t | I it | 1 1 | ' FIGURE 2-19 Solution for Hxample 2-1 hp ole Diffraciod — toms 15 umChepter 2 23-5 Other Optical Phenomena Optical Dispersion, The refractive index varies with the wavelength d. Consequently, the angle of refraction will vary with 4, leading to the rainbow display, Te different colors, which have different wavelengths, have different ‘angles of refraction as they pass through the clouds (the atmosphere) and are separated. This relation between \ and n, the refractive index, has a strong fleet of the propagation of light pulses (digital information) in the optical fiber. . ‘Absorption and Scattering. As the light travels through a medium, its ‘nergy decreases because of losses in the material. Theso losses are due to a number of effects, two being absorption and scattering. Both are dependent on the wavelength "The first loss mechanism is absorption. There are two basie causes of absorption in glass, One is the interaction of the light waves with the molecular structure of the material, referred to as intrinsic absorption. This type of loss becomes significant for wavelengths below about 0.75 yum and above about 1.7 jm (for germanium-oxide-silicon-oxide glass). "The second eause of absorption is impurities in the glass. The impurities could be various metals (such as chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), or vanadium (V) or hydroxyl (OH ion.) This absorption is highly wavelength dependent, For example, the warst absorption caused by copper occurs at A ~ 0.850 yum and by chromium at A = 0.625 jm. Inzecent years, however, motallic impurities have tpeen reduced to less than one part in 107° (10 ®%), practically eliminating this loss. ‘The absorption characteristies of the OH ion behave like a resonance cireuit with sharp peaks at A= 1.38 jum (highest absorption) and secondary peaks at A= 1.24 um and A = 0.95 jum. The OH ions in the fibers have been Teduced in recent years by sophisticated manufacturing processes. Neverthe- Tess, the contribution of the OH ions to total fiber loss is still significant. This impurity results in low-loss windows (ranges of wavelengths between the hhigh-lose OH peaks) for which the losses in the fiber are relatively low. The second loss mechanism is scattering. Light nergy that hits obstructions scatters in all directions, and most of it does not continue in the riginal propagation direction. ‘This scattered light energy is lost. The ‘cbstructions are typically variations in the density of the material and the refractive indox. When the obstructions are small, less than A, the Rayleigh scattering, Losses from Rayleigh scattering are related to LAY; that in, a2 i increases, the loss decreases as the fourth power of A. When, the tatractions are larger than A, the seattoring effect is called Mie scattering. Because of impeoved manufacturing processes, this loss has been minimized to th point that itis relatively insignificant, scattering is called Summary and Glossary iba easton sh ae ata eae at macelaniath Fe optic Sade triterion for selection will be the fiber lenses just SUMMARY AND GLOSSARY Chapter 2 diseussed fund: ital 1: ls f s lamental laws relating to the propagation of lig suetias ibe elaton of the speed of ight to the index ofrofaction andthe lews of reflection, refraction, and diffraction. You st underst a these latins and laws Yonsrmst also anderstand the causes och ee ea their gelatin: to the wavelength, ~~ The terms listed below should serve as avillat gation ld is a review, and you should be Ausonprio. A loss process in which impuriti Aeeeroe Ale aa ipurities take up (absorb) some of the Dirrraction. The provess that causes an olectromagnctic wave to bend as it passes by a sharp edge (for example, the edge ofa razor blade) obstructing the D enAcTion onatiNc. A set of opaque, or reflective slits (ab Durmaonon onarme, | A set ofpaque, slits (about the size of 4), pecod S. This grating produces an efficient diffrction Escrmonacyenie waves. A “ rs. A wave that propagates by the intercha nergy batwoen electric and magnetic ale Ee ee EE NeL nerizcrion, The reflection from the boundary between materials with differing refractive index, wher pn iene , where refraction rather than reflection is the Grovr vewocrry. The velocity of a group of wa ost Light co} ty of a group of wavelengths. (Mi aro at st light consists of a rango of wavelengths rather than a single wavelength.) : “refractive index.” Law oF nupscriox. The relation between the and the rflected light ray: Choy ano oyu) ee 80 ietdent ght ray Law or ermacriov. The I ing the prow. The law relating the angle of incidence to the a ‘eftoction ina reacted light baum, ne” % netenee to Ube angle of Mu o scarmaine. Scattering loss caused fe crm Sint d by imperfections and obstructions Puase verocry. wave. Puowox. The packet of light enet (electron, proton, ete.) ‘The velocity of a con: locity of a constant phase point on a propagating '¥, analogous to the basic atomic partsChapter 2 ‘Puoron mmcony. The thoory that views light as being made up of packets of cnovay, largely used in explaining the generation and detection of light. Puancx’s covsrawr. ‘The constant f that relates the energy of the photon to its wavelength (h = 6.626 x 10° J-s). Potanization, The direction of the electric field of a wave determines Its polarization. Quanton tapowy oF tuom. Soe “photon theory.” Rantsion scarrenwa, Seattoring caused by small obstructions approximately the size of 2. Rar eacixe, A method of analyzing the propagation of light waves by considering only their straight line direction of propagation. Rerizertox, A light beam incident on an opaque polished surface retumed in the general direction of the ineidont light (reflection from a mirror). Rernaction. A light beam passing from one material to another that bends ‘as it enters the socond material. Rernacrrva worx. The ratio'of the speed of light in a vacaum to the speed of ight in a material n, where ris greater than or equal to 1) Scarrenina, ‘The process that causes light to be dispersed in all directions. (See “Mie scattering” and “Rayleigh scattering.”) Spent counnuxces An electromagnetic wave with a fixed and nonrandom phase at a point in space. Srecruun. Range of frequencies of an electromagnetic wave. (The overall Spectrum of electromagnetic waves runs from very low frequencies through wetto frequencies, very high frequencies, light, X-rays, etz, see Table 2-2).) Speen oF ucur. ‘The speed of light in a vacm 300 x 10° mis. ‘Tenponat. couenesce. An electromognetic wave of a narrow range of frequencies. Ideally, « single-frequency (single-wavelength) ware. ‘Toran wrenvat neruscriox. When a ray incident on the interface betwoon a high and low refractive index materiel is totally reflected rather shan retracted, The angle of incidence is larger than the critical angle. ‘Pransvense ELECTROMAGNETIC FisiD. A wave structure with mutually perpen- dicular electric ficld, magnetic field, and direction of propagation Waverenerm, The distance a constant phase point on the wave travels in one period T of the sinusoidal wave FORMULAS = AXE e h = 6.626 100% S-s Gnu Energy of o photon in terms of its frequency. ‘Formalas = 300 x 10° ms ee Speed of light in @ vacuum. A=Txe Lear es Relation among wavelength, the sine wave period, and frequency. werxft 4 Phase velocity related to frequency ond wavelength. ven es) Speed of light ina material my 1 = elt 5a) Definition of m. A= May 26) Change ind due to my. 91-0 en Equality of the angle of incidence to the angle of reflection. ny sin 9 = ra 8in O eo Relation between the refractive indices and the angle of incidence and the of refraction (Snell's lau) een ‘Wears sin @\/sin 8, = main 28a) Variation of Equation 2-8 showing the ratio of the refractive indices. sin Oy/sin 0 = ugly ey Relation of speed of light to the angles of incidence and refraction.Chapter 2 = Lion, ~ ng) + mgd)? (210) Fresnel reflection, power loss for normal incident light. sin @, rainy au Critical angle. 0, = sin” (ry/n,) (24a) Critical angle. im (NS) = sin 8, + sin a aun Relation among the diffraction grating spacing S, the wavelength , the incident angle 0,, and the angle of diffraction (first order) 0, sin 0, = NS ~ sin 9; 2a) Variation of Equation 2-12 for first order with m QUESTIONS ight is an electromagnetic wave. List some other electromagnetic waves and their frequencies, wavelengths, and uses. 2, In simple terms, explain what. photon is. ‘8. What phenomenon is most frequently explained by photon theory? 4, What does the term coherence mean? 5. The three wavelengths A ~ 0.82 zm, 1.3 zm, and 1.5 am are the most popular in fiber optic communication, "To what spectram do they belong? 6. If the frequency of a wave has doubled (in free space), what do you expect to happen to the wavelength? 7. Is the velocity of light greater in the clouds (refractive index of 1.3) than in free space? Explain, 8, What is the difference between refraction and reflection? 9, What is the difference between refraction and diffraction? 10. Explain the difference between absorption loss and scattering loss. 11. One cause of absorption is impurities in glass. What impurity is respon. sible for most of the absorption loss in modern fiber? Is this loss wavelength sensitive? Explain. What is Rayleigh scattering? For a wavelength change from \ = 0.5 um to A= 12 quan, by what factor do you expect the Rayleigh scattering to _thange? (Does it increase or decrease?) 12, FIGURE 2 Problem 8. ~ _ PROBLEMS 1. Calculate the wavelength A in meters, in free space, of the following: a. ‘Typical sound wave electrical signal, frequency of 3 kHz 1b, The WINS radio carrier, frequency of 1.010 MEz ¢. Channel 2 telovision, froqueney of 57 MHz 4, VHF television Channel 36, frequency of 605 MHz ¢. A far infrared signal, frequency of 1,000 GH {. An infrared signal, frequeney of 0.35 x 10" Ha g. Yellow light, frequency of 0.5 x 10" Hz 2, Find the velocity flight in the following materials a. Fused silica, n b. Polystyrene, n= rie . Sapphire, n= 1.8 d. Silicon, n = 35 8. An electron loses an amount of energy equal to 3.2 X 10!) 2 eV), which is converted into radiation. What is the frequency of the radiation? 4, An infrared beam, \ = 0.82 um, in free space, passes through the following materials, Find its wavelength inside each. a. Teo b, Water c. Quartz ‘d. Diamond 5. A light beam is launched into a fiber made of quartz. The length of the fiber is 500 m. How long will it take the light to travel through the fiber? Assume that the light travels in a perfectly straight line along the fiber center. 6. How long will it take a light beam to reach the bottom of a lake 500 m deep? | 7. A beam is traveling to a satellite that is 30 km high. Assume that the first. 5 kkm consists of heavily polluted air with n ~ 1.01 and that the rest is a vacuum. Find the time required to make a round trip, (The heam is reflected by the satellite.) 8. A bear incident on point 0 is reffected and passes through point A (Figure 2-16), Find the angle of incidence. 216 Figure for ~Retestion surfaceChapt 9, Pind the angle 6 so that the reflected beam would travel perpendicular to the incident beam (Figure 2-17). FIGURE 2-17 Figure for Reteaive pens Refiected| beam . ° 10, Find the angle 0, in the diagram shown (Figure 2-18), FIGURE 2-18 Figure for Problem 10. f i 1 | { r = 1.3) to air in = LO) atangle 0 = 20°. What 11, A beam travels from water ( ‘was the angle of incidence? oo 12. A beam is passing through a slab of glass, as shown in Figure 2-19, and is shifted to the left as it exits the slab. Find the distance x. (Hints FIGURE 2-19 Figure for Problem 12, 18. Two beams are incident on a glass rod, as shown in Figure 2-20. a. Find the time it takes beain A to travel through the rod, 1b, Ropeat stop a for beam B. . Find the difference between the two intervals. FIGURE 2-20 Figure for Problem 13. Ve 14, A beam that contains two wavelengths, Ay = 0.82 jm and Ay = 1.3 um, enters a glass bar at 30° and is reflected by a mirror at the"bottom of the bar (Figure 2-21), Since the refractive index of the glass is different: for hy and ’g, the two wavelengths follow different paths, as shown in the figure. Iffor A, n = 1.4, and for io, n = 1.46, find the distances a, and a, and the interval da = a; ~ ay. The Aa is the dispersion caused by the glass bar as itt separates the light source into its wavelengths FIGURE 2-21 Pigure for Problem 14Chapter 2 o iffraction grating with a distance between sits ots 2-29. A ray of light with A = 0.5 pm ie a -der diffracted 1b Aten iting eaeatat as shawn In Figure fn 90°. Find the angle @, of the first-or« 1 incident al an angle 9 = wave. FIGURE 2-22 Figure for Problem 15. Dittraction grating 1 A difration grating in oftn used to separate wavelengths, IS Figure A disaster sourve conse of three separate wavelengine Ma" jam, by =. 0.7 pat, and dy = 08 am—find the tangle of diffraction (firs! order) of the three waves FIGURE 2-28 Figure for Problem 18. Ditrzction erating i a. ray passon blween : veentage of Fresne! reflection when 8) Pa ant : 1.4, Assume 0° incident angle. materials with n ~ L0 tom Principles of Fiber Optics CHAPTER OBJECTIVES ‘This chapter discusses light propagation in a step-index fiber. Total intern reflection, which is the basic underlying principle, and some details of*lig propagation in fiber aro presented, including the modes of propagation, t angle of propagation, and the acceptance angle, An important term, numeric aperture, which is connected to the relative refractive index differen botween core and cladding, is discussed. You will be able to calculate the parameters numerically and be introduced to tho rolations among tl numerical aperture, the line width, and the data rate of the fiber. 341 INTRODUCTION Figure 9-1 illustrates a step-index fiber. In this fiber the refractive ind changes in stop fashion, from the center of the fiber, the core, to the outer she the cladding. It is high in the core and lower in the cladding. The light int fiber propagates by bouncing back and forth from the core-cladding interfa ‘To simplify the discussion of propagation, you will use ray-traci techniques. That is, you will follow a sample ray through the fiber. Mostly, y will assume that the sample ray passes through the center of the fiber. Su raygare called meridional rays Section 9-2-3 briefly covers nonmeridion or skew rays. ‘The ray propagating in the fiber must be launched into the fiber at o end. The conditions necossary to Inject such rays efficiently depend on the fiat Chapter 3 that the total number of modes inereases as the relative refractive index difference (ng ~ m\/n, increases. Tt is common to distinguish between high-order modes, those with propagation angles close to the critical angle @,, and low-ordor modes, those with propagation angles much lower than the critical angle. ‘The high-order modes tend to send light energy into the el&dding. This energy is ultimately lost, particularly at fiber bonds. Mode Conversion (ifode Coupling). Whether the light energy propagates, mostly in high-order modes, low-order modes, or a particular mix of modes depends cn launch conditions (the angle of incidence of the rays entering the fiber end) and on the extent that mode coupling (the transfer of light energy from one mode to another) takes place. If the light source to fiher connection causes a large part of the light energy to be coupled to the fber at relatively large angles, high-order modes will be sct up (Figure 3-i(a)). This tends to cause losses, particularly at fiber bends. Figure 3-2(b) shows a light source that couples the light at shallow angles, and thus low-order modes are set up and energy loss is roducod. In Figure 3-3(c), the light source ia misaligned and tends to set up higher and leaky modes. It is most efficient to avoid the situations shown in Figure 3-3(a) and 3-3(c). The mode distribution (the relative amount of onergy carried by cach modo) initially set up in the fiber is substantially altered by mode coupling (or mode conversion). ‘The mole distribution afler about 1 or 2km of fiber reaches what is called a steady-state mode distribution. This means that the distribution of light energy amorig the modes is relatively constant from there on. Each mode is Ligh o3-2 Light Propagation FIGURE 3.4 Bffects of maczobend. nee SR ‘ 4, mote becomes #, mode in clang. (made hecomes higher mode 0's carrying its fair share of light. (Although mode coupling continues throughout the fiber, mode distribution remains relatively unchanged.) ‘Mode coupling (the conversion of one mode to another) is caused hy fiber bends, large and small, macrobonds and microbends, respectively. Figure 3-4 shows what happens to two rays as they pass through a maerobend in the fiber, When the ray with angle 0; reaches point A, its propagation angle becomes larger than #. In Figure $4, this angle is assumed to be largef"than 9, (the critical angle), and the ray exits the fiber. The 0, mode has becn converted to a leaky modo (very high order mode) and thus lost. The mode propagating at ‘angle 9, is converted to a higher-order mode 0’ due to the bend. Here, Js’ ~ By. Note that mode conversion to hoth higher-order and lower-order modes uswally takes place. (To provo thia point, see what happens to a ray ineident at point C. The incident and reflected angles must be the same.) Figure 8-5 shows mode conversion caused by a small indentation in the fiber, a microbend. Conver Sions to high-order and low-order modes are shown, Ttis sometimes desirable to sot up the steady-state mode distribution over a short fiber length by deliberately introducing minute bends in the fiber. The _ Tiber is pressed between two blocks covored with fine sandoaper (a mode mixing block), The sandpaper introduces indentations in the fiber and eausea SFIGURE 3.5 Emoto of -—erotends Fricrobends i, Hiss High-onter : __ ender mode move ay exit Sliver —\ Loworder modeChapter 3 structure, as well as on the characteristics of the light source, Note that in ‘communication applications the power introduced into the fiber is typically 10-100 W with a light-emitting diode (LED) source and approximately 1 mW with a lasor source. 3-2 LIGHT PROPAGATION 3-2-1 Total Internal Reflection A typical step-index fiber is shown in Figure 3-1. Two rays are shown in Figure 3-1, One (the solid line) is injected at a lower angle than is the other (the dashed line). Follow the dashed ray first (the dashed line). ‘At interface A, betwoen air and the core, refraction takes place, and the ray continues ata smaller angle, closer to the center line; that is, #ra > 6.The ray then gets to the core-cladding interface at point B. Again, refraction takes, place and the ray bends and continues in the eladding. Finally, the ray bends again, as it exits the fiber at the cladding-air interface, at point C. However, this time the ray leaves the fiber. This ray is not confined and does not propagate through the fiber. ‘Now, follow the second ray (the solid line). Again, refraction takes place at point A. At point B’, tho core-cladding intorface, total intornal reflection occurs. This ray is confined to the fiber core. For convenience, assume tha: the angle of incidence at the core-cladding interface is the eritical angle and eall it, a (a specific case of 9, in Equation 2-11 for a fiber, where the index for the cladding isn. and for the core is n,). From Equation 2-11a, a, = sin * (noi). ‘An incident ray with an angle larger than a, will propagate in the fiber. ‘The critical ray (the solid line) in Figure 8-1 makes an angle 8, with the fiber center. Rays with propagation angles larger than 9, will not propagate. Note that 9 > 9,, and that ¢; ray exits the fiber and is not confined to the fiber. | { ef N Chudding 32 Light Propagation ‘The angle ¢ is called the critical propagation angle (6, is not the as 0, in Chaptor 2), From the geometry, Ste RAE Seat ey sin a, = cos 0, ny on Itis important to note that total internal reflecti on] i ‘trayels from high index to low index medi: DREN Omran een et EXAMPLE 341 Find 9, ina fiber with moe = 143 and agg = 140, ai Solution C08 0, = rainy = 1.40/49 0. = ALT The ray propagating at the eritical angle, 0, ~ 11.7" in E Bi incident at the coroladding interface at a ='90 — 17 7890 1h valtee given in Example 3-1 are typical for step-index fibers used in communication (Single-mode fibers have shallower critical angles). 0, of about 12" is very shallow and requires special care in launching to make sure the light enters and is confined to the fiber. The angles #,, and 6; in Figure 3-1 are'no! equal epg and 9 (Seo Section 32-4) and are the angles of incidence ofthe light entering the fiber end, an responding anglos ofl uC omering the fer en, end 0 and 0, az te corresponding angles eight 3-2-2 Mode Propagation All rays with angles less angles less than ¢, will propagate in the fiber. On the basis of slecromagati theory, thse rays propagate at distinct angles. If the critical is ating at by ”, as in the Example 3-1, other rays will Propagate at distinct angles below 11.7". Figure 3-2 shows threo dietine\ rays, Propagating at @,, @>, and 63, These rays are referred to as modes of Frepagation. The total number of modes propagating in the fiber increases 3 ' Mereases. The 0, depends on ny/ny, as does the number of modes. It turns out Cladéing Fo a SexChapter 3 (aad? — 14092 x 1.44") 027 2.1% 3. 0g = sin“? 0.337 19.7" Acceptanee angle aa (Equation 3-5) X= So Its often convenient to simplify the expression for 4, An approximation for A is obtained by rewriting B= (2 = ng VK2* my?) = ray + ng!) % (ry ~ nad * 11°) When n, is approximately equal to ta, A= [2% my (my ~ ma) m1?) oy = (my = Ra), Reinember that the N.A. represents the acceptance angle. A large N-A. represents a large accaptance angle and vice verse. A lage N.A. also impliss Jefe Ava large difference in refractive indox. As you will se in Section 5-1, f ange N.A. produces a large number of modes and presents some serious performance problems. Typically, 4 is of the order of 0.01-0.03 (1-34) 343 LINE WIDTH ‘tho actual sources of light used in fiber optics produce a light that has a band drirsquencies, Typically, they are not monochromatic. ‘That is, they are not Single-frequoney sources. This band corresponds to a range of wavelengths The line width of light energy and of a light source is the width in ‘Wavelengths between the two points where the hight energy drops off to one aif its maxiinum power. In Figure 3-7, the power is maximum at > = 820 nm ped drops to half its maximum al A ~ 810 nm and X > 880 nm. The tina width ie therefore, 830 ~ $10 ~ 20 nm, We will use the notation da te denote Hing ‘Riguh. An corresponds to a bandwidth Af. Afcan be expressed for narrow line widths as MF = (AWAD) * fo a9 where Af'= fy ~ fi fy and fy are the half power frequencies of the light source, and Afis the bandwidth of the light source. Ay = conter wavelength center frequency aie g ge Laie hay eee aa ga le ics 3-4 — Propagation Velocities FIGURE 8-7 Line width, Relative light power output so 80 2 so ‘The line width of i wna perce ofthe source bas serious eects on the ovorall performance Of hala one nission ays large line width yields a lary umber of moles or the sine WA. and lowers the meaimum eta tls te EXAMPLE 34 A typical LED emits lis Foleo nD, Gmits light at dy = 0.82 um wit lative line width in pereent and 2) aj” tS ~ 49 nm. Find G) the Solution * 1. Aig (40 x 10-)x820 x 107%) 048s In percent, 0.0488 x 100 = 4.89% 2 fy Do 100 x 10%10.82 x 10-8) ~ 0.3658 x 10" fo is the center frequency, corresponding to 2, a 0.62 um, 07820 x 0.3685 x 193° = 1784 « 107 He Note that in this e t in this example, an enormous bandwidth Afis involved. 34 PROPAGATION VELOCITIES ‘The refractive index a index n of most m: ‘i This makes the spoed. of light odors Varies with the wavolongth involved. thelr Shag habaChapter 3 increased mode mixing. ‘This method also causes inereased lose because some of the modes become leaky. “A commen question regarding light propagation in the fiber is whether @ ray ever travels directly along the fiber, parallel to the fiber axis. The answer je that such a mode (0 = 0°) would very quickly ba converted to higher-order modes because of fiber bends. 323 Skew Waves ‘Thus far, all rays have been assumed to be meridional, passing through tho fiber center. In reality, a large number of rays travel through the fiber without going through the fiber’s eonter line. Skew waves (also called skew rays) Fepresent 4 significant part of the total light transimission, Fortunately, the thalysis of meridiogal rays gives a eloso approximation of what actually takes place so that it is not necessary to include the complex analysis of skew waves. Skew waves are a result of the way the light is injected into the fiber, and it is nearly impossible and also unnecessary to avoid them. 3-24 Acceptance Angle and Numerical Aperture ‘The propagation angle must be equal to or less than the critical angle. This means that tho light entering the fiber must be shallow enough to maintain this condition, Figure 3-6 traces two entering rays that become the eritieal rays in the fiber. If you follow the colid Lino ray, there is refraction at point A 0 that 9, does not equal 4,.The refractive indices involved are those of air, n= Land the core ny. Only rays thal enter the fiber edge within the angle 28, ‘will be eocepted hy the fiber. The angle 28, is the acceptance angle. In three dimensions, it is an acceptance cone, limited by the angle 20, {Tr is usefal to relate the angle @, to the refractive indices of the fiber. By Snell's law, at point A (Figure 2-6), sin @gisin 6, = yar = My and sin 0, ~ my % sin 8 ae ‘The term sin 9, is called the numerical aperture (N.A.) and NA. = sin 8, = my sin @ oa) ‘To obtain N.A. in terms of the refractive indices n, and nz, where n, is the core index (avy) and ny is the cladding index (7,,,), use Equations 3-1 and 3-3 and the trigonometric identity ~ sin? 0 eos? 0 3-2 — Light Propagation eas FIGURE 8-6 Acceptance angle. ‘The “half acceptance” angle 0, is given by 0, = sin“(N.A) a sietn? as) nga? You can express the NLA. in terns of the relative refractive in difference A, which is defined as nctivetinis : 2 = (2 = m2 x0) WAPIGX mg) e _ From Equations 34 and 3-6, . (NAD ~aga2Kn xd on NA. = ny x (2 x A)? - EXAMPLE 3-2 A fiber has the following characteristi 35 ( Gc decival ate ODS Pied te NA id the secptance angles Solution NAA. = n, x (2X A)? = 1.35 x (2 x 0.02)! 027 8, =sin-' NLA. = sin“? 0.97 Acceptance angle = 2 a, 5.66" 138° EXAMPLE 3-3 A stop-indox fiber has noe 44 and mejgg = 1.40. Fine 1 _(B) the acceptance angle aren 2) A, and) From} BausGani 9-4:Chapter 3 FORMULAS In the following formulas, n,, core index and na, cladding index. sin a, = c0s 0, = malty The relation between the refractive indices and the critical angles. sin @, =m x sin 6. Definition of half acceptance angle 0. NiA. = sin 0, =n, sin 0, Definition of NA. NA. = (92-03 Relation between N.A. and the refractive indices. = sin“ NLA) sin ny? ~ 1 Half asceptance angle, A= 2 ng2 x09) = NAIM X m2?) Definition of the relative refractive difference 4. NAA. = my x (2x a0? Relation between & and NA. A= ~ nal ‘Aiwiniagition Ye A en oa) os) on 8) Problems AF = (ANAg) & f eo Relation between the frequency bandwidth f and the line width Ah. QUESTIONS 1, What is the difference between meridional and the skew wavos in a fiber? 2. Light beams are injected into the fiber at angles larger than the acceptance angle, Will they propagate in the fiber? Rxplain, 3, Would light be confined in an optical fiber if the total internal reflection nhenomenon did not exist? Explain, 4. What are propagation modes? 5. What is mode coupling? Give causes for mode mixing. 6. The simple flashlight sends beams at a relatively wide angle. Would it be casier to couple it to a fiber with a low acceptance angle or high acceptance angle? Explai 7, How are the following related to the fiber data rate? ‘a. Propagation modes 1b. Acceptance angle ©. Line width 8 What is the steady-state mode distribution? Does mode coupling stop after steady.stata mode distribution is reaches . 9. Are low-order modes or high-order mo modes and to leave the fiber? 10. How is the relative refractive index difference related to propagation modes? 11. Will light propagate in a glass tubing (air inside with a glass shell)? Explain 28 more likely to become leaky PROBLEMS 1. A stepindox fibor has ory ~ Aland nagq = 137. Find the range of propagation angles (all angles below the critical angle). 2. For the fiber in Problem 1, Ond a. The N.A b. The acceptance angle 3. In a stop-index fiber, the relative reftactive index difference is 27% and aigt = 1.40. Find 2. The Pageg b. he critical propagation angle ©. The NA, id "The woraptatise nalsnares B28 nenty (eles etalale “ v 25 > ws : jm 6 aon ia | dm) ange direction, For wavslongth from abont 06 to 1.8m, n decreases wish inrersing wavelet nating negative spe (amet oe v increases with wavelength, indicating 3 . RUA poste)” Ror 13-27 jm, a inreases wth Increasing wavelength Figure 9-8 shows this relationship among n, v, 2 sing wave: Tongth A. At about 1.3 jum, the slope of both andi approximately 0. This mean Variations in n or v as the wavelength changes Era i Besos changes nth elon prety neve the data ete ine her can envy, ibis advantageous tooperaie a about 13 yn, Tabet es that operate at close to 1.8 jm. If the line width Sac yer ners ay I 2m, and you operate nee 8 ou can expe o/h to be nea Oa the Ban eae te ta SPE Uae ton the decasion of persion in Secon 4-3) SUMMARY AND GLOSSARY ‘he terme defined here reflect what you have learned in this chapter. These ‘ou should recognize terms are used throughout this text and in industry. You sh es th id understand what they mean. Use this glossary to review the Summary and Glossary Acceptance anats, ‘The rango of angles within which an injected light beam will enter the fiber. (This angle is related to the numerical aperture) Accerrancu cons. The acceptance angle in three dimensions, (Tho cone is formed by rotating the acceptance angle, with the fiber center line as the avis.) Baxpwipra. Frequency range corresponding to the line width AA. (See “line: width” and Equation 3-9) Curtcat. PRopacATION anctr. Rays with propagation angles larger than the critical angle are not confined to the fiber. (They leave the fbor.) Lawr wiom, ‘The range of wavelengths betwoen the two points of halt power emission of a light source. (See “relative line width.") Mrrprona nay. A ray that passes through the fiber center line Mone coxvensron, ‘The transfer of light energy from one mode to another ‘Mope.couruic. See “inode conversion.” Mone pisruunox. |The amount of energy earriod hy each mode in an optical fiber, usually givon in relative terms, Mone woxine nuock. A device designed toe: ise mode conversion in the fiber. Mode pronscanox, ‘The propagation of light energy in an optical fibor takes Place at distinct angles of propagation called modes of propagation, or simply modes. Mowocuxomanic. Of single color or single frequency. (A light source which has a very narrow line width is monochromatic.) Nunemicat areirune, ‘The sine of one-half the acceptance anglo. Propscarion avout. ‘The angle a beam inside a fiher makes with the Sher axis, (See “critical propagation angle.”) Riwative RerRactive INDEX pireeneNce. Approximately the ratio of the refractive index difference over the core index. (See Equations 5-6 and 3-8.) Relate Line vinta, The ratio of the lino width to the center wavelength of the source, ANA. Skew nay. A ray that propagates in the fiber without crossing the Aber center line. (Skew ray is the samo as skew wave.) Smape-stare wone oieremvnon. After a certain length of fiber, the powor ferried by each mode does not chango any more, The mode distribution & said to be in the steady-state distribution Srep-nnex minor. A fiber made of a core and cladding with two refractive Meore ANG Miya Tota, UFTERNAL, nEFLECTION. Rays traveling at shallow angles (below the critical propagation angle) from a high-index matorial to a loweindex materigh undergo total internal reflection and do not cross into the Irene4, Find A for the step-index fibers listed here, using tho exact and approximate formulas. Compare the resulting values. Meorol™) — Maaaaly) a “142 1.415 be 138 1.36 ce. 1.68 134 5. An optical fiber is being designed. Tt must have an acceptance angle of 75°. Ite cladding index is 1.98, Find its core index. 6. A fiber is made of a core with an index of1.40 and no cladding (air adding). Find a, The N.A. b. The acceptance angle 7. Por the fiber in Problem 6, what is the highest-order mode (critical propagation angle)? 8. A light source has the response in Figure 3-9. Find its line width. FIGURE 3-9 -Figure fer Power (mW) Problem 8 o5| ——_s__ sedi 2 Gin 750 EO) BS 8. For tho source of Problem 8, find Af 10. A source has a 2% line width at a center wavelength of 1.3 puma. Find Af 11, Repeat Problem 10 for a sourve with a 10% line width. 12. A source with a contor wavelength of 0.8 am and a line width of 80 nm (240 nm) is used with a fiber made of silicon glass (Figure 3-8), Find a. ‘The An involved b. The Av involved CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you will be able to identify the basic cafes of energy loss in fiber and Aber dispersion and the effect that the loss and dispersion have on fiber performance. The discussion on the choice of | wavelength is designed to allow you to analyze the relations among loss, dispersion, and wavelength and to highlight the reasons some wavelengths a1 prejerred over others, 41 INTRODUCTION The characteristics of optical fihers depend both on the specific material composition and the physical shape and size. Things such as glass composition, diameter of the fiber, and the way the index of refraction varies within the fiber directly affect the fiber performance. Imperfections and concentricity affect losses in the fiber, as do small bends (microbends) in the fiber. In general, ‘when discussing fiber characteristice, this toxt will concentrate on fiber losses and the data rave that the fiber can handle.