MECHANICS OF MATERIALS 2 An Introduction to the Mechanics of Elastic and Plastic Deformation of Solids and Structural Materials THIRD EDITION E. J. HEARN PhD; BSc(Eng) Hons; CEng; IMechE; FIProdE; FIDiagE University of Warwick United Kingdom mic -H ZH My gle lo 2izButterworth-Heinemann Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP 228 Wildwood Avenve, Woburn, MA. 01801-2081 2 division of Reed Educational snd Professional Polishing Lid QA memter oF the Reed Elsevier ple group OXFORD AUCKLAND BOSTON MELBOURNE NEW DELHI Fist published 1977, Reprinted with comections 1980, 1981, 1982 Second edition 1985 Reprinted with corections 1989 Reprinted 1992, 1995, 1996 ‘Third edition 1997 Reprinted 1999 (©, Hearn 1977, 1985, 1997 All rights reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced in any material form (including ‘Photocopying orstonng in any medium by electonic ‘means and whether or not transiently or incidentally to some other use of this publication) without the writen permission of the copyright holder excep in accordance ‘with the provisions ofthe Copynght, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Lid, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London, England WIP 9HE. ‘Applications for the copyright holder’ writen permission o reproduce any part ofthis publication Should be addressed to the publishers, British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Heam, EJ. (Edwin John) ‘Mechanics of matenals.~ 3d ed. |. An inuoduetion tothe mechanics of elastic and plastic deformation of soli and structural materiale 1 Strength of materials 2. Stns and stress 3._Deformations (Mechanis) 4. Elasticity Title 620.1'12 ISBN 0 7506 3266 6 Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data Hear, EJ. (Edwin John) ‘Mechanics of materials | an introduction to the mechanics of elastic and plastic deformation of solids and structural mateil/E, J, Hear, ~ 3rd ed p.m. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0 7506 3266 6 1 Suength of materials. I Tie ‘TAOS (620,1123-4e21 96-49967 cP ‘Typeset by Laser Words, Maas, india Printed and bound in Gret BrianAlso of interest ASHBY Materials Selection in Mechanical Design ASHBY & JONES Engineering Materials | Engineering Materials 2 BRANDES & BROOK Smithells Metals Reference Book, 7th Edition BRYDSON Plastics Mate ‘CAMPBELL Castings (CHARLES, CRANE & FURNESS Selection and Use of Engineering Materials, 2nd Edition ‘CRAWFORD Plastics Engineering, 2nd Edition HEARN Mechanics of Materials 1 HULL & BACON Introduction to Dislocations, 3rd Edition JONES Engineering Materials 3 LLEWELLYN Steels: Metallurgy & Applications SMALLMAN & BISHOP Metals and Materials ls, 6 EditionCONTENTS Introduction Notation Unsymmetrical Bending Summary Introduction MW Product second moment of area 12. Principal second moments of area 13 Mohr's circle of second moments of area 14 Land's circle of second moments of area 15 Rotation of axes: determination of moments of area in terms of the principal values 1.6 The ellipse of second moments of area 1.7 Momental ellipse 18 Stress determination 19 Alternative procedure for stress determination 110 Alternative procedure using the momental ellipse 1.11 Deflections Examples Problems Struts Summary Introduction 21 Euler's theory 22° Equivalent strut length 23 Comparison of Euler theory with experimental results 24 Buler “validity limit” 2.5 Rankine or Rankine~Gordon formula 2.6 Perry-Robertson formula 2.7 British Standard procedure (BS 449) 2.8 Seruts with initial curvature 2.9 Struts with eccentric load 2.10 Laterally loaded struts 2.11 Alternative procedure for any strut-loading condition242 Contents Struts with unsymmetrical cross-section Examples, Problems Strains Beyond the Elastic Limit Summary Introduction 3.1 Plastic bending of rectangular-sectioned beams 3.2 Shape factor - symmetrical sections 33 Application to I-section beams 34 Partially plastic bending of unsymmetrical sections 35. Shape factor — unsymmetrical sections 3.6 Deflections of partially plastic beams 37 Length of yielded area in beams 38 Collapse loads ~ plastic limit design 3.9 Residual stresses after yielding: elastic-perfectly plastic material 3.10 Torsion of shafts beyond the elastic limit ~ plastic torsion 3.11 Angles of twist of shafts strained beyond the elastic limit 3.12. Plastic torsion of hollow tubes 3.13 Plastic torsion of case-hardened shafts 3.14 Residual stresses after yield in torsion 3.15. Plastic bending and torsion of strain-hardening materials (a) Inelastic bending (b) Inelastic torsion 3.16 Residual stresses ~ strain-hardening materials 3.17 Influence of residual stresses on bending and torsional strengths 3.18 Plastic yielding in the eccentric loading of rectangular sections 3.19 Plastic yielding and residual stresses under axial loading with stress concentrations 3.20 Plastic yielding of axially symmetric components (a) Thick cylinders — collapse pressure (b) Thick cylinders ~ “auto-fretage” (c) Rotating dises Examples Problems Rings, Discs and Cylinders Subjected to Rotation and Thermal Gradients Summary 4.1 Thin rotating ring or cylinder 42 Rotating solid dise 43° Rotating disc with a central hole 4.4 — Rotating thick cylinders or solid shafts 45° Rotating disc of uniform strength 49 50 56 o 7 117 118 119 122 124 12546 Contents Combined rotational and thermal stresses in uniform discs and thick eylinders Examples Problems ‘Torsion of Non-Circular and Thin-Walled Sections Summary 5.1 Rectangular sections 5.2 Narrow rectangular sections 53 Thin-walled open sections 54 Thin-walled split ube 5.5 Other solid (non-tubular) shafts 56 Thin-walled closed tubes of non-circular section (Bredt~Batho theory) 5.7 Use of “equivalent J” for torsion of non-circular sections 58 Thin-walled cellular sections 59 Torsion of thin-walled stiffened sections 5.10 Membrane analogy 5.1L Effect of warping of open sections Examples Problems Experimental Stress Analysis Introduction 6.1 Brittle lacquers 62 Strain gauges 63 Unbalanced bridge circuit 64 Null balance or balanced bridge circuit 65 — Gauge construction 66 Gauge selection 617 Temperature compensation 68 Installation procedure 6.9 Basic measurement systems 6.10 D.C. and AC. systems 6.11 Other types of strain gauge 6.12 Photoelasticity 6.13 Plane-polarised light ~ basic polariscope arrangements 6.14 Temporary birefringence 6.15 Production of fringe patterns 6.16 Interpretation of fringe patterns 6.17 Calibration 6.18 Fractional fringe order determination ~ compensation techniques 6.19 Isoclinics~circular polarisation 6.20. Siress separation procedures 621. Three-dimensional photoelasticity 126 129 136 141 141 142 143 143 145 145 147 149 150 151 192 133 154 160 166 166 167 im 173 13 1B 175 175 176 17 179 180 81 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 190 190622 623 Contents Reflective coating technique Other methods of strain measurement Bibliography Circular Plates and Diaphragms Summary A. CIRCULAR PLATES 7 12 73 14 1s 16 a 18 19 7:10 Tm 712 73 74 Stresses Bending moments General equation for slope and deflection General case of a circular plate or diaphragm subjected to combined uniformly distributed load q (pressure) and central concentrated load F Uniformly loaded circular plate with edges clamped Uniformly loaded circular plate with edges freely supported Circular plate with central concentrated load F and edges clamped Circular plate with central concentrated load F and edges freely supported Circular plate subjected to a load F distributed round a circle Application to the loading of annular rings Summary of end conditions Stress distributions in circular plates and diaphragms subjected to lateral pressures Discussion of results ~ limitations of theory Other loading cases of practical importance B. BENDING OF RECTANGULAR PLATES 715 7:16 Rectangular plates with simply supported edges carrying uniformly distributed loads Rectangular plates with clamped edges carrying uniformly distributed loads Examples Problems Introduction to Advanced Elasticity Theory 81 82 83 84 Types of siress The cartesian stress components: notation and sign convention 82.1 Sign conventions The state of stress at a point Direct, shear and resultant stresses on an oblique plane 84.1 Line of action of resultant stress B42 Line of action of normal stress 190 192 192 193 193 195 195 197 198 199 200 202 203, 205 206 208 208 209 2u 212 213, 213, 214 215 218 20 20 21 21 224 226 21as 86 87 88 89 8:10 8 8.12 8.13 Ba 815 816 817 818. 819 8.20 821 822 823 8.24 8.25 8.26 827 Contents 843. Line of action of shear stress 844 Shear stress in any other direction on the plane Principal stresses and strains in three dimensions ~ Mohr’s circle representation Graphical determination of the direction of the shear stress ty on an inclined plane in a three-dimensional principal sess system The combined Mohr diagram for three-dimensional stress and strain systems Application of the combined circle to two-dimensional stress systems Graphical construction for the state of stress at @ point Construction for the state of strain on a general sirain plane State of stress—tensor notation The stress equations of equilibrium Principal stresses in a three-dimensional cartesian siress system 8.13.1 Solution of cubic equations Stress invariants ~ Eigen values and Eigen vectors Siress invariants Reduced stresses Strain invariants Alternative procedure for determination of principal stresses 8.18.1 Evaluation of direction cosines for principal stresses Ociahedral planes and stresses Deviatorie stresses Deviaiorie strains Plane stress and plane strain 8.22.1 Plane stress 8.222 Plane strain The stress-strain relations The strain—displacement relationships The strain equations of transformation Compatibility The stress function concept 8.27.1 Forms of Airy stress function in Cartesian coordinates 8.27.2 Case I~ Bending of a simply supported beam by a uniformly distributed loading 8.27.3 The use of polar coordinates in two dimensions 8.27.4 Forms of stress function in polar coordinates 827.5 Case 2~ Axi-symmetric case: solid shaft and thick cylinder radially loaded with uniform pressure 8.27.6 Case 3~ The pure bending of a reciangular section ‘curved beam 8.27.7 Case 4 ~ Asymmetric case n= 1. Shear loading of a circular ‘are cantilever beam 8.278 Case 5 ~ The asymmetric cases n > 2 ~Siress concentration at 4 circular hole in a tension field 21 27 228 229 230 232 234 235, 235 236 242 242 243 244 246 247 247 248 249 251 253 254 255 255 256 257 259 261 263 265 267 21 mm 273 2B 214 276Contents 8.27.9 Other useful solutions of the biharmonic equation 279 Examples 283 Problems 290 9 Introduction to the Finite Element Method 300 Introduction 300 9.1 Basis of the finite element method 300 92 Applicability of the finite element method 302 9.3. Formulation of the finite element method 303 94 — General procedure of the finite element method 303 94.1 Identification of the appropriateness of analysis by the finite element method 303 9.4.2 Identification of the type of analysis 305 943 Idealisation 305 9.4.4 Discretisation of the solution region 305 945 Creation of the material model 312 946 Node and element ordering 312 9.4.7 Application of boundary conditions 316 948 Creation of a data file 317 949 Computer, processing, steps 318 9.4.10 Interpretation and validation of results 318 9.4.11 Modification and re-run 319 95 Fundamental arguments 319 95.1 Equilibrium 319 952 Compatibility 321 953. Stress-sirain law 322 9.54 Forceldisplacement relation 322 9.6 The principle of virtual work 323 9.7 Arrod element 324 9.7.1 Formulation of a rod element using fundamental equations 324 9.7.2 Formulation ofa rod element using the principle of virtual work ‘equation 328 98 A simple beam element 334 9.8.1 Formulation of @ simple beam element using fundamental equations 334 98.2 Formulation of a simple beam element using the principle of Virtual work equation 339 9.9 A.simple triangular plane membrane element 343 9.9.1 Formulation of a simple triangular plane membrane element using the principle of virtual work equation 344 9.10 Formation of assembled stiffness matrix by use of a dof. correspondence table 347 9.11 Application of boundary conditions and partitioning 34910 Contents 9.12 Solution for displacements and reactions Bibliography Examples Problems Contact Stress, Residual Stress and Stress Concentrations Summary 10.1 Contact stresses Introduction 10.1.1 General case of contact between two curved surfaces 10.1.2 Special case 1 ~ Contact of parallel cylinders 10.13 Combined normal and tangential loading 10.14 Special case 2 ~ Contacting spheres 10.1.5 Design considerations 10.1.6 Contact loading of gear teeth 10.1.7 Contact stresses in spur and helical gearing 10.1.8 Bearing failures 102. Residuat stresses Introduction 102.1 Reasons for residual stresses (a) Mechanical processes (b) Chemical treatment (c) Heat treatment (a) Welds (e) Castings 10.2.2 The influence of residual stress on failure 10.2.3 Measurement of residual stresses The hole-drilling technique X-ray diffraction 10.24 Summary of the principal effects of residual stress 10.3. Stress concentrations Introduction 10.3.1. Evaluation of stress concentration factors 10.3.2 St. Venant’s principle 10.33 Theoretical considerations of stress concentrations due to concentrated loads (a) Concentrated load on the edge of an infinite plate (b) Concentrated load on the edge of a beam in bending 10.3.4 Fatigue stress concentration factor 10.3.5. Notch sensitivity 10.3.6 Strain concentration — Neuber’s rule 10.3.7 Designing to reduce stress concentrations (a) Fillet radius (b) Keyways or splines 349 350 350 375 381 381 382 382 385, 386 388. 389 391 392 393, 394 394 395, 395, 397 398 401 402 402 407 413 420 422 42 43 423 424 425, 426 427 a7xii un Contents (c¢) Grooves and notches (d) Gear teeth (e) Holes (Oil holes (g) Screw threads (h) Press or shrink fit members 103.8 Use of stress concentration factors with yield eriteria 103.9 Design procedure References Examples Problems Fatigue, Creep and Fracture Summary 1A Fatigue Introduction. ILL The SIN curve 11.1.2 PISIN curves 11.13 Effect of mean stress 11.1.4 Effect of stress concentration 1115 Cumulative damage 11.1.6 Cyclic stress strain 1.1.7 Combating fatigue 11.1.8 Slip bands and fatigue 112 Creep Introduction. 112.1 The creep test 11.2.2 Presentation of creep data 11.23 The stress-rupture test 11.2.4 Parameter methods 11.25 Stress relaxation 11.2.6 Creep-resistant alloys 113° Fracture mechanics Introduction 11.3.1 Energy variation in cracked bodies (a) Constant displacement (b) Constant loading 11.32 Linear elastic fracture mechanics (L-E.F.M.) (a) Griffith's ériterion for fracture (6) Stress intensity factor 11.33 Elastic-plastic fracture mechanics (E.P.F.M.) 11.3.4 Fracture toughness 11.3.5 Plane strain and plane stress fracture modes 11.3.6 General yielding fracture mechanies 113.7 Fatigue crack growth 113.8 Crack tip plasticity under fatigue loading 429 430 431 431 431 433 434 434 435 437 442, 443 443 446 449 451 453 434 495 458 462 462 465 466 467 470 a 4n 472 4B 474 474 475 475 4n 481 483 484 484 486 488Contents 11.3.9 Measurement of fatigue crack growth References Examples Problems 12 Miscellaneous topics 124 122 123 124 125 Bending of beams with initial curvature Bending of wide beams General expression for stresses in thin-walled shells subjected to pressure or self-weight Bending stresses at discontinuities in thin shells Viscoelastcity References Examples Problems Appendix 1. Typical mechanical and physical properties for engineering metals Appendix 2, ‘Typical mechanical properties of non-metals Appendix 3. Other properties of non-metals Index 489 490 491 503 509 509 sis 3I7 518. 521 327 327 527 534 535 536 837INTRODUCTION This text is a revised and extended third edition of the highly successful text initially published in 1977 intended to cover the material normally contained in degree and honours degree courses in mechanics of materials and in courses leading to exemption from the academic requirements of the Engineering Council. It should also serve as a valuable refer- ence medium for industry and for post-graduate courses. Published in two volumes, the text should also prove valuable for students studying mechanical science, stress analysis, solid mechanics or similar modules on Higher Certificate, Higher Diploma or equivalent courses in the UK of overseas and for appropriate NVQ* programmes. ‘The study of mechanics of materials is the study of the behaviour of solid bodies under load. The way in which they react to applied forces, the deflections resulting and the stresses and strains set up within the bodies, are all considered in an attempt to provide sufficient knowledge to enable any component to be designed such that it will not fail within its service life. Typical components considered in detail in the first volume, Mechanics of Materials 1, include beams, shafts, cylinders, struts, diaphragms and springs and, in most simple loading cases, theoretical expressions are derived to cover the mechanical behaviour of these compo- nents. Because of the reliance of such expressions or certain basic assumptions, the text also includes a chapter devoted to the important experimental stress and strain measurement techniques in use today with recommendations for further reading. Building upon the fundamentals established in Mechanics of Materials 1. this book extends the scope of material covered into more complex areas such as unsymmetrical bending, loading and deflection of struts, rings, discs, cylinders plates, diaphragms and thin walled sections. There is a new treatment of the Finite Element Method of analysis, and more advanced topics such as contact and residual stresses, stress concentrations, fatigue, creep and fracture are also covered. Each chapter of both books contains a summary of essential formulae which are developed within the chapter and a large number of worked examples. The examples have been selected to provide progression in terms of complexity of problem and to illustrate the logical way in which the solution to a difficult problem can be developed. Graphical solutions have been introduced where appropriate. In order to provide clarity of working in the worked examples there is inevitably more detailed explanation of individual steps than would be expected in the model answer to an examination problem. Al chapters conclude with an extensive list of problems for solution by students together with answers. These have been collected from various sources and include questions from past examination papers in imperial units which have been converted to the equivalent S values. Each problem is graded according to its degree of difficulty as follows: * National Vostional Qualifiestions. xvxvi Introduction A Relatively easy problem of an introductory nature. AIB Generally suitable for first-year studies. B Generally suitable for second or third-year studies. c ‘More difficult problems generally suitable for third-year studies. Gratitude is expressed to the following examination boards, universities and colleges who have kindly given permission for questions to be reproduced: City University cu. East Midland Educational Union EMEU, Engineering Institutions Examination ELE. and CEL. Institution of Mechanical Engineers IMechE, Institution of Structural Engineers LStructE, Union of Educational Institutions UEL Union of Lancashire and Cheshire Institutes ULC. University of Birmingham U.Birm, University of London UL, Both volumes of the text together contain 150 worked examples and more than S00 problems for solution, and whilst it is hoped that no errors are present it is perhaps inevitable that some errors will be detected. In this event any comment, criticism or correction will be gratefully acknowledged. ‘The symbols and abbreviations throughout the text are in accordance with the latest recom- mendations of BS 1991 and PD 5686+ As mentioned above, graphical methods of solution have been introduced where appro- priate since it is the author's experience that these are more readily accepted and understood by students than some of the more involved analytical procedures; substantial time saving can also result. Extensive use has also been made of diagrams throughout the text since in the words of the old adage “a single diagram is worth 1000 words’ Finally, the author is indebted to all those who have assisted in the production of this text; to Professor H. G. Hopkins, Mr R. Brettell, Mr R. J. Phelps for their work associated with the first edition, to Dr A. S. Tooth! , Dr N. Walker, Mr R. Winters? for their contributions to the second edition and to Dr M. Daniels* for the extended treatment of the Finite Element ‘Method which is the major change in this third edition. Thanks also go to the publishers for their advice and assistance, especially in the preparation of the diagrams and editing and to Dr. C. C. Perry (USA) for his most valuable critique of the first edition. E. J. HEARN { Relevant Standards for use in Great Brttn: BS 1991; PD S686: Other useful SI Guides: The International System of Unis. NPL. Ministry of Technology, HMSO. Britain). Mechty. The Internaiinal System of Units (Pysical Constants and Conversion Factors), NASA, No SP-7012, 31d edn. 1973 (U.S.A) Metric Practice Guide, ‘ASTM Standard E380-72 (USA). 142327. Dr, A. Tooth, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, 2.426. _D.N. Walker and Me. R. Wines, City of Birmingham Polytechnic 3 §244 DM. Daniels, University of Central EnglandQuantity Angle Length Area, Volume Time Angular velocity Velocity Weight Mass. Density Force Moment Pressure Stress ‘Strain Shear stress Shear strain Young’s modulus Shear modulus Bulk modulus Poisson's ratio Modular ratio Power Coefficient of linear expansion Coefficient of friction Second moment of area Polar moment of area Product moment of area ‘Temperature Direction cosines Principal stresses Principal strains Maximum shear stress ‘Octahedral stress NOTATION Symbol BOY. Ls or P or W wewessce tse se mRameame apotee mn 01,0203 21,6283 SI Unit rad (radian) m (metre) ‘mm (millimetre) m ” 's (second) rad/s mis N (newton) kg (kilogram) kgim? N Nm Pa (Pascal) Nim? bar (= 10° Nim?) Nim? Nim? Nim? Nim? Nim? W (wat) mmcxvii Notation Quantity Symbol Deviatorie stress o Deviatoric strain é Hydrostatic or mean stress a Volumetric strain a ‘Stress concentration factor K Strain energy u Displacement 3 Deflection ory Radius of curvature ° Photoclastic material fringe value if Number of fringes a Body force stress X.¥.2 Fr. Fo. Fe Radius of gyration k Slenderness ratio Lfk Gravitational acceleration 8 Cartesian coordinates RYE Cylindrical coordinates 2 Eccentricity e Number of coils or leaves of spring a Equivalent J or effective polar Direction cosines of line of action of resultant stress. Um nl plane Pons Poms Pom ( ds Airy stress function ° SI Unit Nim? Nim? J Nim? or bar m Nim? Nim? Nim? Nim? Nim? Nim? (Nim? (Nim?)Quantity ‘Operator’ for Airy stress function biharmonic equation ‘Strain rate Coefficient of viscosity Retardation time (creep strain recovery) Relaxation time (creep stress relaxation) Creep contraction or lateral strain ratio ‘Maximum contact pressure (Hertz) Contact formulae constant Contact area semi-axes ‘Maximum contact stress Spur gear contact formula constant Helical gear profile contact ratio Elastic stress concentration factor Fatigue stress concentration factor Plastic flow stress concentration factor ‘Shear stress concentration factor Endurance limit for n cycles of load Notch sensitivity factor Fatigue notch factor Strain concentration factor Griffith's critical strain energy release Surface energy of crack face Pilate thickness Strain energy Compliance Fracture stress Stress Intensity Factor Compliance function Plastic zone dimension Critical stress intensity factor “F" Integral Fatigue crack dimension Coefficients of Paris Erdogan law Fatigue stress range Fatigue mean stress Fatigue stress amplitude Fatigue stress ratio Cycles to failure Fatigue strength for N cycles Tensile strength Factor of safety Notation Symbol v é a 4 Jo Po a ons Nim? Nim? Nim? Nim?xx Quantity Elastic strain range Plastic strain range Total strain range Ductility ‘Secondary creep rate Activation energy Universal Gas Constant Absolute temperature Arrhenius equation constant Larson-Miller creep parameter ‘Sherby-Dom creep parameter ‘Manson—Haford creep parameter Initial stress Time to rupture Constants of power law equation Notation Symbol Ae Aey Ae D é H R T A P Py Py 4 Ban ST UnitCHAPTER 1 UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING summary ee ee t= [tea and ty [Pas ‘The product second moment of area of a section is defined as y= f yaa which reduces to /,y = Atk for a rectangle of area A and centroid distance h and k from the X and Y axes. The principal second moments of area ate the maximum and minimum values for a section and they occur about the principal axes. Product second moments of area about principal ‘axes are zero. With a knowledge of Lar, Iyy and Izy for a given section, the principal values may be determined using either Mohr's or Land's circle construction. ‘The following relationships apply between the second moments of arca about different axes: (Lox + yy) + lax ~ Lyy) 80028 ac ly) — Maa ~ fy) 80028 where @ is the angle between the U and X axes, and is given by ey ce lal Then Lat ly = let hy The second moment of area about the neutral axis is given by Ina. = Mutha) + Mu = 1e)e0820y, where a, is the angle between the neutral axis (N.A.) and the U axis. Also Lay = 1,008" 8 + I, sin? 6 Tyy = 1,008? 6 +1, sin? @ ay = flo ~1e)sin28 eg = Iyy = (Ue = 1.60828 12 Mechanics of Materials 2 Stress determination For skew loading and other forms of bending about principal axes My | Mut ep cealgeel, where M, and M, are the components of the applied moment about the U and V axes. Alternatively, with o = Px + Qy Myc = Play + Ole My = Ply ~ Oly ‘Then the inclination of the N.A. to the X axis is given by As a further alternative, where M’ is the component of the applied moment about the N.A., Iy 4, is determined either from the momental ellipse or from the Mohr or Land constructions, and m is the perpendicular distance from the point in question to the N.A. Deflections of unsymmetrical members are found by applying standard deflection formulae to bending about either the principal axes or the N.A. taking care to use the correct component of load and the correct second moment of area value. Introduction It has been shown in Chapter 4 of Mechanics of Materials 1+ that the simple bending theory applies when bending takes place about an axis which is perpendicular to a plane of symmetry. If such an axis is drawn through the centroid of a section, and another mutually perpendicular to it also through the centroid, then these axes are principal axes. Thus a plane cof symmetry is automatically a principal axis. Second moments of area of a cross-section about its principal axes are found to be maximum and minimum values, while the product second moment of area, J xydA, is found to be zero. All plane sections, whether they have an axis of symmetry or not, have two perpendicular axes about which the product second moment of area is zer0. Principal axes are thus defined as the axes about which the product second moment of area is zero. Simple bending can then be taken as bending which takes, place about a principal axis, moments being applied in a plane parallel to one such axis. In general, however, moments are applied about a convenient axis in the cross-section; the plane containing the applied moment may not then be parallel to a principal axis. Such ceases are termed “unsymmetrical” or “asymmetrical” bending. ‘The most simple type of unsymmetrical bending problem is that of “skew” loading of sections containing at least one axis of symmetry, as in Fig. 1.1. This axis and the axis 4, Hear, Mechanies of Materuls 1, Buterworth-Heinerann, 1997