Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Hazardous Waste Land Disposal Land Treatment Facilities PDF
Hazardous Waste Land Disposal Land Treatment Facilities PDF
H E A D Q U A R T E R S D E P A R T M E N T OF T H E A R M Y
NOVEMBER 1984
TM 5-814-7
REPRODUCTION AUTHORIZATION/RESTRICTIONS
This manual has been prepared by or for the Government and is public property and not subject to copyright.
Reprints or reproductions of this manual should include a credit substantially as follows: "Department of the Army
Technical Manual TM 5-814-7, Hazardous Waste Land Disposal/Land Treatment Facilities, date."
TM 5-814-7
TECHNICAL MANUAL
No. 5-814-7
} HEADQUARTERS
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
WASHINGTON, DC 29 November 1984
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 5-1 Illustrative hazardous waste master plan 5-2
5-2 Landfill operations plan 5-5
5-3 Land treatment area details 5-9
5-4 Land treatment operations plan 5-11
5-5 Deep injection well 5-14
6-1 Flood control structures 6-2
6-2 Base liner details for landfills and surface impoundments 6-5
6-3 Base liner details for waste piles 6-6
6-4 Typical clay liner compatibility evaluation 6-10
6-5 Typical leak detection systems and leachate collection drains 6-13
6-6 Typical run on control ditches 6-16
6-7 Typical run-on control ditch for waste units 6-17
6-8 Typical run-off control ditch for final cover areas 6-18
6-9 Run-on sedimentation control run-off retention basins 6-20
6-10 Final cover details 6-23
8-1 Monitoring well details 8-3
8-2 Monitoring well installations 8-4
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3-1 Composition and quantity data resources 3-2
3-2 Design/operational requirements imposed by hydrogeologic conditions 3-6
5-1 Design features required by RCRA for DA land disposal and treatment facilities 5-1
6-1 Requirements for liner systems 6-3
6-2 Summary of liner types 6-7
6-3 Seaming provisions for synthetic liners 6-11
6-4 Requirements for leachate collection and removal systems 6-12
6-5 Requirements for surface water run on and run-off control systems 6-15
6-6 Requirements for final cover at closure 6-22
6-7 Requirements for special design elements 6-26
10-1 Summary of unit costs for lined facility 10-1
ii
TM 5-814-7
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1-1. Purpose 1-2. Scope
The purpose of TM 5-814-7 is to establish Army design The regulatory framework for these design standards is
criteria that comply with the national goal of ground-water described in chapter 2 of the manual; as noted
protection. On the Federal level, subtitle C of the throughout this manual, where Army criteria are more
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) of stringent than other regulatory standards, the Army
1976 (42 United States Code [USC] 6901 et. seq.) criteria are preeminent. Chapter 3 addresses pre-design
promulgated standards for the management of evaluation of site conditions, the important first step the
hazardous wastes. Of particular interest to the design design engineer must take prior to developing design
engineer in subtitle C of (RCRA) are design standards criteria for a facility. Another essential pre-design
for land disposal/land treatment facilities presented in 40 consideration, disposal and handling constraints
Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 264. This section of imposed by waste composition, is addressed in chapter
the law presents two sets of performance standards 4. The heart of the design manual lies in chapters 5 and
applicable to this technical manual-one for land 6. Chapter 5 describes landfills, impoundments, land
disposal/land treatment facilities and the other for treatment, deep well injections and waste piles with
ground-water monitoring. The performance standards respect to waste suitability, disposal constraints,
are directed toward (1) minimization of leachate procedures and equipment; chapter 6 presents the
generation in the waste management facilities and specific engineering design elements for the five disposal
removal of leachate produced before it can enter the options. Summarized in chapters 7 through 9 are plans
subsurface environment (subparts K through N), and (2) and monitoring requirements for hazardous waste land
backup ground-water monitoring and response programs disposal/land treatment facilities generally dictated by 40
to remove any detected leachate from the ground water CFR 264. Cost elements for lined hazardous waste
(subpart F). facilities are described in chapter 10.
1-1
TM 5-814-7
CHAPTER 2
REGULATORY FRAMEWORK
2-1. Federal regulations treatment and landfills, respectively. The second set of
a. The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act standards contained in subpart F, establishes criteria for
(42 USC 6901 et. seq.) or, as it is more commonly a ground-water monitoring and response program
referred to, (RCRA), requires all operators of hazardous applicable to land disposal/land treatment facilities.
waste management facilities to apply to the US
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) or an authorized 2-2. State and local regulatory requirements.
state agency for a permit to operate the facility. In a. state cannot assume the responsibility for
addition to providing compliance requirements for the regulating hazardous wastes until the administrator of
private sector, (RCRA) mandates compliance for each EPA determines that the state program is equivalent to
department, agency and instrumentality of the executive, the Federal requirements. Thus, the EPA standards are
legislative and judicial branches of the Federal minimum requirements; nothing prevents states from
Government (42 USC 6961, subtitle F). Subtitle F states establishing additional or more stringent regulations. In a
that the compliance is to be "... both substantive and number of states this is precisely the situation. For
procedural (including any requirements for permits or example, the majority of states have laws which actively
reporting or any injunctive relief and such sanctions as discourage the use of land disposal for hazardous
may be imposed by a court to enforce such relief). wastes or ban burial of these materials; New York has
Neither the United States nor any agency, employee or denied land disposal permits on the grounds that
officer thereof shall be immune or exempt from any applicants failed to provide adequately for alternative
process or sanction or any State or Federal Court with technologies to landfilling (US Congress, Office of
respect to the enforcement of any such injunctive relief." Technology Assessment IOTA], 1983). In other states
b. The applicability of (RCRA) as the primary the laws may require additional permits for hazardous
instrument regulating the treatment, storage, waste facilities besides those required by (RCRA), or
transportation and disposal of hazardous wastes is they may have commissions authorized to impose more
underscored by 42 USC 6905, subtitle A. This part of the stringent land use controls than the state regulatory
law instructs EPA to avoid administrative and program. It is therefore, necessary for the facility
enforcement duplication by integrating the program of designer to review the requirements of the state where
(RCRA) regulations to the maximum extent possible with the facility is or will be located.
applicable provisions of the-- b. In addition, it is important to determine whether
• Clean Water Act or not the state is fully authorized to control its hazardous
• Safe Drinking Water Act waste management program. As of February 1983, 16
• Clean Air Act states were operating under cooperative arrangements
• Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide or partial authorizations; 34 states and 1 territory had
Act interim authorization, while 9 states had partially satisfied
• Marine Protection Research and Sanctuaries Act the Phase II requirements leading to complete
c. The principal source of design criteria for land authorization of their program.
treatment/disposal facilities, is title 40, (CFR) part 264. c. The differences between states will usually be
Other sections of the law and regulatory program, such related to the types and quantities of controlled wastes,
as the definitions in part 260 and the hazardous waste exemptions, geotechnical requirements, and the use of
criteria in part 261, may also influence the design of more specific design criteria to implement part 264
facilities in a less direct manner. Presented in appendix performance standards. Early review of applicable state
B are the parts of 40 (CFR) and the elements of those requirements, and a comparison of their technical and
parts pertinent to this technical manual. regulatory elements with the EPA program can disclose
d. The (RCRA) part 264 regulations consist any variations which may affect design work. Appendix
primarily of two sets of performance standards-one for B further defines the individual state programs by
land disposal/land treatment units and the other for comparing the "universe of regulated wastes" with the
ground-water monitoring. The first set of standards, (RCRA) waste listing and identifying land disposal
contained in subparts K through N of the regulations, restrictions and siting procedures for each state.
enumerates design and operating standards separately d. Local controls will be secondary to state and
tailored to surface impoundments, waste piles, land federal requirements with respect to Army installations;
2-1
TM 5-814-7
they will principally relate to zoning, roads and air quality. reduction, recovery and recycling.
c. AR 200-2 describes procedures that the Army
2-3. Army regulations will employ to comply with the requirements set out by
a. The Department of the Army’s (DA) program for NEPA. Specifically, paragraph 3-1 of the regulation
compliance with environmental protection standards of requires the DA to integrate NEPA’s "systematic
Federal, State, interstate and local agencies is examination of the possible and probable environmental
established by Army Regulations (AR) 200-1 and 200-2. consequences of implementing a proposed action," and
AR 200-1, paragraph 1-1, "prescribes (DA) policy, development of a written report Environmental Impact
responsibilities, and procedures to protect and preserve Statement (EIS). Certain categories of actions are
the quality of the environment." AR 200-2, paragraph 1-1, exempt from the above requirement; AR 200-2,
states (DA) policy and "establishes procedures for the paragraph 3-3, defines the categories and associated
integration of environmental considerations into Army requirements (or exemptions). However, even if an EIS
planning and decision-making in accordance with 42 is not required, an Environmental Assessment (EA) may
USC 4321 et. seq., the ’National Environmental Policy be needed (AR 200-2, para 5-1). Actions typically
Act of 1969’ (NEPA)." requiring an EA include changes to established
b. Management programs for both hazardous installation land use which may be expected to have
materials and hazardous wastes are described in some impact on the environment, and generation of
chapters 5 and 6 of AR 200-1. Procedures to implement hazardous or toxic materials (AR 200-2, para 5-3).
the management programs are tied to the requirements d. AR 200-2, paragraph 3-5, states that these
of the primary hazardous waste/hazardous material environmental assessment documents "should be
regulations: NEPA, RCRA, The Clean Water Act, The forwarded to the planners, designers, and/or
Marine Protection Research and Sanctuaries Act of implementers so that recommendations and mitigations..
1932, and the Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976. . may be carried out." Prior to the start up of any
AR 200-1, paragraph 6-3, increases the range of construction work, the designer (through the installation)
regulatory compliance by emphasizing DA’s policy on must ensure that required EA’s and EIS’s have been
source completed and project go-ahead has been finalized.
2-2
TM 5-814-7
CHAPTER 3
3-1. Environmental and sociopolitical conditions (1) Data sources available to the design engineer
a. An owner or operator of any facility that treats, include RCRA-related documents, installation manuals
stores, or disposes of hazardous waste must be aware of and records, and agency maps, drawings and guidance
and respond to the concerns of the public in the manuals. Source documents for each facility will vary
surrounding communities. In many cases defense depending upon the unit to be constructed or modified,
installations are physically isolated and treated as the anticipated waste stream, and the record keeping
separate entities in matters of operations management, system at the installation. Examples of these data
land use, and economics. Personnel employed on the sources include
base must respond to Army security regulations, thereby (a) RCRA-Related Documents:
defining recreational, public service and housing issues. • Part A Permit Application
b. Health and safety risks are minimized by • Part B Permit Application
allowing only authorized personnel into and around • Hazardous Waste Annual Reports
restricted hazardous waste treatment, storage or • Operating Records
disposal areas. Actual security measures for a facility • Hazardous Waste Manifests
are given in AR 200-1 and 40 CFR 264 in addition to • Interim Status Documents
specific state requirements. • Regulations (regarding design and
c. If a new Army installation were constructed, an operating parameters)
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) would be required (b) Installation Documents:
in accordance with AR 200-2; in many cases, projects at • Design, Construction and Operating
existing facilities would also require an EIS or, at Provisions
minimum, an environmental assessment. The EIS would • Site Plans; Topographic Maps
address the sociopolitical and environmental concerns • Waste Discharge Requirements
associated with the planned hazardous waste • Environmental Impact Statements
treatment/disposal facilities. Other activities at the • Installation Assessments
installation may require the approval of local air basin • Spill Prevention Control and
authorities and water quality control boards. Countermeasure Plan
d. Transportation of hazardous waste materials off • USATHAMA Records Search Reports
site requires compliance with state and federal • Standard Operating Procedures
transportation regulations. The potential health risks • Department of Defense Form 1348-1 (Item
associated with transport of chemicals on public roads • Release/Receipt Document)
implies that the public and health officials will be • DA Form 4508 (Ammunition Transfer
concerned and involved. Record)
• Waste Inventories
• Site Photographs
3-2. Review of relevant site date • Subsurface and Foundation Investigation
Reports
a. Prior to the initiation of any design work involving • Installation Master Plan Drawings
hazardous waste treatment, storage or disposal, the (c) State or Federal Agency Documents:
design engineer must become familiar with available • National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
records concerning overall site conditions, and those System (NPDES) Permits
concerning waste types and quantities associated with • Installation Inspection Reports
the particular unit. If an existing unit is being modified to • US Geological Survey (USGS) Maps
treat an existing waste stream, documentation on the Federal Emergency Management (FEMA)
design and engineering aspects of the facility, as well as Flood Insurance Study
documentation on the composition and quantity of the • State Geologic and Hydrologic Maps and
waste stream should be available from on-post sources. Reports
However, if a new disposal/treatment facility is being • Design Guidance Manuals
designed and constructed to handle new waste streams (2) A number of these resource documents offer
from either on or off post, a more exhaustive data search valuable information on the composition and quantities of
will be required. wastes handled by a given facility. Table 3-1
3-1
TM 5-814-7
Table 3-1. Composition and Quantity Data Resources
Specific Source Authority Information Available
RCRA Part A 40 CFR 270.1 Identifies, in a cursory manner, the types of wastes generated (coded according to 40
Permit Application CFR 261 Subpart D), estimated annual generation quantities, the process and
process design capacities.
RCRA Part B 40 CFR 270.14 Requires the submittal of all Interim Status Documents. Pertinent information in-
Permit Application cludes: chemical and physical analysis of hazardous wastes to be handled at the facility,
waste analysis plan, description of procedures, structures and equipment, procedures for
handling ignitable, reactive, corrosive and incompatible wastes, closure plan, plus specific
information pertaining to individual wastes treatment/disposal facilities, (e.g., waste piles,
surface impoundments).
Hazardous Waste 40 CFR 262.41 Gives a summation of all waste types and quantities generated during each year. Sub-
Annual Reports: Subpart D mitted to EPA and/or state officials.
(EPA forms 8700-13
and 8700-13A)
Hazardous Waste 40 CFR 264.70 Identifies waste transported to the site and off site; includes proper shipping names,
Manifests Subpart E hazard class (49 CFR Part 172), weight or volume, components and
concentration
range. Copies of the manifest must be kept at the facility for at least three years.
Operating Records 40 CFR 264.73 Description and quantity of each hazardous waste received and the methods and dates
of treatment, storage or disposal; records maintained until facility closure.
DD Form 1348-1: AR200-1 Identifies (DPDO) material or waste, its origination and destination, type and number
(DOD Single Line Paragraph 5-6(d) of containers, material condition, and freight classification.
Release/Receipt
Document)
Spill Prevention Section 311 of the Inventory of all sources of oil and hazardous substances
Control and Counter- Clean Water Act
measure (SPCC) Plan PL 95-217
AR 200-1 (paragraph 8-6)
National Pollutant Section 402 of the Permit specifies the type and quantities of liquid wastes that may be discharged into
Discharge Elimina- Clean Water Act the nation’s water sources.
tion System (NPDES) PL 95-217
Permit
US Army Corps of Engineers
reviews the kind of information available in some of Public Libraries (EIR, EIS, local and state requirements)
these documents. State Health Department
(3) Interviews with facility or installation personnel in
connection with site visits will aid in the collection and 3-3. Hydroge9logic conditions
interpretation of the various sources of information on a. Protection of ground-water resources is a
waste generation and site conditions. The Defense primary concern in the design and operation of any
Property Disposal Office has chemical inventories of facility involved with the handling of wastes. The
both waste materials and off-spec supplies (being stored potential for pollution can develop if wastes are placed in
for resale). Many installations have an Environmental improper hydrogeologic settings where wastes and/or
Office which is responsible for securing permits, record leachate products may easily enter the ground-water
keeping, and waste stream update information. system.
b. Information may also be obtained from off-site (1) Ground-water protection has been one of EPA's
resources. The following is a partial list of sources: central concerns in devising a regulatory strategy for
• US EPA Office of Solid Waste hazardous waste land disposal. A large number of the
• US EPA Municipal Environmental Research documented damage cases for hazardous waste land
Laboratory disposal have involved ground-water contamination.
• US Army Environmental Hygiene Agency Likewise the legislative history of RCRA, including the
• US Army Toxic and Hazardous Materials Agency damage cases cited in the 1976 Senate Report,
• US Army Corp of Engineers' Research and indicates that the Congress was quite concerned about
Development Laboratories (WES, CERL and ground-water contamination when it created the
CRREL) hazardous waste program. Accordingly, today's
• Defense Logistics Agency regulations deal very explicitly with ground-water
protection.
(2) Ground-water protection can be ensured only
3-2
TM 5-814-7
through a clear understanding of the hydrogeologic logs may also be supplemented by geophysical methods.
environment in which the wastes are to be placed. Geophysical surveys give the designer the advantage of
Hydrogeologic considerations to be addressed include: examining large areas at one time, facilitating the
• Review of published and unpublished data on correlation of borehole data around the site and
ground-water availability and quality delineation of overall site geology. However, it is
• Ground-water flow quantity and direction under important to note that the usefulness of a given
the site * geophysical method is dependent on site-specific
• Relationship of the site to ground-water basin conditions and must be assessed on a case-by-case
recharge areas basis. Geophysical methods include:
• Ground-water use near the site, including review (1) Electrical "E" Logs-This process involves
of available well logs and water well inventories measuring electrical properties of soils and geologic
(available from some state agencies) formations in uncased boreholes. The data collected will
• Identification of uppermost aquifers yield information on potential of strata to transmit water,
• Location of regional aquifers and aquicludes and occurrence of water and general water quality. Cost may
regional flow information vary depending on hole depth and condition.
b. Protection of surface-water resources is another (2) Electrical Resistivity Survey-This method
important concern in the design and operation of a employs vertical electrical soundings (VES) which
hazardous waste land disposal/land treatment facility. A transmit electrical currents into the ground. The VES
surface-water assessment of the site is recommended to may be considered an electrical "drill hole" which may
determine (1) water quality of streams and other surface- define subsurface strata. This relatively inexpensive
water sources within the area, and (2) the ratio of technique enables rapid evaluation of subsurface
baseflow discharge from upstream sources to any conditions to a depth of approximately 200 feet.
potential permitted discharges (to determine how much (3) Magnetometer Survey-This method measures
dilution occurs). magnetic intensity of rock and strata for defining geologic
c. Information relating to regional and site structure. Magnetometer surveys can cover large areas
hydrogeologic conditions on the following is also at minimum cost.
required: (4) Seismic Refraction Survey-Seismic refraction
• Geologic mapping of the site. surveys use sonic waves created by small explosions (or
• Detailed boring logs and test pits of subsurface sledge hammer or other vibro-mechanical means) to
soils and geology characterizing the base of the map variations in bedrock hardness. These surveys can
uppermost aquifer. provide information on competency of bedrock (indicative
• Detailed chemical analysis of all aquifers that are of rock rippability) and degree of weathering, as well as
potential water supply sources or which have the changes in these properties with depth. Seismic surveys
potential for contamination. are capable of scanning large areas for a moderate cost.
• Surface elevations and drainage. g. Additional information on regional seismicity is
• Soil classification and geotechnical properties. required in seismically active areas of the United States:
• Measurement of permeability of soils and 40 CFR 264.18 requires special seismic studies for new
formations between the base of the disposal hazardous waste facilities in a number of western and
unit and uppermost aquifer. midwestern states. Appendix VI to part 264 lists political
d. A comprehensive geotechnical testing program jurisdiction for which this requirement is mandated. The
might include: design engineer is also advised to review seismic zone
• Soil classification tests. maps presented in TM 5-809-10 (para 3-4) for additional
• Compaction tests. information. In seismically active areas, the services of a
• Unconfined compressive strength tests. soils engineer familiar with seismic engineering may be
• Triaxial compression tests. needed to determine the effects of seismic loads to
• Direct shear tests. foundations and fills caused by ground acceleration and
• Permeability testing. shaking. Static and dynamic analysis may be required to
• Background contaminant level tests (EM 11102- predict potential slope failure.
1906). h. In summary, data evaluation is critical to
These tests are typically conducted in accordance with individual facility siting and must consider maximum
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) advantage of the site's hydrogeologic and geotechnical
methods. factors. Assessment of soil engineering properties will
e. Methods of approach for site investigations may dictate types of design and availability of on-site mate
be found in Design of Small Dams, US Department of
Interior (1973), TM 5-818-1, NAVFAC DM 7.1 and EPA
Manual SW-963.
f. Subsurface information obtained from boring
3-3
TM 5-814-7
rial. All facilities must be designed for specialized problems normal, mean and extreme values for long periods of record
such as seismic shaking in seismically active areas, o and climatic maps of the United States. Design data directly
expansive soils. available from the US Weather Bureau include isobars for 24-
hour rainfalls and for average annual lake evaporation.
3-4. Climatic elements e. In addition, numerous theories, empirical correlations,
modeling procedures and charts have been developed for
a. Climatic conditions, particularly precipitation, defining and predicting the impact of climatic elements on
evaporation, temperature, and wind, can significantly influence design. Those useful in designing land disposal facilities
the selection, design and operation of land disposal facilities. include equations for infiltration and run off, rainfall and wind
Adverse climatic conditions can, for example: erosion, and wind waves; depth of freezing indices; and
(1) Prevent use or operation of evaporation/evapotranspiration calculations. State and local
• Surface Impoundments practicing evaporative agencies have used available climatic data to develop charts
disposal of wastes, if annual precipitation is greater and tables which can be used in these predictive calculations-
than annual evaporation. including the rainfall and storm recurrence tables and rainfall
• Land Treatment facilities, if soils in the treatment area intensity/duration charts used for run-off calculations.
are frozen or saturated.
(2) Restrict operation of— 3-5. Impact of site conditions on selection of disposal
• Surface Impoundments, where heavy rainfall reduces method
storage capacity. a. Most regulations dealing with disposal to land clearly
• Land Treatment facilities, where lower temperatures reflect the sensitive relationship between waste type, disposal
will decrease biodegradation rates. method, and potential for natural or engineered protection of
• Landfills, where (1) freezing soil or wastes interfere the environment at the proposed disposal facility. Sites that
with proper placement of compaction of wastes, soil are designed to accept only solid, generally inert substances,
cover or earthfills, (2) accumulation of snow may obviously require fewer natural containment features than do
require clearing, or (3) snow melt may increase the those intended for liquid hazardous waste. Similarly, siting of
moisture content of the waste. waste piles or land treatment facilities may be far less
(3) Impact closure practices at impoundments and restrictive than siting of impoundments.
landfills b. Site conditions which obviously prohibit development
• Disruption of the compacted soil zone through frost of a disposal site of any type are wetlands and locations in
heave (water migration and freezing in layers, lenses critical aquifer recharge areas. Site conditions that impact
or veins of ice). selection of disposal methods fall into three basic areas (1)
• Sliding resulting from thawing of a shallow, saturated ability for ground-water protection, (2) potential for surface
zone of soil cover. water contact with wastes, and (3) availability of materials
• Rainfall erosion of the soil cover. required by each disposal method. Almost any negative site
b. Generalized climatic data are available from the condition can be overcome by engineering designs; however,
National Climatic Center of the National Oceanic and these engineering solutions can often result in unacceptable
Atmospheric Administration and the National Weather Service. economic impacts and/or regulatory monitoring requirements.
Local meteorological data is often available at Army (1) In selecting a disposal method, two key elements
installations that have air fields. In addition, some states have regarding ground-water protection must be considered: (1)
official weather observation stations that offer climatic data. vertical separation of wastes from the uppermost ground-
Selected publications which provide recorded data, frequency water, and (2) permeability of the subsurface material
and duration analyses, and general charts for various climatic providing the hydraulic separation. These two elements are
elements are listed in the references (appendix A). interrelated. Far less separation between waste and ground-
c. Another source of information is the US Weather water can be tolerated in a low permeability clay environment
Bureau, whose 300 first-order weather stations provide data than in a site underlain by sand and gravel. However, design
on: considerations of the natural ground-water setting can be
• Daily and monthly temperature greatly influenced by regulations mandated by 40 CFR 264
• Dewpoint requiring the placement of impermeable liners beneath
• Precipitation landfills, impoundments and waste piles.
• Pressure
• Wind
• Sunshine and cloud cover
• Solar radiation
d. Weather stations also publish climatic tables of
3-4
TM 5-814-7
(a) Surface impoundments should be sited and (3) Each disposal type has its own soil requirements
designed with maximum protection of ground water for construction and operation. Although all materials
provided by liners, low permeability clay (10-8 cm/sec) can be imported from off-site sources, project costs can,
underlying soils, and maximum separation. The as a result, become prohibitive. In sites located in areas
hydraulic head formed in the impoundment provides for a underlain by shallow cemented bedrock, nearly all soil
high potential for liquid seepage and subsurface materials may need to be imported; as a result, costs for
migration. landfilling in such areas can be prohibitive. Sites
(b) Since potential for buildup of hydraulic head underlain by clay deposits significantly reduce the cost of
in landfills and waste piles is much less than for construction of all types of disposal facilities. Below is a
impoundments, siting criteria can be somewhat relaxed summary of soil needs for different disposal methods:
for these facilities. With liners beneath the waste, soils
with permeabilities in the vicinity of 10-6 cm/sec (silts, Disposal Type Soil Needs
silty clays) may be acceptable separation materials. Landfill Daily and intermediate cover;
(c) In land treatment facilities little or no a variety of soil types are
hydraulic head buildup is created; however, strict acceptable.
operational criteria are required by RCRA to ensure their Final cover soils must be low
protection. Such facilities can be located in most locales permeability clays.
that provide a minimum separation from groundwater of Liner soil must be clay.
approximately 10 feet, and moderately low permeability Surface Liner soil must be low
soils (10-4 to 10-5 cm/sec-silty sands, silts). Impoundments permeability clay.
(d) Limitations in locating injection wells are Waste Piles Liner soil must be low per-
discussed in paragraph 5-5. meability clay.
(2) Isolation of wastes from surface water is a major Land Treatment Treatment zone must have
concern in the design and locating of all disposal minimum of 5 feet of suitable
methods. It is highly recommended that disposal units soil, as described in section
be located out of a 100-year flood plain and away from 5-4 b (2).
topographic areas prone to flash flooding and/or severe
erosion; avoidance of flood plain areas may be 3-6. Design requirements imposed by hydrogeologic
mandatory for certain types of hazardous wastes. All conditions
disposal modes (landfills, impoundments, etc.) should be Less than ideal hydrogeologic conditions can be
designed with drainage diversion and surface run on overcome by engineering designs in all but the most
protection and isolation facilities (i.e., berms, dikes, etc.). extreme conditions. However, the site owner/operator
High design and construction costs may be associated must be aware that great expense may be involved in
with sites located within flood areas and/or in areas these engineering solutions, and may make the project
requiring diversion of surface runoff from large economically unfeasible. Table 3-2 summarizes the
upgradient watersheds. With proper facility design, major design/operational requirements imposed by
surface water conditions should not be a major factor in unfavorable hydrogeologic conditions.
selection of a disposal type, but only in selection of
design criteria.
3-5
TM 5-814-7
Table 3-2. Design/Operational Requirements
Imposed by Hydrogeologic Conditions
Surface Water
Within flood plain Construction of perimeter dikesnevees; liners to interrupt connection
between ground and surface
Inter-related to shallow ground waters; construction of drainage diversion facilities.
water beneath facility
Extensive upgradient watershed
Faults Location of facilities outside of a fault buffer zone.
Soils
Inadequate soils for cover or Importation of soils that meet regulatory requirements.
impermeable barriers*
Active Karst Zones
Sinkhole-prone areas Location of facilities outside of active Karst zones is recommended.
Solution channels
*As used here, inadequate means either (1) unable to meet regulatory requirements for soil type and permeability, or
(2) insufficient quantities to meet design/operational needs.
4-2
TM 5-814-7
CHAPTER 5
LAND DISPOSAL/LAND TREATMENT OPTIONS
5-1. Introduction included in this chapter for each disposal option under
a. This chapter of the manual presents a general the section on Design Elements. Closure standards,
discussion of landfills, surface impoundments, land mandated by 40 CFR 264, subpart G, are designed to
treatment, deep well injection and waste piles with extend protection of human health and the environment
respect to: beyond the active life of a facility.
• Wastes Suitable for Disposal e. As defined by RCRA, each of the disposal
• Limitations of Each Disposal Option options has characteristics that distinguishes it from the
• Disposal Procedures others; however, as noted below, some overlapping in
• Design Elements definition occurs with landfills and surface
• Equipment impoundments. The RCRA definitions of these five
b. The treatment of each of these topics is brief, disposal options are summarized below.
focusing on the needs of the design engineer. Where (1) A landfill is defined in 40 CFR 260.10 as a
appropriate, reference has been made to source disposal facility or part of a facility where hazardous
documents for additional information on these topics. waste in bulk or containerized form is placed in or on
With respect to design elements, this chapter land, typically in excavated trenches or cells. However,
summarizes the elements required for each of the five DA hazardous waste landfills must not accept bulk
disposal options at Army installations. Since these liquids or sludges with leachable liquids.
elements constitute the key design tools for meeting (2) A surface impoundment, according to 40
RCRA requirements for hazardous waste land CFR 262.10, is a facility (or part of a facility) that is a
treatment/disposal facilities, they are treated in detail in natural topographic depression, man-made excavation,
chapter 6. or diked area formed primarily of earthen materials
c. Table 5-1 lists the design elements required for (although it may be lined with man-made materials)
DA land disposal/land treatment facilities and refers to designed to hold an accumulation of liquid wastes or
the sections of the manual where these are discussed in wastes containing free liquid. According to this definition,
detail. Figure 5-1 presents a conceptual layout of a a surface impoundment is assumed to have a fluid
hazardous waste facility master plan with landfill, surface surface and hold non-containerized free bulk liquids.
impoundment, land treatment, and waste pile units. Examples of surface impoundments are holding,
d. The design engineer should be familiar with storage, settling, and aeration pits, ponds, and lagoons.
closure requirements for a given unit; therefore, these Surface impoundments can be classified as disposal,
are storage or treatment facilities, as follows:
5-2
TM 5-814-7
5-5
TM 5-814-7
c. Procedures. Impoundment of hazardous waste Reuse does not dispose of the waste but can
involves disposing of liquid wastes in a man-made significantly reduce the quantities requiring disposal.
excavation or diked area that ranges in surface area (g) Addition of Absorbents-Materials can
from tenths to hundreds of acres. Wastes are typically be added to aqueous impounded wastes to absorb free
delivered to the impoundment by pipe systems or bulk liquids. Absorbents include fly ash, kiln dust and
tankers which offload into the impoundment at a commercially available sorbents. The designer should
"discharge apron." avoid selecting biodegradable absorbents such as straw
(1) During the time that the liquid wastes are or rice, since they can decompose, resulting in the
impounded, operations include, but are not limited to, the formation of landfill gas, or contribute to void space,
following inspection activities: which might lead to subsidence.
• Monitoring to ensure that liquids do not rise (3) Cleaning and closure processes normally
into the freeboard (prevention of overtopping) involve removal of waste residuals from the
• Inspecting containment berms for signs of impoundment. Removal methods for settled residues
leakage or erosion and contaminated soil include removal of the sediment
• Periodic sampling, if needed, of the as a slurry by hydraulic dredging; excavation of the
impounded wastes for selected chemical sediments with a jet of high-pressure water or air;
parameters vacuum transport of powdery sediments; or excavation
• Inspecting periodically for floral and faunal of hard solidified sediments by either dragline, front-end
activities (such as animal burrows) that could loader or bulldozer. Sediments removed by one of these
cause leaks through earthen dikes, levees or methods may require dewatering to comply with EPA
embankments guidelines for disposal.
• Monitoring of leak detection systems (4) When residual wastes will be left in the
(2) The major operations at an impoundment impoundment at closure (e.g., the impoundment is used
involve "removal" of the liquid waste. There are a for disposal), the wastes must be stabilized to a bearing
number of different methods for removing liquid wastes; capacity sufficient to support the final cover. Typically,
each method must be implemented in accordance with stabilization is achieved by either passive (evaporation)
the standards described in this manual. Waste removal or active dewatering. Active processes, including
methods include: mechanical dewatering or thermal drying, are described
(a) Decanting-Liquids within or ponded on in EPA SW-873.
the surface of the impoundment can be removed by d. Design elements. Basic design requirements for
gravity flow or pumping to a treatment facility if there is surface impoundments mandated by 40 CFR 264
not a large percentage of settleable solids. include:
(b) Pumping and settling-Liquids or (1) Double liners with a leak detection system
slurries composed of suspended or partially suspended and monitoring wells to prevent wastes from migrating
solids can be removed by pumping into a lined settling into subsurface soil and ground water and surface water
pond and then decanting. Sludges are disposed of in a during the active life of the site (see figures 6-2 and 6-5).
dry state, and either returned to the impoundment or (2) Prevention of overtopping the sides of the
disposed of in another contained site. impoundment.
(c) Solar drying-Liquids are removed by (3) Construction specifications that ensure the
evaporation; sludges remaining after evaporation are left structural integrity of dikes.
in the impoundment or disposed of in another contained e. Closure. As specified in 40 CFR 264, a surface
site. Note that volatile organics shall not be handled in impoundment can be closed in one of two ways: (1)
this manner. Removing or decontaminating all wastes, waste
(d) Chemical neutralization-Aqueous residues, system components (such as liners), subsoils
waste with low levels of hazardous constituents and structures or equipment. No post-closure care is
frequently lends itself to chemical neutralization and required as long as removal or decontamination is
subsequent normal discharge under NPDES permit complete.
requirements. (2) Removing liquid waste or solidifying the
(e) Infiltration-Certain aqueous waste can remaining waste. A final cover will be placed over the
be handled by infiltration through soil, provided that the closed impoundment. Post-closure care will consist of
hazardous substances are removed by either soil monitoring ground-water and conducting corrective
attenuation or underdrain collection of the solute. action if it is warranted (see para 8-5), and maintaining
Collected solutes are usually treated. the effectiveness of the final cover. For a doublelined
(f) Process reuse-Some aqueous waste disposal unit, the leak detection system will be monitored
can be recycled in the manufacturing process a number as part of post-closure care.
of times until the contaminants are at a level requiring
disposal by one of the methods previously mentioned.
5-6
TM 5-814-7
f. Equipment needs. Equipment for surface • Operation of the land treatment unit in a
impoundments includes that needed for manner that protects human health and the
• Removal of liquid from the impoundment. environment
• Removal of settled residuals and (2) Additional information on conducting a
contaminated soil. treatment demonstration, selecting appropriate field
• Dewatering sediments prior to their final tests, and designing test procedures for the
disposal. demonstration is presented in EPA SW-874.
• Solidification and stabilization of residual (3) Special requirements for ignitable or
wastes. reactive wastes and for incompatible wastes are
(1) At the time of closure, impounded liquid can contained in 40 CFR 264.281 and 264.282. Ignitable
be removed by a number of methods described in and reactive wastes must be immediately incorporated
paragraph 5-3c; typical equipment used for this purpose into the soil so that they are no longer considered
is a centrifugal pump or a hydraulic pipeline dredge. ignitable or reactive. They must also be protected from
Waste residuals can be removed by means of a vacuum any material or condition that could cause ignition or
truck to pump slurried sediment from the impoundment, reaction. Incompatible wastes, such as those listed in
a rotary cutter to remove hardened sediments that do not appendix V of 40 CFR 264, may not be placed in the
flow freely, or a dragline or front-end loader to excavate same treatment zone unless precautions are taken to
hard, solidified sediments. To dewater sediments, filter avoid fires, explosion and violent reactions, the
presses may be used to produce a nonflowable solid. generation of heat and pressure, the production of toxic
(2) Any equipment used for liquid sediment mists, fumes and gas, or the creation of other conditions
removal or dewatering must be decontaminated before that might threaten human health or the environment.
being taken out of the disposal operation area. Federal regulations (40 CFR 264.276) also outline
special requirements for application of cadmium and
5-4. Land Treatment other hazardous wastes to lands used for growth of food-
a. Suitable Wastes. Land treatment is potentially a chain crops.
cost-effective method of disposing of industrial wastes b. The land treatment option is limited by (1) the
such as bulk organic sludges that have a high water availability of sufficient quantities of usable land, (2) the
content. A variety of industrial wastes, effluents, sludges assimilative capacity of the plant-soil system, (3)
and solid wastes are suitable for treatment and disposal regulatory restrictions concerning food-chain crops, and
by the land treatment method, including those containing (4) environmental conditions.
or derived from hazardous constituents listed in appendix (1) The availability of sufficient quantities of
VIII of 40 CFR 261. However, for wastes that contain usable land is dependent upon a number of additional
very high concentrations of toxic organics, a disposal limiting factors, including the application rate and
method other than land treatment is required. regulatory requirements specifying the depth of the
(1) Hazardous waste land treatment facilities treatment zone.
must include plans for conducting a treatment (a) The application rate is dependent not
demonstration and reporting the complete demonstration only on the waste constituent, but also on the
results. The objective of the demonstration is to assimilative capacity of the soil (see EPA SW-874).
establish the operating practices that will completely While it is theoretically possible to specify land
degrade, transform or immobilize hazardous application rates and required land areas for most
constituents. Regardless of the demonstration method wastes, in practice, the complete degradation,
selected, the following criteria must be met: transformation or immobilization of some constituents
• Accurate simulation of the characteristics would require application over such large tracts of land
and operating conditions of the proposed that land treatment would not be cost-effective.
treatment unit, including Economic factors might therefore preclude land
-waste characteristics treatment of some wastes.
-climate in the area (b) With respect to the treatment zone,
-regional topography EPA regulations require that the zone which wastes are
-soil characteristics and depth of the introduced be no deeper than 5 feet and that there be a
treatment zone 3-foot separation between the bottom of the treatment
-operating practices to be used zone and the seasonal high water table. These
• Complete degradation, transformation, or requirements could limit land treatment in certain areas.
immobilization in the treatment zone of the (2) The second factor limiting the land
hazardous constituents in the waste treatment option is the assimilative capacity of the plant-
soil system to handle a particular hazardous waste; this
is a complex limiting factor due to the large number of
variables within the system. Among these are the
physical, chemical, and biological properties of the
5-7
TM 5-814-7
particular soil, the compatibility of the soil and the waste -Proximity to private or community water
to be treated, and the capacity of the soil to receive and supply wells or reservoirs
transmit water (hydraulic capacity). These variables are • Climate
described in detail in Overcash, 1981, a definitive text on -Location upwind of large populations
land treatment. In addition to identifying the factors -Extremely wet or cold conditions
limiting land treatment as a disposal option, Overcash • Topography -Steep slopes -Broken terrain
presents detailed procedures for the design of land • Soils
treatment systems for all waste types. -Thin soil above ground-water
(3) The third limiting factor, regulatory -Saline soils
restrictions concerning food-chain crops, is also -Highly permeable soils above shallow
complex. For most hazardous constituents, RCRA ground water
stipulates that there can be no uptake by food-chain -Soils with extreme erosion potential
crops and no greater concentration of the constituents in • Land use -Areas formerly used for landfills
the crop than is found in the surrounding area. As -Areas contaminated with persistent
summarized in 40 CFR 264.276, the owner/operator of a residues from past chemical spills or waste
land treatment unit must demonstrate that there is no treatment processing
"substantial risk to human health caused by the growth of c. Procedures. Land treatment is both a method of
such crops in or on the treatment zone." disposal and a treatment mechanism. It involves
(a) This objective may be met either by applying a waste to land and incorporating it into the soil,
demonstrating that hazardous constituents will not be where it undergoes biochemical action which attenuates
transferred to food or feed portions of a crop, or will not its negative impact on the environment. A number of
occur in greater concentrations in or on identical crops techniques are available for applying the waste,
grown on untreated soils under similar conditions in the depending largely on the wastewater content, but also
same region. Both of these options require that the hinging on such considerations as soil properties,
following be addressed: crop uptake, physical adherence topography and climate.
to the crop, and direct ingestion of contaminated soil by (1) For land application purposes, wastes are
grazing animals. generally classified as
(b) With respect to hazardous wastes * Liquid (less than 8 percent solids, with particle
containing cadmium, even more restrictive limitations diameters less than 1 inch)
apply. If such wastes are to be land treated, the * Semiliquid (8 to 15 percent solids and/or particle
following criteria must be met: diameters greater than 1 inch)
• A pH of at least 6.5 * Solid (greater than 15 percent solids)
• An application rate of no more than 0.44 (2) Application of liquid wastes is generally
lb/acres/yr accomplished by either spraying the waste on the land
• Limits on cumulative application, as dictated with sprinklers or by using flood or furrow irrigation
by the soil's caution exchange capacity techniques. Semiliquid sludges are normally applied by
• Special conditions for animal feed (specific surface spreading, with subsequent incorporation into
details are outlined in 40 CFR 264.276) the soil, or by subsurface injection 4 to 8 inches below
(4) The last limiting factor, environmental the soil surface. Low-moisture solids are spread on the
conditions, actually refers to a number of natural features surface and later incorporated into the soil (figure 5-3).
that restrict the siting of a land treatment unit. The (3) Waste volatility, site terrain and weather
precautions concerning location of landfills in karst conditions may dictate the choice of other application
terrain or seismic zones 3 and 4 also pertain to land techniques, regardless of the water content of the waste.
treatment facilities (see para 5-2b(2)). In general, For example, highly volatile wastes should not be applied
limiting environmental conditions should either be by irrigation or surface spreading, but be injected at least
avoided or should serve as design constraints in 6 inches below the soil surface. On steep slopes or in
developing the facility layout. These include: freezing weather, alternatives to spray irrigation will
• Hydrogeologic Conditions likewise be required. The objectives in any land
-Bedrock outcrops treatment system, regardless of method used, are
-Irregularities such as fissures or faults - uniform application of wastes, and use of application
Aquifer recharge zones rates within the assimilative capacity of the soil.
-Flood-prone areas such as river flood plains
-Wetlands
-Karst terrain
-Seasonally high water tables (< 4-6 ft)
5-8
TM 5-814-7
5-9
TM 5-814-7
d. Design elements. Design requirements, as well area or prevent contaminated water from leaving the unit
as requirements for construction, operation and by directing it to a retention basin; and (2) run-off
maintenance, of a land treatment facility are specified in retention and sedimentation control basins (figure 5-4).
the facility permit to ensure compliance with regulations. In addition, tanks, surface impoundments, or waste piles
The design goal must be to maximize the degradation, may be needed for waste storage during inclement
transformation or immobilization of hazardous weather. For example, land treatment facilities in cold
constituents in the specified treatment zone, in regions may require storage facilities, particularly if the
accordance with all design and operating conditions used application season is limited to spring, summer, and fall.
in the treatment demonstration; and minimize both runoff A water balance may be performed to aid in design of
of hazardous constituents from the treatment area and such facilities. Subsurface drainage systems and
inflow of water into the treatment area. leachate control and treatment systems may also be
(1) Fulfillment of these specific design required at some hazardous waste land treatment
requirements, as well as meeting the principal design facilities.
goal of nondegradation of the land, requires a number of e. Closure. Closure of a land treatment unit may
steps, including analysis of the waste stream and site soil be accomplished by either establishing a permanent
characteristics, evaluation of waste-soil interactions and vegetative cover capable of maintaining growth without
site assimilative capacity, determination of application extensive maintenance, removing and landfilling the
rate, selection of an application method, and layout of the zone of incorporation, or capping the land treatment area
facility and control structures. to control wind and water erosion. General closure
(2) 40 CFR 264.278 of RCRA requires an practices called for include minimizing run-off from the
unsaturated zone monitoring program for all land treatment zone, continuing ground-water monitoring, and
treatment units to determine whether hazardous continuing restrictions on food-chain crops. In addition,
constituents have migrated below the treatment zone. the unsaturated zone should be monitored as part of the
Soil and soil pore liquid must be monitored on a closure procedures; however soil-pore liquid monitoring
background plot and immediately below the treatment may be suspended 90 days after the last application of
zone. If any migration is detected, the owner/operator of waste at the unit. Each of these practices is described in
the land treatment unit must notify the EPA Regional chapter 12 of EPA SW-874.
Administration (RA) of this finding within seven days. f. Equipment needs. Equipment required for a
Within 90 days the owner/operator should recommend land treatment operation ranges from the simple to the
modifications to the facility permit that will maximize sophisticated, depending on the application technique
treatment of hazardous constituents within the treatment employed. However, all are conventional and readily
zone. available. Any equipment used for operations must be
(3) There are several possible configurations decontaminated before taking from the treatment unit
for a land treatment facility, including single cell, rotating (1) For surface irrigation by furrow or flood
cell and progressive cell configurations. In the single cell techniques, piping and a pump are needed to transmit
configuration a waste is applied uniformly over the the waste to the point of discharge. Alternatively, a truck
required acreage without subdividing the land treatment or trailer-mounted tank may be used to apply wastes by
area. In the progressive cell configuration (figure 5-3), gravity flow or through a sprayer or manifold. Equipment
the land treatment unit is subdivided into cells or areas needs for sprinkler systems will vary, depending on
which are treated sequentially, cultivated and system type, but will generally require properly sized
revegetated. piping, pump, nozzles.
(4) Adequate buffer zones should be provided (2) A vacuum truck with flotation tires and rear
between the land treatment unit and property boundaries sprayer or manifold may be used for surface spreading
to minimize odor problems, permit easy access to water of sludge. If the sludge is too thick to be pumped, a
retention facilities, and allow implementation of conventional truck with moisture-proof bed may be used
contingency measures to control unusual runoff. to dump the waste, which is then spread with a road
(5) To protect ground-water, surface waters grader or bulldozer. The blades of both road graders
and off-site property, water management facilities must and bulldozers should be equipped with depth control
be designed and coordinated with application method skids and edge wings to aid in uniform application. Once
and facility configuration. The amount of water which the waste has been spread on the land, there are several
contacts treatment areas (run on) must be minimized, types of equipment that can be used to incorporate the
and run off from treated areas must be collected and waste into the soil-moldboard plow, disk, and/or rotary
treated prior to discharge, unless it is free of tiller. Similar equipment can also be used for low-
contamination from hazardous wastes. Two types of moisture solids. A spreader can also be used to apply
structures are needed: (1) diversion structures, which solids which tend to be sticky or chunky.
either intercept clean run on and divert it around the
treatment
5-10
TM 5-814-7
5-11
TM 5-814-7
(3) Basic equipment for subsurface injection of (1) Most importantly, injection wells are
wastes consists of a truck or tractor with two or more considered by EPA policy to be a 'qast resort" means of
chisels attached. Adjustable sweeps are mounted near disposal. It must be demonstrated that the injected fluids
the bottom of the chisels to open a wide but shallow will not contaminate ground-water or damage the
underground cavity. Waste is injected into the cavity environment, and injection is used after all other means
through a tube attached to the back of the chisel. For of disposal are found unsatisfactory.
repeated application of wastes over long time periods, (2) In addition, types of wastes to be disposed
underground supply pipes may be installed, with flexible of may limit disposal options: only liquid wastes may be
tubing used to connect the supply pipe to truck or tractor- disposed of in injection wells. Injected wastes are strictly
mounted injectors. covered in UIC; justification for injection must be
presented and pretreatment of waste streams may be
5-5. Deep Well Injection required prior to injection.
a. Suitable Wastes. Injection wells are used to (3) To ensure their separation from drinking
dispose of large quantities of liquid hazardous wastes water aquifers, injection wells are limited to sites that are
into the subsurface. Injection well disposal is regulated in geologically isolated environments. Extensive
by the EPA Underground Injection Control Program geologic research and field work must be done to site
(UICX40 CFR 146) and authorized by subpart C of the wells and to determine injection zone isolation. Injection
Safe Drinking Water Act. Currently injection wells may horizons must be tested for waste compatibility to ensure
accept large quantities of chemical, waste-water brines that the wastes do not contain materials that are
or mining wastes in deep, isolated porous geological chemically reactive with site soils or rock. Waste
formations. Large volumes of waste, on the order of constituents that could pose problems include corrosive
hundreds of thousands or millions of gallons, may be mineral salts, acids (capable of dissolving carbonate
disposed by injection. Approximately 160 injection wells rock), and precipitated salts. In addition, the proposed
are now operating, with most used by the chemical and injection area should be tested for overall permeability to
petrochemical industry. define the injection zone. Typical siting investigations
(1) A wide variety of wastes can be disposed by and well developments and construction information is
injection. These wastes include, but are not limited to: found in comprehensive technical documents (EPA
• Dilute or concentrated acid or alkaline 600/2-77-240).
solutions (4) Another disposal limitation is the existence
• Solutions containing metals of unexpected subsurface problems such as pressure
• Inorganic solutions around the formation, induced earthquake activity and
• Hydrocarbons and chlorinated hydrocarbons dissolution of injection zone host rock. The precautions
• Solvents concerning location of landfills in karst terrain or seismic
• Organic solutions with a high biochemical zones 3 and 4 also pertain to injection wells (see para 5-
oxygen demand 2b(2)). Pressure mound formation may result in a
(2) The UIC criteria and standards cover "mound" of injected fluid that forms near the injection
construction, operating, plugging and closure of deep well hose and interferes with rates of fluid injection and
wells, and monitoring and reporting requirements. The ground-water flow. Low magnitude earthquake swarms
UIC classification of injection wells is as follows: may be caused by injecting fluids into deep fault zones;
Class I - Injects hazardous wastes as defined such a case was documented at Rocky Mountain
in 40 CFR 146, subpart A Arsenal in the 1960's. Finally, host rock may dissolve if it
Class II - Injects petroleum fluids or is incompatible with the injected waste, thereby creating
byproducts voids at depth and possible subsidence effects.
Class III - Injects fluid for mineral extraction (5) Worst of the subsurface problems is aquifer
Class IV - Injects fluids into or above an contamination as a result of injection. Contamination
underground drinking water source could occur as a result of incompletely plugged
Class V - Injects fluids not covered in abandoned injection wells, displacement of saline water
Classes I-IV into potable water, or well bore failure.
b. Disposal constraints. The injection well disposal (6) Finally, the substantial costs of
option is limited by implementing injection well disposal systems are a
• regulations and policy significant limiting factor; these systems require much
• waste types professional expertise in site evaluation, testing,
• selective geological environment construction and waste stream analysis. Furthermore,
• construction and operation expense the system requires stringent monitoring and
maintenance to ensure good operation. Costs for typical
Class I-EI type
5-12
TM 5-814-7
wells may easily range into the hundreds of thousands of ments, filters, clarifiers, sludge collection, pH control and
dollars. several injection pumps.
c. Procedures. Wastes are disposed in injection
wells by injecting waste under pressure to porous 5-6. Waste Piles
injection zones. Following their collection, wastes may a. Suitable Wastes. Waste pile storage and
be pretreated and then sent into the pressurized system. treatment is suitable for semi-solid and solid hazardous
Injection may proceed round the clock, so that large wastes such as mine tailings. Waste piles may not be
volumes may be disposed of continuously. The injection used to intentionally dispose of wastes; if disposal is
well system consists of a cased and sealed borehole required, the owner/operator must obtain a landfill permit
containing the injection tube; wastes are forced through and manage the pile as a landfill. The regulatory
the tube to the injection zone. Use of a tube for injection standards for management of waste piles requires that
helps reduce the possibility of leaks; a tube may be the owner or operator take precautions in treating or
replaced easily, saving wear on borehole casings (see storing ignitable, reactive or incompatible waste so that it
figure 5-5). All phases of injection are monitored for does not ignite or explode, emit toxic gases, damage the
leakage detection and proper operation. Disposal contaminant structure or through other like means
operations are reported quarterly, so corrective action or threaten human health or the environment. Section
adjustments to the system may be made if necessary. 264.256 prohibits the placement of ignitable or reactive
d. Design elements. UIC regulations require all wastes in a waste pile, unless the waste is made non-
aspects of injection well systems to be reported and ignitable or non-reactive. Reactive wastes may be
classified, including construction requirements that especially difficult to manage since waste piles are
pertain to casing type and cement type, well dimensions, directly exposed to the environment. Incompatible
waste characteristics, corrosiveness and leak prevention. wastes may not be placed on the same waste pile
The regulations also call for tests and logs, including (section 264.257) to ensure prevention of fires,
electric logs on the injection zone formation and integrity explosions, gaseous emissions, leaching, or other
of completed wells. In addition, midcourse evaluation of discharge which could result from the contact or mixing
well performance is required for the first two years of of incompatible wastes or materials.
operation. In general, all types of materials and b. Disposal constraints. Waste piles are not an
procedures must be specifically described or referenced. ultimate disposal method; they are intended only for
As an example, steel and concrete corrosion resistance storage or treatment of certain solid hazardous wastes.
to the waste stream must be demonstrated. Given this restriction, the siting criteria for this disposal
e. Equipment needs. Injection well siting and method are somewhat less stringent that those for
construction requires specialized equipment, material landfills or surface impoundments. In general, however,
and professional expertise. Well siting requires an it is preferable that waste piles be located in a
exhaustive review of geology and in-situ formation hydrogeologic setting that offers sufficient vertical
testing. Injection wells are commonly 1,000 to 5,000 feet separation of wastes from the uppermost groundwater,
deep; therefore, drilling equipment is needed that is and low permeability soils providing the hydraulic
capable of reaching that depth. Once the geologic separation. The precautions concerning location of
environment has been defined, waste compatibility landfills in karst terrain or seismic zones 3 and 4 also
studies and construction material selection may pertain to waste piles (see para 5-2b(2)).
commence. c. Procedures. As noted above, a waste pile is any
(1) Since hazardous and corrosive material will non-containerized accumulation of solid hazardous
be injected, construction materials must be selected that waste collected for treatment or storage; it is not used to
can handle the waste stream. Concrete mixes and steel intentionally dispose of wastes. Procedures for
casing are chosen for their ability to ensure delivery of depositing wastes in such a unit are therefore quite
waste to the injection zone. Pumps and injection casing simple: wastes are trucked to the waste pile location,
are also chosen to handle wastes and maintain injection unloaded, and then placed on the pile.
pressure. The object of design and material selection is d. Design elements. Basic design requirements for
to choose non-reactive, non-corrosive material to deliver waste piles include:
and isolate wastes in the injection zone only. • Liners with a leak detection system and
(2) Finally, waste pretreatment may be monitoring wells
necessary prior to injection. One or more types of • Leachate collection and removal
wastes may be injected, so the size and function of the • Run-on and run-off control
facility may vary. Such a surface facility would include • Wind dispersal control
impound (1) Liners selected for a waste pile must be adequate to
contain wastes until closure. Considerable
5-13
TM 5-814-7
Reproduced from An Introduction to the Technology of Subsurface Wastewater lnjection, EPA 600/2-77-240, 197 7
5-14
TM 5-814-7
flexibility is permitted in choice of liners, which may, for waste and waste residue and all system components
short-term storage of wastes, be constructed of clay, (e.g., liners), subsoil, structures and equipment which
synthetic materials or admixes. If the waste pile will not have been contaminated by contact with the waste.
be closed for 10 years or more (and cannot be However, if contamination of the subsoil is so extensive
periodically cleaned and inspected for leakage), a as to preclude complete removal or decontamination, the
double-lined system with leak detection and monitoring closure and post-closure requirements applying to
wells is required. Details on liner requirements are landfills must be observed. Ensuring adequate
presented in paragraph 6-3. containment of waste should therefore be an important
(2) A leachate collection and removal system is consideration in initial design of a waste pile.
also required to collect any leachate that may be f. Equipment needs. The type of equipment
produced in a waste pile by infiltration of moisture, employed in operation of a waste pile depends to a large
decomposition or reaction. Leachate systems are extent on the waste characteristics and the size of the
discussed in paragraph 6-4. Run-on and run-off control pile. With the exception of compactors, many of the
facilities, which are required for waste piles, are vehicles used in landfill operations can also be employed
addressed in paragraph 6-5. for waste piles. Bulldozers and front end loaders are
(3) If the waste pile contains particulate matter, widely used to place wastes; scrapers can also be used
wind dispersal controls are mandated by the regulations. on some applications, particularly where the size of the
Mechanisms for preventing dispersal of particulate are pile and the coarseness of the waste permit the scraper
discussed under special design elements in paragraph 6- to deposit wastes over the top of the pile. Large-scale
9. operations may also be able to use conveyor belts or
e. Closure. Since waste piles cannot be used drag lines to deposit the wastes over the pile. Any
for permanent disposal of wastes, and can be permitted equipment used to unload and place wastes must be
only for storage, closure requirements are less stringent decontaminated before being taken out of the disposal
than for disposal facilities such as landfills. The principal operation area.
closure requirement for a waste pile which has achieved
adequate waste containment during its active life is
removal or decontamination of all
5-15
TM 5-814-7
CHAPTER 6
HAZARDOUS WASTE FACILITY DESIGN ELEMENTS
of preventing migration of liquids from the facility, but for leachate collection and leak detection systems are
also allowing no infiltration of liquids into the liner itself. discussed in paragraph 6-4.
The latter requirement in effect mandates use of a (3) The EPA has developed design
synthetic material as a primary liner at most hazardous recommendations for various elements of the required
waste units. liner system. Although the EPA currently considers its
(2) Leachate collection and removal systems, recommendations the minimum acceptable to ensure
capable of maintaining a leachate head no greater than 1 achievement of the performance goals set forth in the
foot, must be installed in a drainage layer above the regulations, variations in system design are permitted
liners in all landfills and waste piles; leak detection upon successful demonstration of comparable
systems are also required. Specific design provisions performance.
b. Elements of the liner system. Liner
systems for
6-2
TM 5-814-7
all facilities must be (1) constructed in unsaturated soil above of a single liner of soil (clay), synthetic material, or ad- mixed
the seasonal high water table, (2) placed on a foundation material, and a leachate collection and removal system. If
which will provide adequate support to the liner, and (3) closure is not scheduled for 10 years or more, a synthetic liner
installed to cover all earth likely to come into contact with is to be used, and the base liner system should consist of-
waste or leachate. Required elements of the liner system • Leachate collection and removal system above
depend on the type of facility and the anticipated period of time primary liner
from first placement of waste to site closure. • Primary liner of synthetic material
(1) Surface impoundment liner systems depend on • Secondary liner of clay soil or synthetic material
whether the impoundment is permitted for storage (requiring • Leak detection system between liners
removal of all wastes, waste residues and liners at closure) or (a) Alternatively, admixed materials such as
for disposal (requiring removal of free liquids, stabilization of concrete and asphalt may be used for long-term storage if
wastes and capping at closure). The following elements are physical and chemical analyses of their characteristics indicate
required for DA impoundments:
• Primary synthetic liner they will not deteriorate during the life of the waste pile.
• Secondary (clay soil or synthetic) liner Admixed liners are preferred for waste piles where repeated
• Leak detection system removal and replacement of wastes may occur, since synthetic
• Monitoring wells membrane liners could be easily damaged by the required
(2) Waste piles, which can be permitted only as waste-handling equipment, and exposed areas of clay liners
storage facilities, require base liner systems consisting could dry out and crack. Reinforced concrete with appro-
6-3
TM 5-814-7
priate coatings would be a suitable liner in such cases. disadvantages. While soil liners are suitable for use as
(b) Waste piles storing only dry wastes which secondary liners and, in certain applications, as the only
will not generate leachate through decomposition or liner, synthetic membrane liners are considered by the
reaction are exempt from the provisions of this technical EPA to be the primary mechanism for long term
manual, provided they are located inside or under containment of waste and leachate from hazardous
structures protected from infiltration of moisture. waste land treatment and disposal facilities. However, to
(3) Landfill base liner systems should consist, ensure the continued effectiveness of the liners, whether
at a minimum, of- soil or synthetic material, they must be compatible with
• Leachate collection and removal the waste and leachate they are to contain and be
system properly installed.
• Primary liner of synthetic material e. Liner characteristics. The major categories
• Secondary liner of clay soil or synthetic of liners are soil liners and synthetic liners; their
material characteristics are summarized in table 6-2 and
• Leak detection system between liners described in greater detail below.
• Monitoring wells (1) Soil liners may be constructed of native clay
(4) The types of liner systems recommended materials exhibiting a remolded permeability of 1 x 10-7
for landfills, surface impoundments and waste piles are cm/sec or less and obtained on site, from selected
depicted in figures 6-2 and 6-3. Specific design borrow areas, or from off-site sources. The soil liner
elements necessary to ensure the performance of DA should generally fall into the CL/CH Unified Soil
hazardous waste facilities include the following: Classification System (USCS) with not less than 50
(a) Synthetic liners should be a minimum 30 mil percent by weight passing a No. 200 sieve (US
in thickness when not reinforced, but a minimum 36 mil if Standard), a liquid limit between 35 and 60, and a
reinforced. They must be carefully selected for plasticity index above the "A" Line in the plasticity chart
compatibility with the waste and leachate to be of the USCS. If available soils do not have the required
contained. low permeability, they can be blended with clay,
(b) Soil liners for DA facilities should be bentonite or other additives.
constructed of a minimum 3-foot compacted layer of soil (a) Soil liners have been the liner of choice at
materials with a permeability of 1 x 10-7 cm/sec or less many solid waste disposal facilities (when available on
by EPA test methods. site) because of their natural attenuation of many
(c) Soil liners should be tested for compatibility chemical substances, resistance to leachate, high
with the hazardous waste designated for disposal. A list caution exchange capacity, and relatively low cost. In all
of compatible wastes should be made available to the cases, on-site clays must be prepared for use as liners in
facility operator and made part of the permanent record. accordance with paragraph 6-3g(1). However, because
This list should also be included in facility operation they do permit migration of leachate into the liner, the
manuals and related documents. EPA considers soil liners unacceptable as the primary
(d) Drainage layers constructed above the line of defense in preventing hazardous waste migration.
liners as part of leachate control or leak detection should Except for surface impoundments permitted for storage
be at least 12 inches thick, have a minimum hydraulic only and for waste piles, synthetic liners are specified for
conductivity of 1 x 10-3 cm/sec, and be sloped at >, 2 the primary liner. Soil liners are acceptable as
percent. Sands should be classified as either SW or SP secondary liners.
by the USCS, with less than 5 percent passing the No. (2) Synthetic liners currently in use at
100 sieve. In addition, sands intended to act as filters hazardous waste land facilities include the following
must meet filter graduation requirements, such as those types:
shown in chapter 5 of TM 5-820-2. • Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
c. Liner system exemptions. Retrofitting of • Chlorinated polyethylene (CPE)
liners is not required in already existing portions of • High-density polyethylene (HDPE)
hazardous waste units, but liners are normally required • Chlorosulfonated polyethylene, Hypalon (CSPE)
for all new portions of existing facilities, unless the • Butyl rubber
owner/operator demonstrates to the EPA and USACE • Epichlorohydrin rubber (ECO)
(DAEN-ECE-G), Washington, DC 20314, that no • Ethylene propylene terpolymer (EPT)
hazardous constituents will migrate from the facility to • Ethylene propylene rubber
ground or surface waters. Migration of liquids into or out • Neoprene (chloroprene rubber)
of the space between the liners is prevented by lapping • Thermoplastic elastomers
and sealing the liner edges at the surface. (a) Flexible membrane linings, commonly
d. Liner types. A variety of liner materials are called "plastics", include those with either polyvinyl
available for control of hazardous wastes. Table 6-2 chloride (PVC) or polyethylene (PE) bases. To produce
presents their principal characteristics, advantages and the de-
6-4
TM 5-814-7
Figure 6-2. Base liner details for landfills and surface impoundments.
6-5
TM 5-814-7
6-7
TM 5-814-7
Table 6-2-Summary of Liner Types-Continued
Range of
Liner material Characteristics costs a Advantages Disadvantages
Polyvinyl chloride Produced in roll form in various widths L Good resistance to inorganic; Attacked by many organics,
and thickness; polymerization of good tensile, elongation, including hydrocarbons,
vinyl chloridemonomer puncture, and abrasion solvents - and oils; not
resistant properties; wide recommended for exposure
ranges of physical to weathering and ultraviolet
properties light conditions -
Thermoplastic Relatively new class of polymeric M Excellent oil, fuel, and water None reported
elastomers materials ranging from highly polar resistance with high tensile
to nonpolar strength and excellent
resistance to weathering
and ozone
Portland cement Hydraulic cement of silica, lime, and H Excellent base for waste Cracking
alumina handling equipment
a L-$1 to $4 installed costs per sq yd in 1981 dollars; M-$4 to $8 per sq. yd.; H-$8 to $12 per sq. yd.
Adapted from Technologies and Management Strategies for Hazardous Waste Control, Office of Technology
Assessment, Congress of the U.S1983.
sired membrane, both material resins are mixed with chemical and mineralogical properties may be remolded
monomers under controlled temperature and pressure to specified moisture content and maximum dry density
conditions in a polymerizer. Many manufacturing specified by ASTM D1557 to determine the permeability
companies utilize these basic resins in combination with of test specimens. Test methods acceptable to EPA are
their own compounding to produce specialty contained in appendix A of the draft RCRA guidance
membranes. A list of the producers and suppliers of raw documents for waste piles and surface impoundments.
material polymer can be found in the EPA SW-870. Both water and representative chemical wastes would be
(b) Specifications for individual sheet materials used for the permeant.
can be obtained from the producer. Suppliers are also (b) Figure 6-4 shows the moisture content
able to provide specifications for the base polymers and versus dry density curve for a clay liner, as well as the
their individual synthetic membrane sheet. relationship between moisture content, relative
(c) To increase tensile strength, to provide compaction and permeability for a clay liner subjected to
resistance to shrinkage, punctures and tears and to water and aqueous hazardous waste. All clay liners
permit easier handling and seaming, a fabric must have a permeability of 10-7 cm/sec or less.
reinforcement (scrim) may be laminated between two (2) Synthetic Liners. Proof of the chemical
synthetic membrane sheets. When installing reinforced resistance of the selected synthetic membrane liner is
liners, care must be taken to ensure that all exposed required by RCRA regulations. In recent years, all
edges are sealed. Failure to do so could result in the manufacturers of synthetic liners, as well as most
scrim acting like a wick and drawing in moisture, suppliers, have operated testing facilities and developed
resulting in eventual liner breakdown. chemical resistance tables and guides for their
f. Compatibility and physical testing. Since the respective products. Reference to chemical resistance
prime purpose of a liner is to prevent liquids from leaving guideline sheets or compatibility charts that classify a
a hazardous waste facility, the physical integrity and generic flexible membrane liner will not, however,
chemical compatibility of the liner with the waste provide sufficient data on which to base a final liner
constituents must be ensured. selection, since the manufacturer’s compounding can
(1) Soil liners. Permeability tests, in which soil liners produce significant differences in liner properties and
are brought into contact first with water, then with performance in the field. Furthermore, since the
leachate or chemical waste, are the most important chemical characteristics of both liners and wastes are
indicators of the compatibility of soil liner materials with extremely variable, it is difficult to generalize concerning
the waste they are to contain. Permeability is a function incompatibility. Data currently available, however,
of many variables, including pore size, pore space suggest that the following combinations of wastes and
tortuosity, particle shape and size, and mineralogy of the liner materials can be incompatible:
soil material, the permeant characteristics, and * Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) tends to be dissolved
temperature. The permeability of a soil liner can be by chlorinated solvents.
affected by waste types that are incompatible with the * Chlorosulfonated polyethylene can be dis-
liner material. For example, clay soils may exhibit high solved by aromatic hydrocarbons.
permeability when exposed to concentrated organics, * Asphaltic materials may dissolve in oily
especially organics of high and low pH. wastes.
(a) To test the permeability of soil materials, * Concrete- and lime-based materials are dis-
samples which have been tested for their physical, solved by acids.
6-8
TM 5-814-7
(a) A test method accepted by the EPA for does not dry out. Controlled moisture application or
evaluating waste/liner compatibility involves exposing a coating the liner with an asphaltic emulsion may be
liner sample to the waste or leachate encountered at the required in some instances to prevent drying and
facility. After exposure, the liner sample is tested for cracking. Protection from freezing is also an important
strength (tensile, tear, and puncture) and weight loss. consideration in colder climates.
Any significant deterioration in the measured properties (2) Considerations in installation of a synthetic
is considered evidence of incompatibility, unless it can be membrane liner include providing protective soil layers
demonstrated that the deterioration exhibited will not above and below the liner and proper seaming of the
impair the integrity of the liner over the life of the facility. liner. Failure to consider these important factors could
(b) Standard specifications for flexible result in liner failure and undermine the goal of complete
membrane liners are currently being developed by the waste containment. To ensure proper membrane liner
National Sanitation Foundation (NSF). Upon their final placement, seaming, and placement of protective soil
adoption, these standards will be used by the EPA to cover, the best installation procedures and practices
provide minimum recommendations on physical should be developed for the type of membrane
properties, construction practices and seaming. In the proposed. Guidance in installing synthetic liners should
interim, the design engineer may review suggested be obtained from experienced manufacturers of the
standards in appendix IX of EPA SW-870. membrane, fabricators who have assisted in preparing
g. Liner installation. Whether the liner to be panel installation plans and have fabricated large panels
installed is soil or synthetic material, a thorough analysis of the materials, and experienced contractors. Project
of the proposed liner foundation is necessary to ensure specifications for the installation of the liner should state
adequate support of the liner and resistance to pressure the experience required for the manufacturer, the
gradients above or below the liner. An unsuitable fabricator and the installing contractor for the project.
foundation could result in settlement, compression, or (a) Protection of the liner involves proper
uplift of the liner which could lead to liner damage. An preparation of the subgrade and placement of protective
analysis of foundation suitability may include evaluation soil layers. Procedures to be used in preparation of the
of geologic, hydrologic, geotechnical and other pertinent surface include compaction, scraping and rolling to
data. Such data are particularly important in the design provide a smooth surface for the liner. A minimum 6inch
of surface impoundments. Specific requirements for layer of material not coarser than sand (classified by
installation of soil liners and flexible membranes are USCS as SP or SW, with less than 5 percent passing the
discussed below. No. 100 sieve) is recommended by the EPA as a
(1) Proper installation of a soil liner is needed protection against puncture, equipment damage, and
to maintain the specified permeability of 1 x 10-7 cm/sec exposure to the elements; sands which act as filters
or less. Prior to placement of the clay liner, the subbase must meet filter graduation requirements, such as those
must be properly prepared to ensure structural integrity shown in chapter 5 of TM 5-820-2. Note, however, that
and proper bonding with the clay liner. To ensure the EPA draft guidance document for liners permits
adequate compaction, soil materials should be spread in substitution of drainage layers, on-site soils or soil liners
loose lifts no more than 6 inches thick, be wetted or dried for the 6-inch sand layer.
to the specified moisture content of optimum or above, (b) In surface impoundments, the liquid
and be compacted with a sheepsfoot-type roller to the material overlying the liner is considered sufficient
specified relative compaction. Specified values must be protection unless dredging or operation of other
based upon the tested relationships between moisture equipment could damage the liner. If so, an 18-inch
content, relative compaction and permeability. See layer of soil is recommended. Sterilization of any
figure 6-4. underlying organic materials may be necessary,
(a) Successive lifts should be placed and particularly in the case of surface impoundments, to
compacted until a liner thickness of 3 feet is achieved. prevent formation of gases and subsequent uplift of the
The finished surface of the soil liner should then be rolled liner. In cold climates, the use of a protective soil cover
or bladed smooth. Installation of a clay liner should not may be necessary to minimize the possibility of cracking
be attempted under adverse weather conditions, such as caused by freezing.
heavy precipitation or freezing temperatures. (c) Heavy geotextile fabrics (>a 400 g/m2) are
(b) Following installation, the liner should be increasingly being used in combination with flexible
inspected for imperfections, such as lenses, cracks, or membrane liners in hazardous waste units to protect the
other structural defects which could cause an increase in membranes from puncture and abrasion. In surface
liner permeability. Until placement of waste or, in the impoundments, geotextiles are also used for gas relief
case of a double-lined facility, the overlying synthetic beneath membranes (Collins and Newkirk, 1982). In
liner, care must be taken to ensure that the liner addition, geotextiles may also serve as a clean base for
seaming membrane panels. If geotex-
6-9
TM 5-814-7
tiles are used to protect synthetic membranes, it is the liner field seams, installation should be avoided
important that they, like the synthetic membranes, be during these periods.
tested for compatibility with hazardous waste. Only very (f) During placement of the liner and before
limited compatibility testing data are currently available wastes are placed, tests of the seam strength and
on geotextile fabrics; however, many such fabrics are bonding effectiveness should be conducted, using visual
made of polypropylene or polyester materials and may inspection, air lance, ultrasonic and vacuum techniques.
have compatibility characteristics similar to those In addition, random samples of seams should be cut
exhibited by liners of the same materials. from the liner and subjected to on-site and laboratory
(d) Fabricated liner panels must be constructed testing. A replacement patch will be required. Liner
so as to minimize the number of field seams and to placement, seaming and testing are covered in detail in a
enable placement of field seams at locations where least number of publications, including EPA SW-870.
severe field conditions occur (e.g., at ridge areas for leak
detection and leachate collection systems; see figure 6- 6-4. Leak detection and leachate collection and
2). Project specifications should delineate liner removal systems
placement procedures for field panel, shop and field
seaming procedures, and protective cover requirements. a. Introduction. The leak detection system,
Additional specifications include work responsibilities and located between the two liners underlying the hazardous
quality assurance/certification requirements of the waste facility, enables the owner or operator to
engineer, contractor, manufacturer, fabricator and determine whether any liquid has entered the space
installer. As part of the project details for the base liner between the liners. Should the presence of liquid in this
system, a panel installation plan must be prepared with space lead to the discovery that the liner has leaked, the
the grading plan. owner/operator will implement procedures to ensure
(e) Aside from puncture and tearing of the liner, protection of ground water. Leachate collection and
the most common cause of liner failure is inadequate removal systems are required immediately above the
seaming. The joining of liner panels should therefore be liners in new hazardous waste landfills and waste piles.
conducted under controlled conditions, in strict Such systems must be capable of maintaining a leachate
accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations depth of 1 foot or less above the liner and of withstanding
and with installer’s trained personnel. The installer clogging, chemical attack, and forces exerted by wastes,
should pay strict attention to the overlap specified by the equipment or soil cover. General procedures for
manufacturer, which may range from a minimum of 2 designing leachate collection and removal systems are
upwards to 12 inches. In addition, field seams shall provided in SW-870, paragraph 5-6 and appendix V.
always be lapped over the downslope liner to prevent b. Components of the leak detection system.
piping if a seam fails. Each type of membrane liner also The leak detection system can be a drain system or
requires specific seaming provisions to achieve an instrumentation that will permit detection of any liquid
effective bond, as summarized in table 6-3. Since that migrates into the space between the liners.
adverse weather conditions (e.g., extreme heat or cold, Although
precipitation, and winds) can affect adequate bonding of
Table 6-3. Seaming Provisions for Synthetic Liners’
Type of Place Bodied Solvent Contact Vulcanizing Heat
compound a used Solvents solvents cements cements adhesives Tapes sealed Dielectric
K L M N
Design Requirements Surface Impoundments Waste Pile Land Treatment Landfill
A leachate collection and removal system im-
mediately above the liner that is designed,
con- structed, maintained, and operated to
collect and remove leachate from the unit
The Regional Administrator will specify
design and operating conditions in the permit
to ensure that the leachate depth over the
liner does not exceed 30 cm (one foot) The
leachate collection and removal system must
be constructed of materials that are:
Chemically resistant to the waste NA 264.251(aX2) NA 264.301(aX2)
managed in the unit and the leachate
expected to be generated; and Of
sufficient strength and thickness to pre-
vent collapse under the pressures
exerted by overlying wastes, waste cover
materials, and by any equipment used at
the unit; and Designed and operated to
function without clogging through the
scheduled closure of the unit
6-12
TM 5-814-7
Figure 6-5. Typical leak detection systems and leachate collection drains
6-13
TM 5-814-7
conductivity of the drainage layer material available, are the EPA guidance document recommends use of a
presented in EPA SW-873, EPA SW-870 and EPA granular layer above the drainage layer, if clean sand is
625/1-81-013. used for the drainage layer, it will serve to preclude
e. Leak detection and leachate collection drains. plugging and possibly eliminate the need for a filter cloth
As shown in figure 6-5, trench installations can be used or fabric.
for leak detection drains in secondary clay liners. (3) The pipe used in leak detection and leachate
Projecting installations should be used for synthetic collection systems must be of sufficient strength and
liners. Slopes for bedding should be no steeper than the thickness to withstand the pressures exerted by the
angle of repose of the drainage layers and all slope weight of the overlying waste, the cover materials, and
breaks should be rounded. Collection drains over any equipment to be used on the waste unit. Slotting will
synthetic liners should incorporate a 4-inch-minimum reduce the effective strength of pipe and its ability to
bedding of clean sand (SP) to satisfy requirements for carry loads and resist pipe deflection under loading. The
liner protection. Drain rock used over synthetic liners capacity of buried pipe to support vertical stresses may
should be rounded pea gravel. Geotextile fabrics might be limited by buckling and by the circumferential
be evaluated to serve as an alternative protective compressive strength of the pipe. Information on
measure. deflection, buckling capacity and compressive strength
f. Leachate collection sump and riser. The may be obtained from the pipe manufacturer.
current state-of-the-art in leachate collection system (a) Even when correctly designed to withstand
design uses sumps or basins at low points on the base waste loading, piping can fail from equipment loading
of the fill to which the leachate collection network during construction or operation of the waste unit.
discharges. A riser pipe extending from the sump to the Moving loads result in impact loading one and one-half to
ground surface enables leachate removal. The lower two times greater than stationary loading. Therefore,
segment of the riser pipe in the drain rock of the sump is equipment should, if possible, not cross leachate
slotted, and can be connected to a slotted header pipe in collection drains installed in projecting installations or in
the sump to allow a higher rate of flow to, and withdrawal trenches with shallow cover. When equipment must be
from, the riser pipe. routed across a drain, impact loading should be
(1) The riser must be of a diameter that will minimized by mounding material over the pipe to an
accommodate a pump suction line or submersible pump. adequate depth to prevent pipe failures.
The riser pipe can be installed in a trench excavated in (b) Specific design procedures and examples
the wall of the clay liner, or bedded in suitable soil on the used to determine loads resulting from the waste fill
surface of the synthetic liner. and/or construction equipment are provided in appendix
(2) Leachate collection networks for landfills, V.2 of SW-870.
which must remain functional during the 30-year 6-5. Surface water run-on and run-off control
postclosure period, should include pipe cleanouts systems
extending from major collection drains to the ground a. Regulatory requirements. Surface water run-
surface, to enable system inspection and/or cleaning. on and run-off control systems are required for landfills,
g. Design considerations. In designing a waste piles and land treatment units and indirectly for
leachate collection system, one must consider resistance surface impoundments. Regulatory requirements for
to chemical attack, prevention of clogging, and pipe surface water control at land disposal facilities are
stability. summarized in table 6-5. While federal regulations
(1) All components of leachate collection require control systems for 24-hour, 25-year storms,
systems must be able to withstand the chemical attack state regulations may require sized control for storms
which can result from waste or leachate. Plastic (PVC with a return frequency up to 100 years. In such cases,
and polyethylene) and fiberglass piping are usually the more stringent requirement should be considered in
selected for such systems; however, if solvents in the sizing surface water run-on and run-off control facilities.
waste stream contain organics capable of attacking The designer must also size collection and holding
collection pipes, sumps or risers, an alternative to the facilities, and develop specific management procedures
use of plastic or fiberglass piping might be concrete or to enable all run off from active disposal areas to be
cast iron. Any geotextile filter cloth or fabric used in the retained for treatment prior to its evaporation or
leachate collection system shall be evaluated for its discharge to natural drainage courses or back to an
ability to withstand attack from the hazardous waste and approved hazardous waste facility.
the leachate generated from that waste. b. Types of control systems. Run-on and run-
(2) The drainage layer, any geotextile filter cloth off control systems at hazardous waste units utilize a
or fabric, drain rock, pipe slotting, and waste fines must variety of structures for control of surface water,
be evaluated to determine the ability of the system to including conveyance, barrier and control/retention
transmit leachate without clogging. Although systems.
6-14
TM 5-814-7
Table 6-5. Requirements for Surface Water Run-on and Run-off Control Systems
K L M N
Design Requirements Surface Impoundments Waste Pile Land Treatment Landfill
Design, construct, operate and maintain a run-on
control system capable of preventing flow onto the
active portion of the treatment zone during peak
discharge from at least a 25-year
storm. NA 264.251(c) a 264.273(c) b 264.301(c) a
Design, construct, operate and maintain a run- off
management system to collect and control (at a
minimum) the water volume resulting from a 24-
hour,
25-year storm NA 264.251(d) C 264.273(d)C 264.301(d)
Design, construct, maintain and operate to prevent
overtopping or overfilling by wind and wave action,
rainfall and
run-on 264.221(c) NA NA NA
Collection and holding facilities for run-off
control systems must be emptied or otherwise
managed after storms to maintain design capacity
of the
system. NA 264.251(e) 264.273(e) 264.301(e)
While in operation, inspect weekly and after storms
to detect evidence of deterioration, malfunctions, or
improper operation of run-on and run-off control
systems 264.226(b)(1)d 264.254(bX1) 264.273(c) 264.303(bX1
After closure, maintain the run-on control system NA, unless NA, unless
and the run-off management
system. closed as a closed as a 264.280(3),(4) 264.310(bX5)d
landfill landfill 264.280(cX3),(4)
6-15
TM 5-814-7
Figure 6-8. Typical run-off control ditch for final cover areas.
6-18
TM 5-814-7
(2) Sedimentation controls should be established areas and active disposal units should be confined, and
for onsite borrow areas and construction areas. Where operations effectively controlled, to enable collection and
possible, facilities for control of sediment transport retention of the minimum volume of run off which may
should be located near the source, so that only best be treated for release, or discharged back to an
sediment-laden waters need be handled. The near- approved hazardous waste facility.
source system requires less extensive structures than (2) The conveyance systems developed to carry
the downstream sedimentation control basin alternative run off from active areas of waste units, and the retention
for intercepted run-on flows. facilities developed to contain run off, must prevent any
(3) Sediment control facilities for source areas release of liquid. Closed pipes or ditches with synthetic
include: liners should be considered for waste piles and landfills.
(a) Temporary Sediment Basins-At construction (3) Conveyance systems within land treatment
areas, where run off is usually confined to ditches or units may include unlined terraces and grass waterways
depressions in the topography, basins can be for both application of liquid waste, and for intercepting
constructed by excavating shallow depressions and flows and minimizing erosion within the land treatment
placing berms or sandbags to contain water for area.
sedimentation. (4) Retention facilities designed for all waste
(b) Silt Barriers-Where sheet flow occurs (on units should meet either storage or surface
perimeter construction slopes, and in large excavations), impoundment requirements. However, a lower area of
silt fences or hay bales placed in a shallow trench can be either waste unit might be developed and used for the
positioned to intercept run off and remove sediment. Silt retention and treatment of run off from active areas. The
fences normally consist of filter cloth fastened to wire adequacy of the retention basin size should be
fencing. demonstrated, based upon a monthly tabulation of run-
(c) Vegetation-Completed borrow areas, inactive off storage requirements, and the methods for emptying
stockpile areas, and final cover areas can be seeded, the basins and dispersing of the accumulated waters,
fertilized or hydroseeded to establish a vegetative cover (i.e., treatment and discharge, evaporation, spray
which will provide erosion and sediment control. When irrigation, solidification, etc.).
vegetation has become established, downgradient silt (5) Procedures which may be required to
fences or other sedimentation control structures may be minimize the active area from which run off must be
removed. collected could include internal berms, synthetic cover,
(4) Sedimentation control basins (figure 6-9), encapsulated wastes, and restrictions during wet-
used for settling out sediment being carried by surface weather periods.
flows, are often established at discharge locations by e. Sizing run-on/run-off control systems.
constructing containment dikes and excavating a basin Methods used to predict run-off volumes and peak flow
area. To discharge surface water, emergency overflow rates include the Rational Formula, empirical
spillways and pipe drains are typically provided. expressions and charts of the USDA’s Soil Conservation
(5) The principal maintenance requirement for Service (SCS), and various hydrographic procedures.
sedimentation basins is removal of accumulated Both the Rational Formula and the SCS charts provide
sediment by draglines or loaders during dry-weather predictions which can be used in sizing surface water
periods. control systems at disposal facilities.
d. Run-off control systems. Run-off control (eq 6-1)
systems which handle surface water flows from active (1) For the Rational Equation: Q = CiA
portions of hazardous waste units and any site staging where: Q = flow rate (cfs)
areas that might contain wastes residue must include C = run-off coefficient (assumed)
collection and holding facilities (figure 6-9). These i =intensity of rainfall
facilities retain run off for treatment before its release, (inches/hour) for the selected
evaporation, or discharge back to an approved design duration and frequency
hazardous waste facility. A = tributary area, in acres
(1) For large sites located in semi-arid regions, collection (2) The value of C for sizing run-off control
and holding facilities might be developed to receive run systems should be 0.8 to 1.0 when the active areas are
off from the majority of the site, rather than specific barren or lined. The same factor should also be used to
waste units. Such facilities could easily be sized to retain determine the volume of run off into holding facilities over
and effect evaporation of run-off volumes much larger the specified period of time. Run-off coefficients for
than those from the required 24hour, 25-year storm, other surface conditions applicable to land disposal
ensuring full containment while minimizing operational facilities are available in TM 5-820-4.
requirements. For sites located in more humid areas, (3) The SCS method provides empirically based
the immediate waste handling
6-19
TM 5-814-7
Table 6-6. Requirements for Surface Water Run-on and Run-off Control Systems
K L M N
Design Requirements Surface Impoundments Waste Pile Land Treatment Landfill
Cover the unit with a final cover designed and
constructed to: ’ 264.2282(iii) May apply NA 264.310(a)
Provide long-term minimization of the
migration of liquids through the closed unit.
Function with minimum maintenance Promote
drainage and minimize erosion or abrasion of
the final cover Accommodate settling and
subsidence so that the cover’s integrity is
maintained; and Have a permeability less than
or equal to the permeability of any bottom liner
system or natural subsoils present.
Maintain the integrity and effectiveness of the final
cover, including making repairs to the cap as
necessary to correct the effects of settling,
subsidence, erosion, or other events. 264.228(bXl) May apply* NA 264.310(bXl)
Prevent run-on and run-off from eroding or
otherwise damaging the final cover. 264.228(bX4) May apply’ NA 264.310(bX5)
*If not all contaminated subsoils can be practicably removed or decontaminated, the unit must be closed in accordance
with requirements that apply to landfills.
6-24
TM 5-814-7
carry water from the drainage layer to surface drainage (a) Selecting design slopes which will minimize
facilities may be a better alternative than granular the damaging effect of settlement, i.e., use 4 percent
drainage discharge areas. construction slopes for upper surfaces over fill areas
(5) The soil layer for vegetation should be a high where settlements can be expected to be uniform, due to
quality topsoil at least 2 feet thick, and capable of placement procedures and a uniform depth of fill, and
sustaining vegetation. use 10 to 33.3 percent slopes (10:1 to 3:1 horizontal to
(a) The vegetation must be a persistent but vertical slopes) over perimeter and interim fill areas,
shallow-rooted species which will minimize erosion, while where the depth of fill increases significantly due to the
not penetrating below the vegetative and drainage layers perimeter excavation, and can result in settlements
(EPA SW-867 and EPA 600/2-79-165). The vegetated which decrease the construction slope by 10 percent or
soil layer must also have an erosion rate of < 2.0 tons more (see figure 6-10).
per acre per year using the US Department of Agriculture (b) Using uniform fill placement and solidification
Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE). This equation and procedures which minimize differential settlement and
data for its use are described in EPA SW-867 and EPA enable prediction measurements for the order of
600/2-79-165. settlement that can be expected after closure.
(b) As noted, steeper perimeter slopes must be (c) Staging final closure to delay placement of
provided with surface drainage systems capable of final cover where substantial settlement is expected
conducting run off across the slope without damaging the (may require an extension in the 180-day limit for
vegetated soil cover. Stability against slippage under closure, and placement of an expendable interim cover).
saturated or seismic conditions must also be (4) Design slopes should be selected to allow for
demonstrated. any settlement. Final slopes should be at least 3 percent
c. Design considerations. Because hazardous to prevent ponding due to irregular surface areas, but
waste fills can undergo settlement, and any damaging less than 5 percent to prevent excessive erosion.
effect of settlement on final cover must be repaired Perimeter slopes may be steeper, but must be provided
during the post-closure period, the designer should with surface drainage systems capable of conducting run
assess the potential for uniform settlement of the waste off across the slope without forming erosion rills and
fill, recommend operating practices which minimize gullies. Steeper slopes must be evaluated for stability
differential settlement, and select construction slopes against slippage under saturated or seismic conditions,
which minimize the damaging effect of settlement. and for acceptable resistance to erosion.
(1) Settlement of waste fills generally occur due to 6-8. Special design elements
(a) Mechanical consolidation: a decrease in void a. Regulatory requirements. Regulations within
space related to applied load(s) of the fill and soil cover sections of 40 CFR 264 establish design, construction
and their depth. and maintenance requirements for structural integrity of
(b) Biological decomposition: a decrease in impoundment dikes, overtopping controls, and wind
volume by loss of solids. dispersal controls. Requirements related to air
(c) Displacements: differential settlements emissions have not been established, but are expected
which result from liquefaction of saturated layers, creep to be developed in the future by EPA. The specific
of the waste fill, and/or collapse of drums placed prior to regulations are summarized in table 6-7.
the ban of such practice. b. Design considerations for dikes. Since dikes
(2) In new facilities, where design procedures are the principal containment components of surface
minimize foundation settlement, and placement impoundments and are partially or completely above
procedures minimize differential settlement of the fill, ground, it is essential that they be designed, constructed
consolidation of the waste fill will be the primary source and maintained with sufficient structural integrity to
of settlement. The potential for settlement should be prevent failure. Dike slopes must be stable at all times,
analyzed for the following conditions: compression of the especially during rapid drawdown of waste liquids; they
foundation and compression of the waste due to must also be protected against erosion due to wave
dewatering, liquefaction, primary and secondary action, wind, rain or animal intrusion. Dikes must be
consolidation, biological oxidation of organics, * and designed so that excessive stresses are not put on the
chemical conversion of solids to liquids. EPA SW-873 foundation.
provides current state-of the-art design information to (1) To accomplish these goals, the designers
determine settlement, and additional studies are being must evaluate the materials of construction, liner type(s),
performed for EPA. weather factors, loads imposed by wastes, drainage
(3) The following provisions should be systems, and the hydrologic and geotechnical
considered to minimize damage by anticipated characteristics of the site. Analyzing the stability of the
settlement: pro-
* Calculate assuming one pound of organic matter will be
destroyed for each two pounds of oxygen consumed
in a BOD5 test.
6-25
TM 5-814-7
Table 6- 7. Requirements for Special Design Elements
Section of 40 CFR 264 Describing Requirements
K L M N
Design Requirements Surface Impoundments Waste Pile Land Treatment Landfill
Dikes
Dikes are designed, constructed, and maintained
with sufficient structural integrity to prevent
massive failure of the dikes. In ensuring structural
integrity, it must not be presumed that the liner
system will function without leakage during the
active life of the
unit. 264.221(d) NA NA NA
Weekly inspection for severe erosion or other signs
of deterioration in
dikes. 264.226(bX4) NA NA NA*
Overtopping
The unit must be designed, constructed,
maintained, and operated to prevent overtopping
resulting from normal or abnormal operations
overfilling; wind and wave action; rainfall; run- on;
malfunctions of level controllers, alarms
and other equipment; and human error. 264.221(c) NA NA NA
Weekly inspections to detect evidence of
deterioration, malfunctions, or improper operation
of overtopping control
systems. 264.226(bXl) NA NA NA
Wind Dispersal
If the unit contains any particulate matter
which may be subject to wind dispersal, the owner
or operator must cover or otherwise manage the
unit to control
wind dispersal. NA 264.250(cX3) 264.233(f) 264.301(f)
Inspected weekly and after storms for proper
functioning of wind dispersal l
control systems,) NA 264.254(bX3 264.273(gX2)) 264.303(X)(3
where present. 264.280(aX5)
* No standards or requirements established.
Adapted from 40 CPFR 264
posed or existing dike system is of primary importance; *For flow-through units: adequately sized
slope failure due to saturation, earthquake or poor spillway or weir-type discharge
construction could result in extensive environmental, structures which can maintain a constant
property and human damage. liquid level and freeboard.
(2) Stability assessments should utilize in situ -pipes with valved intakes and outlets for
properties of the dikes and foundations and pertinent regulating flows.
geologic information. Assessment methods and -pumping systems for control of inflows
evaluative criteria are presented in NAVFAC DM 7.1 and and outflows.
EPA SW-873. Evaluations and monitoring must be · For units without outlets: provisions to
repetitive to ensure structural integrity and containment assess the freeboard level and regulate
of liquids. inflow to prevent overtopping.
c. Prevention of overtopping. Surface (2) A 2-foot freeboard is documented as
impoundments must be designed, constructed, providing sufficient protection against overtopping due to
maintained and operated to prevent overtopping. inflow fluctuations or wave action; however, when
Designing impoundments with significant freeboard, manual operation is involved, greater freeboards may be
establishing operating practices to monitor and regulate necessary to ensure protection.
liquid levels, using automatic liquid level controllers, (3) Water balance studies must be performed for
and/or using alarms can prevent overtopping. evaporation surface impoundments. The summation of
(1) Specific guidance requirements to preventing liquid wastes volume and precipitation inflows, minus the
overtopping include: evaporation losses, determines the anticipated liquid
* For stormwater: design and operating levels. The EPA believes stormwater should be diverted
provisions which can withstand, at a from surface impoundments. The guidelines to
minimum, the flow generated by a 24-hour, accomplish this are that structures be designed to di-
100-year storm.
6-26
TM 5-814-7
vert the maximum flow from a 100-year storm, unless the cluding a discussion of their characteristics, is presented
volume of the contributing flow will not cause appreciable in EPA 600/2-79-165.
loss of freeboard. (3) A more permanent solution .to controlling
(4) If overtopping is imminent or a failure occurs, wind dispersal of dust is vegetating exposed inactive soil
provisions must be available to divert flow to another unit borrow areas, land application areas, and soil stockpile
or stop the inflow. areas. Vegetative cover not only serves as a permanent
d. Control of wind dispersal. Wind dispersal method of suppressing dust, it also serves to enhance
control measures are required for waste piles, land the aesthetics of the site. The particular vegetative
treatment areas, and landfills. The generation and species selected should be compatible with soil type,
dispersion of dust from a hazardous waste unit can pose growing conditions, climate, and site end use. Additional
potential health hazards as well as affect visibility. Dust information concerning selection of vegetative species
emissions can occur by wind erosion of exposed soil or and planting techniques is presented in EPA 600/2-79-
waste areas, vehicle traffic on unpaved haul roads, and 128.
soil handling activities. (4) Control provisions to reduce or eliminate the
(1) Although watering for immediate control can generation of fugitive dust from unpaved haul roads
be an effective short-term wind dispersal method, include (1) physical stabilization (placing a gravel layer
additional control methods should be implemented to on the road), or (2) chemical stabilization (application of
minimize long-term wind erosion of open soil or waste binding materials).
areas. Control methods include physical, chemical or (5) Imposing speed reductions on unpaved
vegetative stabilization of exposed surfaces. roads during dry weather can also help to reduce dust
(2) Physical stabilization involves covering exposed generation.
surfaces with a material that prevents wind from (6) For land treatment facilities, wind dispersal
disturbing the surface particles; materials used for this control measures include (1) surface wetting (irrigation)
purpose include rock, soil (including daily and with water or chemical agents, (2) development of a
intermediate cover), crushed or granulated clay, bark or vegetative cover, (3) windbreaks, and (4) waste
wood chips. Chemical stabilizers, often used in application timing. The specific control measure(s)
conjunction with water, can provide dust suppression for selected will depend on site-specific conditions.
several months. Since many of these chemical Additional information concerning wind dispersal control
compounds are proprietary, their characteristics are for land treatment units is available in EPA SW-874 and
difficult to evaluate without site-specific field testing. the EPA Office of Solid Waste Draft RCRA Guidance
Information concerning these chemical stabilizers, in- Document for Land Treatment.
6-27
TM 5-814-7
CHAPTER 7
OPERATIONS AND CONTINGENCY PLANS/TRAINING
tending into the area of community protection as well. requirements more restrictive than the RCRA
f. States requiring training as part of their requirements. As a minimum, however, all states must
hazardous waste regulatory program may impose comply with the federal training requirements.
training
7-3
TM 5-814-7
CHAPTER 8
GROUND-WATER MONITORING
8-1. Introduction constituent specified in the permit. If so, the EPA
a. Subpart F of 40 CFR 264 establishes Regional Administrator (RA) establishes a ground-water
standards for groundwater protection and monitoring that protection standard for the facility.
apply to owners or operators who treat, store or dispose c. Ground-water protection standard. The
of hazardous waste in surface impoundments, waste groundwater protection standard indicates when
piles, land treatment units, or landfills. corrective action is necessary to control contamination
b. Under Interim Status regulations in 40 CFR from a regulated hazardous waste unit. The standard
265:F, existing surface impoundments, landfills or land has four main parts: (1) the hazardous constituents to be
treatment facilities are also required to implement monitored (section 264.93), (2) the concentration limits
ground-water monitoring programs to determine the for each hazardous constituent that trigger corrective
facilities’ impact on ground water. action (section 264.94), (3) the point of compliance
c. If an existing facility is upgraded, the facility (section 264.95), and (4) the compliance period (section
owner or operator must continue to comply with the 264.96).
interim status regulations specified in 40 CFR 265:F until d. Compliance monitoring. Compliance
final administrative action on the facility’s permit monitoring (section 264.99) is implemented when
application. Initial background water quality data detection monitoring reveals a confirmed, statistically
collected during this period is used for the detection significant increase in any parameter or constituent
and/or compliance monitoring programs regulated by 40 specified.
CFR 264:F once a permit is granted to the facility. The (1) Compliance monitoring requires
designer should be aware, however, that the monitoring quarterly sampling at the compliance point for
system installed at existing facilities in compliance with hazardous constituents specified in the ground-water
the interim status regulations may not meet the more protection standard. Analysis for all appendix VIm of 40
stringent standards for permitted facilities and may CFR 261 hazardous constituents must also be done
require modifications or additions. annually.
d. Many variables exist within a given (2) Data collected from these tests are
hydrogeologic environment that affect ground-water analyzed to determine if a statistically significant increase
occurrence. To yield usable information, as well as to in hazardous constituent concentration has occurred. If
ensure their effectiveness, monitoring programs must so, a corrective action program is implemented at the
therefore be designed based on a thorough knowledge RA’s direction.
of site hydrogeology (EPA SW-963, SW-611). e. Corrective action program. A corrective
action program (section 264.100) is undertaken to
8-2. Monitoring requirements ensure that hazardous waste units are brought into
compliance with the ground-water protection standard.
a. Background ground-water quality. This goal must be achieved by either removing the
Section 264.97 requires that ground-water quality data hazardous constituents or treating them in place.
be collected at all hazardous waste units to establish a Corrective action may be terminated only after ground-
background value for any hazardous constituents or water monitoring data demonstrate that the standard has
monitoring parameters specified in the facility permit. not been exceeded for three consecutive years.
Sampling frequency and techniques are detailed in the
regulations. 8-3. Monitoring program
b. Detection monitoring. A detection
monitoring program (section 264.98) is required at all a. Determining the hydrogeologic environment
hazardous waste units to provide an early indication of of a waste disposal unit is an essential first step in
leakage into the uppermost aquifer. designing and planning a monitoring program. The
(1) Detection monitoring, conducted at hydrogeologic investigation should include identification
least semiannually, determines ground-water quality at of the uppermost aquifer, determination of the hydraulic
the point of compliance. The parameters or constituents conductivity of underlying formations, and determination
requiring monitoring are specified in the facility permit. of seasonal and other fluctuations in ground-water
(2) The information collected is surface elevation, which will yield information on
analyzed to determine whether there has been a hydraulic gradients and flow direction. Subsurface
statistically significant increase over background values cross-sections, prepared from boring logs, geophysical
for any parameter or surveys and existing site information, may be used in
conjunction with a base map to characterize the
hydrogeologic environment of the site. Methods of
determin-
8-1
TM 5-814-7
ing hydrogeologic conditions are detailed in chapter 3 of than 20 feet thick), the well should be perforated
this manual. throughout the zone. In thicker aquifers, multiple wells
b. A minimum of four ground-water monitoring (see figure 8-2) should be used to define water quality
wells will be installed, one hydraulically upgradient of the stratification within the aquifer. Care should be taken to
waste disposal unit, to provide background groundwater ensure that the perforated interval does not provide
quality data, and three downgradient of the facility to hydraulic connection between isolated aquifers.
detect contaminant discharge. Small indoor waste piles (3) Also important is the sizing of the
are the only waste facilities at which fewer wells will be perforations or screen. A properly sized screen,
considered. generally one designed to exclude up to 60 percent of
c. Upgradient wells should be installed in the formation materials, will prevent passage of fines from
uppermost aquifer at a location not likely to be affected the formation, while allowing passage of sufficient water
by the waste facility. Downgradient wells should also be for sampling. In most cases a commercially fabricated
installed in the uppermost aquifer, but along pathways screen is recommended, although a factory-slotted
likely to transport contaminants, should any be released casing may be adequate for some applications. Field
from the facility. Care must be taken in locating and perforation of well casings is not recommended.
constructing monitoring wells to ensure that they not (4) Materials selected for the well casing
serve as conduits for contaminants to enter the ground should be compatible with the expected contaminants to
water, or allow contaminated ground water to migrate to minimize the potential for interaction between the casing
an uncontaminated aquifer. material and the sample. Steel casings may contribute
d. Well depth should be determined on a iron and other ions to the sample. Furthermore, the
sitespecific basis. Factors which influence well depth, as metallic oxides which form on a steel casing influence
well as the depth of the sampling (or intake) interval of concentrations of cautions and some organic molecules.
the well casing, include ground-water levels and the PVC pipe, unlike steel well casing, is resistant to most
behavior of specific contaminants in the aquifer. These chemicals, nonconductive, and chemically inert;
determinations are dependent on a detailed log of however, PVC is not recommended for sampling certain
borings and on the subsurface geologic conditions. e. reactive organic constituents such as ketones or
The principal components of the monitoring well are the aromatic compounds, which can better be accomplished
well casing and the perforated or screened sampling using stainless steel or teflon. However, the final
interval. A typical ground-water monitoring well is shown selection of well materials should be determined by a
on figure 8-1. Details on well design and sampling person knowledgeable about the probable chemical
methods appear in SW-611 and in the RCRA guidance reactions (e.g., a chemist or chemical engineer).
manual on ground-water monitoring. It must be stressed Needed joints in PVC casings should be fashioned using
that well design must always be based on a clear and threaded couplings instead of glue to avoid
detailed understanding of site hydrogeologic conditions. contamination.
(1) One of the considerations in design of (5) Locking caps and concrete pads
the well is selection of the proper well diameter, which should be installed on all monitoring wells. Pads should
depends on a number of factors, including state and be designed to divert drainage from the casing, thereby
federal requirements, drilling method and subsurface preventing precipitation or extraneous substances from
conditions, as well as the diameter of the sampler. entering the well.
Monitoring wells generally have casing diameters of f. Well drilling methods, filter packing, sealing
either 2 or 4 inches. The larger casing size permits and development are the components of concern in well
greater flexibility in sampling methods, since an inner construction, both to maintain the integrity of the
diameter of 4 inches is generally required to borehole and to prevent contamination of samples.
accommodate submersible pumps and other equipment (1) The drilling method selected should
used for evacuation and sampling. Two-inch casings avoid spreading any ground-water contamination and/or
may be necessary or favorable in some instances, interfering with the sample to be collected. Both dry and
however, since they can be installed by the dry hollow- wet drilling methods are commonly used to construct
stem continuous flight auger drilling method. Some drill monitoring wells. Conventional auger drilling is
rigs can install 4-inch casings but such rigs are not advantageous, since the potential for introducing
always readily available. extraneous fluids is less than with rotary drilling methods.
(2) Proper location of the intake, or Auger drilling is best suited to fine-grained,
sampling, interval of the monitoring well is extremely nonconsolidated materials; rotary (air or water) drilling is
important to ensure that it is in the path of likely required for wells in cemented or consolidated materials
contaminants and therefore likely to yield representative such as bedrock. The maximum casing diameter in
samples. Where aquifer zones are relatively thin (i.e., no wells drilled by the standard continuous flight auger
more
8-2
TM 5-814-7
method is 4 inches (2 inches if inserted into hollowstem creased hydraulic conductivity around the sampling
augers). However, larger non-continuous auger drilling interval and to prevent clogging. The filter pack consists
equipment can be used in primarily finegrained deposits of gravel or sand placed in the borehole around the
to install shallow wells with casing diameters up to 12 sampling interval of the well (see figure 8-2).
inches. Selection of the grain-size of a filter pack requires
(2) If well drilling methods are employed, sampling and sieve analysis of the aquifer materials.
drilling fluids should be chosen to minimize Proper installation of the filter pack is necessary to
contamination, and care should be taken to prevent entry prevent separation of the fine and coarse particles and
of drilling fluids into aquifer flow zones. Generally, all consequent bridging of the material, which could result in
additives or drilling fluids are disallowed at DA facilities formation of void spaces. Use of a tremie pipe is
except clean water and/or bentonite clay. When recommended for installation of the filter pack; however
subsurface or contaminant conditions warrant, a in shallow wells, slow pouring or shovelling may be
variance should be requested and justification submitted acceptable. For wells drilled in soil, the minimum boring
to the Major Command for consideration. diameter in the filter pack portion of the well should be at
(3) Filter packing is used to develop a least 4 inches larger than the inner diame
zone of in-
8-3
TM 5-814-7
8-4
TM 5-814-7
ter of the screened interval; in wells drilled in rock, well essary to detect seasonal changes or other fluctuations
diameters may be as little as 2 inches larger than the in the water table which could affect flow direction and
screened interval. the well’s ability to yield a representative sample.
(4) Regulations in 40 CFR 264:F require (2) Before a sample is withdrawn,
that the annular space between the well casing and the standing water should be purged from the well. This is
borehole be sealed to prevent contamination of the an important procedure, since such water can have
ground water and/or sample. Both cement grout and substantially different chemical characteristics from the
bentonite are effective agents that are commonly used ground water to be sampled, due to dissolution of gases;
for sealing monitoring wells. If portland cement is used, leaching or adsorption of casing, screen or grout
special care should be taken to minimize shrinkage, as materials; and/or biological activity within the well. It is
well as to prevent migration of the grout into adjacent generally recommended that wells be completely
formations. Alternatively, a grout mixture of portland evacuated before sampling. High-yield wells should, if
cement, sand, bentonite and water can be used. If possible, be pumped dry twice and allowed to recover
bentonite is used, a 3to 5-foot seal of bentonite pellets before sampling; one complete evacuation is sufficient
must be placed between the well casing and the for lowyield wells. If complete evacuation is not possible,
borehole. A base of sand may also be necessary around a volume of water equal to 4 to 10 times the amount of
and above the screen. Installation of sealing agents is standing water should be withdrawn. The exact volume
best accomplished with a tremie pipe; pouring and to be withdrawn will depend on site-specific conditions.
tamping may, however, be adequate for shallow wells of (3) A variety of sampling devices are
small diameter. available, including bailers, portable pumps, air-lift
(5) Well development is necessary to sampler and suction pumps. Care should be taken to
ensure the free flow of water into the sampling interval, choose equipment that will not contaminate the sample,
to purge drilling fluids and other contaminants, and to particularly when trace elements are to be analyzed. All
eliminate clay, silt and other fines which could contribute equipment should be thoroughly cleaned before
to water turbidity and interfere with chemical analysis. In introduction into a monitoring well. Once a sampling
developing the well, ground water within the casing is device has been chosen, the same equipment and
repeatedly forced in and out of the sampling interval by sampling procedure should be used in subsequent
flow reversal or surge. The well is then pumped or sampling, if values are to be compared.
bailed until a volume of clear water equal to that required (4) Accepted procedures for preserving
for operation of the sampling program is obtained. If the and protecting ground-water samples during shipping
well cannot be adequately developed, it should be and while awaiting laboratory analysis should be
replaced with a new well. followed. All samples should be firmly sealed, clearly
g. Federal regulations for both existing labelled and packed in compatible containers that will
facilities and new facilities require that a ground-water prevent breakage, spills and contamination. The
sampling and analysis plan be prepared which details sampling schedule and methods of analysis should be
procedures and techniques to be followed in collecting, according to the regulations in 40 CFR 264:F and the
preserving, shipping and analyzing samples. guidelines presented in the RCRA ground-water
(1) Water level measurements are monitoring guidance manual.
required each time a sample is collected. Such
measurements are nec-
8-5
TM 5-814-7
CHAPTER 9
9-1
TM 5-814-7
(2) Estimated date(s) of partial closure. EPA administrator or authorized state department.
(3) The maximum extent of the operation c. The 30-year post-closure period may be
that will remain open during the life of the facility. reduced if the owner or operator demonstrates that a
(4) Estimates of the maximum waste shorter I time period will be sufficient to protect human
inventory in storage and in treatment at any time during health and the environment. Conversely, the period may
the life of the facility. be extended if, for example, groundwater monitoring
(5) Procedures to decontaminate data indicate a potential for harmful migration of wastes.
equipment during closure. d. The actual contents of the post-closure plan
(6) Estimated year of final closure. will vary with each site to reflect the degree and type of
(7) Schedule to close facility allowing 90 maintenance dictated by the facility life, the closure
days after final volume of wastes is received for procedures, and the site’s design. For most units, the
treatment, removal or onsite disposal. Closure must be post-closure plan will include activities in two principal
completed within 180 days of receipt of last volume of categories: (1) ground-water monitoring, and (2)
wastes. maintenance activities. Components of these plans are
(8) Procedure for updating the closure summarized below.
plan. • Ground-Water Monitoring
— Include a copy of ground-water monitoring and
9-4. Post-closure plans analysis plan
a. Post-closure plans must be prepared for all — Indicate: (a) number, location and depth of wells
disposal facilities that will contain hazardous wastes after to be monitored during post closure, (b)
closure. Surface impoundments permitted for storage, frequency of monitoring, and (c) monitoring
i.e., those from which all wastes are to be removed at procedures and analyses
closure, must have not only a closure plan for waste • Maintenance Activities
removal, but also contingency closure and post-closure — Facility inspection schedule
plans to close the unit as a landfill, should complete — Care of cover and/or vegetation
waste removal not be possible. Likewise, if — Erosion control activities
decontamination of a waste pile cannot be completed at — Maintenance of ground-water monitoring
closure by removing the waste, waste residues, — Collection and disposal of leachate
contaminated subsoils, structures and equipment, landfill — Maintenance of gas control system
closure and post-closure requirements will apply. — Care of security systems
b. The post-closure plan for a hazardous — Response to unplanned events such as severe
waste disposal unit or facility describes the owner or storm erosion, drainage failure, drought or other
operator’s responsibilities for maintaining the occurrence that could threaten facility integrity
environmental protection and physical security of the site Within 90 days after closure is completed, a survey plat
for 30 years after closure. The deed of the property, or indicating the location and dimension of landfill cells or
other document that would be examined during a title other disposal areas, must be submitted to the EPA
search, must alert any potential purchaser that the land administrator and the local zoning authority or the
has been used to manage hazardous wastes. The deed authority with jurisdiction over local land use.
must notify the purchaser that post-closure use must not
disturb the protective features of the site such as the
liner, cap, or monitoring systems. Any variation from this
standard requires approval of the
9-2
TM 5-814-7
CHAPTER 10
COST ANALYSIS
10-1. Cost Elements lined can have a significant effect on unit costs.
a. Cost elements for hazardous waste facilities Polymeric membranes and natural soil materials are
are based on a number of variables, including: usually sold at a discount when purchased in large
• Regional hydrogeologic setting quantities.
• Condition of the existing facility (4) Site conditions. The soil types,
• Local construction costs topography and configuration of a site can influence liner
• Available water quality data installation costs. Preparation of the liner base is
Because of the number and complexity of the variables essential to liner effectiveness and integrity; the ease
governing costs, the analysis is limited to typical with which the base can be prepared will depend on site
hazardous waste land disposal/land treatment facilities, conditions. Whether soils for liners and earthwork must
namely lined units. be imported (at higher cost) will also depend on site
b. Cost elements for lined hazardous waste conditions.
units include materials costs for liners, underdrain (5) Economic factors. The cost of
systems, and ground-water monitoring wells; and synthetic liners depends, to a large extent, on the cost of
installation costs, including the costs of necessary the petroleum used in their manufacture. Market supply
equipment and labor. Since there will be considerable and demand will also influence the cost of liner materials.
variation between projects, however, a number of factors 10-2. Unit Costs
must be considered in estimating the capital cost of a a. Unit costs for various elements of a
lined hazardous waste unit. hazardous waste facility are presented in table 10-1.
(1) Type of liner material. Liner material b. The costs presented in table 10-1 are
costs can vary significantly, depending on the type of based upon standard building cost references, bid prices
liner installed, the required thickness of the liner and, in and telephone inquiries to material suppliers. Unit costs
the case of synthetic liners, whether they are reinforced have, in general, been expressed in ranges to account
or not. Liner type will also influence installation costs. for the variation likely to occur from site to site. In
For example, seaming methods for synthetic liners estimating the cost of a specific hazardous waste unit,
(solvent, heat or contact adhesive) may differ depending the designer should consider the preliminary design
on the liner material selected; preparation of the liner criteria as well as any site-specific factors which would
base is also different for soil liners than for synthetic influence the cost of materials or installation.
membranes. Contingency and wastage factors should be added to the
(2) Location of the facility. The location of cost of installation, to account for adverse weather, seam
the hazardous waste unit can affect both the cost of overlap requirements, and other such considerations;
labor and the delivery cost for materials. Materials costs soil shrinkage and compaction should also be factored
can also be affected by the facility location, depending on into the cost analysis.
the availability of needed soils and aggregates.
(3) Facility size. The size of the waste unit
to be
Table 10-1.
SUMMARY OF UNIT COSTS FOR LINED FACILITY
10-1
TM 5-814-7
Table 10-1-Continued
SUMMAR Y OF UNIT COSTS FOR LNED FACILITY
10-2
TM 5-814-7
APPENDIX A
REFERENCES
Government Publications
Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service Office of Solid Waste, 1983. RCRA Guidance Document
(SCS). for Land Treatment (Draft).
National Technical Information Service, U.S. Depart- 625/1-81-013, 1981. Process Design Manual-Land
ment of Commerce, Springfield, Virginia 22161 Treatment of Municipal Wastewater.
Engineering Field Manual for Conservation Practices General Services Administration.
Department of the Army. Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing
AR 200-1 Environmental Protection and Office, Washington, D.C. 20402
Enhancement Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40, Part 146
AR 200-2 Environmental Effects of Army Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40, Part 260
Actions Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40, Part 261
TM 5-809-10 Seismic Design Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40, Part 262
TM 5-818-1 Foundation Design of Buildings Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40, Part 264
TM 5-820-1 Surface Drainage Facilities for Air Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40, Part 265
Fields and Heliports Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40, Part 270
TM 5-820-2 Subsurface Drainage Facilities for Air Naval Facilities Engineering Command (NA VFAC).
Fields Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing
TM 5-820-3 Drainage and Erosion Control for Air Office, Washington D.C. 20402
Fields and Heliports DM 7.1 Soil Mechanics
TM 5-820-4 Drainage for Areas Other Than Air U.S. Congress.
Fields Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing
Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation. Office, Washington D.C. 20402
Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Clean Air Act, PL 95-396, 42 USC 7401 et seq.
Office, Washington D.C. 20402 Clean Water Act, PL 95-217, 33 USC 1251 et seq.
Design of Small Dams, 1973. Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act, PL
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 94-140, 7 USC 136 et seq.
National Technical Information Service, U.S. Marine Protection Research and Sanctuaries Act of
Department of Commerce, Springfield, Virginia 1972, PL 92-532, 33 USC 1401 et seq.
22161. National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), PL 91-190,
600/2-79-128, August 1979. Adapting Woody Species 42 USC 4321 et seq.
and Planting Techniques for Landfill Conditions. Occupational Safety and Health Act, PL 91-596, 29 CFR
600/2-79-165, August 1979. Design and Construction of 1910 et seq.
Covers for Solid Waste Landfills. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), PL
SW-611, 1980. Procedures Manual for Ground-Water 94-580, 42 USC 6901 et seq.
Monitoring of Solid Waste Disposal Facilities. Safe Drinking Water Act, PL 93-523, 42 USC 300f et
SW-846, 1982. Test Methods for Evaluating Solid seq.
Waste. Toxic Substances Control Act, PL 94-469, 15 USC 2601,
SW-867, Lutton, R. J., 1982. Evaluating Cover Systems et seq.
for Solid and Hazardous Waste. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment,
SW-870, Matrecon, Inc., 1983. Lining of Waste March 1983. Technologies and Management
Impoundment and Disposal Facilities. Strategies for Hazardous Waste Control.
SW-873, Acurex Corporation and Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., Nongovernment Publications
1982. Closure of Hazardous Waste Surface American Society for Testing and Materials, 1916 Race
Impoundments. Street, Philadelphia, PA 19103
SW-874, K. W. Brown & Associates, 1983. Hazardous ASTM Method Test for Moisture-Density Rela
Waste Land Treatment. D1557-78 tions of Soils and Soil-Aggregate
SW-963, 1980. Ground-Water Monitoring Guidance for Mixtures Using 10-lb (4.54-kg) Rammer
Owners and Operators of Interim Status Facilities. and 18-in (457-mm) Drop
A-1
TM 5-814-7
APPENDIX B
B-I. Purpose and scope B-2. Tables
The tables presented in this appendix are intended to Table B-1 Summary of RCRA Hazardous Waste
illustrate the regulatory requirements applicable to the Regulations Applicable to TM 5-814-7.
design of land disposal/land treatment facilities Table B-2. Review of State Hazardous Waste
Management Programs.
Table B-I. Summary of RCRA Hazardous Waste
Regulations Applicable to TM 5-814- 7’
Regulation Title Applicable Elements of the Regulation
40 CFR 260 Hazardous Waste Management • Definitions
System: General • Petitions for equivalent testing
• Petitions to exclude a waste generated at a particular facility
40 CFR 261 Identification and Listing • Defines hazardous waste and those wastes which are excluded under the broad
of Hazardous Waste definition
• Recycled or recovered waste exclusion
• General hazardous waste characteristics
• Lists of hazardous waste
40 CFR 262 Standards Applicable to • Hazardous waste determination
Generators of Hazardous Waste • Recordkeeping and reporting requirements
• Procedures for notification of hazardous waste activity
40 CFR 264
Subpart A Standards for Owners/Opera- • Scope and applicability of the standards
tors of Hazardous Waste • Enforcement in cases of 'mminent Hazard"
Treatment, Storage and • Relationship of these standards to the permitting process
Disposal Units
Subpart B General Facility Standards • Waste analysis requirements
• Security
• Inspections
• Personnel training
• Requirements for ignitible, reactive or incompatible waste
Subpart C Preparedness and Prevention • General design and operation criteria to prevent unplanned sudden or non-
sudden releases of hazardous wastes
Subpart D Contingency Plan and • Contents of the contingency plan
Emergency Procedures • Emergency procedures for responding to fires, explosions or material release
• Definition of personnel responsibilities
Subpart E Manifest System, Record- • Use of manifest system
keeping and Reporting • Reporting requirements
Subpart F Ground-Water Protection • Procedures to identify escape of contaminants from facilities
• General ground-water monitoring requirements
• Protection standards and allowable concentration limits for permit obtainment
• Detection monitoring program
• Compliance monitoring program
• Corrective action program
Subpart G Closure and Post Closure • Establishes closure performance standards
• Post-closure care and property use
Subpart K Surface Impoundments • Prevention of overtopping
• Liner design and materials (DA impoundments are required to have double liners
and leak detection or secondary leachate collection systems for non-inspectable
installations)
• Ground-water monitoring requirements
• Run-on/run-off controls
• Cap requirements
• Closure requirements
Subpart L Waste Piles • Liner design and materials (DA waste piles are required to have double liners and
leak detection or secondary leachate collection systems for non-inspectable
installations)
• Leachate collection and removal systems
• Ground-water monitoring requirements
• Monitoring exemptions
* The regulations summarized in this table represent technical and performance standards for hazardous waste units; omitted
from the table is 40 CFR 270, which presents the procedural requirements and criteria for the part B permit process.
B-1
TM 5-814-7
Table B-I. Summary of RCRA Hazardous Waste
Regulations Applicable to TM5-814- 7 (Continued)
Regulation Title Applicable Elements of the Regulation
• Run-on/run-off controls
• Special waste controls
• Closure/post-closure care
Subpart M Land Treatment • Treatment program performance standards based on treatment zone and waste
constituents
• Site selection criteria
• Soil preparation and care
• Run-on/run-off controls and treatment
• Wind dispersal controls
• Vegetation
• Unsaturated zone monitoring requirements
-soil-pore liquid tests
-chemical make up of soil
• Closure/postclosure care
Subpart N Landfills • Design and operating requirements: liners, leachate collection systems,
exemption demonstration, run-on or run-off control systems, wind dispersal
control
• DA landfills are required to have double liners and leak detection or secondary
leachate collection systems
• Exemption from Subpart F for double-lined units
• Monitoring program
-detection
-compliance
-correction
• Inspections
• Special requirements for liquid wastes
• Special requirements for containerized waste
• Closure/post-closure requirements
US Army Corps of Engineers.
Table B-2. Review of State Hazardous Waste Management Programs
Specific Siting Burial Policies Discourage
1 2
State Universe of Waste Procedures Restriction Landfilling
Alabama RCRA X
Alaska RCRA
Arizona Equivalent + expanded criteria X X
Arkansas RCRA + PCB's
California RCRA + expanded criteria X X
Colorado Equivalent X
Connecticut RCRA by statute X X
Delaware RCRA
Florida RCRA by reference X X
Georgia RCRA by reference X X
Hawaii RCRA
Idaho RCRA
Illinois RCRA + special wastes X X X
Indiana RCRA X X
Iowa RCRA by reference X X
Kansas RCRA X X
Kentucky RCRA by reference X X
Louisiana RCRA + expanded waste list
Maine RCRA X X
Maryland RCRA + PCB's X X X
Massachusetts RCRA + PCB's, oil, radioactive wastes X X
Michigan RCRA + oil, other toxic wastes X X
Minnesota RCRA + oil X X
Mississippi Equivalent X
Missouri RCRA X X
Montana RCRA
Nebraska RCRA by reference X
B-2
TM 5-814-7
Table B-2. Review of State Hazardous Waste Management Programs (Continued)
NOTES:
1. Universe of Waste: refers to the list of regulated wastes in that state.
RCRA-State program is nearly identical to Federal regulations.
Equivalent-State program is equivalent, but not identical to Federal regulations.
RCRA by reference-State program adopted Federal regulations by reference.
2. Specific Siting Procedures: refers to measure taken by the individual states to ensure new facilities are sited in a
manner and location that is acceptable (or tolerable) to local citizenry.
Adapted from Technologies and Management Strategies for Hazardous Waste Control, Office of Technology
Assessment, Congress of the US, 1983.
B-3
TM 5-814-7
APPENDIX C
C-3
TM 5-814-7
C-4
TM 5-814-7
(c) Based upon these calculations, the 70 for grasslands and a steep slope, S > 8 percent.)
design engineer will develop liner panel installation plans (b) A sedimentation basin will be
with leak detection and leachate collection networks for established for the landfill construction area; in addition,
the surface impoundment. Design elements will include: sediment control facilities will be utilized at all temporary
• A base grade configuration which slopes at construction sites.
0.5 percent across the 100-foot width of the (c) For the active waste area of the
pond, with a crest-to-trough distance of 50 landfill, temporary containment berms can be used to
feet along the pond's 180-foot length to retain run off for treatment when limited run off volumes
accommodate the leak detection pipe are involved. By limiting the active waste lift and
network. containment area for the proposed landfill to an area
• Two-inch slotted detection pipes in trenches about 200 feet long and 100 feet wide, the run off from
over the troughs, with risers up the side the 100-year storm is 72, 000 gallons. This is based on
slopes within the drainage layer. 100 percent run off from a 5.8-inch intensity rainstorm
• A 36-mil reinforced primary synthetic liner. over the active area.
• A 1-foot sand/riprap protective cover. (d) Due to limited evaporation, the run off
(d) Based upon the calculations outlined from active areas should be discharged to the surface
above, liner, leak detection and leachate collection impoundment for subsequent treatment. If no additional
design elements for the landfill include: rainfall run-off control measures are selected (i.e., tarps,
• A base grade configuration which slopes at restricted operations during rainfall periods), the annual
0.5 percent across the 400-foot width of rainfall of 39 inches would produce about 500,000
landfill, with crest-to-trough distances of 50 gallons of liquid.
feet along the landfill's length to (10) Ground-water monitoring wells will be
accommodate the leak detection pipe installed in accordance with federal regulations, one
network. hydraulically upgradient of the facility (to provide
• A trough along the lower side of the landfill background water quality data) and three downgradient
to accommodate a collection drainpipe to to detect contaminant discharge. Well design and
connect leachate laterals to a sump area. sampling procedures will reflect details presented in
• Two-inch slotted detection pipe, as paragraph 8-3.
described above for the surface (11) Special design elements needed for this
impoundment. facility are impoundment dikes and overtopping controls
• A 36-mil reinforced primary synthetic liner. (part of the plant equipment), with a 2-foot freeboard.
• Four-inch slotted leachate collection pipes Addressed under liner details are requirements for
surrounded with rounded drain rock, within developing adequate anchor pads for the "over-the-line"
the 1-foot thick drainage layer. inlet/outlet pipes and appurtenant structures for flow
(8) Gas control measures for the facility will be control. The only penetrations allowed will be liner
limited to a few pipe vents for the surface impoundment. "boots" clamped to penetrations for the leak detection
The absence of organic materials below or within the and leachate collection pipe risers, and gas vents within
landfill and surface impoundments minimizes the the berm crest of the levee of the surface impoundment
likelihood of air pressure developing below proposed (see EPA SW-870, figure IV-22, page 371). No wind
liners. Nevertheless, since even a small amount of gas dispersal provisions will be needed since the ash is
pressure can lift synthetic liners in impoundments, containerized.
atmospheric pipe vents should be considered at selected (12) As segments of the fill are brought to final
perimeter locations of the surface impoundment. grade, final cover for the proposed landfill will be placed
(9) Surface water control features for the to minimize infiltration of precipitation. As stated in EPA
proposed surface impoundment and landfill will be SW-870, table V-5, page 267, water balance calculations
similar to those illustrated in figure 5-1. They will include result in a 2.6-inch maximum monthly infiltration for a 2-
ditches and drainage pipes normally used to prevent flow foot clay cover. Final cover slopes (selected based on
into active portions of waste units. Upon closure, the LS factors) will be a minimum 3 percent and 5:1 or less;
run-on control ditches of the landfill carry run off from assuming proper placement procedures, settlement is
closed final cover areas as well. not expected to pose a design constraint. The final
(a) Run-on control ditches, V ditches and cover system will consist of a 20-mil PVC liner placed
the typical trapezoidal ditch shown in figure 6-7, can be over a 2-foot soil liner (permeability of 1 x 10-7 cm/sec),
constructed with adequate slopes to carry run-off a drainage layer of sand, and topsoil to facilitate
volumes. For example, with contributory areas of less vegetative growth. General details for the final cover are
than 5 acres, a peak discharge of less than 20 cfs results illustrated in figures 6-7 and 6-10.
from the 100-year design storm. (SCS run-off method,
with a type C soil classification, a CN value of
C-5
TM 5-814-7
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Braunstein, J., 1973. Underground Waste Management 6800 Jericho Turnpike, Syosset, New York 11791.
and Artificial Recharge, Vol. 2, American Geraghty and Miller, Inc. and Booz, Allen and Hamilton,
Association of Petroleum Geologists. Inc., 1982. Injection Well Construction Practices and
Brown, K. W., June 1983. Landfills in the Future. Public Technology. Geraghty and Miller, Inc., North Shore
Works, 200 South Boward Street, Ridgewood, New Atrium, 6800 Jericho Turnpike, Syosset, New York
Jersey 07451. 11791.
Cedergren, Harry R., 1977. Seepage, Drainage and Kays, W. B., 1977. Construction of Linings for
Flow Nets, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., One Wiley Reservoirs, Tanks, and Pollution Control Facilities.
Drive, Somerset, New Jersey 08873. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., One Wiley Drive,
Cheremisinoff, N. P., P. N. Cheremisinoff, F. Somerset, New Jersey 08873.
Ellerbusch, A. J. Perna, 1979. Industrial and National Water Well Association, 1982. Aquifer
Hazardous Wastes Impoundment. Ann Arbor Restoration and Ground-Water Rehabilitation,
Science. Proceedings of the Second National Symposium on
Collins, T. G. and Newkirk, D. D., 1982. The Use of Aquifer Restoration and Ground-Water Monitoring.
Geotextile Fabrics in Pond Construction Beneath an National Water Well Association, 500 W. Wilson
Impermeable Membrane. Crown Zellerbach Bridge Road, Worthington, Ohio 43085.
Corporation, Northeast 4th and Adams Street, Overcash, M. R. and D. Pal, 1981. Design of Land
Camas, Washington 98607. Treatment Systems for Industrial Wastes-Theory and
Cook, T. D., ed., 1972. Underground Waste Practice. Ann Arbor Science, 230 Collingwood, P.O.
Management and Environment Implications. Box 1425, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105.
American Association of Petroleum Geologists. Parr, J. F., Marsh, P. B., and J. M. Kla, 1983. Land
EMCON Associates, 1980. Methane Generation and Treatment of Hazardous Wastes. Noyes Data
Recovery from Landfills. Ann Arbor Science, 10 Corporation, Mill Road at Grand Avenue, Park
Tower Office Park, Woburn, Massachusetts 01801. Ridge, New Jersey 07656.
Engineering Science, May 1982. Comparative Rankilor, P. R., 1981. Membranes in Ground
Evaluation of Incinerators and Landfills. Engineering Engineering. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., One Wiley
Science, Inc., 150 N. Santa Anita Avenue, Arcadia, Drive, Somerset, New Jersey 08873.
California 91006. Sittig, M., 1979. Landfill Disposal of Hazardous Wastes
Freeze, R. A. and J. A. Cherry, 1979. Groundwater. and Sludges. Noyes Data Corporation.
Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey Yrjanainen, G., July 1975. "Sediment Basin Design,"
07632. Water and Sewage Works, University Micro Films
Geraghty and Miller, Inc., 1982. Guidance Document on International, 300 N. Zeeb Road, Department PR,
Mechanical Integrity Testing of Injection Wells. Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106.
Geraghty and Miller, Inc., North Shore Atrium,
Bibliography -1
TM 5-814-7
The proponent agency of this publication is the Office of the Chief of Engineers, United States Army.
Users are invited to send comments and suggested improvements on DA Form 2028 (Recommended
Changes to Publications and Blank Forms) direct to HQDA DAEN-ECE-G), WASH DC 20314.
E. C. MEYER
General, United States Army
Official: Chief of Staff
ROBERT M. JOYCE
Major General, United States Army
The Adjutant General
Distribution:
To be distributed in accordance with DA Form 12-34B, TM 5-800 Series: Requirements, for ENGINEERING AND
DESIGN FOR REAL PROPERTY FACILITIES.