Orthogonal

Curvilinear  

Coordinates 28.3 

Introduction
The derivatives div, grad and curl from Section 29.2 can be carried out using coordinate systems
other than the rectangular cartesian coordinates. This Section shows how to calculate these
derivatives in other coordinate systems. Two coordinate systems - cylindrical polar coordinates
and spherical polar coordinates - will be illustrated.

 
① be able to find the gradient, divergence and
Prerequisites curl of a field in cartesian coordinates.
Before starting this Section you should . . . ② be familiar with polar coordinates
 

✓ be able to find the divergence, gradient or

Learning Outcomes curl of a vector or scalar field expressed
After completing this Section you should be in terms of orthogonal curvilinear coordi-
able to . . . nates.
1. Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates
The results shown in Section 29.2 have been given in terms of the familiar cartesian (x, y, z)
coordinate system. However, other coordinate systems can be used to better describe some
physical situations. A set of coordinates u = u(x, y, z), v = v(x, y, z) and w = w(x, y, z) where
the directions at any point indicated by u, v and w are orthogonal (perpendicular) to each other
is referred to as a set of orthogonal curvilinear coordinates.

  With each coordinate is associated
∂x 2
 ∂y 2  ∂z 2
a scale factor hu , hv or hw respectively where hu = ∂u
+ ∂u + ∂u (with similar ex-
pressions for hv and hw ). The scale factor gives a measure of how a change in the coordinate
changes the position of a point.

Two commonly-used sets of orthogonal curvilinear coordinates are cylindrical polar coordinates
and spherical polar coordinates. These are similar to the plane polar coordinates introduced in
Section 17.2 but represent extensions to three dimensions.

Cylindrical Polar Coordinates

This corresponds to plane polar (ρ, φ) coordinates with an added z−coordinate directed out of
the xy plane. Normally the variables ρ and φ are used instead of r and θ to give the three
coordinates ρ, φ and z. A cylinder has equation ρ = constant.
The relationship between the coordinate systems is given by
x = ρ cos φ y = ρ sin φ z=z
(i.e. the same z is used by the two coordinate systems). See Figure 1.

(x, y, z)

y
φ ρ

x,

Figure 1
The scale factors hρ , hφ and hz are given as follows
    2  2
∂x
2
∂y ∂z 
hρ = + + = (cos φ)2 + (sin φ)2 + 0 = 1
∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ
   2  2
∂x
2
∂y ∂z 
hφ = + + = (−ρ sin φ)2 + (ρ cos φ)2 + 0 = ρ
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ

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28.3: Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates
  2  2  2
∂x ∂y ∂z 
hz = + + = (02 + 02 + 12 ) = 1
∂z ∂z ∂z

Spherical Polar Coordinates

In this system a point is referred to by its distance from the origin r and two angles φ and θ.
The angle θ is the angle between the positive z-axis and the line from the origin to the point.
The angle φ is the angle from the x-axis to the projection of the point in the xy plane. A useful
analogy is of latitude, longitude and height on Earth. The variable r plays the role of height
(but height measured above the centre of Earth rather than from the surface). The variable θ
π
plays the role of latitude but is modified so that θ = 0 represents the North Pole, θ = 90◦ =
2
represents the equator and θ = 180◦ = π represents the South Pole. The variable φ plays the
role of longitude. A sphere has equation r = constant.
The relationship between the coordinate systems is given by
x = r sin θ cos φ y = r sin θ sin φ z = r cos θ. See Figure 2.

(x, y, z)

θ r

y
φ

x,

Figure 2
The scale factors hr , hθ and hφ are given by
    2  2
∂x
2
∂y ∂z 
hr = + + = (sin θ cos φ)2 + (sin θ sin φ)2 + (cos θ)2 = 1
∂r ∂r ∂r
   2   2
∂x
2
∂y ∂z 
hθ = + + = (r cos θ cos φ)2 + (r cos θ sin φ)2 + (−r sin θ)2 = r
∂θ ∂θ ∂θ
   2   2
∂x
2
∂y ∂z 
hφ = + + = (−r sin θ sin φ)2 + (r sin θ sin φ)2 + 0 = r sin θ
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ

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28.3: Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates
2. Vector Derivatives in Orthogonal Coordinates
Given an orthogonal coordinate system u, v, w with unit vectors û, v̂ and ŵ and scale factors,
hu , hv and hw , it is possible to find the derivatives ∇f , ∇ · F and ∇ × F .
It is found that
1 ∂f 1 ∂f 1 ∂f
grad f = ∇f = û + v̂ + ŵ
hu ∂u hv ∂v hw ∂w
If F = Fu û + Fv v̂ + Fw ŵ
then

1 ∂ ∂ ∂
div F = ∇ · F = (Fu hv hw ) + (Fv hu hw ) + (Fw hu hv )
hu hv hw ∂u ∂v ∂w
Also if F = Fu û + Fv v̂ + Fw ŵ then

hu û hv v̂ hw ŵ

1
∂ ∂ ∂

curl F = ∇ × F =

hu hv hw
∂u ∂v ∂w

h F h F h F

u u v v w w

Key Point
In orthogonal curvilinear coordinates, the vector derivatives ∇f , ∇·F and ∇×F are influenced
by the scale factors hu , hv and hw .

3. Cylindrical Polar Coordinates

In cylindrical polar coordinates (ρ, φ, z), the 3 unit vectors are ρ̂, φ̂ and ẑ with scale factors
hρ = 1, hφ = ρ, hz = 1.
The quantities ρ and φ are related to x and y by x = ρ cos φ and y = ρ sin φ. The unit
vectors are ρ̂ = cos φi + sin φj and φ̂ = − sin φi + cos φj. In cylindrical polar coordinates, grad
∂f 1 ∂f ∂f
f = ∇f = ρ̂ + φ̂ + ẑ
∂ρ ρ ∂φ ∂z
The scale factor ρ is necessary in the φ-component because the derivatives with respect to φ are
distorted by the distance from the axis ρ = 0.

If F = Fρ ρ̂ + Fφ φ̂ + Fz ẑ then

1 ∂ ∂ ∂
div F = ∇ · F = (ρFρ ) + (Fφ ) + (ρFz )
ρ ∂ρ ∂φ ∂z

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28.3: Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates


ρ̂ ρφ̂ ẑ

∂ ∂ ∂

curl F = ∇ × F =
.
ρ
∂ρ ∂φ ∂z

Fρ ρFφ Fz

Example In cylindrical polar coordinates, find ∇f for

(a) f = ρ2 + z 2
(b) f = ρ3 sin φ
(c) Show that the result for (b) is consistent with that found working
in cartesian coordinates.

Solution

∂f ∂f ∂f
(a) If f = ρ2 + z 2 then = 2ρ, = 0 and = 2z so ∇f = 2ρρ̂ + 2z ẑ.
∂ρ ∂φ ∂z
∂f ∂f ∂f
(b) If f = ρ3 sin φ then = 3ρ2 sin φ, = ρ3 cos φ and = 0 and hence,
∂ρ ∂φ ∂z
∇f = 3ρ2 sin φρ̂ + ρ2 cos φφ̂.
(c) f = ρ3 sin φ = ρ2 ρ sin φ = (x2 + y 2 )y = x2 y + y 3 so ∇f = 2xyi + (x2 + 3y 2 )j.
Using cylindrical polar coordinates, from (b) we have

∇f = 3ρ2 sin φρ̂ + ρ3 cos φφ̂

= 3ρ2 sin φ(cos φi + sin φj) + ρ2 cos φ(− sin φi + cos φj)
   
= 3ρ2 sin φ cos φ − ρ2 sin φ cos φ i + 3ρ2 sin2 φ + ρ2 cos2 φ j
   
= 2ρ2 sin φ cos φ i + 3ρ2 sin2 φ + ρ2 cos2 φ j
= 2xyi + (3y 2 + x2 )j

So the results using cartesian and cylindrical polar coordinates are consistent.

Example Find ∇ · F for F = Fρ ρ̂ + Fφ φ̂ + Fz ẑ = ρ3 ρ̂ + ρz φ̂ + ρz sin φẑ. Show that the

results are consistent with those found using cartesian coordinates.

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28.3: Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates
 Solution
Here, Fρ = ρ3 , Fφ = ρz and Fz = ρz sin φ so

1 ∂ ∂ ∂
∇·F = (ρFρ ) + (Fφ ) + (ρFz )
ρ ∂ρ ∂φ ∂z

1 ∂ 4 ∂ ∂ 2
= (ρ ) + (ρz) + (ρ z sin φ)
ρ ∂ρ ∂φ ∂z
1  
= 4ρ3 + 0 + ρ2 sin φ
ρ
= 4ρ2 + ρ sin φ

Converting to cartesian coordinates,

F = Fρ ρ̂ + Fφ φ̂ + Fz ẑ = ρ3 ρ̂ + ρz φ̂ + ρz sin φẑ
= ρ3 (cos φi + sin φj) + ρz(− sin φi + cos φj) + ρz sin φk
= (ρ3 cos φ − ρz sin φ)i + (ρ3 sin φ + ρz cos φ) + ρzk
   
= ρ2 (ρ cos φ) − ρ sin φz i + ρ2 (ρ sin φ) + ρ cos φz j + ρ sin φzk
   
= (x2 + y 2 )x − yz i + (x2 + y 2 )y + xz j + yzk
= (x3 + xy 2 − yz)i + (x2 y + y 3 + xz)j + yzk

So
∂ 3 ∂ 2 ∂
∇·F = (x + xy 2 − yz) + (x y + y 3 + xz) + (yz)
∂x ∂y ∂z
2 2 2 2 2 2
= (3x + y ) + (x + 3y ) + y = 4x + 4y + y
= 4(x2 + y 2 ) + y
= 4ρ2 + ρ sin φ

So ∇ · F is the same in both coordinate systems

Example Find ∇ × F for F = ρ2 ρ̂ + z sin φφ̂ + 2z cos φẑ

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28.3: Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates
 Solution

ρ̂ ρφ̂ ẑ

ρ̂ ρ φ̂ ẑ

1
∂ ∂

∂
1
∂
∂ ∂

∇×F = =

∂ρ ∂φ ∂z

∂ρ ∂φ ∂z

Fρ ρFφ Fz

ρ ρz sin φ 2z cos φ

   
1 ∂ ∂ ∂ 2 ∂ ∂ ∂ 2
= ρ̂ 2z cos φ − ρz sin φ +ρφ̂ ρ − 2z cos φ + ẑ ρz sin φ − ρ
ρ ∂φ ∂z ∂z ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂φ
1 
= ρ̂(−2z sin φ − ρ sin φ) + ρφ̂(0) + ẑ(z sin φ)
ρ
(2z sin φ) z sin φ
= − ρ̂ + ẑ
ρ ρ

Example A magnetic field B is given by B = ρ−2 φ̂ + kz. Find ∇ · B and ∇ × B.

Solution

1 ∂ ∂ −2 ∂ 1
∇·B = 0+ ρ + kρ = [0 + 0 + 0] = 0
ρ ∂ρ ∂φ ∂z ρ

ρ̂ ρφ̂ ẑ

ρ̂ ρφ̂ ẑ

1
∂ ∂

∂
1
∂
∂ ∂

∇×B =
=
ρ
∂ρ ∂φ ∂z

∂ρ ∂φ ∂z

−2

Bρ Bφ Bz

ρ 0 k

=0
All magnetic fields satisfy ∇ · B = 0 i.e. an absence of magnetic monopoles. There is a class of
magnetic fields known as potential fields that satisfy ∇ × B = O

(a) Using cylindrical polar coordinates, find ∇f for f = r2 z sin θ

(b) Using cylindrical polar coordinates, find ∇f for f = z sin 2θ

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28.3: Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates
 Your solution
(a)

2ρz sin θρ̂ + ρz cos θφ̂ + ρ2 sin θẑ

Your solution
(b)

ρ
cos 2θφ̂ + sin 2θẑ 2
z

Find ∇ · F for F = ρ cos φρ̂ − ρ sin φρ̂ + ρz ẑ

∂ ∂ ∂
(a) Find the derivatives [ρFρ ], [Fφ ], [ρFz ]
∂ρ ∂φ ∂z
(b) Combine these to find ∇ · F

Your solution

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28.3: Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates
 = ρ cos φ + ρ2
ρ
= 2ρ cos φ − ρ cos φ + ρ2
1 
ρ ∂ρ ∂φ ∂z
= (ρ2 cos φ) + (−ρ sin φ) + (ρ2 z)
1 ∂ ∂ ∂

ρ ∂ρ ∂φ ∂z
∇·F = ρ
(ρF ) + φ
(F ) + (ρF ) z
1 ∂ ∂ ∂

(b)
ρ2 −ρ cos φ, (a) 2ρ cos φ,

Find ∇ × F for F = Fρ ρ̂ + Fφ φ̂ + Fz ẑ = ρ3 ρ̂ + ρz φ̂ + ρz sin φẑ. Show that the

results are consistent with those found using cartesian coordinates.

(a) Find the curl ∇ × F

(b) Find F in cartesian coordinates.
(c) Hence find ∇ × F in cartesian coordinates.
(d) Using r̂ = cos φi + sin φj and θ̂ = − sin φi + cos φj show that the
solution to part (a) is equal to the solution for part (c).

Your solution

(c) (z − x)i − yj + 2zk

(b) (x3 + xy 2 − yz)i + (x2 y + y 3 + xz) + yzk
(a) (z cos φ − ρ)ρ̂ − 2 sin φφ̂ + 2z ẑ

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28.3: Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates
 (a) For F = ρρ̂ + (ρ sin θ + z)φ̂ + ρz ẑ, find ∇ · F and ∇ × F .
(b) For f = r2 z 2 cos2φ, find ∇ × (∇f ).

Your solution
(a)

1 + cos θ + ρ,−ρ̂ − z cos θφ̂ + (2ρ sin φ + z)ẑ

Your solution
(b)

4. Spherical Polar Coordinates

In spherical polar coordinates (r, θ, φ), the 3 unit vectors are r̂, θ̂ and φ̂ with scale factors hr = 1,
hθ = r, hφ = r sin θ. The quantities r, θ and φ are related to x, y and z by x = r sin θ cos φ,
y = r sin θ sin φ and z = r cos θ. In spherical polar coordinates,
∂f 1 ∂f 1 ∂f
grad f = ∇f = r̂ + θ̂ + 2 φ̂
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ

If F = Fr r̂ + Fθ θ̂ + Fφ φ̂
then

1 ∂ 2 ∂ ∂
div F = ∇ · F = 2 (r sin θFr ) + (r sin θFθ ) + (rFφ )
r sin θ ∂r ∂θ ∂φ

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28.3: Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates


r̂ rθ̂ r2 sin θφ̂

∂ ∂ ∂

curl F = ∇ × F = 2
r sin θ

∂r ∂θ ∂φ

Fr rFθ r sin θFφ

Example In spherical polar coordinates, find ∇f for

(a) f = r
1
(b) f =
r
(c) f = r2 sin(φ + θ)

Solution

(a)

∂f 1 ∂f 1 ∂f
∇f = r̂ + θ̂ + 2 φ̂
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
∂(r) 1 ∂(r) 1 ∂(r)
= r̂ + θ̂ + 2 φ̂
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
= 1r̂ = r̂

(b)

∂f 1 ∂f 1 ∂f
∇f = r̂ + θ̂ + 2 φ̂
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
∂( 1r ) 1 ∂( 1r ) 1 ∂( 1r )
= r̂ + θ̂ + 2 φ̂
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
1
= − 2 r̂
r

(c)

∂f 1 ∂f 1 ∂f
∇f = r̂ + θ̂ + 2 φ̂
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
∂(r2 sin(φ + θ) 1 ∂(r2 sin(φ + θ) 1 ∂(r2 sin(φ + θ)
= r̂ + θ̂ + 2 φ̂
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
1 1
= 2r sin(φ + θ)r̂ + r2 cos(φ + θ)θ̂ + 2 r2 cos(φ + θ)φ̂
r r sin θ
cos(φ + θ)
= 2r sin(φ + θ)r̂ + r cos(φ + θ)θ̂ + φ̂
sin θ

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28.3: Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates
Example Using spherical polar coordinates, find ∇ · F for the following vector functions.
(a) F = rr̂ (b) F = r2 sin θr̂ (c) F = r sin θ r̂ +r2 sin φ θ̂ +r cos θ φ̂

Solution

(a)

1 ∂ 2 ∂ ∂
∇·F = 2 (r sin θFr ) + (r sin θFθ ) + (rFφ )
r sin θ ∂r ∂θ ∂φ

1 ∂ 2 ∂ ∂
= 2 (r sin θ × r) + (r sin θ × 0) + (r × 0)
r sin θ ∂r ∂θ ∂φ

1 ∂ 3 ∂ ∂ 1  2 
= 2 (r sin θ) + (0) + (0) = 2 3r sin θ + 0 + 0 = 3
r sin θ ∂r ∂θ ∂φ r sin θ

Note :- in cartesian coordinates, the corresponding vector is F = xi + yj + zk with

∇ · F = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3 (hence consistency).
(b)

1 ∂ 2 ∂ ∂
∇·F = (r sin θ Fr ) + (r sin θ Fθ ) + (rFφ )
r2 sin θ ∂r ∂θ ∂φ

1 ∂ 2 ∂ ∂
= (r sin θ r sin θ) + (r sin θ × 0) +
2
(r × 0)
r2 sin θ ∂r ∂θ ∂φ

1 ∂ 4 2 ∂ ∂
= (r sin θ) + (0) + (0)
r2 sin θ ∂r ∂θ ∂φ
1  3 2 
= 4r sin θ + 0 + 0 = 4r sin θ
r2 sin θ

(c)

1 ∂ 2 ∂ ∂
∇·F = (r sin θ Fr ) + (r sin θ Fθ ) + (rFφ )
r2 sin θ ∂r ∂θ ∂φ

1 ∂ 2 ∂ ∂
= (r sin θ r sin θ) + (r sin θ × r sin φ) +
2
(r × r cos θ)
r2 sin θ ∂r ∂θ ∂φ

1 ∂ 3 2 ∂ 3 ∂ 2
= (r sin θ) + (r sin θ sin φ) + (r cos φ)
r2 sin θ ∂r ∂θ ∂φ
1  2 2 
= 2
3r sin θ + r3 cos θ sin φ + 0 = 3 sin θ + r cot θ sin φ
r sin θ

Example Find ∇ × F for the following vector fields F .

(a) F = rk r̂, where k is a constant
(b) F = r2 cos θ r̂ + sin θ θ̂ + sin2 θ φ̂

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28.3: Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates
 Solution
(a)

r̂ r θ̂ r 2
sin θ φ̂

1
∂
∂ ∂

∇×F = 2

r sin θ

∂r ∂θ ∂φ

Fr rFθ r2 sin θFφ

r̂ rθ̂ r2 sin θ φ̂

∂ ∂ ∂

= 2

r sin θ
∂r ∂θ ∂φ

r r × 0 r sin θ × 0

2
   
1 ∂ ∂ ∂ k ∂
= 2 (0) − (0) r̂ + (r ) − (0) rθ̂
r sin θ ∂θ ∂φ ∂φ ∂r
 
∂ ∂
+ (0) − (rk ) r2 sin θ φ̂
∂r ∂θ
= 0 r̂ + 0 θ̂ + 0 φ̂ = 0

(b)

r̂ r θ̂ r 2
sin θ φ̂

r̂ r θ̂ r 2
sin θ φ̂

1
∂
∂ ∂
1
∂ ∂ ∂

∇×F =
=

r2 sin θ

∂r ∂θ ∂φ
r2 sin θ
∂r


∂θ ∂φ

Fr rFθ r2 sin θFφ

r2 cos θ r × sin θ r2 sin θ × sin2 θ

   
1 ∂ 2 3 ∂ ∂ 2 ∂ 2 3
= (r sin θ) − (r sin θ) r̂ + (r cos θ) − (r sin θ) rθ̂
r2 sin θ ∂θ ∂φ ∂φ ∂r
 
∂ ∂
+ (r sin θ) − (r2 cos θ) r2 sin θ φ̂
∂r ∂θ
1  2 2      2 
= 3r sin θ cos θ + 0 r̂ + 0 − 2r sin 3
θ r θ̂ + sin θ + r 2
sin θ r sin θ φ̂
r2 sin θ
= 3 sin θ cos θ r̂ − 2 sin2 θ̂ + (1 + r2 ) sin θ φ̂

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28.3: Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates
 (a) Using spherical polar coordinates, find ∇f for
i. f = r4
r
ii. f =
r2
+1
iii. f = r2 sin 2θ cos φ
(b) For F = r sin θr̂ + r cos φθ̂ + r sin φφ̂, find ∇ · F and ∇ × F .
(c) For F = r−4 cos θr̂ + r−4 sin θθ̂, find ∇ · F and ∇ × F .
(d) For F = r2 cos θr̂ + cos φθ̂ find ∇ · (∇ × F ).

Your solution
(a)

(1 + r2 )2
r̂, (iii) 2r sin 2θ cos φr̂ + 2r cos 2θ cos φθ̂ − 2r cos θ sin φφ̂ (i) 4r3 r̂, (ii)
1 − r2

Your solution
(b)

cos φ(cot θ + cosechθ) + 3 sin θ,cot 2θ sin φr̂ − 2 sin φθ̂ + (2 cos φ − cos θ)φ̂

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28.3: Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates
Your solution
(c)

0,−2r−5 sin θφ̂

Your solution
(d)

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