Electrical Engineering Power Systems Comprehensive Theory with Solved Examples and Practice Questions reR= MADE EASY Publications Corporate Office: 44-44, Kalu Sarai (Near Hauz Khas Metto Station), New Delhi-110016 E-mail infomep@madeeasyin Contact 011-45124660, 8860378007 Visit us at: www madeeasypublicat n.0°9 Power Systems Copyright © 2016, by MADE EASY Publications. Alltights are reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retvieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photo-copying, recording or otherwise), without the prior written permission of the above mentioned publisher of this book. First Edition: 2015 Second Edition: (Revised and Updated): 2016 © Alig ‘wen persion and any frm thou the reserve by MADE EASY PUBLICATIONS No pr ofthis book maybe repro the blsherPreface This look was motivated by the desire to further the evolution of a concise book on Power Systems. Keeping in focus the importance ofthis subject in GATE and ESE, we have done a proper study and therealter developed the content of the book accordingly. This edition has an expanded discussion of all relevant topios in the subject. Inkially, we compiled the perceptions of our students on their problems In GATE and ESE while dealing with the questions from this subject. We B. Singh (f.1ES) Identified their various problems lke- lack of fundamentals of the subject, difficulty in solving simple questions, shortage of a complete study package, etc. These strengthened ur determination to present a complete edition of Power Systems textoook ‘The book addresses all the requirements of the students, i.e. comprehensive coverage of theory, fundamental concepts, objective type problems and conventional problems, articulated in a lucid language. The concise prosontation will help the readers grasp the concepts with clarty and apply them with ease to solve problems quickly. The book not only covers the entire syllabus of GATE and ESE, but also addresses the need of many other competitive examinations. Topies like ‘Performance of Transmission Lines, Compensation Techniques, Voltage Profile Control, Load Frequency Control, Distribution Systems, Cables, insulators, Generating Power Stations, Fault Analysis, Load Flow Studies, Switchgear and Protection, Power System Stabilly, Optimal Power System Operation and HVDC’, are given full coverage in line with our research on their importance in competitive examinations We have put in our sincere efforts to present elaborate solutions for various problems, diferent problem solving methodology, some useful quick techniques to save time while attempting MCQs without compromising the accuracy of answers. A summary of important points to remember is added at the end of each topic. For the convenience of the readers, points to remember are specifically highlighted in the form of a note- both in theory as well as solved ‘examples, At the end of each chapter, sets of practice question are given with their keys, that wil allow the readers to evaluate their understanding o' the topics and sharpen their problem solving skil ur toam has made their best offorts to remove all possible errors of any kind. Nonetheless, we would highly appreciate and acknowledge if you find and share with us any printing, calculation and conceptual error. Itis impossible to thank al the individuals who heloed us, but we would like to sincerely thank all the authors, editors land reviewers for pulting in thelr efforts to publish this book With Best Wishes B.Singh CMD, MADE EASYContents Power Systems Chapter 1 Chapter 4 Performance of Transmission Lines, Generating Power Stations. 167 e Parameters and Corona. 2 41 Introduction. “7 1 Poly Phase AC Circus 2 42 ettety SeCot nen 12. Graphics Representation of 458 2 43. Hydro-electrc Power Plants 168 13. Type of3-/Connectons 4 44 Pumped Storage Power lants im ‘14 Power Calculations 10 45 Steam/Thermal Power Plants. Ww 1.5. Introduction to Transmission Lines 15 46 NuclearPower Plants 182 1.6 The Medium Length Line, 2 47 Concept of Base Load and Peak Load Power 17 Concept ofTraveling Waves a8 ants 86 18 Power Flow Through & Transmission Line 50 48 Comparison of Various Types of Power Plants. 187, 19 Transmission Line Parameters 57 Student Asignments 1 1.10 Inductance of Transmission Lines 60 Student Assignments 2. 194 141 Bundled Conductors o 112 Capacitance of Transmission Lies o-oo T4 Chapter 5 113 Corona... ct Fault Analysi 199 1.16 SagandTension a6 5.1 Introduction - 199 Student Assignments 92 Student Asignments2 93 52 Pern system corm 200 533 Single Line Diagram ofa Powe System Network.202 Chapter 2 54 Method of Shore-cicuit Calculations for metrical Faults 202 Compensation Techniques, Voltage Profile Symmetrical Fou ° Control & Load Frequency Centrol 100 55 shore Circuit ofa Synchronous Machine 21 Compensation of Transmission Lines nn. 100 (onnotoad. ~ 204 22 Methods of Voltage Control a 105 55 Reactors nnn 206 23. Load Frequency Control no 57 Shor Circuit ofa Loaded Synchronous 24 Area Frequencies Conttl no Machine 207 Student Assignments ne 58 Unsymmetricl Fault Analysis. 213 Student Assignments2 120 59 Sequence impedance: ofTransmisionLines216 510. Sequence Circuits and impedances of Chapter 3 Symchronous Machine nnn 1B Distribution Systems, Cables & Insulators... 124 5.11. Sequence impedance ofa Transmission Line and 3.1 Distribution Systems. nnn 4 thele Representation, 221 22 Underground Cables —is 5.12 Sequence Network ofa Transformer and is 33. General Construction of a Cable. 136 Sequence impedances, 22 54 Insulator for Overhead Lines, 182 5.13 Unsymmetricl Faults on an Unloaded Student Assignments 162 cenerator as Student Asignments2 163 (iv)5.14 Algorithm for Short Circuit Study. 23 718 Differential Protection. 301 515 Z8US Balding Algorthm 2s 720. Protection of Transformer Ving Buch Rly 305 Student ssgnments 2a 721. Protection of Atemators 306 Student Assignments 2a 722, Power Line Carrier Communication PLEC)307 723. TramsayPotecton Sytem x0 Chapter 6 724 Distance Protection. an Load Flow Studies. nnn 245, 1.25 insulation Coordination 6 61 Introduction. 5 7.26 Static Relays. 319 62 Formulation of Hodal Adwuteance Matrix... 246 7.27 Concept of Neutral Grounding/Earthing......319. 63, Properties of a ZBUS Matrix. 248 Student Assignments-1 322 64 Formation of BUS Matrix 299 Student Assignments? se 65 BUS Chsifation 255 66 GaussSiedel Method 237 Chapter 8 67 Newton Raphson Method. 260 Power System Stability... 328 68 Decoupled Loo Flow Studies 263 81 Inrodueion ne 69 Fast Decoupled Load lw FOLF 268 82 _Difeent Forms of Sabi 28 610. Comparison between Gaus-Sede! and Newton- 83. Power Ange Diagram 328 Raphson Method 24 84 TheSwing Equation 2 Student Assignments 267 85. steady State Stabiy ne Student ssignments2 268 85 Tansient Stability. at Student Assignments 353 Chapter 7 Stade Assgnsnt2 ase Switchgear and Protection... 269 7A Introduction 269 Chapter 9 72 Components of Switchgear. 269 Optimal Power System Operation.......355 73. Operating Pncipleof Circuit Breaker (8). 27 91 Introduction 355 74 Arcinteruption ar 82 Economics Scheling of Generating Units.355 75. ArRestiking and Recover/Votages on 272 93, optimal operation of Geneon Bur Ba. 356 76 —Canent Chopping ns 84 Economical Scheduling Neglecting Loses. 358 17 Resistance Switching of Celt Breaker. 278 95 Economic Scheduling Including Loss... 359 78 Autorecosingof Creu Breakers 29 9 Representation of Transmission Lossby 79° Cait Breaker Ratings 29 econ 30 740. Air Break Grct Breakers (AC). 28) Student Assignments ues 21 iui Breakers 282 Student Assignments? a 366 712 Vee Cut Breakers WCBS) 2 713 AirBlast Cult Breakers (ABCB). 283 Chapter 10 TAA Si Grou breters, 2 Recent Trends in Power Systems econ 367 15. Protective Relays os 101 High Voltage DC Tansision ANDO) 367 7.16 induction Type Over Current Relay. 290 102 FREES 377 7.17 Protection Against inter-turn Faults on Stator 103 Smart Grid 380 Wining of Generator. 237 Student Assignments 3 78. Rested Earth Fal Protection 237 (v)CHAPTER Fault Analysis 5.1 Introduction Whenever there is insulation failure of equipment in a power system or flashover of the lines initiated by a lightning stroke or accidental faulty operation of the system, a heavy symmetrical short circuit current flows in the system. The system must be protected against flow of that heavy short circuit currents by disconnecting the faulty part of the system by means of circuit breakers operated by protective relays. The main objective of fault analysis is to determine the fault level or the fault MVA at the fault location. This fault MVA is the breaking ‘capacity of the circuit breaker that has to be kept at the point of fault location, There ate two types of faut occurring in the power system, namely “symmetrical fault" and "unsymmetrical fault” The majority of fault occuring in power system are faults involving one line to ground occasionally two lines to ground which are termed as “unsymmetrical faults”. The faults involving all the three phase to ground or all the three phase short-circuited belongs to “symmetrical fault”. The symmetrical faults generally leads to most severe fault current which need to be interrupted. Though the operating conaitions at the time of fault are important, the loads can be neglected duting fault, as voltage dip very low so that currents drawn by loads can be neglected in comparison to fault current. The most common and dangerous fault, that occur in a power system, is the short- circuitor shunt faults which involves power conductor or conductors-to-ground or short-circuit between conductors and causes a heavy current, called the “short-circuit current”. Short circuit calculation are very important since they provide data, which is necessarily required for designing the protective scheme for the power system.” Type of Faults in a Power System ‘There are basically two types of faults occurring in a power system namely: 1. Symmetrical faults: These constitutes the fault involving, ()_Allthe three phase to earth (3-phase fa (i) Allthe three short-circuited. 3% chances of occurrence). 2 Unsymmetrical faults: his types of fault constitutes the fault involving (Single phase to ground (85% chances) - SLG (Single Line to Ground fault) (i) Phase to phase (5% chances) ~ LL (Line to Line fault) (iii) Two phases to ground (7% chances) - LLG (Line-Line to Ground fault) — ~ppepenpeenn © copyright MADE EASY wmadeeaspubistonsorg) Publlaations200 | Electrical Engineering © Power Systems MADE EASY NOTE = Although the unsymmetrical faults are more prevalent, the symmetrical fault usually ry give the more severe duty on the circuit breaker. = The calculation of symmetrical short-circuit current or symmetrical short-circuit KVA at a certain point in power system is, therefore, very important for the purpose of determination of circuit breaker ratings. = The different kinds of faults in order of decreasing severity are: Three phase fault (3+p fault) > Double line to ground (LLG) fault > Line to line (LL) fault > Single line to ground (LG) fault 5.2 Per Unit System * In power system, itis usual to express voltage, current, voltamperes and impedance of an any electrical circuit in per unit or percentage. + The per unit (pu) value of any quantity is defined as “the ratio of the quantity (in some unit) to it's base value (in same unit)". . the actual value in any unit, ie. puvalue of a quantity = the base or reference value in the same unit Selection of Base Values for pu System 1. Single-Phase System: Let, Base Mega voll-amperes = (MVA), on Base kilovolt-ampere = (kVA), Base kilovolts = (kV), wo Sasecone, pu WA 060 « HA epee (Kv) (KV, © (Miva), ~ (KYA), Base impedance, Zz 1000 ohms Hence, per unitimpedance; _ (MYA . _ (kVA), x Z(ohms) 2 (PU) =“ ayyg XZ 0M) OF Z.4(04)= "eB xe1000 a) 2 Three-Phase System: Let, the base Mega volt-amperes = (MVA), and line-to-tine base kilovolts = (kV), For star connected citcuit, we have, (MVA), x 1000, Base current “Bn, (kV), x 100 (KVR (KV) x 1000 = ohms = “Sib _ Nb Base impedance, Zz xt, way VA), ohms _ (MVA), x1000 _ (kVA), x Z(ohms) Pulimpedance's, 2, «(Py = eee eee OOD (2) —EE | wmumadeeasypublicatios.org MADE ERSY © Copyright )MADE EASY FaultAnalysis | 204 NOTE, When (MVA), is changed to (MVA), ,., from (MVA),, and (kVA), is changed 10 (KV), ney, 77 from (kV), 44then, (MVAlonew . (KVIE Z(PU) peu, Zipu)aa x Adasen, Yoos (3) (WVA)oo8 (KV Foren Per Unit Representation of Transformer in a Power System Network Figure 6.1 represents a single-phase transformer in terms of primary and secondary leakage impedances Z,and Z, having a transformation ratio of 1: a. Let the magnetizing reactance be negligible and hence neglected, do lu Mo et, w oh | 7) Fea! } To vgou — Figures. sterner of single-phase transformer (magnitizinimpedanceneglected (6)Perunitequivalentcircuitofsingle phase transformer Let (V,), and (V,), be the base voltage on the two sides of the transformer and a common (VA), then. We [Since (VA), is common} hie ean See Dem (iy, Nt n= a From Figure 5.1 (a), we have Y= 4-hZ)a-hZ, 1 pu form, the above equation can be written as: Ve (BU) (Vio = (Vs (PUL g~ M(B) (yp ZPUNZ,)p] A~Le (PUNE), Z(BY (Zz) Dividing above equation by (V,), on both sices and using the base relations, we have Vg (pu) = Vi(pu)-Iy(pu) Z,(0u) Lou) Zp) New, Loy og ge Tp Ub) (hy ox 1 (p4) = (pu) = Kp) Now, on primary side of the transformer, But, Z,(pu) + Z,(pu) = Z(ou) (1) 4 © Copyright MADE EASY vwwnmadeeasypublcations org202 | Electrical Engineering © Power Systems MADE EASY On secondary side of the transformer, Z-Z+282, Z Z, a Zh” Gade” Ze 2 (pu) + Z,(pu) = Zou) (2) on, Conclusion From equation (1) and (2), we conclude that the per unit impedance of the transformer is the same whether computed trom primary or secondary side so long as the voltage bases on the two sides have a ratio equal to the transformation ratio. = Inacircuit consisting of a transformer, two sets of base voltages are selected, one for LV and the other for HV side having ratio equal to transformation ratio. = Acommon base power is selected for both HV and LV sides and also for the entire network, Advantages of Per Unit Method in Power System Following are the various advantages of per unit method in power system: + Itmakes the power system calculations simpler and more convenient, * The puimpedance of the transformer are equal whether referred to primary or secondary which is Not so if the absolute values of these impedance are considered, + In pusystem, there is less chance of committing mistake in line and phase voltages, single phase or three phase quantities, + Theres correctness of analysis more in a pu system by expressing the parameters of transformers as well as rotating machines in per unit since their numerical values lies in almost same range when pu system is adopted 5.3 Single Line Diagram of a Power System Network A3-phase network consisting of transmission lines, generators, transformers can be solved as a single. phase circuit, composed of one ofthe three lines and a neutral run. Ina single line diagram the neutral is omitted (as the system works under balance condition) and the components are represented by standard symbols. Figure 5.2 show a simple power system by a single line diagram. na single line diagram the neutral becomes a “zero-power bus" if the 3-$ system is balanced. Generator r, te g iS @D GD Lead Figure-5.2:A ingle diagram representation of power system 5.4 Method of Short-circuit Calculations for Symmetrical Faults The various steps involved in symm: Step-t: Draw a single line diagram of the complete network indicating on each component, its voltage, rating and reactances. ical fault analysis are as follows: commie atte MADE EASY ecopnon)MADE EASY FaultAnalysis | 203 Publestions Step-II: Choose appropriate base value and convert the given single line diagram into pu reactance diagram 7 —_-—® ‘Step-Ill: Obtain Thevenin’s equivalent circuit across the faulted bus Xm and zero power bus (reference bus) as shown in figure. v se Step-IV: Calculate the short circuit current, a) Calculation of Short-circuit KVA. Short circuit currer Now, percentage reactance, Ix |. (XY vex= M100 or x= OY Putting the value of Xin the equation of fgg, we get MeV _ 008 se XxX Vv %X [0%;c01] Vigo _ Vx 1004 hort circutkva = Va, . V100/— ° short circult Fo00 ~ 7000%(%X) or, short circuit KVA = Vix 190 %X ic short circuit KVA = (Rated va) ( 22 %X (where, X= Thevenin equivalent reactance/impedance (Z,,) across the fault and the ground terminal.) We know that, a Teo Hiv Ampere) __Iin pu) So, (pu) = Xe) Teg (in Ampere) — Isp (in pu) Hence, MED = Tippy ~enportant result) [Since (nu) = 1 =rated value and Teg ah (Important result) 1 1 , Si ly 2 (pu) = 1d Ise= > Ne similarly, (= ey a Is Zou Important relations) Publlaations — cnn © Copyright MADE EASY wmadeeaspubistonsorg)204 | Electrical Engineering © Power Systems MADE EASY 5.5 Short Circuit of a Synchronous Machine (on no-load) When a fault occurs in a power system network, the current flowing is determined by the internal emfs of the machines in the network, their impedances and the impedances between the machines and the faut. Figure shown below represents “the short circult current as a function of time” when a sudden short circuit (three-phase) occurs for a synchronous generator operating under open circuit condition. The machine undergoes a transient in allthe three phases finally ending up in steady state condition, The circuit breaker must inlertupt the current much before steady stale is reached. Subtransiont Transient Period Steady state peried| ‘Symmetical short cuit current —e Extrapolation of Actual envelope steady value Bitrapolation of transient envelope Symmetrical short circuit armature current in asynchronous machine The short circuit current sustained in the synchronous generator can be divided into three periods namely: (initial subtransient period (when the currentis large and the machine offers subtransient reactance) (ii) the middle transient period (where the machine offers transient reactance) and (ai) the steady state period (when the machine offers synchronous reactance). There are three types of reactances for synchronous machines: 1. Synchronous reactance (X,): When the armature reactance (X,)is combined with the leakage reactance (X) of the machine then, its called “synchronous reactance (X,)" (or direct axis synchronous reactance in case of salient pole machine). The steady state short circuit model of a synchronous machine is shown in Figure 5.3 (a). Where, Xy= +X) ): The reactance presented by the machine in the initial period of the short circuit is called “subtransient reactance (X,")”. During the initial period of the short circuit, the damper and field windings have transformer current’s induced in them so that in the circuit model their reactances - X,of fleld winding and X.,,of damper winding appear in parallel wth X, as shown in Figure 5.3 (b). Hence, the subtransient reactance using Figure §.(b) is given by 1 ee Xa Xi Kaw commie att ey MADE EASY ecopnon) 2. Subtransient reactance (X, X=MADE EASY 3. Transient reactance (X, he reactance effective after the damper winding current have died ot FaultAnalysis | 205 called the transient reactance of the machine (X3) From Figure 5.3 (c), the transient reactance of machine is given by Xp =X OXI) Using the plot of symmetrical short circuit armature current, the various current during short circult are given by: Remember © Copyright oO 1| = 22 ~ Fel. steady state current (rms) V2 Xq r=. Esl transient current (rms) excluding DC component. Boe 9 1p 0c _|E; |r| = . subtransient current (rms) excluding DC component V2 XG = per phase no-load voltage (rms) and 0, 0,, 0, are intercepts) Xow x [@ «| x, x & ‘ 860 — Rio — 8088 — SL Xs 7 8m synchronous Le reactance, Drectaxi Sabransient Direct axis ronsiont resctance reactance (@) ® () Figure-S.3:(o) steady stateshortcrult model ofa synchronous machine Approximate ccult model during subtransient period of short circuit and () Approximate circuit model luring transient period of short circuit The machine offers a time-varying reactance which changes from X," to X, and finally to X,, ie. Xo < Xj Z, and Z, Hence, option (c) is true. EZEEGEREM 4 three-phase alternator generating unbalanced voltages is connected to an unbalanced load through 3-phase transmission line as shown in Figure. The neutral of the alternator and the star point of the load are solidly grounded. The phase voltages of the alternator are E, = 1020° V, E, = 102-90" V, E, = 102120° V. The positive sequence component of the load current is fon hoa OO fon poo (a) 1.3102-107° A (b) 0.3322-120" A (c) 0.996.2-120° A (d) 3.5102-81° A wwrwimadeeasypublications.org MADE ERSY © CopyrightMADE EASY aultAnaiyss Publications. foal Ane 219 Solution (4) The equivalent circuit shown in given figure can be reduced to ‘The current in al he three-phases are given by 1029" _52-90° A 102-90" 3 102120" i4 Hence, the positive-sequence component of the load currents, 332-180" A 2.5280" A and Joy = Blea, +01.) = 2{52-90°+999L-60° +252270"] = 3,5052-80.9°A 5.10 Sequence Circuits and Impedances of Synchronous Machine Figure below shows an unloaded synchronous machine (Generator or motor) grounded through a reactance (impedance) of Z, having E,, &, and E, as the induced emfs of the three phases. Whenever a fault takes place on the machine terminals, current J, 1, and /, flows in the windings. When there is involvement of ground during a fault then, J, = J, + fy + I, flows to neutral from ground via Z, Three-phase synchronous generator with neutral grounded Unbalanced line currents can be resolved into their symmetrical components Jayla and Jay having sequence networks as discussed below one by one. a peppy © copyright MADE ERSY vvovmadeeesypubcatonsor)220 | Electrical Engineering © Power Systems MADE EASY Publieatone 1. Positive Sequence Network For positive sequence network, Z, does not appear in the model as J, = 0 for positive sequence currents as shown in Figure 5.12, The neutral is at ground potential and there is no current flowing from ground to neutral Here, Z, is the positive sequence impedance of the machine and E, is the induced emt, The sequence voltage is given by fay = Ea ley Z (1) 1, Reference bus © Figure-5.12 Positive sequence network ofa synchronous machine a) Three phase model (b) Single-phase model 2. Negative Sequence Network ‘The negative sequence network of a synchronous machine is shown in Figure 5.13. The reference bus is al neutral potential which is same as ground potential. No voltage source is involved in the negative sequence network unlike the positive sequence network Reference bus a Ing a o o fiure-5.13: hegre sqvercenetvorotosncronaus mache (Te phre modal Sle phase mde ‘The sequence voltage of terminal a w.r.t. reference bus is Vs Lola, (2) 3. Zero-sequence Network ‘The resultant air gap field caused by zero sequence currents is zero and therefore there is no zero sequence voltages induced in a synchronous machine. The zero sequence network models on a three-and single-phase basic are shown in Figure 5.14, The current flowing in the impedance Z, between neutral and ground is In=3lay a [womumadeeasypubliationsorg MADE EASY ©copytoht)MADE EASY FaultAnalysis | 224 Reference bus ) Figure-5.14: Zero equencenetworkofasynchronousmachine The zero sequence voltage of terminal a wrt. ground (the reference bus) is Vay = -BZy fay ~Zoglay = A8Zp + Zog) Fay (3) (where, Z,, = zero sequence impedance per phase of the machine) Henge, the total zero sequence impedance is Z= BZ ,+Z,.) Thus, zero sequence voltage at point a wart. reference bus is Va = ~Zolas (4) = Onlyposttive sequence network contain voltage sources, = Negative and zero sequence networks do not contain voltage sources. = For zero sequence network, it the neutral is solidly grounded then, a short circuit neutral is shown while if the neutral is grounded through a reactance Z, then, 3Z, is included in Z,), to find the zero sequence impedance. = For a synchronous generator, Z, > Z, > Z,, (sequence impedances) where, Z, = 12% (subtransient state) Z, = 20% (transient state) Z, = 110% (synchronous impedance in steady state) Z, = 12% and Z,=5% 5.11 Sequence Impedance of a Transmission Line and thi Representation A fully transposed three-phase transmission line is completely symmetrical and therefore the per phase impedance offered by it is independent of the phase sequence of a balanced set of currents e. the impedance offered by it to positive and negative sequence currents are equal. However, is zero sequence impedance is more than both positive and negative sequence impedances. e. 2-2, +82, and Z,=Z, Here, Z; lies between 210 3.5 times the positive sequence impedance Intransmission line, all the three sequence networks are represented as a series reactance element shown in Figure 5.15 Coma MADE EASY worn madeeasypubliationsora)222 | Electrical Engineering © Power Systems MADE EASY z 2, 22 Lat Sp) eo} ee eo) re @ O) CO) Positve sequence Negative sequence Zoro sequence network network network Figure-5.15 ‘Transmission line sequence network representations 5.12 Sequence Network of a Transformer and its Sequence Impedances Since a transformer is a static device, the leakage impedance does not change with alteration of phase sequence of balanced applied voltage. Therefore, the transformer positive and negative sequence impedances are equal to their respective leakage reactances Here, 4, = 2 =Zoskage Also, i's zero sequence impedance is slightly higher than the positive sequence impedance. Henee, ZoZ, For positive and negative sequence networks transformer is shown as a series reactance element, Zero Sequence Network of Transformers The zero sequence circuit of a three-phase transformer depend on the connection of the primary and secondary windings. The different combinations of A and Y windings determine the configurations of the zero- ‘sequence circuits and the phase shittin the positive and negative-sequence circuits. For representing the zero- ‘sequence network of a transformer, we use “switch diagram’, + Switch diagram for representating the zero-sequence network of a 3-4 transformer The “switch diagram’is shown below in Figure 5.16 oN reads e——_|__i +, Secondary side Figure-5.16 Switch diagram for representing transformerin zero sequencenetwork a.a"is called ‘primary switches" b, b’is called "secondary switches" Here a, bis called ‘series switches" a’, bis called ‘shunt switches © Fordrawing the zero sequence network of transformer using switch diagram: = ‘Series switch”is closed when the winding is star-connected and neutral is grounded. = ‘Shunt switch"is closed when the winding is delta (A) connected. commie att ey MADE EASY ecopnon)MADE EASY FaultAnalysis | 223 Remember * Zero sequence currents can flow in the legs of a star connection only ifthe star point is grounded which provides the necessary return path for zero sequence currents. No zero sequence currents can flowin the lines connected to a delta connection as ‘no return path is available for these currents. However, zero sequence cutrent can flow in the legs of a delta if there is zero sequence voltages in the delta connection, It any one of the two neutrals of a Y-¥ transformer is ungrounded, zero sequence currents can't flowin the ungrounded star and hence these can't flowin the grounded stat, When both the neutrals of a Y-Y transformer ate grounded, a path through the transformer exists for zero sequence currents in both windings via the two grounded neutrals, InaY-A transformer bank with grounded Y-neutrals, zero sequence current can flow in star because a path is available to ground and the balancing zero sequence ‘currents can flowin delta, While no zero sequence current can flow in the line on the delta side, Ifthe star neutral is grounded through Z,, an impedance 3Z, appears in series with Z, in the sequence network For aA transformer bank with ungrounded star, no zero sequence current can flow in the transformer windings. For a.-A transformer bank as there is no return path, the zero sequence currents cant flow in or out of A-A transformer, however ican circulate in the delta windings (if Zero sequence voltage are somehow induced in either delta winding). 5.13 Unsymmetrical Faults on an Unloaded Generator 1. Single line-to-ground Fault Lot the generator shown in Figure §.17 be unloaded anda line-to-ground fault occurs on phase a (phase grounded). Figure-5.17 :Line-to-ground faulton an unloaded generator For the given condition: © Copyright J,=0.1,=O0and V, MADE EASY worn madeeasypubliationsora)224 | Electrical Engineering © Power Systems MADE EASY ‘The symmetrical component of current becomes fo] jf) 1 Ufa 1,|-2|1 « 02|fo nfoall % ° Ing to a on, Tey son(mportant result) Now, the sequence voltages will be given by Veg = la Zo Va, = Eq la,Z, Von = la Zo and Vag Va, +Veg = —La,Zo+Eq ~la,Zs~Ia,Zo = Eq lay (Zo + Z;+Z5) But, Vay + Va, #Vay = V,=0 So, Generator emf) (Important result) sape) Wore ZrZth ‘The connection of sequence network for a L-G fault on the terminal (a) of generator will be as shown in Figure §.18. Here, Zy = Ze, Thus, Figure-5.18:Sequencenetwork orlin-to-ground fault 2. Line-to-line Fault Figure 5.19 shows the circuit diagram for an unloaded generator with the fault on its phase b and ¢. Figure-5.19 :Aline-tolinefaulton an unloaded generator a { wormmadeeasypublications.org MADE ERSY © copyright)MADE EASY FaultAnalysis | 295 Here, V, = Vil,=Oand 1, The symmetrical components of voltage when V, = V, are given by Ye} ft tty Va |= gf of 11M, | or Va, ..{Important result) Voy 1a? a }LVe ‘The symmetrical components of current are given by (for J, = ~/, and 1, %5 1a. = In on Ig = 0 (important result) Since, Iq, =0 therefore, Va, Hence, the equation of sequence voltages will be Veg = 0 Vo, = EantaZi or 1, Es {Important result) fn, = Ea~laZs In-(Zez,) Aime The sequence network is shown in figure below. Double li e-to-ground Fault Figure 5.20 shows the circuit diagram for an unloaded generator with a ground fault on phase b and c. 4 Figure-5.20 : Double line to-ground fault on an unloaded generator Coma MADE EASY worn madeeasypubliationsora)226 | Electrical Engineering © Power Systems MADE EASY Here, V, = V,=Oand 1, =0 The symmetrical components of voltage are given by a vy f= gt @ affo 2 Vag 10? «flo ¥, or Va, + (Important result) 1 ‘ow z) But, ...{Important result) or Ia, = lg, +La,)=Ve,( +2 ln = lay +a) Vo 4 Ze Al Vy = EgnlgZy of Ty, = (Ex—laZd( +2 so, fy = Ex—ty2y OF tay = (Ex In ZZ, Solving above equations, we get E, oe ZZ, Z,4| 2042. (23) ‘The connection diagram for LLG fault is shown in Figure 6.21 Important result) 4, 3-phase Fault on an Unloaded Generator Since a S-phase fault is a symmetrical fault therefore, only positive sequence current will exist. The sequence network for a three- phase fault is shown in Figure 5.22 Figure-5.21 :SequencenetworkforLiG fault Shot ret Figure-5.22: Sequencenetwork fora 3-phase fault commie att ey MADE EASY ecopnon)MADE EASY FaultAnalysis | 297 Since the faultis balanced, Ig = Ing =O Important result) and all sequence voltages will be zero. ie. Vo, = Vag =Vaq =O (Important result) Eo Also, Nagel -.(3-phase fault current) Conclusions 1. Fora line-to-ground fault (LG fault): => Allsequence networks are connected in series. 36, ZtZtZ 2. For a line-to-line fault (LL fault): = Positive and negative sequence networks are connected in series opposition = Iq =WTyy and Iq) =0 3. For a double line-to-ground fault (LLG fault): = Allsequencenewerks are comectedin paral V5 = Ven “Veo = Lay = Alig lg) Flay lag ag) =0 => thug =3lay Comparison of Three-phase Fault and a Line-to-ground Fault Case-: Solidly grounded generator Consider a synchronous generator in figure shown below whose neutral has solid grounding ie. Z,=0 When a3- fault occurs then, foe (E,= generator voltage) a) 1 When a tine-to-ground faut occurs then, ow (zez) Since for a synchronous generator, Z, << Z, and Z, = Z, therefore o-( =) igutng2) 2, Asoldly grounded generator 1 or lust (2) Coma MADE EASY worn madeeasypubliationsora)228 | Electrical Engineering © Power Systems MADE EASY From equ tion (1) and (2), we have Iig= 158%Li35 .-{Important result) Hence, fora solidly grounded alternator, line-to-ground fault is more severe compared to a three- phase fault. Case-II: Generator neutral ground wit impedance Z, # 0 When a 3-6 fault occurs then, J, 4 = =* Wen aL fut occur then, aq o{--— 282 —— 2 4R +2582, . z, ah Z,= g(Zi-Za), then < = 3E, hug= ————_ (Sinco, ZZ) 222,42 +9x(12,-2.)] o hug 28% io” axel 1 #2, <4(Z\~Zo) then, Irug > hy Hence, it Z, =20, =Zp) then, Ing =Hhs6 (Important result) 1 # Z,>4(2,-2) then 3 (2-20) then, >is op has ‘A delta connected balanced resistive load as shown in figure below is connected across an unbalanced three-phase supply. With currents inline, , 1030" A A and B specified, find the symmetrical components of line currents. Also find the symmetrical components of delta currents. 152.60°A, ie B Solution: ra Given, 1,=10290°A and [y= 152-60°A co ___*__] From given figure, we have, [yt ly lo =0 OF Iq=Aly + 1,) =-(152-60" + 10230") A or T= 18.032183.66" A= 182154" A te] [Pe Now, tn) =t}r a o?lliy 3) lg ra? alte Here to = Ula tla +1p)=0 (Shoe systemis balanced 80, J, + fg + Fo 0) In = 2 tty oly + oF A, =] Unt oly oF = J lt0.290"+152(120" 60°) + 18.2(240°+ 154°)) = 14242" A ‘ www.madeeasypublications.org MADE ERSY © CopyrightMADE EASY FaultAnalysis | 299 1 2, and Tag = gat ola + 0c] 1 = 3 [10.280" + 15.2(240"- 60") + 18.2(120" + 154°)] = 4.652248" A Now, Te, = Oly uly, = lg, and Tey = Tay so Ig, = 142282° A, Ig, = 4.6528°A and Ig, = OA Also, Ig, = yy, Io, =O? la, and Iey = Ty 50, To, = 142162" A, Io, = 4.652128" A and log = Now, converting the delta load into equivalent star, the circuit wll be redrawn as shown below. The delta currents can be found as follows: aot 1 Yag= lato) ro Also, Ra Rs 1 1 so simiary, ag = qUlo~Ic) and lon = 4(lo Ia) Putting the values of, an in above equations, we get le igang cot 5 Jag = 2110280" ~152~60"= 6286" A Jag = 2152-60" ~18.2154"] = 10.52 -41.42" A 3 Jog = 2{182154" -10230°]= 8.3952173.96" A 3 Hence, the symmetrical components of delta currents will be In = 20261105241 40100" +8 9.2¢79-240%) = 8271.98°A Ips, = {6L86° +1082 —41.5°+ 240" +8.32179° + 120°] = 2.6792218.47° A and Ing, = OA [EEQEEZERER The zero sequence impedance of a 3-4 transformer is shown below. The connection of its winding are Reference bus He —ABBREI—$§0 | % (a) delta-delta (b) star-delta (c) delta-star with neutral grounded (d)_star-star with both neutral grounded Coma MADE EASY vewumadeeasypubliationsor230 | Electrical Engineering © Power Systems MADE EASY Solution: (d) If we use switch diagram, then we can see that both the series switches are closed while both the shunt switches are open. Hence, there will be star-star connection on both primary as well as secondary sides with both neutral grounded. EEA For the system shown in the diagram given below, what fault on the line side of the transformer equivalent to? oi 4% (a) A line-to-ground fault on the generation side of the transformer. (b) A line-to-line fault on the generator side of the transformer, (c) A double line-to-ground fault on the generator side of the transformer, (d) A S-phase fault on the generator side of the transformer. Solution :(6) The zero-sequence network of the given single-line diagram is shown, | 2 oH} When a LG fault occurs on the line side of the transformer, zero sequence currentflowsinthe winding x, since neutral is grounded. But, the zero sequence current will not flow on the generator side of the transformer. Hence, on generator side it appears if a LL fauithas occutred since only positive and negative sequence current flows due to the delta winding of transformer. a line-to-ground LL faut hase generator is subjected to a 3-phase f the fault current is |. When it is subjected to a line-to-line fault, the positive sequence current is -/4 pu. The positive and negative sequence reactances are respectively. (a) (0.2 and /0.05 pu (b) 0.2 and 0.25 pu (c) £0.25 and 0.25 pu (d) 0.05 and 0.05 pu Solution:(a) For 3-phase fault, we have g, E, fy = Boor BaF ated value = 1 pu) For LL fault, we have Tay + Tog = 00t Iq, =I. and -(3& Zy+Zp on, (0.25 - so. Z, = 2 puand Z, = 2.05 pu { wormmadeeasypublications.org MADE ERSY © Copyright |MADE EASY FaultAnalysis | 234 Emo in the figure. The zero sequence driving point reactance of node 3 will be (a) 0.05 @ @ @ (b) 0.10 r@-+ $8 at-O 4 (c) 0.20 X= 04 Xqn02 > (d) 0.2 4 4 Solution: (6) Xq= 0.15 Let a fault occurs at node 3 then, the zero sequence netw diagram for transformer). The above network can be reduced to R2 aa °© or, Z. 0.2 a = == j0.1=0.10 pu 3 Pi 33 kV, S-phase alternator is subjected to different types of short-circuits and the following are the values of fault current. S-phase short circuit = 319 A Single line-to-ground fault = 659 A Line-to-line fault = 435 A Determine the positive, negative and zero sequence reactance of the generator in per unit and in ohms. Neglect resistive part. Solution: For a3-phase fault, we have E, = fs = phase voltage) Kese= ZF (E,= phase voltage) 10 on = £2 810° V3 59709 Te 318 e copyright MADE ERSY wonumadeeasypublcations.org232 | Electrical Engineering © Power Systems MADE EASY Foraline-to-ground fault, we have (3x33 x10°V3) or, Z+Z+%= 86739 359 or Z, = 86.73-(Z, + Z) = 86.73-§9.72-Z, Fora ine-o-line (LL) fault, we have - 2 7 (E,= phase voltage of generator) or, 2.4 Zp = Ee EXE 2109) 5560 on, 75.86 - Z, = 75.86 - 59.72 = 16.14 Hence, 27-2, = 27-1614 = 1086.0 (Kv)? _ 33? Now, base impedance, 4- = 3-54.59 Ps >= MIVA) 20 Thus, 2, = 59.72, Z, = 16.14 Mand Z, = 10.860 Hence, in per unit, 2,- 272 _ 5 0967 pu 54.45 16.14 10.86 _ 5 +90, 2,= Bi o2oeapy and Z,= EF =0.1904 pu EEEEEZEE) «4 2-bus system and corresponding zero sequence network are shown in poTit at Bust The transformers T, and T, are connected are (a) A and LA ) TAA ana Aa to FA danaa [A (@) A Ama d AL wwwmadeeasypublications.org MADE ERSY © CopyrightMADE EASY FaultAnalysis | 233 Solution :(b) Using switch diagram (explained in previous article), we can observe that for given figure (a), series switch on primary side is closed while on secondary side open for transformer T,. Therefore, this transformer (T,) will have primary connected in star with neutral grounded and secandaty in star with neutral isolated, ie AA Also, for transformer T,, series switch on transmission line side is closed while on generator side shunt switch is closed (and series switch open). Therefore, transformer T, willhave a 4 ‘winding connection as shown 5.14 Algorithm for Short Circuit Study na large power system, short circuit study can be done by Gay developing a systematic algorithm so that a digital computer can be | ger) sod forthe short circuit computations involved Ng Lot us consider a n-bus power system operating at steady (2) cent Gen a load as shown in Figure 5.23. Let the prefault bus voltage vector be Gen2 Gene ve Fgores28 va. - |” -bus power system under steady load Rs = vy Leta fault occurs on r bus having a fault impedance of 2’ { AV be the vector of changes in bus voltages caused by the fault then, the post fault bus voltage vector will be given by Vius = Vis + AV Figure 5.24 shows the passive Thevenin network o the system with generators replaced by transient/subtransient reactances with their emf shorted. Let the passive Thevenin network be excited with -Y? in series. Foun 24 with 2" ‘Thevenh nebs ork ofaysten Now, AV = Zug! (where, J/= Bus current injection vector) (1) Zi Zin where, Zaus= = Bus impedance matrix of the passive Thevenin network Zor Zon Now, since only r" bus is injected with current -I'therefore, 0 o (2) — peppy © copyright MADE EASY vwwnmadeeasypublcations org234 | Electrical Engineering © Power Systems MADE EASY Publleaons Substituting equation (1) and (2), we have AV, = ~Z,1" (for bus) Now, the voltage at the r* bus under fault condition is, Vio= VP +avp =VP-Z, 1° (3) Also, at the r bus, we have Wezr (4) From equations (3) and (4), we have Zi = VP-Z,1 on dy (5) Using equations (1) and (2), at the # bus, we have AV = ZI or Vi = VWP-Zp Pia A Qt (6) ‘Substituting value of from equation (5) into equation (6), we have we (7) (2) ‘The post fault currents in the lines are given by ty = Yui Yh (2) Now, the prefault generator output = P,, + /Qg, Ke Bei Pei ~ iQ, = & (Sf (10) . and VP + XB, 18; (11) Using short circuit study we obtain V! then, & i (Eb th = |e “ ( IG () ) Figure:.25 :(a) Prefault circuit (b) Post faultcircut NOTE = The Zays Mattix of the short-circuit study can be obtained by the inversion of its Yas TA matrix (explained in detail in load flow study) o by using Zy.,, building algorithm. In formulating the SC study network, the load impedances are ignored, these being very larger than the impedances of lines and generators. However, synchronous motors must be included in Zy, formation for the short circuit study. —EE wwwmadeeasypublications.org MADE ERSY © copyright) Publications