AN HISTORICAL ATLAS

OF CENTRAL ASIA

YURI BREGEL

BRILL
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AN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF CENTRAL ASIA

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HANDBOOK OF ORIENTAL STUDIES

HANDBUCH DER ORIENTALISTIK

SECTION EIGHT

CENTRAL ASIA

edited by
DENIS SINOR · NICOLA DI COSMO

VOLUME NINE

YURI BREGEL
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AN HISTORICAL ATLAS
OF CENTRAL ASIA
BY

YURI BREGEL

BRILL
LEIDEN • BOSTON
2003
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This book is printed on acid-free paper

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Bregel, Yuri, 1925-

An historical atlas of Central Asia / by Yuri Bregel.
p. cm. – (Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section eight. Central Asia ; vol. 9)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 90-04-12321-0
1. Asia, Central–Historical geography–Maps. I. Title. II. Handbuch der Orientalistik.
Achte Abteilung. Handbuch of Uralic studies ; vol. 9

G2202.21.S1B7 2003
911'.58–dc21
2003055011

Copyright Maps: Yuri Bregel

Copyright Atlas: Brill Academic Publishers

ISSN 0169-8524
ISBN 90 04 12321 0

© Copyright 2003 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
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printed in the netherlands

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HANDBUCH DER ORIENTALISTIK

Abt 8: CENTRAL ASIA

ISSN 0169-8524

1. D. Sinor (ed.). The Uralic Languages. 1988. ISBN 90 04 07741 3

2. E. Jacobson. The Art of the Seythians. The Interpenetration of Cultures at the Edge of the Hellenic World. 1995. ISBN 90 04 09856 9
3. M. Erdal. Old Turkic Grammar. 2000. ISBN 90 04 10294 9
4. P.B. Golden (ed.). The King’s Dictionary. The Rasûlid Hexaglot: Fourteenth Century Vocabularies in Arabic, Persian, Turkic, Greek, Armenian and
Mongol. 2000. ISBN 90 04 11769 5
5. A. Alemany. Sources on the Alans. A Critical Compilation. 2000.
ISBN 90 04 11442 4
6. N. di Cosmo. Inner Asian Warfare (500-1800). 2002. ISBN 90 04 11949 3
7. Liliya M. Gorelova. Manchu Grammar. 2002. ISBN 90 04 12307 5
8. Sergei Starostin, Anna Dybo and Oleg Mudrak. Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages. 2003. ISBN 90 04 13153 1
9. Bregel, Yuri. An Historical Atlas of Central Asia. 2003. ISBN 90 04 12321 0
 preface v

CONTENTS

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Bibliographical notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii
Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii
General legend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii
Maps:
1. The principal geographical features and provinces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Major archeological sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3. Central Asia at the time of Alexander the Great (4th century B.C.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4. 3rd-2nd centuries B.C.: Parthia, Bactria, and the Yuezhi. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5. 1st century B.C.—2nd century A.D.: Parthia, the Kushans, the Han, and the Xiongnu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6. 3rd-6th centuries A.D.: the Sasanids, Kidarites, and Hephthalites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
7. 6th-7th centuries A.D.: the Sasanids, Soghd, and the First Türk Qaghanate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
8. The second half of the 7th century: early Arab raids, the Türgesh Qaghanate, the Tang expansion, and Tibet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
9. The first half of the 8th century: the Arab conquests, Türks, Tang, and Tibet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
10. From mid-8th to the end of the 9th century: the early Islamic period in the west; the Qarluqs and Uyghurs in the east . . . . . . . . . . . 20
11. 10th century: the Samanids, Qarakhanids, Oghuz, Kimeks, and Qïpchaqs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
12. The central regions of Western Turkestan in the 10th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
13. The early 11th century: the Ghaznavids, Qarakhanids, and Seljuks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
14. 1040 to the end of the 11th century: the Seljuks and Qarakhanids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
15. The first half of the 12th century: the Seljuks, Qarakhanids, Khorezmshahs, Qara-Khitays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
16. The second half of the 12th century: the Qarakhanids, Khorezmshahs, Qara-Khitays, and the Ghurids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
17. The early 13th century: the Ghurids, Khorezmshahs, Qara-Khitays, and Küchlük . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
18. The Mongol conquest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
19. The Mongol uluses in the 13th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
20. The Mongol uluses from the early 14th century to the rise of Timur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
21. Timur, the Chaghatayids, and the ulus of Jochi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
22. 1405-1468: the Timurids, Moghuls, and Özbeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
23. Central Asia and Iran in the second half of the 15th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
24. 1469-1499: the Timurids, Moghuls, and Özbeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
25. The Özbek conquest of Western Turkestan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
26. The first half of the 16th century (1510s-1550s): the Özbek khanates, the Qazaqs, and the Moghuls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
27. The second half of the 16th century: {Abdallah Khan, the {Arabshahids, and the Dasht-i Qïpchaq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
28. 17th century: the Ashtarkhanids, Khorezm, the Qazaqs, and the Junghars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
29. The first half of the 18th century: Nadir Shah, Bukhara, Khorezm, the Qazaqs, and the Junghars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
30. The second half of the 18th century: Bukhara, Khorezm, Qoqand, the Qazaqs, and the Junghars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
31. The first half of the 19th century: Bukhara, Khorezm, Qoqand, the Qazaqs, and Russian expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
32. The second half of the 19th century: the Russian conquest of Western Turkestan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
33. Khorezm in the 18th-19th centuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
34. The trade routes of Central Asia in the 17th-18th centuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
35. The Özbek tribes in the 19th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
36a. The Turkmen tribes and their migrations (16th-19th centuries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
36b. The Turkmen tribes and their migrations (19th-20th centuries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
37. The Turkmen tribes in the early 20th century. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
38. The Qazaq tribes in the early 20th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
39. The Qïrghïz tribes in the 20th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
40. Bukhara (city) in the 19th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
41. Samarqand (city) in the 19th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
42. Khiva (city) in the 19th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
43. Monuments of Islamic architecture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
44. The end of the 19th and the early 20th centuries: Western Turkestan under Russian rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
45. Revolution and Civil War in Western Turkestan, 1917-1922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
46. The “national delimitation” of Central Asia and the creation of the Soviet republics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
47. Central Asia to the year 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

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PREFACE

The geographical and historical meaning of the term “Central Asia” is not as obvious as that of “Asia” or the “Indian subcontinent”, and it requires
a definition. Such a definition was given in the introduction to my Bibliography of Islamic Central Asia,1 and, since nothing new has been offered
in scholarly literature since then, I will repeat it here in a slightly modified form. In geographical terms, Central Asia extends from the Caspian Sea
and the Ural river basin in the west to the Altay mountains and the Turfan oasis in the east, and from the limits of the steppe belt (where it borders
the West Siberian forest, the taiga) in the north to the Hindukush and the Kopet-Dagh mountains in the south. But physical geography by itself (even
less the contemporary political map of Asia) can hardly define this region, which should instead be approached as a distinct cultural and historical
entity. From this standpoint, Central Asia can be defined as the western, Turko-Iranian, part of the Inner Asian heartland; its indigenous population
consisted of various Iranian peoples, who have been mostly Turkicized by now, while its growing Turkic population has assimilated its indigenous
Iranian culture to various degrees. Beginning with the 8th century A.D., Central Asia was gradually incorporated into the Islamic world (a process
that now distinguishes it from the eastern part of the Inner Asian heartland, Mongolia and Tibet). As part of the Islamic world, it shares many cul-
tural features with its Islamic neighbors to the south and to the west, but it combines them in a unique blend with the features it shares with the world
of the Inner Asian nomads. It belongs to both of these worlds, being a border area for each of them.
The existing Western literature, both scholarly and non-scholarly, does not satisfy the need for historical maps of Central Asia, and it makes difficult
a proper acquaintance with Central Asian history, to say nothing of its scholarly study. Various maps occasionally found in Western publications on
Central Asian history usually deal with a specific limited area or period and in most cases are unsatisfactory. Maps accompanying some Russian
publications of the 1940s through the 1970s are often better,2 but they also do not show Central Asia (as defined above) as a whole, and cover only
certain periods. It happens quite often that works on Central Asian history abounding in geographical names that are not found on modern maps, and
even works on the historical geography of this region, fail to include any maps whatsoever.
An Historical Atlas of Islam, published in 1981,3 includes just two partial maps of Central Asia.4 A new, revised, edition of this atlas, published
in 2002,5 contains more Central Asian material: in addition to the two maps reprinted from the 1981 edition,6 it has two maps for later periods,
“Transoxania under the Timurids and Özbeks circa 905/1500” and “Transoxania in the 13th/19th century” (pp. 42a-42b), and two city maps.7 An
Historical Atlas of China by Albert Herrmann includes Central Asia, or parts of it, on a number of maps,8 but these maps are somewhat sinocentric
and already outdated.9 The most recent new collection of historical maps of Central Asia was published in Tashkent, in Özbek, under the title UZ bzbekiston
tarikhi atlasi (“Historical atlas of Uzbekistan” [sic!], Tashkent, 1999; paperback). It contains 21 maps, of which 17 are historical maps of Central
Asia compiled by E.V.Rtveladze and N.H.Hakimov.
When I began teaching graduate courses in Central Asian history at Indiana University in 1981, in the absence of any usable English maps, I had
to prepare my own maps, which I showed as transparencies in class. In 1999 two of my graduate students, Ryan Gliha and John McKane, converted
my hand-drawn originals into computer files, which were then published (in color printed form) in 2000.10 This publication included 11 maps; the
maps were not very elaborate, but they generated considerable interest, and from the feedback I received from readers I realized that both specialists
and the general public needed much more detailed maps that would cover the entire history of Central Asia. Consequently, work on the atlas began
in 2000, and was finished in February 2003.
The sources for the maps are too numerous to be listed here. They include all reliable general surveys of Central Asian history, and scholarly
works on specific historical topics that contain significant historico-geographical information, with or without maps. Most of the cartographic sourc-
es are mentioned in the bibliographical notes to the individual maps below. The same notes also contain references to other works (mostly general
surveys) in which the reader can find additional information on the period in question. More detailed bibliographical data concerning the Islamic
period (8th century A.D. to 1917) can be found in the above mentioned Bibliography of Islamic Central Asia.
The transcription of geographical and personal Arabic and Persian names is simplified, for the benefit of non-specialists. It follows the system of
the Encyclopaedia of Islam as far as consonants are concerned, but without the diacritical marks and with the replacement of K . with Q and Dj with
J. The only special transcription signs used are { for {ayn and } (rarely) for hamza. The transcription of vowels, for various reasons, is sometimes
less consistent (but probably closer to their pronunciation), so that A is rendered as either A or E, I as either I or E, U is either U or O, and AY as
either AY or EY. In the transcription of Turkic names, the letters Ä, Ï, Ö, and Ü are utilized. In the transcription of Russian names, the system of
the Library of Congress is used, with the following changes:
. L: is rendered as J (instead of DZH); Q is rendered as Y (instead of IZ ); S is rendered
as Ï (instead of Y); $ is rendered as È (instead of E); # is rendered as IU after consonants, but YU after vowels; Z is rendered as IA after con-
sonants, but YA after vowels. On the maps of 19th-20th century Central Asia under Russian rule, the official Russian transcription of geographical
names is reflected: thus, Kokand instead of Qoqand, Askhabad instead of Ashqabad, Kizil-Arvat instead of Qïzïl-Arvat, etc. (but Samarqand, not
Samarkand); the official spelling of the names of cities (but not rivers) is also reflected on the map 47. For Chinese names, the Pinyin romanization
is used throughout; in several cases the old Wade-Giles transcription (which is often more familiar to students of Central Asia) is given in paren-
theses.
The terms “Türk,” “Türks” are used for the steppe empires of the 6th-8th centuries (called Qaghanates in the scholarly literature) and the dominant
groups of their population; for all other ethnic groups who belong to the same linguistic family the terms “Turks,” “Turkic” are used.
As the geographical basis for most maps was used a map of Central Asia found in an atlas of the Soviet Union published in Moscow in 1962

1 Pt. I, Bloomington, Indiana: Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies, 1995, pp. VII-VIII.
2 Especially noted should be the maps attached to the multi-volume Ocherki istorii SSSR, Moscow, 1953-1956, and, in particular, maps accompanying the collected works
(Sochineniya) by V. V. Bartol’d (in a separate envelope attached to vol. IX, Moscow, 1977; prepared by O. G. Bol’shakov).
3 Ed. by William C. Brice, Leiden: Brill.
4 “Transoxiana in the 10th & 11th centuries” (p. 24a) and “The Khwarazm Shahs and Ghurids” (p. 24b); in addition, two general maps of the Middle East, in the mid-18th and

in the 19th and early 20th centuries (pp. 26-27) include a part of Central Asia.
5 An Historical Atlas of Islam, ed. by Hugh Kennedy, Brill: Leiden-Boston-Köln.
6 See pp. 41a and 41b.
7 “Marv (Marw)” (p. 43a) and “Harat circa 850/1447” (p. 43b).
8 New edition, Chicago: Aldine Publishing Co., 1966 (the first edition published in 1935 under the title Historical and Commercial Atlas of China), includes Central Asia, or

parts of it, on a number of maps: pp. 10-11 (“The Hsiung-nu or Huns in Central Asia, 176 B.C.” and “128-36 B.C.”; p. 16 (“China in Central Asia, 114 B.C—127 A.D.”); pp. 18-
19 (“Asia, ca. 100 A.D.”); p. 23 (“Eastern, Central and Southern Asia, ca. 440 A.D.”); pp. 26-27 (“Asia, ca. 610 A.D.”); pp. 30-31 (“Asia, ca. 750 A.D.”); p. 32 (“China in Central
Asia, 660 A.D.”); pp. 38-39 (“Eastern, Central and Southern Asia, 1141 A.D.”); p. 40 (“Beginnings of the Mongol Empire—boundaries of 1234 A.D.”); pp. 42-43 (“Asia under
the Mongols, 1290 A.D.”); pp. 46-47 (“Asia during the Ming dynasty—boundaries of 1415 A.D.”); pp. 48-49 (“Eastern, Central and Southern Asia, 1760 A.D.”); p. 50 (“Chinese
Turkistan, 1820 A.D.”); p. 51 (“The Manchu Empire and the European powers, 1644-1912 A.D.”).
9 Cf. the critical discussion by Paul Wheatley in the new edition, pp. vi-xxix.
10 Historical maps of Central Asia: 9th-19th centuries A.D., ed. by Yu. Bregel, Bloomington, Indiana: Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies, 2000 (Papers on Inner Asia,

Special Supplement).

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 viii preface

(Atlas SSSR, map on pp. 22-23). For the maps that use other base maps, the source is indicated in the bibliographical notes below. The geographical
grid (parallels and meridians) could not be indicated for technical reasons; the grid shown on the maps is used for indexing only.
The maps show some basic elements of the political and ethnic history of Central Asia: sedentary states (for which either the names of these states
or of their ruling dynasties are given); nomadic polities and the most important tribes, with their migrations; the routes of military campaigns and
the sites of important battles; major rebellions; and the borders. The last category requires some explanation. There exists the opinion that in Islamic
history political boundaries often changed rapidly, that dynasties and polities tended to appear and disappear quickly and that, therefore, showing
these boundaries on a map with clear lines would be either misleading or confusing. This is, however, not always so, at least as far as Central Asia
is concerned. It is true that “fixed” borders described in binational agreements and marked by proper boundary posts appeared in this region only at
the end of the 19th century. But already many centuries before, various Central Asian states used to sign such agreements and knew how to protect
their borders, usually by means of border patrols (such mobile patrols existed even in the Central Asian steppes). The problem is not that the borders
were rapidly changing, but that we often do not know exactly where they were drawn. In the absence of precise information (which is mostly, but
not always, the case), the borders of individual polities can be determined on the basis of information about the historical provinces that these polities
included, because the borders of the provinces were usually well known and described in the sources, and they often coincided with natural bound-
aries such as rivers and mountain ranges. In any event, it should be kept in mind that the political borders indicated on the pre-19th century maps
in this atlas are always approximate and often hypothetical, even though they are shown by solid lines.
The ethnic history of Central Asia is reflected in almost all the maps, and specifically on maps 36-39, showing the distribution of Özbek, Turk-
men, Qazaq, and Qïrghïz tribes at the end of the 19th and in the first half of the 20th century. It was my intention to also include a general ethnic
map of Central Asia (which could be based on two Soviet ethnic maps published in 1960-1962), but I came to the conclusion that these maps do not
give an idea of the ethnic composition of the sedentary population of Central Asia before 1917 and are also unreliable in showing the present dis-
tribution of the sedentary population.
Each map is accompanied by an explanatory text on the facing page containing the most important facts of the political and ethnic history illus-
trated by the map. These texts are not intended to form a general survey of Central Asian history, because certain important aspects of this history
(such as religion) could not be adequately reflected by the maps. The main purpose of the texts is to provide the general reader with some basic
information on the major political events and processes that took place during each period covered by the maps; cultural history is only rarely re-
ferred to in the texts.
All the maps were originally hand-drawn by me, and the originals were then scanned and converted to computer files by the graphic designers of
the Graphic Services group of the Instructional Support Services of Indiana University, Bloomington.
I would like to express my gratitude to all those who helped me in the preparation of this atlas: Bhuva Narayan, who assisted me in planning this
publication; Professor Elena Davidovich (Institute of Oriental Studies, Moscow), who gave her advice about the general approach to the maps, as
well as some specific problems of pre-Mongol history; Professor Boris Litvinskiy (Institute of Oriental Studies, Moscow) and Dr. Aleksander Nay-
mark (Hofstra University) for their numerous suggestions concerning the maps dealing with archeology, pre-Islamic and early Islamic history; Pro-
fessor Clifford E. Bosworth (University of Manchester) for sharing with me his opinion concerning the status of some mountain regions of Central
Asia in the 10th-12th centuries; Professor Elliot Sperling (Indiana University), for his advice on the transcription of all Chinese names on the maps
and in the texts; Professor William Fierman (Indiana University) for providing me information on the maps of the gas and oil pipelines used for map
47; Dr. Roman Zlotin (Indiana University) for supplying me copies of the Soviet maps of Central Asia from 1923-1926 used for map 46; Professor
Devin DeWeese (Indiana University) for his extremely valuable editorial remarks and corrections to the texts accompanying the maps; Satish Pai and
Nataliya Bregel (Boston), for their superb proofreading of these texts; my wife, Liliya (Liusia), who supported my work in various ways and patient-
ly put up with almost every horizontal surface in our house (except floors) being taken over for mapmaking. Very special thanks go to the graphic
designers at Graphic Services of Indiana University, Suzanne Hull, R. Bryan Smith, and Scott Taylor, who carried out an excellent job in preparing
the computerized versions of the maps for the subsequent printing, and who made, upon my requests, repeated and numerous corrections until the
maps acquired their final shape. Finally, I am grateful to Indiana University for the financial support that made it possible the assistance of the graphic
designers, without whom I would hardly have been able to accomplish the work in such a relatively short time.

Yuri Bregel
Bloomington, Indiana
February 2003

Bibliographical notes

General
For the Islamic period (maps 9-44) a detailed bibliography (monographs and articles published before 1989) is to be found in the Bibliography of
Islamic Central Asia, compiled and edited by Yu. Bregel, pt. I-III, Bloomington, Indiana: Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies, 1995 (Indiana
University Uralic and Altaic Series, vol. 160). In the notes below only cartographic sources are given, as well as some general and reference works
(mostly in English) not included in the above mentioned bibliography.
For the geographical base the following maps have been used:
– for maps 1-12, 14-16, 18-32, 34-39, 45: the map “Sredniaya Aziya i Kazakhstan,” in: Atlas SSSR, Moscow, 1962, pp. 22-23;
– for maps 2, 43, 47: the map “Kazakhstan i Sredniaya Aziya,” in Atlas SSSR, Moscow, 1984, pp. 60-61, with corrections based on the maps of
Central Asia in The Times Atlas of the World, 9th comprehensive edition, London, 1994, plates 27 and 43;
– for maps 13 and 17: the map of Asia published by the National Geographic Society (March 1971);
– for maps 44 and 46: 7 maps “Rossiya: Aziatskaya chast’” and “RSFSR (SSSR): Aziatskaya chast’” published in Petrograd (Leningrad) in 1923-
1926.
Three maps by O. G. Bol’shakov attached to the Collected Works by V. V. Bartol’d (see above, Preface) were also consulted: “Sredniaya Aziya v
IX-XIII vv.,” “Sredniaya Aziya XIX - nach. XX v.,” and “Vostochnïy Turkestan i vostochnaya Sredniaya Aziya v srednie veka.”

Map 1
The map is based on the physical map of Central Asia published in Atlas SSSR, Moscow, 1962, pp. 22-23. Cities are given as of the middle of the
19th century.
On the physical features of Central Asia see further: R. N. Taaffe, “The geographic setting,” in: The Cambridge history of early Inner Asia, ed.
by D. Sinor, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990, pp. 19-40; “Central Asia: I. Geographical survey,” in: Encyclopaedia Iranica, vol. V,
1992, pp. 159-161.

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 preface ix

Map 2
No single published map as a whole could serve as a basis for map No. 2. Among the available maps, the following were used: Sredniaya Aziya v
rannem srednevekov’e, ed. by G. A. Brïkina, Moscow: Nauka, 1999 (Sredniaya Aziya i Dal’niy Vostok v epokhu srednevekov’ya) (maps on pp. 51,
79, 94, 115, 132, 145, 152, 164); History of civilizations of Central Asia, vol. II, ed. by J. Harmatta, B. N. Puri and G. F. Etemady, Paris: UNESCO,
1994 (maps 3, 4, 6, 7); History of civilizations of Central Asia, vol. III, ed. by B. A. Litvinsky, Zhang Guang-da and R. Shabani Samghabadi, Paris:
UNESCO, 1996 (maps 1, 2, 5-7); archeological map of Khorezm attached to the book: S. P. Tolstov, Po sledam drevnekhorezmiyskoy tsivilizatsii,
Moscow-Leningrad, 1948; Nizov’ya Amu-Dar’i, Sarïkamïsh, Uzboy: Istoriya formirovaniya i zaseleniya, Moscow, 1960 (Materialï Khorezmskoy
èkspeditsii, fasc. 3) (map after p. 146); Yu. F. Buriakov, Istoricheskaya topografiya drevnikh gorodov Tashkentskogo oazisa (Istoriko-arkheolo-
gicheskiy ocherk Chacha i Ilaka), Tashkent, 1975 (map on p. 13).
Concise general surveys of the archeology of Central Asia, with further references, are found in the following publications: V. M. Masson, “Ar-
cheology V. Pre-Islamic Central Asia,” in: Encyclopaedia Iranica, vol. II, 1987, pp. 308-317; G. A. Pugachenkova and E. V. Rtveladze, “Archeology
VII. Islamic Central Asia,” in: ibid., pp. 322-326; N. H. Dupree, “Afghanistan VIII. Archeology,” in: ibid., vol. I, 1985, pp. 530-544; Vostochnïy
Turkestan v drevnem i rannem srednevekov’e. Ocherki istorii, ed. by S. L. Tikhvinskiy and B. A. Litvinskiy, Moscow, 1988, pp. 17-78 (map on p.
18).

Map 3
Our map follows the maps included in the most detailed study of Alexander’s campaign: J. Seibert, Die Eroberung des Perserreiches durch Alex-
ander den Grossen, [pt. 2] Karten, Wiesbaden, 1985 (Beihefte zum Tübinger Atlas der Vorderen Orients, Reihe B, No. 68), maps 23-24. For other
general reference works on this period see: A. H. Dani, “Alexander’s campaign in Central Asia,” in: History of civilizations of Central Asia, vol. II,
ed. by J. Harmatta, B. N. Puri, and G. F. Etemadi, Paris: UNESCO, 1994, pp. 67-88; P. Briant, “Alexander the Great,” in: Encyclopaedia Iranica,
vol. I, 1985, pp. 827-830.

Map 4
No existing maps could be used for this map.
For general works on this period see: P. Bernard, “The Greek kingdoms of Central Asia,” in: History of civilizations of Central Asia, vol. II, ed.
by J. Harmatta, B. N. Puri, and G. F. Etemadi, Paris: UNESCO, 1994, pp. 99-129; G. A. Koshelenko and V. A. Pilipko, “Parthia,” ibid., pp. 131-
150; K. Enoki, G. A. Koshelenko and Z. Haidary, “The Yüeh-chih and their migrations,” ibid., pp. 171-189; P. Leriche, “Bactria.i. Pre-Islamic period,”
in: Encyclopaedia Iranica, vol. I, 1985, pp. 339-343.

Map 5
No existing maps could be used for this map.
For general works on this period see: Ma Yong and Sun Yutang, “The Western Regions under the Hsiung-nu and the Han,” in: History of civi-
lizations of Central Asia, vol. II, ed. by J. Harmatta, B. N. Puri, and G. F. Etemadi, Paris: UNESCO, 1994, pp. 227-246; B. N. Puri, “The Kushans,”
ibid., pp. 247-263; N. N. Negmatov, “States in north-western Central Asia,” in: ibid., pp. 441-456; Y. A. Zadneprovskiy, “The nomads of northern
Central Asia after the invasion of Alexander,” in: ibid., pp. 457-472; Ying-shih Yü, “The Hsiung-nu,” in: The Cambridge history of early Inner Asia,
ed. by D. Sinor, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990, pp. 118-149.
On the recent data concerning the Kushan chronology see J. Cribb, “The early Kushan kings: new evidence for chronology. Evidence from the
Rabatak Inscription of Kanishka I,” in: Coins, art, and chronology: Essays on the Pre-Islamic history of the Indo-Iranian borderlands, ed. by M.
Alram and D. E. Klimburg-Salter, Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1999, pp. 177-205.

Maps 6-10
No existing maps could be used. For general works on these periods see:
(Map 6) A. H. Dani and B. A. Litvinsky, “The Kushano-Sasanian kingdom,” in: History of civilizations of Central Asia, vol. III, ed. by B. A.
Litvinsky, Zhang Guang-da and R. Shabani Samghabadi, Paris: UNESCO, 1996, pp. 103-118; E. V. Zeimal, “The Kidarite kingdom in Central Asia,”
in: ibid., pp. 119-133; B. A. Litvinsky, “The Hephthalite Empire,” in: ibid., pp. 135-161; Zhang Guang-da, “The city-states of the Tarim basin,” in:
ibid., pp. 281-301; idem, “Kocho (Kao-ch’ang),” in: ibid., pp. 303-314; L. R. Kyzlasov, “Northern nomads,” in: ibid., pp. 315-325; A. D. H. Bivar,
“Hay¸«ila,” in: The Encyclopaedia of Islam, new ed., vol. III, 1971, pp. 303-304.
(Map 7) D. Sinor, “The First Türk Empire (553-682),” in: History of civilizations of Central Asia, vol. III, pp. 327-335; D. Sinor, “The establish-
ment and dissolution of the Türk empire,” in: The Cambridge history of early Inner Asia, ed. by D. Sinor, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1990, pp. 285-310.
See also: G. Goibov, Rannie pokhodï arabov v Sredniuyu Aziyu (644-704 gg.), Dushanbe, 1989.
(Map 8) S. G. Klyashtorny, “The second Türk Empire,” in: History of civilizations of Central Asia, vol. III, pp. 335-347; D. Sinor, “The estab-
lishment and dissolution of the Türk empire,” in: The Cambridge history of early Inner Asia, pp. 310-316.
(Map 9) A. H. Jalilov, “The Arab conquest of Transoxania,” in: History of civilizations of Central Asia, vol. III, pp. 456-465.
(Map 10) C. Mackerras, “The Uighurs,” in: The Cambridge history of early Inner Asia, pp. 320-342.

Maps 11-12
These maps are partially based on the map “Transoxiana in the 10th & 11th centuries” by C. E. Bosworth in An Historical Atlas of Islam, map 24
(a) (republished in the new edition of the atlas as map 41a). See also a detailed survey of the historical geography of the southern parts of Central
Asia: Sh. S. Kamaliddinov, Istoricheskaya geografiya yuzhnogo Sogda i Tokharistana po araboyazïchnïm istochnikam IX—nachala XIII vv., Tash-
kent: Uzbekiston, 1996 (without maps!).
Also consulted were the maps in The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 4, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975, pp. 93 (map 2) and 139
(map 3), and in Istoriya tajikskogo naroda, vol. II/1, Moscow: Nauka, 1964.
For general works see also: R. N. Frye, “The Samanids,” in: The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 4, pp. 136-161; C. E. Bosworth, “S¸m¸nids,”
in: The Encyclopaedia of Islam, new edition, vol. VIII, 1995, pp. 1025-1029; N. N. Negmatov, “The Samanid state,” in: History of civilizations of
Central Asia, vol. IV, pt. 1, ed. by M. S. Asimov and C. E. Bosworth, Paris: UNESCO, 1998, pp. 77-94; E. A. Davidovich, “The Karakhanids,” in:
ibid., pp. 119-143; P. B. Golden, “The Karakhanids and early Islam,” in: The Cambridge history of early Inner Asia, ed. by D. Sinor, Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1990, pp. 343-370.
See especially two articles by the late B. D. Kochnev: “Les frontières du royaume des Karakhanides,” in: Études karakhanides, Tachkent—Aix-
en-Provence, 2001 (Cahiers d’Asie centrale, No. 9), pp. 41-48 and a map on p. 70 (of a special importance for the borders of the Qarakhanid Qagha-
nate) and “La chronologie et la généalogie des Karakhanides du point de vue de la numismatique,” in: ibid., pp. 49-69.

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 x preface

Maps 13-17
Map 13 is partially based on the map “Map showing the extent of the Ghaznavid empire in 1030 A.D.” attached to the book by C. E. Bosworth The
Ghaznavids: Their empire in Afghanistan and eastern Iran, 994:1040, Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ., 1963 (reprinted in The Cambridge History of
Iran, vol. 4, Cambridge University Press, 1975, p. 167). Map 17 is partially based on the map “The Khw¸razm Shahs and Ghurids” by C. E. Bos-
worth in An Historical Atlas of Islam, map 24 (b) (republished in the new edition of the atlas as map 41b).
For general works see also: C. E. Bosworth, “The political and dynastic history of the Iranian world (A.D. 1000-1217),” in: The Cambridge History
of Iran, vol. 5, Cambridge University Press, 1968, pp. 1-202; C. E. Bosworth, “The Ghaznavids,” in: History of civilizations of Central Asia, vol.
IV, pt. 1, Paris: UNESCO, 1998, pp. 95-117; A. Sevim and C. E. Bosworth, “The Seljuqs and the Khwarazm Shahs,” in: ibid., pp. 145-175; K. A.
Nizami, “The Ghurids,” in: ibid., pp. 177-190; D. Sinor, “The Kitan and the Kara Khitay,” in: ibid., pp. 227-242.

Maps 18-20
No existing map could be used as a whole, but the following maps were consulted: V. L. Egorov, Istoricheskaya geografiya Zolotoy Ordï v XIII-XIV
vv., Moscow: Nauka, 1985, maps 1-2 (after p. 232).
For general work on this period see: J. A. Boyle, “Dynastic and political history of the Il-Khans,” in: The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 5,
Cambridge University Press, 1968, pp. 303-421.
See also M. Biran, Qaidu and the rise of the independent Mongol state in Central Asia, Surrey: Curzon, 1997 (a map on p. 115 was utilized for
my map 19).

Maps 21-24
No existing map could be used as a whole. For general works on these periods see: B. F. Manz, The rise and rule of Tamerlane, Cambridge: Cam-
bridge Univ. Press, 1989 (and a map on p. 26); three chapters by H. R. Roemer in The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 6, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1986 (“The Jalayirids, Muzaffarids and Sarbad¸rs,” pp. 1-41; “Tºm¢r in Iran,” pp. 42-97; “The successors of Tºm¢r,” pp. 98-145).
As geographical base for map 23 the map of Asia was used published by the National Geographic Society (March 1971).

Maps 25-31
No existing map could be used as a whole, but the following maps were consulted: “Kazakhskoe khanstvo v XV-XVII vv.,” in: Istoriya Kazakh-
stana, vol. 2, Almatï, 1997, p. 313; “Kazakhstan v XVIII v.,” in: Istoriya Kazakhskoy SSR, vol. 3, Alma-Ata, 1979, after p. 81; “Kazakhstan v pervoy
polovine XIX veka,” in: ibid., after p. 186. For map 30 the following map was consulted: I. Stebelsky, “The frontier in Central Asia,” in: Studies in
Russian historical geography, vol. 1, Academic Press, 1983, p. 150 (“The Siberian defence line”).
For general works on these periods see: R. McChesney, “Central Asia VI: In the 10th-12th/16th-18th centuries,” in: Encyclopaedia Iranica, vol.
V, 1992, pp. 176-193; Yu. Bregel, “Central Asia VII: In the 12th-13th/18th-19th centuries,” in: ibid., pp. 193-199. The work by V. V. Trepavlov,
Istoriya Nogayskoy ordï, Moscow, 2001, does not contain maps, but is important for the reconstruction of the political map of the Dasht-i Qïpchaq
in the 15th-17th centuries.

Map 32
The map is partially based on the map in N. A. Khalfin, Politika Rossii v Sredney Azii (1857-1868), Moscow: Nauka, 1960.
For general works on this period see: Yu. Bregel, “Central Asia VIII: The Russian conquest of Central Asia and the first decades of Russian rule,”
in: Encyclopaedia Iranica, vol. V, 1992, pp. 199-205.

Map 33
The map is based on the map attached to the book by V. Lobachevskiy, Voenno-statisticheskoe opisanie Turkestanskogo voennogo okruga: Khivin-
skiy rayon, Tashkent, 1912, and on the map “Khorezm in the 17th–early 19th centuries” attached to the book Shir Muhammad Mirab Munis and
Muhammad Riza Mirab Agahi, Firdaws al-iqb¸l: History of Khorezm, translated from Chaghatay and annotated by Yu. Bregel, Leiden: Brill, 1999.

Map 34
The map is partially based on the map “Sredniaya Aziya v XVII veke” attached to the book Materialï po istorii Uzbekskoy, Tajikskoy i Turkmenskoy
SSR: chast’ I: Torgovlia s Moskovskim gosudarstvom i mezhdunarodnoe polozhenie Sredney Azii v XVI-XVII vv., Leningrad, 1932, and on the map
in the article by A. N. Zelinskiy, “Drevnie puti Pamira,” in: Stranï i narodï Vostoka: Geografiya, ètnografiya, istoriya, Moscow: Nauka, 1964 (after
p. 106).
For a general work on the Central Asian trade in the 16th-17th centuries see A. Burton, The Bukharans: A dynastic, diplomatic and commercial
history, 1550-1702, New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997, pp. 363-543.

Map 35
The section of the map showing the regions north of the upper course of the Amu-Darya is based on the maps in the book by B. Kh. Karmïsheva,
Ocherki ètnicheskoy istorii yuzhnïkh rayonov Tajikistana i Uzbekistana, Moscow: Nauka, 1976, pp. 42-43, 74-75, 88-89. For the central part of the
Zerafshan basin see the map in Ètnograficheskie ocherki uzbekskogo sel’skogo naseleniya, Moscow: Nauka, 1969, p. 23. For the northern regions of
modern Afghanistan the map is based on G. Jarring, On the distribution of Turk tribes in Afghanistan, Lund—Leipzig, 1939 (with a map). For Ferghana,
the map is partly based on an ethnic map of Ferghana compiled by Daniel Prior (Indiana University).

Maps 36a-b
No existing map could be used as a whole. Partially utilized were the maps in the article: Yu. Bregel’, “Ètnicheskaya karta Yuzhnoy Turkmenii i
Khorasana v XVII-XVIII vv.,” in: Kratkie soobshcheniya Instituta ètnografii AN SSSR, vol. XXXI, Moscow, 1959, pp. 14-26.

Map 37
This map is based primarily on the map “Karta rasseleniya rodoplemennïkh grupp turkmen v dorevoliutsionnïy period” in: Narodï Sredney Azii i
Kazakhstana, II, Moscow, 1963, after p. 16, with additions from other sources for the regions beyond the borders of the former Soviet Union.

Map 38
This map is based on the maps in the book: V. V. Vostrov, M. S. Mukanov, Rodoplemennoy sostav i rasselenie kazakhov (konets XIX—nachalo XX
v.), Alma-Ata: Nauka, 1963, pp. 115, 123, 130, 133, 141, 146, 150, 156, 161, 167, 171, 176, 180, 184, 188, 192, 197, 202, 207, 211, 216, 220, 225,
229, 234, 239, with my additions for the Qazaqs in Xinjiang.

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 preface xi

Map 39
This map is based on the following maps: “Karta dorevoliutsionnogo rasseleniya rodoplemennïkh grupp kirgizov,” in: Narodï Sredney Azii i Kaza-
khstana, II, Moscow, 1963, after p. 176, and the map by S. M. Abramzon, “Rodoplemennoy sostav kirgizov Sin’tszian-Uygurskoy avtonomnoy
oblasti Kitayskoy Narodnoy Respubliki,” in: Trudï Kirgizskoy arkheologo-ètnograficheskoy èkspeditsii, vol. II, 1959, after p. 332.

Map 40
This map is based on the map “Plan Bukharï VIII-XIX vv.” by O. G. Bol’shakov, attached to the Collected Works by V. V. Bartol’d (with correc-
tions based on a review by E. A. Davidovich in Drevnost’ i srednevekov’e narodov Sredney Azii (istoriya i kul’tura), Moscow: Nauka, 1978, pp. 104-
111, and on oral suggestions by A. Naymark), combined with a map by O. A. Sukhareva in her book K istorii gorodov Bukharskogo khanstva (is-
toriko-ètnograficheskie ocherki), Tashkent, 1958, after p. 96.
Information on public buildings (on the map) and on the conditions in Bukhara in the 19th century (in the text) is based on the books by O. A.
Sukhareva: Bukhara: XIX—nachalo XX v. (Pozdnefeodal’nïy gorod i ego naselenie), Moscow: Nauka, 1966, and Kvartal’naya obshchina
pozdnefeodal’nogo goroda Bukharï (v sviazi s istoriey kvartalov), Moscow: Nauka, 1976.

Map 41
This map is based on the map “Plan Samarkanda IX-XIX vv.” by O. G. Bol’shakov, attached to the Collected Works by V. V. Bartol’d, and an
article by O. A. Sukhareva, “Oboronitel’nïe stenï Samarkanda,” in: Kul’tura i iskusstvo narodov Sredney Azii v drevnosti i srednevekov’e, Moscow:
Nauka, 1979, pp. 85-95 and ill. 34 on p. 170.

Map 42 (a-b)
These maps are based on the maps in the book by L. Man’kovskaya, V. Bulatova, Pamiatniki zodchestva Khorezma, Tashkent, 1978 (ill. 29: “Gorod
Khiva. Skhema raspolozheniya pamiatnikov” and ill. 30: “Ichan-kala. Skhema raspolozheniya pamiatnikov”) and the city map of Khiva: Khiva: Plan
goroda, Tashkent, 1991.

Map 43
No existing map could be used as a whole. The following maps were consulted: “Karta-skhema raspolozheniya pamiatnikov arkhitekturï Sredney
Azii,” in: G. A. Pugachenkova, Sredniaya Aziya: Spravochnik-putevoditel’, Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1983, pp. 426-427; L. Yu. Man’kovskaya, Arkhitek-
turnye pamiatniki Kashkadar’i, Tashkent: Uzbekistan, 1979, p. 19; L. Man’kovskaya, V. Bulatova, Pamiatniki zodchestva Khorezma, Tashkent, 1978,
map on p. 87; W. Ball and J.-C. Gardin, Archaeological gazetteer of Afghanistan, t. II, Paris, 1982, maps 78-116.

Map 44
This map is based (for the administrative borders) on the map in: V. I. Masal’skiy, Turkestanskiy kray, St. Petersburg, 1913 (Rossiya. Polnoe
geograficheskoe opisanie nashego otechestva, vol. XIX).

Map 45
This map is based mainly on the maps in Grazhdanskaya voyna i voennaya interventsiya v SSSR: Èntsiklopediya, Moscow: Sovetskaya èntsiklope-
diya, 1983 (in particular, maps after p. 208 and on pp. 377 and 379).

Map 46
This map is based on the following maps: (1) Administrativnaya karta RSFSR. Aziatskaya chast’, Petrograd, [1923]; (2) Administrativnaya karta
RSFSR. Aziatskaya chast’ [2nd ed., borders as of May 1, 1923], Petrograd, 1923; (3) Administrativnaya karta RSFSR. Aziatskaya chast’ [4th ed.,
borders as of July 1, 1924]; (4) Administrativnaya karta SSSR. Aziatskaya chast’ [5th ed., borders as of November 20, 1924]; (5) Administrativnaya
karta SSSR. Aziatskaya chast’ [10th ed., borders as of September 1, 1925]; (6) Administrativnaya karta SSSR. Aziatskaya chast’ [11th ed., borders
as of January 1, 1926].

Map 47
This map is based on the map “Kazakhstan i Sredniaya Aziya” in Atlas SSSR, Moscow, 1984 (with corrections based on the maps of Central Asia
in The Times Atlas of the World, 9th comprehensive edition, London, 1994, plates 27 and 43). The crude oil and natural gas pipelines are given
according to the maps: Oil and gas infrastructure in the Caspian Sea region, Central Intelligence Agency, March 2001; Crude oil infrastructure in
FSU Central Asia and Natural gas infrastructure in FSU Central Asia (the last two available on the Web).

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 xii preface

Abbreviations
(used on the maps, in the accompanying texts, and in the index)

can. canal
I. island
Kh. khanqah
L. lake
Md. madrasa
Mq. mosque
Ms. mausoleum
Mts. mountains
Mz. mazar
Pen. peninsula
R. river
Ra. range

General legend

bregel-vrw.pmd 12 5/26/2003, 12:38 PM

 1

MAPS

bregel1.pmd 1 5/26/2003, 1:08 PM

 2

1. THE PRINCIPAL GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES AND PROVINCES

Central Asia as defined for this publication (see the Preface) consists of two major geographical areas: the western part that includes the Turan plain
east of the Caspian Sea and the Kazakh Upland north of it, stretching eastward to the foot of the Tien-Shan and Pamir-Alay mountains and southward
to the Kopet-Dagh mountains; and the eastern part that includes the high plateaus of the Tarim basin and the Junghar basin (separated from one
another by the Tien-Shan mountains, while the Tarim basin is separated from the even higher Tibetan plateau by the Kunlun range). These two main
parts of Central Asia are often conveniently called Western and Eastern Turkestan (cf. below). The mountain systems that lie between the western
and the eastern parts of Central Asia are formed by the ranges radiating from the Pamirs mostly on east-west axes. The highest peaks in these mountains
reach 7,496 m in the Darvaz chain (in Western Turkestan) and 7,719 m in the Kongur chain (in Eastern Turkestan). Some of these ranges made the
movement of people in a longitudinal direction (especially in the Pamir-Alay) difficult, but these barriers were mostly not impenetrable.
Central Asia as a whole is characterized by an extreme continental climate, with high aridity that increases from north to south and from the mountains
to the plains. Accordingly, Central Asia is divided into three main natural regions: steppe, desert, and mountains. The steppe zone, which lies ap-
proximately north of the Aral Sea, the Sïr-Darya river, and the Tien-Shan mountains, is a part of the great steppe belt stretching across the Eurasian
continent from Manchuria in the east to Hungary in the west. The northern part of the steppe consists of grasslands that gradually become forest-
steppe bordering the Siberian forest (taiga) in the north; most of the steppe belt is, however, semidesert or desert-steppe, with very few rivers, sparse
vegetation, and some salt pans and salt lakes. South of the steppe belt lies the desert zone, which occupies the largest part of Central Asia and encompasses
three major deserts, the Qara-qum, Qïzïl-qum, and Taqla-Makan, as well as a number of smaller areas of sand desert, and the dry Üst-Yurt plateau.
With the exception of the Irtïsh river and its left tributaries that belong to the Arctic Ocean drainage and flow through the northern grasslands, all
Central Asian rivers are of internal drainage. In the western part of Central Asia, two major rivers, the Amu-Darya and the Sïr-Darya, flow, respec-
tively, from the Pamirs and the Tien-Shan to the north-west and empty into the Aral Sea (but cf. map 47). In the eastern part the main river is the
Tarim, with its tributaries that rise in the Kunlun, Pamir-Alay, and Tien-Shan mountains; it falls into the “wandering” lake Lop-nor (a remnant of
an ancient Lop Sea). Other rivers that do not belong to the basins of the Amu-Darya, Sïr-Darya, and Tarim dry up in blind deltas in the sands. All
major Central Asian rivers are fed by melting snow in the mountains (in spring) and especially the melting ice of numerous mountain glaciers (in
summer). The Amu-Darya, in its lower course, has changed its riverbed repeatedly. In prehistoric times it probably fell into the Caspian Sea, instead
of the Aral Sea; the dry bed known as Uzboy is the remainder of this ancient course, and the flow of water through it, at least partially, was renewed
several times during the historic period, most notably in the early 13th and late 14th centuries. The delta of the Amu-Darya was characterized by
frequent changes in the direction and configuration of the various arms of the river (sometimes these changes were man-made). For a certain time
during the first and early second millenium A.D. the Amu-Darya and the Sïr-Darya had a common delta, and later on the arms of the Sïr-Darya delta
would also change their configuration. The Tarim also had a migratory delta whose arms would change and sometimes entirely dry up.
Most of the Central Asian plains in the desert zone have a very fertile yellow loess soil, but, because of the extremely dry climate, it can be used
for agriculture only with the help of artificial irrigation (dry farming has existed mostly in the piedmont areas, but it has never been of major im-
portance). Such agriculture developed in the central parts of Central Asia since the second millenium B.C., and it has remained the economic basis
of the Central Asian civilization. At about the same time, pastoralist stock-breeding developed in the steppe areas. The sedentary population lived
in oases in the irrigated river basins, which became the centers of agriculture and urban life, while the stock-breeders nomadized in the steppes.
These two groups were never isolated from one another, however, and, in many ways, they were dependent on one another. The urban centers in the
oases developed a sophisticated civilization whose influence spread far into the steppes. But militarily and politically the nomads were predominant
for many centuries, due to their superior mobility and military prowess.
The desert zone of Central Asia can also be described as a “sedentary zone,” because it was the area in which all the settled rural and urban population
was located. But in this “sedentary zone” the oases occupied only a small part of the area, and they were interspersed with steppe and desert, which
could be quite close even to the major population centers (like Bukhara and Khiva). Therefore, throughout historic times, groups of nomads, some-
times very substantial ones, could be found within the “sedentary zone,” occupying these ecological niches, while the areas of sedentary population
would almost never form a large compact territory. In some desert regions the sedentary population was concentrated in relatively small isolated
oases surrounded by vast expanses of desert, as was the case in Eastern Turkestan.
The majority of the sedentary population of Central Asia was concentrated in five regions: the Zerafshan and the Qashqa-Darya river valleys (known
as Soghd in pre-Islamic and early Islamic times), Khorezm (the area of the lower course of the Amu-Darya, with its delta), Ferghana (the fertile basin
in the middle course of the Sïr-Darya), Chach, or Shash, together with Ilaq (the area in the basin of the Chirchik and the Ahangeran, right tributaries
of the Sïr-Darya), and in the area of Balkh, south of the Amu-Darya. All regions between the middle and upper course of the Amu-Darya and the
Sïr-Darya were known in Islamic times as “M¸" war¸" an-Nahr” (in simplified transcription, Mavarannahr), lit. “That which is beyond the River” (i.e.
beyond the Amu), which corresponds to the “Transoxiana,” or “Transoxania” (“That which is beyond the Oxus”) of classical authors; the name
Mavarannahr was used in Central Asia until as late as the early 20th century. The region to the south of the upper course of the Amu-Darya and north
of the Hindukush mountains was known in the Islamic period as Tokharistan; this term was used also in a wider sense, including also the highlands
north of the upper course of the Amu-Darya. The Amu-Darya was traditionally considered the border between Iran and Central Asia, and the lands
south of it belonged to Khorasan—the north-eastern province of Iran; the actual political boundaries would only seldom run along the river, and,
since the Özbek conquest, the parts of Khorasan north of the Kopet-Dagh and east of the Murghab mostly belonged to different Central Asian states.
There was another geographical term, Turkestan (or Turkistan, lit. “The land of the Turks”), loosely applied to Central Asia or to different parts of
it. It changed its meaning with the changes in the ethnic composition of the population and state boundaries, and it is actually misleading for the
early periods of Central Asian history, when no Turks were yet historically attested; but by the end of the 19th century three parts of Turkestan were
usually distinguished: Western (or Russian), Eastern (or Chinese), and Afghan Turkestan. The terms Eastern and Western Turkestan can still be
conveniently used to distinguish between two major geographical and historical regions of Central Asia, although the term Eastern Turkestan is often
used only for the Tarim basin, excluding Jungharia—the region north of the Tien-Shan. Separate parts of the Tarim basin region have been known
only under the names of the cities that were their centers (in pre-Islamic times, city-states), although sometimes the name Kashghar, or Kashgharia,
was applied to Eastern Turkestan as a whole. The steppe lands of Central Asia, north of the Aral Sea and the Sïr-Darya, became known to the Islamic
geographers under the names of the nomadic peoples who were dominant in these steppes. Accordingly, beginning in the 8th century A.D. the steppe
region was called “the Steppe of the Ghuzz” (i.e. Oghuz), and, beginning in the 11th century, it became “the Steppe of the Qïpchaqs” (Dasht-i Qïpchaq
in Persian). This latter name remained in the local usage down to the 19th century, although the Qïpchaqs disappeared as the dominant ethnic group
in the steppes after the Mongol conquest.
A separate part of the steppe belt of Western Turkestan is the region between the Tien-Shan in the south and Lake Balkhash in the north known
under its Turkic name Yeti-su (or Zheti-su) or, in Western literature, under the Russian version of this name, “Semirech’e”—literally, “Seven rivers.”

bregel1.pmd 2 5/26/2003, 1:08 PM

bregel1.pmd

A B C D E

Lands of ancient irrigation

Kazan'

L
Tara

K a ma 100 0 100 200 300 400 KM

l
bo
To
A
1 1
W E S T E R N S I B E R I A
3

Omsk

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a ll Sands
g

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A
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3 Qongrat T EY
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5/26/2003, 1:08 PM

Awliya-Ata -

r-D
Turkestan L.

A
amïsh Pishkek
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arïq Köhne-Urgench K I R G I A rï s
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Baku Tashhawz Desert at L ï su

sk
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n
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Khiva Hazarasp T A R A L Uchturfan rim or
A K S H A Ta op-n
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t a Kulab
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4 L Termez B A DAK H P 4
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Herat I D - A
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A B C D E

3
© Yuri Bregel 2003

1. THE PRINCIPAL GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES AND PROVINCES

 4

2. MAJOR ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES

Central Asia has thousands of archeological sites, beginning from the paleolithic down to the recent Islamic. The prehistoric sites are outside of the
scope of this atlas, which begins with the end of the Achaemenid period.
Archeological work began in Central Asia during the last decades of the 19th century, with the first Russian (mostly amateurish) archeological
excavations in Western Turkestan and western and Russian scholarly expeditions in Eastern Turkestan. During the following century archeological
work developed on a large scale, especially in the former Soviet Central Asia, but also in Eastern Turkestan and Afghan Turkestan. In the former
Soviet Central Asia some archeological work was done since the 1920s, but large scale and systematic archeological work began since the mid-
1930s, by several major long-term expeditions from Moscow, Leningrad (now St.Petersburg), and Tashkent. In Eastern Turkestan the study of ar-
cheological remains was undertaken, since the 1890s, by a number of relatively short-term expeditions of British, Russian, German, French, Japan-
ese, and (lately) Chinese scholars. In Afghan Turkestan archeological excavations were begun in the 1920s, originally by French scholars, and later
also by American, Japanese, Italian, Russian, and Afghan archeologists. As a result of these multinational efforts, numerous archeological discoveries
have been made. Ancient and medieval remains that have been discovered range from single objects, like weapons, utensils, coins, and works of art,
to single structures, like temples, palaces, and fortresses, to entire settlements and cities. Material produced by the excavations comes from all his-
torical periods. A number of ancient and medieval cities of Central Asia has been systematically studied by archeologists. In the city of Penjikend,
which ceased to exist in the 8th century A.D., almost 50% of its territory has been excavated.

bregel1.pmd 4 5/26/2003, 1:08 PM

bregel1.pmd

A B C D E

Pre-Islamic sites Khorezm (including lower Sïr- 37. Tompaq-asar 61. Nur-Ata 90. Talashkan-tepe 118. Varshez 144. Eylatan 168. Ravak
Darya and Uzboy): 38. Zhalpaq-asar 62. Qurghan-tepe 91. Dalverzin-tepe 119. Toquzbulaq 145. Marhamat 169. Khotan
Islamic sites 10. Beleuli 39. Babish-Mulla 63. Qala-i Dabus [=Dabusiya] 92. Khalchayan 120. Patkhur 146. Quva [=Quba] 170. Yotkan
Sites having both pre-Islamic 11. Ush-quduq 40. Chirik-rabat 64. Rabinjan-tepe [=Arbinjan] 93. Budrach 121. Mienakuh 147. Dalverzin 171. Khadalik
and Islamic strata 12. Dev-Kesken [=Vezir] 41. Tagisken 148. Shurabashat 172. Balavaste
65. Ishtikhan 94. Shahr-i nau Middle Sïr-Darya, Shash,
13. Qanga-qala 42. Jana-qala [=Jend] 66. Durman-tepe 95. Dushanbe Ferghana, Talas, Chu, Semirech‘e: 149. Uzgen [=Uzgend] 173. Old Niya
Historical names of the same sites 14. Ighdï-qala
are given in square brackets. The Middle Amu-Darya: 67. Afrasiyab [=Samarqand] 96. Tup-khana 122. Chuy-tobe [=Shavgar] 150. Bek-tobe [=Juvikat] 174. Endere
15. Talaykhan-Ata
1 names of archeological sites 43. Jigirbend 68. Kuldor-tepe [=Maymurg] 97. Yavan 123. Kuyruk-tobe 151. Juvan-tobe [=Taraz] 175. Aqsu 1
5

coinciding with the modern 16. Hayvan-qala 69. Talibarzu 98. Munchak-tepe 124. Otrar-tobe [=Otrar] 152. Sadïr-qurghan [=Shelji] 176. Qïzïl
placenames are given in italics. 44. Darghan-Ata
17. Toq-qala 70. Jar-tepa 99. Lagman [=Halaverd] 125. Sayram [=Isfijab] 153. Qos-tobe 177. Okhur
45. Daya-Khatïn [=Rabat
18. Giaur-qala [=Mizdahqan] 71. Kaynar-su [=Penjikent] 100. Ajina-tepe 126. Chinaz 154. Tortkol-tobe [=Lower 178. Qumtura
Archeological sites by regions: Tahiriya]
19. Tash-qala [=Gurganj] 72. Old Kitab 101. Kafïr-qala 127. Shahrukhiya [=Benaket, Barskhan] 179. Kucha
Northern Khorasan 46. Shay-Zengir-depe
20. Küzeli-ghïr 73. Yer-Qurghan [=Nakhsheb] 102. Shuturmula Shahrukhiya] 155. Lugovoe [=Kulan] 180. Qïzïl
(S. Turkmenistan): 47. Odey-depe
21. Shahsenem 74. Shulluk-tepe [=Nakhsheb] 103. Takht-i Sangin 128. Kanka [=Kharashket] 156. Aspara [=Ashpara] 181. Sübashi
1. Mashhad-i Misriyan 48. Yassï-depe
22. Qalalï-ghïr II 75. Kuhna Pazdi [=Bezda] 104. Ayvaj 129. Khanabad-tepe [=Nujket] 157. Sokuluk [=Jul] 182. Simsim
(”Mestorian”) [=Dihistan] 49. Khazarek-depe
23. Qalalï-ghïr I 76. Kasba 105. Qala-i Zal 130. Ming-Ürük [=Chach, Binket] 158. Krasnaya Rechka [=Nevaket] 183. Qarashahr
2. Taq [=Yazïr, Durun] 50. Üsti-qala
24. Köhne-Uas 77. Qala-i Tepe 106. Sayyed 131. Kavardan [=Kabarna] 159. Aq-Beshim [=Suyab] 184. Shorchuk
3. Nesa (2 sites: pre-Islamic 51. Old Farab
and Islamic) 25. Zmukhshir [=Zamakhshar] 78. Mugh 107. Ay-Khanum [=Antiochia on 132. Ulkan-Toy-tepe [=Nuket] 160. Burana [=Balasaghun] 185. Miran
52. Khoja-Idat-qala
4. Anau 26. Khiva 79. Gardani-Hisor the Oxus] 133. Imlak [=Tunket] 161. Issïq 186. Loulan
53. Zuhra-i Tahir [=Nevida]
5. Köhne Kaahka 27. Topraq-qala 80. Shahristan 108. Jar-tepe 134. Khojikent 162. Ucharal 187. Turfan
54. Shor-depe
28. Qavat-qala 81. Chil-Hujra 109. Surkh-Kotal 135. Burchmula 163. Antonovskoe 188. Yar-Khoto
6. Köhne Serakhs 55. Shor-depe I-II
29. Qïrq-qïz-qala 82. Buzghala 110. Bamiyan 136. Khojend 189. Qocho (Qara-Khoja)
7. Yaz-depe 56. Kerki Eastern Turkestan:
30. Bazar-qala 83. Tilla-tepe 111. Begram [=Kapisa] 137. Qarabulaq 190. Idiqut-shahri
8. Köhne Kishman Mavarannahr (Soghd, 164. Tashqurghan
[=Kushmeyhen] 31. Janbas-qala Ustrushana, Pamir), and 84. Dilberjin 112. Vanch-qala 138. Isfara 191. Astana
165. Kashghar
9. Old Merv (4 sites: Erk-qala – 32. Qoy-Qrïlghan-qala Tokharistan: 85. Balkh 113. Kafïr-qala 139. Qala-i Bolo 192. Qomul (Hami)
166. Yarkend
pre-Islamic,Giaur-qala – pre- 33. Hazarasp 57. Paykend 86. Balalïq-tepe 114. Kaahka 140. Sokh 193. Bishbalïq (Beiting)
167. Tumshuq
2 Islamic, Sultan-qala – Islamic, 34. Baraq-Tam 58. Jar-tepe [=Varakhsha] 87. Zar-tepe 115. Yamchun 141. Chust 2
Bayram-Ali-khan-qala – 35. Jankent [=Yangikent] 59. Bukhara 88. Old Termez 116. Vrang 142. Kasan-tepe [=Kasan]
Islamic) 100 0 100 200 300 400 KM
36. Altïn-asar 60. Yangi Vardanzi [=Vardana] 89. Ayrtam 117. Ratm 143. Akhsiket L. Z
aysa n

Lake Balkhash

u
L.

-s
rï
Ala-köl

Sa
163 193
S e a

35
‘E
36 L. Ebi-nur
10 Aral 37 Ili H 189 192
Sea 38 Sï
r-
C 162
187
39 42 E 191
I R

D
11 r ya 188 190

a
40 Ch
41 Ta u M
S E
s p i a n

las
161 es L. Baghrash-köl
34 Tek 183

M R-
T C

S
122
3 16 H 3

Ï
ID DA
153 U 181
5/26/2003, 1:08 PM

155

A
158 184
19 17 123 154 180

L
D
150 N
K

12 H 124 151 A 156 157 159 160 177

L
22 O 18 29 152 S
182 A

E
Lake 27 L . I s sïq - k ö l 178 179 T 186

Aq
20 R 30 su 176 S

Y
Sarïqamïsh 23 24 E 28 31 125 Narï n E
13 or

A
21 25 Z 32 134 135 175
ar i
m K o p-n
M 130 142 R L. L

T
26 S H A SH
C a

33 143 144 148 U

Am u

129 131 185

en
126 132 141 T

ch
43 61 149 167
zboy 128 145 147
-D

er
15 44 60 62 U S 127 133
G A N A Ch
U

ary a

TR R N
F E138
77 U 136 146
M

14 45 58 65
66 67 S 165 R
80
ID

S 59 63 140 E
H

139
50 O 64 71 81 r
AN

137 K ashgh a T
D

46 57 G 68 S
78

n
2 76 73 H 69 70
A
L

1 51
A 174

Khota
47 D 79
E

48 72 h E
94 95 173
M 49 53 75 74
A

hs

3 96 112 166
ak

A 4 U 51 55 93
t re 97 W 168
Gorg a
n k 7 8 -D 82 92 nj 164
N 120 121 R 171
Pa

5 A 54 56 90 91 A
R 86 99 100 I 169
T

9 Y 98 113 119 M 172

87
S

4 A 102 I 106 4
118 A 117 170
K H O R A S A N 84 88 89 R 101
103
107
P115 116 Ya
A

6 85 104 105 ok c ha r k e nd
H

83 K 108 114
Mu r

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111
d 110
A B C D E

5
© Yu r i B r e g e l 2 0 0 3

2. MAJOR ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES

 6

3. CENTRAL ASIA AT THE TIME OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT (4TH CENTURY B.C.)

The first reliable (though still rather scanty) historical information on Central Asia comes from the first half of the 6th century B.C., when all the
regions south of the Aral Sea in the western part of Central Asia were included into the Persian Empire of the Achaemenids. By this century notable
progress in the development of agriculture based on artificial irrigation had taken place in the major river valleys, and the first large cities had begun
to emerge in Soghd, Bactria, Margiana, Parthia, and, probably a little later, in Chorasmia (Khorezm). These regions were inhabited by sedentary
peoples speaking languages that belonged to the eastern branch of the Iranian linguistic group: Soghdians, Bactrians, Parthians, and Khorezmians.
The steppes were dominated by nomadic tribes whose language (or languages) belonged to the same group and who were collectively called Scyth-
ians by the Greek authors and Sakas by the Persians. Apparently, the Sakas, as well as a different Indo-European people, Tocharians, known from
the later period, also inhabited the eastern part of Central Asia, although there is no reliable information on Eastern Turkestan for the middle of the
1st millenium B.C. Several distinct groups (confederations?) of the Sakas were mentioned in Old Persian Inscriptions and by Greek authors, such as
Massagetae, Apasiacae, Dahae, Saka Tigrakhauda (“the Sakas who wear pointed hats”) and Saka Haumavarga (“the Sakas who boil haoma,” an
intoxicating drink), but there is often conflicting information on their location; the map shows their approximate locations in the 4th century B.C.
The first Persian campaign into Central Asia took place in 530 B.C. under Cyrus II, who tried to subdue the Massagetae living at that time, ap-
parently, east of the Caspian Sea; in this campaign Cyrus’ army was utterly defeated and he was killed. The route of the campaign and the place of
the battle are unknown, but the year 530 B.C. is the first firmly established date of Central Asian history. Some time after the death of Cyrus his
conquests in Central Asia (and elsewhere) were lost by the Achaemenids, but they were completely recovered by Darius II in 522 B.C. (the second
firmly attested date in Central Asian history), after which he also subdued a part of the Sakas. After that all the sedentary regions of western Central
Asia as well as some of the Saka lands remained as satrapies (provinces) of the Persian Empire. According to Herodotus (III, 92-93), Bactria formed
the 12th satrapy of the empire, while the Parthians, Chorasmians, Arians, and Soghdians were included into the 16th satrapy. The Central Asian
satrapies remained a part of the Achaemenid empire until the end of its existence, with the exception of Chorasmia (Khorezm) which became inde-
pendent at the beginning of the 4th century B.C.; Central Asian contingents served in the Achaemenid army.
The Achaemenid empire was destroyed by Alexander the Great in the military campaigns that lasted from 334 to 327 B.C. The route of these
campaigns is described by Greek authors. The last Achaemenid king, Darius III, who fled from Alexander having lost several battles, was killed by
his commanders from eastern satrapies in 330 B.C. in the region of Damghan. The fight against Alexander was continued under the satrap of Bactria,
Bessos, who proclaimed himself king under the name Artaxerxes; he was, however, soon deposed by his allies, delivered to Alexander, and executed.
Alexander crossed the Oxus (Amu-Darya) and captured the main urban center of Soghd, Smarakanda (in Greek transcription—Marakanda). But the
war was continued under the leadership of a Soghdian chief, Spitamana (recorded in the Greek sources as Spitamenes), in alliance with neighboring
nomads, and Alexander had to spend the following three years in Central Asia fighting the determined resistance of Bactrians, Soghdians, and Sakas.
Only after the death of Spitamana at the hand of Massagetae chieftains in the fall of 328 B.C. was Alexander able to pacify the country, but he had
to lure to his side the local aristocrats by appointing them to administrative posts and encouraging marriages between his Greek and Macedonian
companions and the local noblewomen; he himself married the Bactrian (or Soghdian) princess Roxana in the spring of 327. During the campaign
in Bactria and Soghdiana, Alexander also began to recruit Iranian levies into his army. The only sedentary region of Central Asia that was not af-
fected by Alexander’s conquest was Khorezm. The son of the Khorezmian king Phrataphernes, named Pharasmanes, came to Alexander with a small
cavalry force offering his submission, together with that of the Massagetae and Dahae, and expressing his readiness to guide Alexander to the Black
Sea if the latter would campaign there; Alexander declined the offer but concluded a friendly pact with the Khorezmians.
Of special importance for the future history of Central Asia was the Greek colonization that already accompanied the military campaigns and
continued after them. Alexander settled military colonists, probably veterans, who came with him from Greece and Macedonia, in the newly estab-
lished garrisons, citadels, and towns that were founded for military, administrative, or commercial purposes and then mostly became provincial centers;
some of them took the place of already existing towns that were now populated (or repopulated) by the colonists. They became known under the
designation of Alexandria. Out of seventy of them mentioned in the sources, the following were in Central Asia: Alexandria of Margiana, the capital
of Margiana (on the site of the later Merv; however, some scholars doubt that such an Alexandria actually existed, because Alexander never came
to Margiana); Alexandria in Ariana, capital of Ariana (Areia), identified with Hare/Herat; Alexandria of Bactriana, identified with Bactra/Bahl/Balkh;
Alexandria ad Caucasum, capital of Paropamisadai, usually identified with Begram (according to some, with either Bamiyan or Charikar); Alexan-
dria on the Oxus, identified with the archeological site Ay-Khanum (see map 2); Alexandria Eschatae (“the Farthest”; possibly near, or on the site
of, modern Khojend on the Sïr-Darya). The main area of Greek colonization in Central Asia was Bactria, and it was there that a new Hellenistic
culture, based on a fusion of local and Greek traditions, developed (see map 4).

bregel1.pmd 6 5/26/2003, 1:08 PM

bregel1.pmd

A B C D E

Approximate extension of the

Achaemenid Empire in Central Asia by
the time of Alexander
Approximate extension of the
conquests of Alexander the Great in
Central Asia
Route of the campaign of the main

ol
army of Alexander

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Routes of the campaigns of some

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100 0 100 200 300 400 KM

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5/26/2003, 1:09 PM

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A B to Drangiana and Arachosia C to the Indus D E

7
© Yu r i B r e g e l 2 0 0 3

3. CENTRAL ASIA AT THE TIME OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT (4TH CENTURY B.C.)
 8

4. 3RD-2ND CENTURIES B.C.: PARTHIA, BACTRIA, AND THE YUEZHI

After the death of Alexander (323 B.C.) and the wars between his generals that lasted for two decades, his empire was finally divided into three
separate states: one with the center in Macedonia, another one with the center in Egypt, and the third one, with the center in Mesopotamia; the latter,
under Seleucus I and his descendants, included Iran and the regions of Central Asia that had been conquered by Alexander. Antiochus, the son of
Seleucus and the daughter of Spitamenes (see map 3), became co-ruler with his father in charge of the eastern regions of the empire, apparently with
his residence in Bactra, the capital of Bactria. During the reign of Seleucus, Bactria and Margiana apparently suffered from attacks of nomads from
the north (whose origin is unknown), and Alexandria in Margiana and Alexandria Eschatae were destroyed. It is believed that the military campaigns
of the Seleucid general Demodamos in Margiana and as far as the Yaxartes (Sïr-Darya) between 293 and 280 B.C. were a response to these nomadic
inroads. Alexandria in Margiana was restored as Antiochia in Margiana (however, according to another theory, Antiochia was the first city built by
the Greeks in Margiana), and Alexandria Eschatae was rebuilt as Antiochia in Scythia. Long ramparts which were used to defend the oases of Antiochia
in Margiana, of Marakanda (Smarakanda) in Soghd, of Bactra, and of Alexandria in Aria were built or restored. During his own reign (281-261 B.C.)
Antiochus I was occupied with the affairs of the west of his empire, while new Greek colonies were being established along the main route from
Mesopotamia to Bactra. There was a continuing influx of Greek colonists from the west, the Hellenization of Bactria and Parthia advanced consid-
erably, and their economy flourished.
By the middle of the 3rd century B.C. the governors of Parthia and Bactria seceded from the Seleucids. In Parthia the new independent ruler was
soon killed as a result of an invasion from the north by the nomadic Parni, under Arsaces, who founded a new Parthian kingdom. In Bactria it was
its satrap Diodotus who founded the new independent state known in the historical literature as the Greco-Bactrian kingdom. Both new kingdoms
successfully withstood the attempts of the Seleucids to reconquer them. The most serious attempt was made by the Seleucid Antiochus III in 208
B.C., when he set out for an eastern campaign, defeated Parthia, and besieged the Bactrian king Euthydemus in Bactra (Zariaspa); the siege lasted
for two years, and in the end Antiochus left, recognizing Bactria’s independence. After this Parthia and Greco-Bactria pursued their own territorial
expansion, Parthia mainly to the west, to Mesopotamia, and Greco-Bactria to the south, into India. Their borders shifted with the success or failure
of their military campaigns. The northern limits of Parthia extended up to the Uzboy bed of the Oxus (Amu-Darya), while in the east Parthia captured
from the Greco-Bactrian kingdom the provinces of Margiana (with the city of Antiochia in Margiana) and Aria (with the city of Hare/Antiochia in
Aria). The northern border of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom ran along the Oxus (Amu-Darya), probably from the latitude of the later Amul (Charjuy)
up to the place west of Antiochia Tarmata (Termez), then turned north and then east along the Hisar range; the limits of its maximum expansion to
the east are not quite clear, but it is assumed that the Greeks did not reach the Tarim basin. The southern expansion of Greco-Bactria, beyond the
Hindukush mountains, began under king Demetrius I, around 185 B.C. While Demetrius was in India, a Greek noble named Eucratides rebelled and
overthrew Demetrius around 171 B.C., after which Eucratides continued the conquests in northern India. The Indian possessions of Greco-Bactria
soon became a separate Indo-Greek kingdom that later disintegrated into a number of small principalities, the last of which survived until the first
years A.D.
There is very little historical information on the situation in the sedentary regions of Central Asia north of Parthia and Bactria during the same
period. Chorasmia (Khorezm) which became independent already before the end of Achaemenid rule (see map 3) seems to have prospered econom-
ically, to judge from archeological data, but no historical data on it are available. Not much more is known about the history of Soghdiana during
this time. It is not even clear what its relationship to Bactria was, or whether the Soghdian cities recognized the authority of the Greco-Bactrian kings
(earlier Soghd had been included into the Seleucid empire); there is, instead, some evidence to the contrary. Similarly, there is no information on
Ferghana, and the hypothesis that it was a part of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom remains unsubstantiated.
By the middle of the 2nd century B.C. there was a growing threat of invasion of the sedentary regions by the nomads from the north. The names
of these nomadic groups are known primarily from Chinese sources, due to the Chinese interest in, and closer relations with, the regions lying north
and west of China that developed in the 2nd-1st centuries B.C. under the Han dynasty. In the north-eastern periphery of Central Asia the most important
such group was Xiongnu (in older transcription Hsiung-nu), whose chieftains united under their leadership a number of other nomadic groups and
by the end of the 3rd—early 2nd centuries B.C. established a polity that is usually considered the first historically attested nomadic “empire”; its
center was in Inner Mongolia. Some scholars believe that the Xiongnu language (or languages) belonged to the Turkic (or at least “Altaic”) family,
but this is far from being proved. To the south-west of the Xiongnu, in the area later known as the Gansu corridor, and farther west, to the Tien-Shan
mountains, lived a powerful nomadic group known to the Chinese as Yuezhi (in older transcription Yüeh-chih). The Yuezhi are usually equated with
the Tokharians of western sources, i.e. a people who spoke an Indo-European, but not Iranian language. North of the Yuezhi and to the north of the
Tien-Shan was another nomadic people called in Chinese sources Wusun, of unknown ethnic origin and linguistic affiliation; the Wusun had mostly
hostile relations with both the Yuezhi and the Xiongnu. Eastern Turkestan and the regions between the Tien-Shan and the middle course of the Yaxartes
(Sïr-Darya) were, as before, inhabited by various groups of the Saka, the westernmost of whom was probably called Sacaraucae in Western sources.
The region north of the middle and lower course of the Yaxartes, up to the Aral Sea, was occupied by people (possibly Indo-European, and evidently
numerous) called Kangju in Chinese sources. Finally, the steppes to the north-west of the Aral Sea were inhabited by the Sarmatians, who had re-
placed the Scythians in the 3rd century B.C.
The turmoil in the steppes of Central Asia began with the southwestern expansion of the Xiongnu in the 170s B.C. The Yuezhi, after their defeat
by the Xiongnu in about 176 B.C., split into two groups, of which the smaller one, the “Lesser Yuezhi,” migrated to the south-east, to the northeast-
ern limits of Tibet, while the Great Yuezhi attacked the Wusun, their neighbors to the west, who retreated to the Ili valley. The Yuezhi migrated
farther south-west, on their way displacing some Saka groups from Eastern Turkestan and the Sacaraucae from the Middle Yaxartes; the Saka mi-
grated, through the Pamirs, to northern India, while the Sacaraucae and others came to the eastern limits of Parthia and eventually to the Helmend
river basin that from then on became known as Sakastan, later Sistan. In the course of their migration the Saka destroyed the Greco-Bactrian king-
dom. The last king of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom, Heliocles, ruled until about 141 B.C. The Yuezhi soon followed the Saka into Bactria, having
passed through Ferghana. In the second half of the 130s B.C. the Great Yuezhi occupied the regions north of the Oxus (both northern Bactria and
Soghdiana), while the part of Bactria south of the Oxus disintegrated into a large number of city-states recognizing the supreme authority of the
Yuezhi. As distinct from Bactria, Parthia successfully withstood the nomadic attacks, and during the reign of Mithridates II (123-87 B.C.) it reached
an unprecedented might.

bregel1.pmd 8 5/26/2003, 1:09 PM

bregel1.pmd

A B C D E

Borders of the Seleucid Empire to the Migrations of the Saka and the Yuezhi
middle of the 3rd century B.C. in the 2nd half of the 2nd century B.C.

Borders of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom 170s B.C. Attacks of the Xiongnu on the Yuezhi

Borders of the Arsacid Empire (Parthia) Migration of the Wusun

Borders of the region disputed by Probable routes of the campaign of

Parthia and Greco-Bactria Demodamos to Antiochia in Margiana
and across the Yaxartes between 293

ol
Borders of Khorezm and 280 B.C.

b
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1 1
9

100 0 100 200 300 400 KM

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A B C D E

9
© Yu r i B r e g e l 2 0 0 3

4. 3RD-2ND CENTURIES B.C.: PARTHIA, BACTRIA, AND THE YUEZHI

 10

5. 1ST CENTURY B.C.—2ND CENTURY A.D.: PARTHIA, THE KUSHANS, THE HAN, AND THE XIONGNU

Some time after having established themselves in the former Bactrian territory north of the Oxus (see map 4), the Yuezhi crossed the Oxus and
occupied the rest of the former Greco-Bactrian kingdom. Initially, the territory captured by the Yuezhi was divided into five independent kingdoms,
or principalities, each under a ruler with the title of yabghu. Probably at the end of the 1st century B.C. or in the early 1st century A.D. the yabghu
of one of these principalities, which was called Kusana, or Kushana (possibly a tribal name, according to some scholars), conquered the other four,
thus founding a new royal dynasty, with rulers of Yuezhi (Tokharian?) origin, known in the historical literature as that of the Kushans. The political
history of the Kushans was until recently rather obscure because of the problem of their chronology; only a newly discovered Kushan inscription has
allowed scholars to establish with greater certainty the names and the succession of their first kings. Certain facts concerning the territorial expansion
of the Kushans are established with some certainty. The name of the yabghu who defeated the other four yabghus and made himself the first king
of the Kushans was Kujula Kadphises, who reigned from 30 to 78 A.D. Under him the Kushan kingdom conquered the regions of Kabul and Kash-
mir. His son, Vima Takto (78-90 or 78-110 A.D.), and grandson, Vima II Kadphises (90-100 or 110-120 A.D.), continued the expansion in India and
conquered vast areas there, down to Mathura in the south. Vima Kadphises was succeeded by his son, Kanishka I (100-126 or 120-146 A.D.), the
most famous king of this dynasty (which is often called “the Great Kushans”). Under him the Kushan empire reached its greatest might, although
the limits of its expansion are very debatable. The center of the empire was, probably, in Purushapura (modern Peshavar). The regions north of the
Hindukush mountains, which had been included into the Greco-Bactrian kingdom, retained their great importance also under the Kushans, and Bactra
may have been the second capital of the empire. The northern borders of the Kushan empire are not clear. They seem to have coincided more or less
with the borders of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom (cf. map 4); in the middle course of the Amu-Darya the Kushans held a narrow stretch of land along
both banks of the river up to the latitude of the later Amul. Khorezm was certainly independent (and so too was Ferghana, under its own kings); the
same is true with Soghd, divided into four or five separate principalities. In the west, the border with Parthia remained more or less stable, while the
Saka satraps of Sind seemed to have recognized Kushan authority. In the east, the Kushan expansion into the Tarim basin collided with the expan-
sion in the opposite direction of China, under the Han dynasty.
In the 2nd century B.C., at the time when the Xiongnu drove out the Yuezhi from Eastern Turkestan, this region was divided among more than
thirty city-states (nine of which were predominant), each occupying a separate oasis along the northern and southern rims of the Taqla-Makan desert;
Chinese authors called them “Walled city-states of the Western Regions.” When the Xiongnu were at the height of their power, in the early 2nd
century B.C., they collected tribute from these city-states. By the end of the same century, the Xiongnu were losing their position in this region to
the Han. In 121 B.C. the Han established their control over the Gansu corridor—the main link between China and Eastern Turkestan. As early as in
101 B.C. the Han general Li Guangli campaigned already as far as Ferghana; he did not conquer it, but, after a long siege of the capital (apparently
Kasan), he received as tribute a large number of horses. After continuing defeats, the Xiongnu withdrew from Eastern Turkestan, and in 60 B.C. the
Han established the post of “Protector General of the Western Regions,” an official subordinate to the central government, in charge of all the oasis-
states of the Tarim basin; the Han also founded a number of small military agricultural colonies, where soldier-farmers were settled. But Han rule
was indirect: the local dynasties remained in place (receiving a formal investiture from the Han emperor), and they often pursued independent pol-
icies in their relations with one another. Thus, in the first half of the 1st century A.D., the principality of Shache (Yarkend) achieved hegemony in
the south of the Tarim basin, while in the 60s A.D. Yutian (Hotan) and Loulan strengthened at the expense of Yarkend. After the end of the Western
(or Early) Han dynasty in China, as well as during the reign of Wang Mang (9-23 A.D.) and the following years, down to the middle of the 1st
century A.D., China lost its position in the “Western Regions.” However, owing to the activity of the Later Han general Ban Chao (73-102 A.D.),
Han authority was restored, and in 94 A.D. it was recognized by all the city-states of the “Western Regions.” In 74 A.D. the Kushans took part in
the subjugation of Yarkend, in alliance with Ban Chao, but in 90 the Kushans attacked Ban Chao (through the Pamirs) and were repelled. Later Han
authority in the “Western Regions” declined again. Formally, the Chinese protectorate over the “Western Regions” existed until 107 A.D. In 107-
123 A.D. the northern part of the Tarim basin was dominated by the Northern Xiongnu (see below), while Hotan was probably occupied by the
Kushans. The Xiongnu were defeated in 126 A.D. by Ban Chao’s son, Ban Yun, who was given the title “Secretary General,” instead of Protector
General, of the “Western Regions.” This was the last success of the Han in Eastern Turkestan. The internal situation of the Han empire deteriorated
in the middle of the 2nd century A.D.; the dynasty fell in 220 A.D., but it had already lost the “Western Regions” in the 180s A.D. The Kushans
took advantage of the fall of the Han and the weakening of the Chinese positions in the Tarim basin and incorporated at least the southwestern part
of this region into their empire sometime in the early 3rd century A.D.
Kushan rule was of great importance in the cultural history of Central Asia, India, and China. Mahayana Buddhism spread widely in the Kushan
empire and beyond, but their rule was also distinguished by religious tolerance and patronage of the arts; it was under the Kushans that the syncre-
tistic Gandhara and Mathura schools of art developed. The Kushan period was also marked by the flourishing of international trade along the “Great
Silk Road” (or, better, “Route)” which connected China with Central Asia, Parthia, and the Roman Empire. (The name “Great Silk Road” was first
introduced by K. Richthofen in 1877; it was given because of the special importance of silk in China’s international trade, as well as in her relations
with neighboring nomads.) During the Kushan period, the route was dominated by Indian merchants and colonists, but it was of great commercial
and political importance for the Han, whose expansion in Eastern Turkestan was intended primarily to ensure the safety of this road for Chinese
trade. Of the two main branches of this road in Eastern Turkestan, the southern one, from Lop-nor to Hotan and Yarkend, was of greater importance
during this period. The northern branch (through Luntai and Qarashahr, Kucha, and Kashghar) was either threatened by the Xiongnu or was in their
hands; the nomadic Xiongnu, however, were interested not so much in profits from trade, as, especially, in the agricultural products of this area.
In the wars between the Han and the Xiongnu that had continued since the 3rd century B.C., the Han gained a decisive advantage as early as in
the 1st century B.C., when the Xiongnu became tributary to the Han. In 48 A.D. the Xiongnu split into two groups known as the Southern and the
Northern Xiongnu. The southern tribes submitted to the Han (and later were gradually absorbed in China). The Northern Xiongnu, whose main territory
was now in the Ili valley and Jungharia, tried to compete with the Han for the domination of the “Western Regions”; but in 155 A.D. they were
crushed by the Xianbi (in old transcription Hsien-pi), a new nomadic confederation that had emerged in Mongolia; after this the Xiongnu migrated
westward.
Farther west, in the middle and lower course of the Sïr-Darya, the mixed nomadic-sedentary polity of the Kangju continued to exist until the 3rd
century A.D. It also included the region of Chach and had some close ties with Chorasmia (Khorezm) to the west and Dayuan (Ferghana) to the east,
and Soghd was apparently its dependency. It was sufficiently strong to withstand (in the mid-1st century B.C.) the attacks of the Wusun from the
east and, in turn, to subjugate a Sarmatian group northwest of the Aral Sea called Yancai in Chinese sources and Aorsi by the Greek authors.

bregel1.pmd 10 5/26/2003, 1:09 PM

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A B C D E

Borders of the Arsacid Empire (Parthia) Expansion of Krorayina at the end of

the 1st century A.D.
Borders of the Saka principalities
Borders of the regions under the northern
Central Asian borders of the Kushan Empire Xiongnu control in Eastern Turkestan in the
in the 1st century B.C. 2nd—1st centuries B.C. and 2nd century A.D.

l
im

bo
Approximate extension of the Kushan

Ish
To
Approximate extension of the main territory
possessions in Eastern Turkestan at the end of the Northern Xiongnu
of the 2nd century A.D.
1 1
11

Approximate extension of the Kangju

Borders of Khorezm
Main trade routes (sections of the "Silk Road")
I Borders of the kingdom of Ferghana
ca. 155

rtï
(independent or Kushan vassal) Xianbi expansion into the areas occupied by

sh
Northern Xiongnu
Borders of the Han protectorates
It il ("Western Regions") Han military campaigns
in the 1st century B.C.—2nd century A.D.
Cities known only under the names of the
Topraq-qala
S A Borders of the states of Eastern Turkestan present archeological sites
R M Yayïq Cities with Han garrisons
A T 100 0 100 200 300 400 KM
I A F I N N O
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A B C D E

11
© Yuri Bregel 2003

5. 1ST CENTURY B.C.—2ND CENTURY A.D.: PARTHIA, THE KUSHANS, THE HAN, AND THE XIONGNU
 12

6. 3RD-6TH CENTURIES A.D.: THE SASANIDS, KIDARITES, AND HEPHTHALITES

A new period in the history of Central Asia is marked by the emergence of the Sasanid state in Iran, replacing Arsacid Parthia; by the fall of the
Kushan empire under the pressure of the Sasanids from the west and of new nomadic conquerors from the north (resulting in the rise first of the
Kidarites and later of the Hephthalites); by the withdrawal of China from Eastern Turkestan; and by the first appearance of Altaic (or Turkic)-speaking
groups in the northern steppes. Unfortunately, the political history of Central Asia during this period is in many cases even more obscure than that
of the preceding period, and the identification of some major ethnic groups and dynasties which newly appeared on the Central Asian scene is open
to quite different interpretations.
The Sasanids came to power in 224 or 226, when the founder of the dynasty, Ardashir I, after defeating the last Arsacid, was proclaimed king in
Ctesiphon on the Tigris. He established his control over Sakastan, while Merv was ruled by a semi-independent king. Kushan rule continued in India,
in the Indus valley. Under the son of Ardashir, Shapur I (241-271), the Sasanid expansion in the east continued. The Sasanids tried to establish their
direct authority in the former Kushan lands on the Bactrian plane and in the Kabul valley, but, being unable to do so, established Kushanshahr, a
“Kushan kingdom” (or even kingdoms) including Bactra and Merv, ruled by semi-independent kings until the end of the 4th century. The famous
inscription of Shapur on the so-called “Ka{ba of Zoroaster” claims that his state had expanded up to the boundaries of Soghd and Shash, to which
a military campaign of Shapur was directed. There is, indeed, numismatic evidence of the Sasanid occupation of at least the oasis of Bukhara, lasting
for a long period. But nothing is known about events in Transoxania and Kushanshahr (except for the dates of rule of various Kushanshahs) during
the rest of the 3rd century and the first half of the 4th. In the middle or the second half of the 4th century there appeared a new nomadic group, of
unknown origin, called Chionites by Byzantine sources, probably connected with the previous westward movement of the Northern Xiongnu. The
same group is called in some sources Kidarites, or Kidarite Huns, and, according to one hypothesis (not yet proven), the ruling dynasty of the Chionites
was called the Kidarites, from the name of its founder, Kidara. The Chionites/Kidarites came to Transoxania from the north, probably after first
defeating Kangju and then capturing Soghd; at the end of the 4th century and in the early 5th century they conquered the regions south of the Hindukush,
including the central and western Panjab. Apparently they still remained in Soghd at that time: the Sasanid king Varahran V (Bahram Gur), during
a war with them in the 430s, allegedly crossed the Amu-Darya and accepted their submission. But already in the middle of the 5th century the Kidarites
were replaced by another, more powerful, nomadic group that became known as the Hephthalites (Haytal of the later Islamic writers). The circumstances
of the emergence of the Hephthalites remain unclear, as does their ethno-linguistic affiliation (they probably included mixed Altaic and Iranian elements).
It seems, in any case, that they overran the Kidarites from the east; according to one widely accepted theory, their initial homeland was in Badakhshan,
and later their main base was Tokharistan. The Sasanid king Yazdigird II (438-457) fought the Hephthalites several times. King Peroz perished in
battle with the Hephthalites in 484, and his army was routed. In the north, they conquered Soghd at the end of the 5th or in the early 6th century.
In the east, they subjugated all the city-states of Eastern Turkestan between 479 and 509, with the sole exception of the region of Krorayina (centered
in the Lop-nor area), which had an Indian-speaking population; a small independent kingdom emerged there at the end of the Kushan period, in the
2nd quarter of the 3rd century, but in the middle of the 5th century it was conquered by the Tuyuhun (Togon), possibly a proto-Mongolic people,
related to the Xianbi, from the Koko-nor area (the north-eastern fringes of Tibet). In the south, the Hephthalites conquered vast territories in northern
India. It seems that in most cases various local dynasties in the regions conquered by the Hephthalites continued to exist, paying tribute to the new
paramount rulers and submitting to their control.
During the period when the southern part of Central Asia and Eastern Turkestan were dominated by the Hephthalites, the nomadic population of
the northern steppes continued to change. The Xianbi, who, in the 1st century, contributed to the final defeat of the Northern Xiongnu (resulting in
their westward migration), were replaced, around 400, by a new confederation known from the Chinese sources as Rouran (Jou-Jan in the old
transcription), whose language was apparently Mongolic. To the west (or south-west) of them there was a remnant of the Xiongnu called Yuepan by
the Chinese; some scholars believe that their language was Turkic. More likely was the Turkic linguistic affiliation of the large tribal group known
from Chinese sources as Tiele, which was widespread in the steppes north of Lake Balkhash by the 6th century. Farther west, the Kangju confederation
had already disappeared in the 3rd century, probably destroyed in the course of the Xiongnu migration. The situation of Khorezm during the early
Sasanid—Hephthalite period is uncertain: the chronicle of the Arab historian Tabari (late 9th–early 10th century) claims that Khorezm was captured
by the Sasanid Ardashir I, but the inscription on the Ka{ba of Zoroaster does not mention Khorezm at all. It is possible that there existed, especially
in the 3rd-4th centuries, some kind of vassal relationship of Khorezm to the Sasanids, but it is equally possible that it was completely independent.
The period shown on the map was the time when Altaic-speaking (and, specifically, Turkic-speaking) nomadic peoples began to spread westward
through the steppes of Central Asia, replacing (and, probably, partially assimilating) the earlier Iranian-speaking nomadic groups. This process, which
had begun already with the dissolution of the Xiongnu polity and their westward migration (see map 5), became complete at the time of the Türk
Qaghanate (see map 7).
The Great Silk Route continued to flourish under the Hephthalites, with one significant change: Soghdian merchants began to dominate the trade
along this route, replacing the Indian merchants. Soghdians began to establish their trade and agricultural colonies along the Great Silk Route, which
gradually made them an important element of the population of Eastern Turkestan and northern China. By the 6th century their influence was already
strongly felt in the political and cultural life of these regions as well (cf. map 7).

bregel1.pmd 12 5/26/2003, 1:09 PM

bregel1.pmd

A B C D E

Borders of the Sasanid Empire Borders of Khorezm

Borders of Khushanshahr (vassals of the Sasanids, Approximate extension of the

from the 280s) Kangju

Approximate extension of the territories occupied by Direction of the Rouran expansion

the Hephthalites by the end of the 5th century A.D. in the early 5th century A.D.
442
Borders of Central Asian principalities under the Sasanid military campaigns
Hephthalite overlordship Main trade routes (sections of the

ol
b
"Silk Road")

To
1 Borders of the states of Eastern Turkestan (under the 1
13

Hephthalite overlordship) by the end of the 5th Cities known only under the names
century A.D. Dilberjin of the present ancheological sites
Borders of the Tuyuhun (Togons) City with the Han garrison

im
Ish
100 0 100 200 300 400 KM
Itil

Yayïq

rtï
sh
O G H U R S
T I E L E

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rga
y R O U R A N 2

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Tu
iz
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(since ca. 400)

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A B C D E

13
© Yu r i B r e g e l 2 0 0 3

6. 3RD-6TH CENTURIES A.D.: THE SASANIDS, KIDARITES, AND HEPHTHALITES

 14

7. 6TH-7TH CENTURIES A.D.: THE SASANIDS, SOGHD, AND THE FIRST TÜRK QAGHANATE

In the middle of the 6th century a new nomadic state, the Türk Qaghanate, emerged in Mongolia; it played a major role in the history of Central Asia.
Its origin is usually traced back to the clan Ashina (this name is known only from Chinese sources), which was among a group of the late Xiongnu
tribes that lived in the region of Turfan during the first half of the 5th century. In 460 they were attacked by the Rouran, who resettled them to the
Altay region. Here the Ashina gradually united under their leadership some local tribes, and the new confederation which initially included ten (later
twelve) tribes adopted the name Türk (whose etymology is unclear and has more than one explanation). Initially they were tributaries of the Rouran,
but after 534, when Bumïn became their chieftain, they moved farther east, to the Yellow River, and in 545 they established an alliance with the
Chinese dynasty of the Western Wei (of Xianbi origin). After this Bumïn subdued a large group of Turkic-language tribes farther north, who called
themselves Oghuz and whom the Chinese called Tiele, and then defeated and destroyed the Rouran. In 551 Bumïn was proclaimed the supreme ruler
of the Türk and adopted the title qaghan that was previously the title of the Rouran rulers. Hence the nomadic empire founded by the Ashina dynasty
is called in modern literature the Türk Qaghanate.
Bumïn Qaghan died in 553. Under his younger son and successor, Mughan Qaghan (553-572), and his uncle, Ishtemi (552-575), the Türk Qagha-
nate greatly expanded both to the east and to the west. In the east, it subdued the Mongolic tribes of the Qitan in Manchuria and made the two states
of northern China its tributaries. In Eastern Turkestan the Hephthalite overlordship was replaced by Türk suzerainty. In the west, as a result of Ish-
temi’s far-flung campaigns, the Qaghanate established its hegemony over the nomads of the western steppes, including the Volga basin, up to the
borders of the Byzantine Empire in the Crimea and the Caucasus. In Central Asia, the Türk Qaghanate collided with the Hephthalites. Here it initially
found an ally in the Sasanid king Khosrow I Anushirvan, under whom the much strengthened Iran concluded a peace with Byzantium and stopped
paying tribute to the Hephthalites. The alliance was strengthened by the marriage of Khosrow to the daughter of Ishtemi. Between 560 and 567 Khosrow
I invaded the Hephthalite territory and captured the regions south of the Amu-Darya, while Ishtemi captured the territory north of the Amu-Darya:
Chach, Soghd (Samarqand, Kesh, and Bukhara), and Ferghana. In a battle with the Türk army (usually dated as 563) the Hephthalites were defeated
and their king killed. (This was not yet the end of the Hephthalites: they still remained in Tokharistan, both south and north of the Amu-Darya, where
they formed several principalities that remained independent until the Arab conquest; in the early 8th century the Arabs encountered their rulers, who
had the title yabghu.) The alliance between the Türk Qaghanate and the Sasanids did not last long: in 588, after Ishtemi, a large Türk army invaded
Tokharistan, supported by the local Hephthalites, but it was defeated near Hare (Herat) by the Sasanid general Bahram Chubin. After this a peace
was concluded, and the Amu-Darya remained the border between the Türk Qaghanate and Iran.
From the very beginning, the Qaghanate had a bipartite structure, as was characteristic of many Inner Asian tribal confederations and nomadic
states, from the Xiongnu down to the Mongols: it was divided into two wings, the eastern and the western, each with its own Qaghan, and while the
Qaghan of the eastern wing, whose center of power was in Mongolia, was the supreme ruler, the Qaghan of the western wing was nominally his co-
ruler, with the title of Yabghu-Qaghan; the Yabghu-Qaghan belonged to the junior line of the Ashina clan. The tribes of the western wing formed
ten administrative units called oq ‘arrow’, and they were divided, in turn, into two groups, whose names are known only from the Chinese sources:
the western, Nushibi, and the eastern, Dulu. A similar division of tribes into the western (Tardush) and the eastern (Tölis) wings also existed in the
eastern wing of the Qaghanate.
After 582 the two wings of the Qaghanate, following a protracted war between them, split into two independent qaghanates, the eastern and the
western. During the second and third decades of the 7th century the eastern qaghans took advantage of the civil war in China and the fall of the Sui
dynasty (618) by constantly raiding Chinese territory. But the Tiele (Oghuz) tribes rebelled, and in 630 the last eastern ruler, El Qaghan, was taken
prisoner by the Chinese and died in captivity. Thus the Eastern Qaghanate came to an end. Some Turkic tribal groups which had been included in
the Eastern Qaghanate were now resettled to the northwestern borders of China (now under a new dynasty, Tang; see map 8) and began to serve as
confederates in the Tang army.
During the same period the authority of the qaghan of the Western Qaghanate strengthened, albeit briefly. Ton Yabghu-Qaghan (618-630), at the
beginning of his reign, changed the system of the Qaghanate’s control of the local rulers of Soghd: he made them his governors (with the title tudun),
with the qaghan’s representatives controlling tax collection. Ton Yabghu-Qaghan resumed a vigorous external expansion of the Qaghanate. His predecessor
had already extended his authority over the entire Tarim basin; Ton Yabghu-Qaghan conquered the whole of Tokharistan, which he entrusted to his
son, and then, acting as an ally of the Byzantine Empire in the war with the Sasanids, he participated in the campaign of the emperor Heraclius in
the Caucasus (627-628), where the Türk army captured Derbend and Tbilisi. His despotic rule, however, alienated the Türk tribes, and he was killed
in 630; a long internecine war followed, in which the tribes of the Dulu and Nushibi fought each other, each group proclaiming its own candidates
as qaghans. As a result of this war the Qaghanate lost all its possessions west of the Sïr-Darya by 634, and after 638 it split into two kingdoms with
the border between them along the river Ili. From 640 to 657 the intertribal and interdynastic wars continued and were exacerbated by the general
uprising of the Oghuz (Tiele) in the north, until the army of the Tang invaded Semirech’e, defeated the troops of the western tribes, and captured
the last qaghan, who died two years later in captivity.
Thus, the First Türk Qaghanate actually ceased to exist, both in the east and in the west, in 630, though the agony of the Western Qaghanate lasted
until 657. The First Türk Qaghanate played an extremely important role in the political and ethnic history of Central Asia. Its conquests were accom-
panied by the migrations of Turkic tribes, which spread over vast territories of Eurasia. Due to the Qaghanate’s westward expansion, Turkic tribes
completely replaced the Iranian nomads in the northern steppes.
There was, however, a simultaneous peaceful expansion of an Iranian ethnic element in the opposite direction that had already begun under the
Hephthalites. By that time Soghdian merchants became instrumental in the trade in silk and other luxury items on the Great Silk Route. Soghdian
trade colonies along the Great Silk Route flourished; some of them became significant cities whose population, engaged not only in commerce but
also in agriculture, became ethnically mixed. Dozens of Soghdian colonies spread as far as Mongolia and north-western China (the region of Ordos),
and Soghdians became advisors and instructors of the Türk rulers. The first Turkic alphabet used in the so-called runic inscriptions of the 7th-8th
centuries was probably developed in the middle of the 7th century on the basis of the Soghdian alphabet (however, there are also other theories of
its origin), and Soghdians served as interpreters and ambassadors in diplomatic missions that travelled from the Qaghanate to Iran and Byzantium.
With the penetration of the Turks into the oases of Eastern and Western Turkestan, a gradual mutual assimilation of the nomadic Turkic and the
sedentary Iranian population began which was to continue into the 20th Century.

bregel1.pmd 14 5/26/2003, 1:09 PM

bregel1.pmd

A B C D E

Borders of the Türk Qaghanate Main trade routes

Borders of regions under Türk 555 Türk military campaigns
overlordship
Dividing line between the Dulu and Sasanid military campaigns
the Nushibi of the western Türk
Defeat of the Hephthalites at
Borders of the Sasanid Empire 563 Bukhara by the Sasanids and Türks
before 588–89

l
bo
Expansion of the Sasanid Empire Battle between the Sasanid and Türk

To
1 after 588–89 armies at Hare (Herat) 1
15

588–89

100 0 100 200 300 400 KM

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588–89

A B C D E

15
© Yuri Bregel 2003

7. 6TH-7TH CENTURIES A.D.: THE SASANIDS, SOGHD, AND THE FIRST TÜRK QAGHANATE
 16

8. THE SECOND HALF OF THE 7TH CENTURY: EARLY ARAB RAIDS, THE TÜRGESH QAGHANATE, THE TANG EXPANSION, AND
TIBET

In the first half of the 7th century two formidable new powers emerged at the opposite frontiers of Central Asia: the Arab Caliphate in the west and
Tang China in the east. The Tang dynasty came to power in China in 618, and it soon began a westward expansion, taking advantage of the weak-
ening of both Türk qaghanates, the eastern and the western (see map 7). This expansion took place under the emperor Taitsung (627-649), and it
began with the conquest of Qocho and Bishbalïq in 640; Qarashahr submitted to the Tang in 644, while Kashghar and Hotan began to send tribute
missions to China even earlier. By 650 all states of the Tarim basin recognized the supreme authority of the Tang. A prominent (if not the key) role
in this conquest was played by the Turkic confederates of the Tang. Direct administrative control was established by the Tang only in the three
easternmost oases of the region: Hami, Turfan (Qocho), and Bishbalïq (Beiting). In the city-states of the Tarim basin the old dynasties remained, but
had to pledge allegiance to the Tang; they were granted honorary titles and insignia, but were under the control of the Protector-General of the “Pacified
West” (Anxi), whose seat was first in Qocho, but, later, beginning in 657, in Kucha. Tang troops were stationed in four key cities called the “Four
Garrisons”: Kucha, Kashghar, Hotan, and Qarashahr; the entire region was sometimes called the “Four Garrisons.”
In the second half of the 7th century Tang rule in the Tarim basin was challenged by a new great power in Central Asia, the Tibetan Empire. It
emerged in the 1st quarter of the 7th century, when several Chiang (Tibetan) tribes along the Chinese border were united under one ruler. In the 2nd
quarter of the century the Tibetan state, which had originated in the south of the Tibetan plateau, greatly expanded to the north, south, and east. At
the end of the 650s Tibet annexed Little Bolor (Balur) and Wakhan. In 663 Tibet defeated the Tuyuhun (Togons) and annexed their territory. In the
660s a part of the Western Türks submitted to (or became allied with) Tibet; they jointly attacked Kashghar and, in 665, Hotan. In 670 Tibet began
a full-scale invasion of the Tarim basin, having first routed the Chinese army in the region of Koko-nor. After this Tibet dominated the entire Tarim
basin for 22 years, while the “Four Garrisons” of the Tang were evacuated (although Kucha was captured by the Tibetans only in 677). In 679 a Tang
military commander was able to conduct a campaign north of the Tien-Shan, in the course of which he defeated the Western Türks in this region and
captured the city of Suyab, and from 679 to 719 Suyab was listed among the “Four Garrisons” instead of Qarashahr; this victory, however, did not
change the situation in the Tarim basin. Soon after this a resurgence of power of both the eastern and western Türks occured. Between 679 and 689
the Eastern Türks rebelled against China and restored their qaghanate. Its center was, as in the first qaghanate, in central Mongolia, and its western
limit was the Altay mountains. A little later, in 699, Üch Elig, the chieftain of the Türgesh, one of the five Dulu tribes of the Western Türks, defeated
and banished a puppet ruler of the Western Türks who had been installed by the Tang, and established his authority on the entire territory of the
Western Türks, from Chach to Bishbalïq, thus founding a new, Türgesh, qaghanate. By that time the situation in the Tarim basin had changed again.
By the early 690s Tibet was weakened by internal feuds, and in 692 Tang troops occupied Kucha, apparently without much fighting; the “Four Garrisons”
were restored, although this probably happened gradually, and Kashghar remained independent until 728.
While China, Tibet, and the Western Türks were fighting for domination over the Tarim basin, a new power began to threaten their positions in
Central Asia: the Arab Caliphate. The Arabs conquered Sasanid Iran and incorporated it into the Umayyad Caliphate by 651; they thus reached the
Amu-Darya (Jeyhun, as they named it), which, for the next half a century, remained the border between the Caliphate and Soghdiana. At that time
Soghd was divided between several independent principalities. The largest one was that of Samarqand (its original Soghdian name was, apparently,
Smarakanda), whose ruler had the title of ikhshid. According to Chinese sources, the supremacy of the ikhshid of Samarqand was recognized by the
majority of smaller principalities situated in the upper and middle course of the Zerafshan and in the Qashqa-Darya valley, such as Maymurgh, Ishtikhan,
Kushaniya, Nakhsheb, and Kesh. Bukhara, with the oasis of the lower Zerafshan (often referred to as “Bukharan Soghd”), usually formed a separate
principality; its ruler had the title buxar xwb, which in Islamic sources became bukhar-khuda (in New Persian). A large principality, called Ustru-
shana, with Soghdian-speaking population, was situated in the mountains to the north of the Zerafshan valley; its capital was Panchikat (in Islamic
time—Bunjiket), and its ruler bore the title afshin. At the time of the Western Qaghanate all the Soghdian principalities recognized the authority of
the qaghan; under Ton Yabghu-Qaghan (see map 7) there was stricter control over the local rulers, and it was probably during this period that Turkic
speaking groups appeared among the population of some Soghdian cities. A similar situation existed in Ferghana, which had an Eastern Iranian population
and was divided into several principalities; the ruler of one of them, who resided in Kasan, bore the Soghdian title ikhshid and was often styled in
Arabic sources “the King of Ferghana.” Very little is known about the situation in the region of Chach; it was certainly more exposed to the influence
and direct penetration of Turks from the steppe, both under the Western Türk and Türgesh qaghanates, and it had a Türk ruler.
Regions to the south-east of Soghd, known as Tokharistan (in a broader sense; see map 1), were in the 7th century divided into more than two
dozen principalities, with a mixed Iranian-Hephthalite population; among them were Khuttal, Chaghaniyan, Qubadiyan, Badghis, Shuman, Shugh-
nan, Wakhan, and Badakhshan. After the conquest of Tokharistan by Ton Yabghu-Qaghan of the Western Türks it was nominally ruled by the qaghan’s
son with the title yabghu. In reality, Tokharistan was a confederation of independent, or almost independent, principalities. During this period there
was a substantial migration of Turkic-speaking groups to Tokharistan, primarily the tribes of Qarluq and Khalaj.
Tokharistan was the first target of Arab expansion after their conquest of Khorasan (which culminated in the occupation of Merv and Herat in
651). Merv remained the base of their further operations in Central Asia. In 652 the Arabs conquered Bactra (Balkh), although not permanently, and,
according to some accounts, in the same year an Arab commander raided Khorezm, but without much success. During the internal feuds in the Caliphate
in 661-665 there were no further conquests. Since the end of the 660s the Arabs began to cross the Amu-Darya raiding various cities and exacting
tribute. In 667 they raided Chaghaniyan and defeated the Hephthalites of Tokharistan. In 675-676 Sa#id b. #Uthman came with numerous troops to
Bukhara and, after receiving tribute from its ruler, continued his campaign to Samarqand. There he also received tribute and hostages, plundered the
countryside, and went to Tarmita (Termez), which submitted peacefully, and from there he raided Khuttal. The first raid during which the Arabs
spent the winter in Mavarannahr without returning to Merv took place under the governor of Khorasan Salm b. Ziyad in 680-681. This time the city
of Bukhara was captured, but the Arabs did not remain there and went to Samarqand, where they also received tribute; then they went to Khojanda,
from which they were repulsed. During the civil war in the Caliphate in the 680s-690s a rebel commander Musa b. #Abdallah took possession of
Termez and remained there for fifteen years, until 704, successfully repulsing both the Arab and the Soghdian attempts to dislodge him. The same
year, however, with the appointment of Qutayba b. Muslim as governor of Khorasan, the systematic conquest of Mavarannahr by the Arabs began
(see map 9).

bregel1.pmd 16 5/26/2003, 1:09 PM

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A B C D E

Borders of the Türk and Türgesh Limits of the Arab expansion in

Central Asia by the end of the 7th
Qaghanates century
Dividing line between the Dulu and Arab military campaigns
the Nushibi of the western Türks Tibetan military campaigns
Borders of the Tibetan Empire by Chinese military campaigns
the 620s Türk military campaigns

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Musa b. cAbdallah in Termez

To
1 Expansion of the Tibetan Empire in 1
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17

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5/26/2003, 1:09 PM

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A B C D E

17
© Yuri Bregel 2003

8. THE SECOND HALF OF THE 7TH CENTURY: EARLY ARAB RAIDS, THE TÜRGESH QAGHANATE, THE TANG EXPANSION, AND TIBET
 18

9. THE FIRST HALF OF THE 8TH CENTURY: THE ARAB CONQUESTS, TÜRKS, TANG, AND TIBET

The Eastern Türk Qaghanate that was reborn in the 680s (see map 8) is usually called in scholarly literature the Second Qaghanate; it was ruled by
the same Ashina dynasty, and its first qaghan was Elterish. His brother, Qapaghan Qaghan, succeeded him in 691, and during his rule, which con-
tinued until 716, the qaghanate reached the zenith of its might, having conducted several successful campaigns against China, defeated and subjected
powerful nomadic groups in the east (Qitan) and north (Qïrghïz), and suppressed the rebellions of various Turkic tribes that had been the subjects
of the First Türk Qaghanate (Oghuz and others). In the meantime the successor of Üch Elig in the Türgesh Qaghanate, named Saqal, fought the Türk
allies of the Tang, who had retreated to Bishbalïq after 699 under the protection of Tang troops. In 708 Saqal campaigned against Kucha and crushed
the Chinese army in the open field, although a Chinese garrison remained in the city. However, soon after that, Saqal’s younger brother rebelled and
asked Qapaghan Qaghan for help. In 711 the army of the Eastern Türks defeated Saqal in Jungharia, and both brothers were executed by order of
Qapaghan Qaghan; as a result, the Türgesh Qaghanate ceased to exist for a while. The remnants of the Türgesh troops, under a member of the ruling
clan named Suluk, retreated southward, through Semirech’e and across the Sïr-Darya. Pursuing them, the army of the Eastern Türks, under the command
of two sons of the qaghan and his first counselor, Tonyuquq, appeared in Soghd in 712-713, where they took part in the fight against the Arabs on
the side of the ikhshid of Soghd (cf. below), but they were defeated and in 714 retreated to Mongolia. After that Suluk returned to Semirech’e and
proclaimed himself Türgesh-Qaghan, thus restoring the Türgesh Qaghanate. He had to face threats both from the east and from the west. In the east,
he successfully fought the Tang, captured Suyab in 719, and besieged Kucha twice, in 726 and 727 (the second time, together with the Tibetans);
in the 730s the Türgesh also raided or besieged other cities in the Tarim basin and Turfan (first Kashghar and Qocho, then Beiting and Aqsu). But
of special importance for the Türgesh Qaghanate was its involvement in the affairs of Mavarannahr, which was being conquered by the Arabs in the
first quarter of the 8th century.
In the early 8th century the Arabs, after half a century of plundering raids across the Amu-Darya and into Tokharistan, began the systematic conquests
of these regions. These conquests were achieved under the command of the viceroy of Khorasan, Qutayba b. Muslim, who was appointed to this post
in 705. By that time the Islamization of Iran, conquered by the Arabs half a century earlier, was already well advanced, and recently converted Persians
sometimes played an important role in Qutayba’s campaigns, so that some modern scholars prefer to use the expression “Islamic conquest” (instead
of “Arab conquest”) of Central Asia. Qutayba took advantage of the total lack of unity among the local rulers, who not only often failed to come to
one other’s help in the face of the Arab attacks but sometimes even assisted the conquerors. In 705 Qutayba captured some regions of Tokharistan,
as well as Chaghaniyan and Shuman. But his main efforts were directed towards the conquest of Soghd. In 706 he crossed the Amu-Darya and conquered
Paykend, a rich city dominated by merchants, where he obtained a huge booty; when the city rebelled after Qutayba left, he captured it for the second
time and totally destroyed it. His attempt to conquer Bukhara immediately afterwards, however, was unsuccessful, and he retreated to Merv. In 708,
in a new campaign across the Amu-Darya, Qutayba captured Ramitan, but again failed to conquer Bukhara. He achieved this goal the next year, after
the coalition of Soghdians (under the ikhshid of Samarqand) and Türks, who had come to fight the Arabs, fell apart, and the Türks left. In 710 Qutayba
captured Nakhsheb and Kesh, and recaptured Shuman, which had rebelled while the Arabs were occupied in fighting around Bukhara. In 711 Qutay-
ba went to Khorezm and helped the ruler, the khorezmshah, to suppress a rebellion by the ruler’s brother; in return, the khorezmshah acknowledged
Arab authority and gave Qutayba troops for his campaign against Samarqand in 712. After a long siege, the ikhshid of Samarqand submitted to the
Arabs, who received from him a substantial tribute and put their garrison in the city. Soon after this, an anti-Arab coalition was formed, including
the rulers of Chach and Ferghana, as well as some of the Soghdians who did not recognize the surrender of the ikhshid. At this juncture an army of
the Second Türk Qaghanate appeared in Soghd (see above) and fought the Arabs, but the Türks were defeated by Qutayba and returned to the east,
after which the other members of the coalition were also defeated. In 713 Qutayba conquered the city of Chach (later Tashkent), from which he
raided Isfijab, and then unsuccessfully tried to capture Khojanda and Kasan (in Ferghana). In 715 he campaigned in Ferghana in alliance with the
Tibetans, deposed the king of Ferghana, and installed another one in his place; according to some reports, an Arab raiding party was sent in the
pursuit of the fleeing deposed king, and it allegedly went as far as Kashghar. But in the same year Arab fortunes in Central Asia suffered a reversal:
Qutayba, while still in Ferghana, rebelled against the new caliph, Sulayman, who was his enemy, and was killed; Qutayba’s conquests in the north
were then lost. Soon after this the taxation policy of the Arab administration caused resentment and revolts of the local population; this culminated
in general uprisings in Soghd in 728-730 and then again in 736-737, supported also by the Türgesh, during which at some point only Samarqand and
Dabusiya remained in Arab hands. The Türgesh came to help the yabghu of Tokharistan, when the latter was attacked by the Arabs, and they estab-
lished an alliance with Tibet. In 736, and again in 737, a Tibetan army campaigned through Little Bolor and captured the Pamirs, while the Türgesh
were fighting the Arabs south of the Amu-Darya as far west as Juzjan. But in 737 Suluk was defeated by the Arabs, and upon his return to Semirech’e
he was killed by one of the Türgesh tribal chieftains; within just three years the Türgesh Qaghanate had completely disintegrated. The Second Qaghanate
of the Eastern Türks lasted not much longer. In 742 the last qaghan of the Ashina dynasty was killed; a brief feud followed among three tribal groups
who had been the Türks’ vassals, the Basmïl, Qarluq, and Uyghur. The Uyghurs, who had belonged to the Tiele, or Toquz-Oghuz, group of Turkic
tribes, came out victorious, and in 744 they founded their own, Uyghur, qaghanate (with the same traditional center in Mongolia). In 745 the defeated
Qarluqs migrated to the southwest, to the land of the former Türgesh Qaghanate.
By then China took advantage of the Türgesh involvement in the affairs of Mavarannahr and Tokharistan and extended its influence westward.
Ferghana, in the face of continuing Arab assaults, was closely allied with the Tang (or was even a vassal of the Chinese). In 747 Tang troops, having
made a quick march from Kashghar through the Pamirs, captured Little Bolor from the Tibetans and established their garrisons there. In 749 Wakhan
submitted to the Chinese. In 748 Tang troops captured and destroyed Suyab, the traditional center of the Western Türks. In early 750 the Chinese
interfered in the conflict between the rulers of Chach and Ferghana and sent troops in support of the latter; Chach was captured and sacked, and its
king was brought to China, where he was executed.
In the meantime, the situation of the Arabs in Mavarannahr changed: a revolutionary movement directed against the Umayyad dynasty of the Caliphate,
which began in Khorasan in 747, resulted in the overthrow of this dynasty and its replacement by the #Abbasids in 749. The leader of this movement,
Abu Muslim, became the viceroy of Khorasan. He suppressed the rebellions in Bukhara and Samarqand and, following an appeal from the son of
the executed king of Chach, had troops gathered in Samarqand under Ziyad b. Salih to march against the Chinese. In July 751, the Tang army under
Gao Xianzhi, which included also some Qarluqs, encountered them at the town of Atlakh, near Talas; during the battle, the Qarluqs switched sides,
the Chinese were routed, and Gao Xianzhi escaped captivity only with great difficulty. This battle was a turning point in the history of Chinese
expansion in Central Asia, but it was only in the 790s that the last remnants of the Chinese presence there disappeared (see map 10).
By the middle of the 8th century Arab rule in Western Turkestan was firmly established, despite some continuing rebellions of the local popula-
tion. The main change that the Arab conquest brought to Central Asia was not political, but cultural: it was the Islamization of the region, achieved
by both forcible and voluntary conversion of the population to the religion of the conquerors. This was a long process, which affected first of all the
urban population, while in rural areas some old pre-Islamic cults and practices survived for several centuries longer. But Islam was now the official
religion, and Arabic, in addition to being the only language of religion, became the language of law and administration.

bregel1.pmd 18 5/26/2003, 1:09 PM

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Borders of the Umayyad Caliphate in Borders of the Tibetan Empire

Central Asia before 705
Arab military campaigns
Borders of the Umayyad Caliphate in
Central Asia by 715 Tibetan military campaigns
Chinese military campaigns
Bulghar Borders of the Umayyad Caliphate in

A R S Central Asia by 751 Türgesh and Türk military campaigns

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Borders of the Türgesh, Türk, and 751 Battle at Talas or Atlakh: the Chinese
L G

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1 Uyghur Qaghanates against the Arabs and the Qarluqs 1
19

U
B Borders of the Tang possessions in
Central Asia by 750
Migrations of the Qarluqs and the
Oghuz after 744

E
Borders of the Tang vassals by 750 Cities with Chinese garrisons

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5/26/2003, 1:10 PM

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A B C D E

19
© Yuri Bregel 2003

9. THE FIRST HALF OF THE 8TH CENTURY: THE ARAB CONQUESTS, TÜRKS, TANG, AND TIBET
 20

10. FROM MID-8TH TO THE END OF THE 9TH CENTURY: THE EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD IN THE WEST, THE QARLUQS AND
UYGHURS IN THE EAST

Abu Muslim, who led the revolution in Mavarannahr and Khorasan at the end of the 740s that brought to power the new #Abbasid dynasty of the
caliphs, became the first #Abbasid viceroy in Khorasan. He subdued Soghdiana and Tokharistan and enjoyed absolute power over these provinces.
As a result, the caliph in Baghdad perceived him as a threat to his own authority, and Abu Muslim was executed in Baghdad when he came there
in 754. This execution caused a rebellion in Khorasan led by the Zoroastrian Sunbadh, which was suppressed in 70 days. Several more revolts and
rebellions took place in the following decades in various parts of the caliphate, including Central Asia, but the most serious one was under Hashim
al-Muqanna# in 774-780, during which the rebels, who consisted mostly of peasants, occupied a large area in Mavarannahr, including the city of
Samarqand. The rebellion was crushed only after a year-long siege of a mountain fortress in the region of Kesh occupied by al-Muqanna# and the
death of the rebel leader.
In the process of consolidation of his authority Abu Muslim physically eliminated many Soghdian rulers and deprived others of power, so that
they eventually became common landowners. On the other hand, a way to the bureaucratic system of the caliphate was opened to the members of
the local elites who supported the #Abbasid revolution. Iranians from Central Asia reached the highest positions at the caliphal court. Members of
the family of the Barmakids, descendants of the chief priest of a Buddhist temple near Balkh, became secretaries and viziers to the first #Abbasid
caliphs. In the 2nd and 3rd quarters of the 9th century three generations of the Tahirid family, beginning with Tahir b. Husayn, an Iranian military
commander, served as governors of Khorasan (which still included Mavarannahr). But in 861-873 an Iranian adventurer, Ya#qub b. Layth, a son of
a coppersmith, having gathered under his command numerous armed followers, drove out the governor of Sistan (the south-eastern province of Iran)
who was subordinate to the Tahirids, and in 873 captured Nishapur, the capital of Khorasan, thus putting an end to the Tahirid rule. During the next
six years Ya#qub conquered the southern provinces of Iran and threatened the caliph’s capital itself. His brother, #Amr, succeeded him in 879. He
recognized the authority of the caliph, and the latter “appointed” him as governor of Khorasan in 892, but, in reality, he was an independent ruler.
In 898 the caliph granted #Amr a patent to the rule of Mavarannahr, but when #Amr tried to assert this right, he had to confront the Samanids, and
in 900 he was defeated near Balkh by Isma#il Samani.
The Samanids were an Iranian family who succeeded in founding the first Central Asian Islamic state. The ancestor of this family, Saman-Khuda,
was allegedly a landlord in the province of Balkh (according to other data—near Samarqand or Termez), and his son, Asad, was converted to Islam
in Merv in the early 9th century. His four sons served the caliph al-Ma"mun and, as a reward, were appointed to govern four provinces (under the
Tahirids): Nuh in Samarqand, Ahmad in Ferghana, Yahya in Chach, and Ilyas in Herat. After the death of Nuh b. Asad, all governorships were transferred
to the sons of Ahmad, and it was Isma#il b. Ahmad, the governor of Bukhara, who became the founder of the Samanid state (for more on the Sa-
manids see map 11).
The Samanids are usually considered the first Iranian Islamic dynasty in Mavarannahr. But they were also largely responsible for the introduction
of a Turkic military element into Central Asia. Beginning in the reign of the caliph al-Mu#tasim (833-842), Turkic slaves brought from Central Asia
were used in the guard of the caliph, and soon these slaves, called ghulams, became the nucleus of the army. Turkic slaves were brought to the
Islamic lands from the steppes of Central Asia either after being captured in wars with the heathen Turkic neighbors of the caliphate or after being
bought by Muslim slave traders. Since the Samanid state was the immediate neighbor of the Central Asian steppes, it had full control of the supply
of slaves to the other areas of the caliphate and profited from it. The Samanids also created their own elite corps of Turkic ghulams, which quickly
grew in size and importance and ultimately contributed to the Samanids’ own undoing.
The territorial expansion of the caliphate in Central Asia had already resumed before the rise of the Samanids. In the second decade of the 9th
century, the troops of the caliph al-Ma"mun subdued the ruler of Kabul and invaded Wakhan in the east, and occupied Otrar and Ferghana in the
north. Further expansion to the north, however, was checked by the Qarluqs. The latter, under a ruler with the title yabghu, were defeated in 744 by
the Uyghurs in the course of their fight for domination over the tribes of the Second Türk Qaghanate (see map 9), migrated to Semirech’e, and continued
their expansion to the south and the west. In both directions they had to confront other Turkic groupings. In the west, these were the Oghuz (who
had long before separated from the eastern branch of the Toquz-Oghuz, the Uyghurs). In the second half of the 8th century the Oghuz, under Qarluq
pressure, migrated to the lower course of the Sïr-Darya, where they formed their own nomadic “state” ruled, like the Qarluqs, by a yabghu. In the
south, the Qarluqs fought another strong Turkic tribe called Yaghma, which was predominant in the north-western part of the Tarim basin. In 766
the Qarluqs captured Suyab and Talas.
In Eastern Turkestan, in the meantime, Chinese fortunes suffered a sudden reversal. In 756 a major uprising in China inflicted a heavy blow to
the Tang. Most of the Chinese troops in the “Four Garrisons” region were withdrawn, with the exception of Kucha and Beiting, but even these lost
their connection with the Chinese heartland. The Uyghurs, who helped the Tang to fight the rebellion and to drive the rebels away from the Tang
capital, established their control over the northern part of the Tarim basin. While the Uyghur qaghan, named Bögü (759-779), stayed in the Tang
capital in 762, he was converted to Manichaeism by the Soghdians who lived there, and Manichaeism became the official religion of the Uyghurs.
As a result, Soghdian political and economic influence in the Uyghur Qaghanate became stronger than ever before, and Soghdian merchants profited
greatly due to their role as intermediaries in the trade in silk and horses between the qaghanate and China. Bögü Qaghan was overthrown and killed,
and the new qaghan, Alp Qutlugh Bilge (779-789), persecuted the Manichaeans. His successors restored Manichaeism to its previous status. In Eastern
Turkestan this period coincided with a major offensive of Tibet, where Buddhism became the official religion in 787. In the 780s and 790s the Tibetans
captured Hami, Bishbalïq, Qocho, and Hotan. The Uyghurs were still able to counterattack, and in 803 they recaptured Qocho. The struggle for the
cities of the Tarim basin between the Tibetans, the Chinese, and the Uyghurs continued until the 820s. In 822-823 Tibet made peace with China and
with the Uyghurs. But the situation of the Uyghur Qaghanate rapidly deteriorated. The Uyghurs were losing ground in their wars with the Qïrghïz
(a Turkic people in the Yenisey basin, north of Mongolia), which lasted for two decades. In 840 the Qïrghïz, assisted by a renegade Uyghur general,
captured the capital of the Uyghur Qaghanate in Mongolia and killed the last qaghan; the Qïrghïz ruler proclaimed himself qaghan, thus founding
a new, Qïrghïz, qaghanate, which had no connection with the political tradition of the Türk and Uyghur qaghanates. The Uyghurs fled from Mon-
golia and Jungharia in various directions. The largest group occupied Bishbalïq and the Turfan oasis (with the capital in Qocho) and founded a new
Uyghur state that included the north-eastern part of the Tarim basin; its ruler adopted the title idiqut. With the Uyghur occupation of the Tarim basin
and Turfan, China lost all its positions in Eastern Turkestan for almost ten centuries. Almost simultaneously, Hotan regained its independence from
Tibet (in 851), and, after a period of internecine wars between various Tibetan generals, by the end of the 880s the Tibetan Empire disintegrated into
a number of petty lordships, never to be restored.
While the Uyghurs were banished from Mongolia and came to Eastern Turkestan, the Qarluqs strengthened their position in Semirech’e. The Turkic
tribes Yaghma, Chigil, and Tukhsi, which inhabited the area of the Western Tien-Shan and the northwestern part of the Tarim basin, joined the Qarluq
tribal union. In 840, after the destruction of the Uyghur Qaghanate, the yabghu of the Qarluqs, who was related to the Ashina royal clan of the Türks,
assumed the title of qaghan, thus founding a new qaghanate under the dynasty that in modern scholarly literature became known as the Qarakhanids.
The Qarakhanids began to threaten the northern borders of the state of the Samanids. In 839-40 the Samanid Nuh b. Asad campaigned against the
Qarluqs and captured Isfijab, and in 893 Isma#il Samani conquered Taraz (Talas). But later, the Samanids instead maintained a defensive policy in
their relations with the Turkic steppes.

bregel1.pmd 20 5/26/2003, 1:10 PM

bregel1.pmd

A B C D E

Borders of the Samanid state after Battle at Balkh between Ismacil b.

900 Ahmad Samani and cAmr b. Layth
900
Saffari
Borders of the Tibetan Empire in

R
the 750s Migrations of the Uyghurs and other
Bulghar
A Tibetan expansion at the end of the
Turkic groups after 744
H

M
8th century Cities with Chinese garrisons
L G O
B U

l
bo
Samanid military campaigns Area of the uprising under
D

To
1 Tibetan military campaigns
Muqannac (774-80) at its greatest 1
G
21

spread in 777
K I N Uyghur military campaigns
Area of the uprising of Yusuf al-Barm
Qarluq military campaigns (777-78)

im
Ish
100 0 100 200 300 400 KM
I
l
Iti

rtï
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Ya yïq QÏRGHÏZ
E

QAGHANATE
T

(from 840)
A
N

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T
A

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Q

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5/26/2003, 1:10 PM

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A Taleqan N Wa k ha n -
E

792
Rayy
S T A
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Shapurgan900 Khulm
Nishapur Serakhs H I S LITTL
E P
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lkhab

BOLO
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A I D
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B B A S In d u s
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T
Bamiyan
Herat Kabul

A B C D E

21
© Yuri Bregel 2003

10. FROM MID-8TH TO THE END OF THE 9TH CENTURY: THE EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD IN THE WEST, THE QARLUQS AND UYGHURS
IN THE EAST
 22

11. 10TH CENTURY: THE SAMANIDS, QARAKHANIDS, OGHUZ, KIMEKS, AND QÏPCHAQS

After the death of the first head of the Samanid dynasty, Nuh b. Asad (see map 10), his brother, Ahmad, succeeded him. Ahmad’s son, Nasr, became
the ruler of Samarqand while his father was still alive. After the death of his father in 864, Nasr became the head of the dynasty. In 874 his brother
Isma#il became the governor of Bukhara (which had not belonged to the Samanids until then), and in 875 Nasr received a diploma from the caliph
granting him the administration of the whole of Mavarannahr. Rivalry between Nasr and Isma#il resulted in a war in which Nasr was taken prisoner
in 888, but the struggle ended in a reconciliation. After the death of Nasr in 892, Isma#il became the ruler of Mavarannahr, with his capital in Bukhara,
and received a diploma from the caliph the next year. Isma#il and his successors recognized the caliph’s authority only nominally: they minted coins
in the names both of the caliph and the ruling Samanid and sent gifts to the caliphal court, but they retained for themselves all taxes collected from
the regions under their rule. The Samanids expanded their territory significantly: in 892 Isma#il annexed Ustrushana, ending the rule of the local
dynasty of the afshins; in 900-901 he established his rule over two Caspian provinces, Gorgan and Tabaristan; Rayy and all of Khorasan were added
to his domains with the demise of #Amr b. Layth Saffari. Isma#il’s son Ahmad conquered most of Sistan. The rulers of Khorezm, as well as of small
principalities east of Soghd, became the Samanids’ vassals (see map 12). In the west, the Samanids had to frequently fight the Buyids after the latter
captured Baghdad in 945. In the north, the Samanids captured Isfijab in 840 and Taraz in 893; Nasr II b. Ahmad (914-943) campaigned to Shavgar,
but probably did not capture it. No further conquests in the north were undertaken, however, although the Samanids supported the ghazis, “Warriors
for the Faith,” who flocked to the borders with the steppe and lived there in order to fight the “infidel” Turks. By the middle of the 10th century,
various groups of Turks, who had converted to Islam, mostly from among the Qarluqs and Oghuz, were taking shape along the northern borders of
the Samanids, and began to be called “Turkmens.” But before the mass conversion of the Turks in the steppe, more numerous Turkic converts appeared
within the Samanid state as slave soldiers.
Since early in the Samanid rule, the Turkic slave troops, the ghulams, played an increasingly important role in the army, at the expense of the
levies provided by the local landlords: Turks were considered better soldiers and they had no local allegiances — their only allegiance was to their
master, that is, to the ruler. However, as a result of the reliance of the Samanid amirs on their Turkic guard, the commanders of this guard soon began
to play an independent political role in the state, to the detriment of political stability. From the middle of the 10th century the Turkic military took
actual control of the government, and their commanders had themselves appointed to key positions, like that of governor of Khorasan. The power
of central government eroded, and its revenues dwindled.
While the internal situation of the Samanid state was deteriorating, the situation on its northern border also took a turn for the worse. The Turks
of the Qarakhanid Qaghanate converted to Islam early in the second half of the 10th century, possibly in 960. This conversion changed the strategic
relationship between the Samanids and the Qarakhanids: the latter became just another Islamic dynasty, there was no more reason to fight the infidels
along the Samanid border, and the “Warriors for the Faith” either switched to more peaceful occupations or gradually left for the western borders
of the Islamic world (Anatolia and the Caucasus), where their services were still needed. It is not clear whether the disappearance of the ghazis
contributed to the ultimate fall of the Samanids, but, in any case, it made the Qarakhanid conquest easier. The western expansion of the Qarakhanids
began around 976, when they captured silver mines in Ilaq which had belonged to the Samanids, and in 990 they captured Isfijab. At the end of 991
the Qarakhanid Bughra Khan Harun (or Hasan) b. Sulayman invaded Mavarannahr and in 992 captured Bukhara, almost without any resistance. However,
Bughra Khan soon fell ill in Bukhara, abandoned the city and died on the way north.
In the meantime, in the southern part of the Samanid state another Turkic dynasty emerged, whose founder, Sebük-Tegin, was a ghulam of the
Turkic commander-in-chief of the Samanid army (he came originally from the region of Barskhan, on Lake Issïq-köl, and was probably himself of
Qarluq origin or related to the Qarluqs). In 977 he established himself in Ghazna and ruled this region for twenty years, making it his power base
(hence the name of the dynasty founded by him, the Ghaznavids), nominally on behalf of the Samanids, but actually as independent ruler; from there
he raided northern India. After Bughra Khan Harun abandoned Bukhara in 992, two Turkic military commanders of the Samanids tried to get rid of
the Samanids altogether, and the Samanid amir invited Sebük-Tegin and his son Mahmud to help against the rebels, granting Mahmud the governor-
ship of Khorasan. After the new Qarakhanid ruler Nasr b. #Ali invaded the region of Isfijab in 996, Sebük-Tegin agreed to leave that region in his
possession, while he retained Khorasan. After this the Samanid domains were limited only to the central part of Mavarannahr, while Khorasan and
all regions south of the Amu-Darya were ruled by Mahmud, who succeeded Sebük-Tegin after his death in 997. Finally, in 999 the Qarakhanid Nasr
b. #Ali entered Bukhara without resistance and put an end to the rule of the Samanids. A brother of the last amir, Isma#il II b. Nuh al-Muntasir, tried
to fight the Qarakhanids and even had some success, but was finally defeated and killed in 1005.
Soon after the Qarakhanid Turks, another Turkic group, the Oghuz, established themselves on the northern borders of the Samanid state. The origin
of these Oghuz is not quite clear; it is possible that they had been a part of the larger Oghuz grouping (the Toquz-Oghuz, in Chinese sources the
Tiele) included among the subject tribes in the first and second Türk Qaghanates. They migrated west after the destruction of the Uyghur Qaghanate,
in the last quarter of the 8th century. The Oghuz occupied the lower course of the Sïr-Darya and the regions north of the Aral Sea as far west as the
Volga after a long struggle with the Kangars (Pechenegs) who had inhabited these areas previously, and the Pechenegs migrated westward, to the
East European steppes. The areas north of the Sïr-Darya became known to Islamic writers as “the Steppe of the Ghuzz” (from the Arabic transcrip-
tion of the name Oghuz). Their ruler, from the Barani clan, had the title yabghu, and his winter quarters were in the village (or “town”) Yangikent,
in the Sïr-Darya delta. The Oghuz became a troublesome neighbor to Khorezm and Khorasan, and they often raided these provinces (in the second
case, across the Qara-qum desert). To the west, they were fighting the Khazar Qaghanate on the lower Volga, and in 965 they attacked the Khazar
capital Itil, in alliance with the Russian prince Sviatoslav of Kiev. Around 985 an army commander of the yabghu named Seljuk fell out with the
yabghu and fled to Jend, in the upper part of the Sïr-Darya delta, where he and his followers converted to Islam. Soon the name Turkmen began to
be used primarily for these Muslim Oghuz, and it became their ethnic label. The Oghuz yabghu also converted to Islam a little later (see map 13).
Some of the Turkmens who split from the yabghu under Seljuk and his family began to nomadize in Mavarannahr, between the Sïr-Darya and the
Amu-Darya (possibly, in the region of Nur), and participated in the military campaigns of the last Samanid, al-Muntasir, against the Qarakhanids.
In the steppes east and north-east of the Oghuz another Turkic tribal union, named Kimek, emerged before the middle of the 9th century, in the
steppes south of the Irtïsh river. After the fall of the Uyghur Qaghanate in 840 the head of the Kimeks adopted the title qaghan, thus laying his claim
to the “Uyghur heritage.” This probably happened after the migration to their territory of the tribal group Qïpchaq, which, according to one plausible
hypothesis, had been previously known, before the destruction of the Second Türk Qaghanate, under the name Sir. The Qïpchaqs migrated through
the Altay to the Irtïsh steppes where they joined the Kimeks and formed the western wing of this confederation. In the 10th century the pasturelands
of the Qïpchaqs adjoined those of the Oghuz in the Sïr-Darya basin, while the Kimeks expanded eastward to Jungharia. The relative political equi-
librium that existed in the Central Asian steppes in the 10th century was, however, upset with a wave of new nomadic migrations, which started at
the eastern limits of the steppe belt (see map 13).

bregel1.pmd 22 5/26/2003, 1:10 PM

bregel1.pmd

A B C D E

Borders of the Uyghur state of Borders of the region occupied by

Qocho the Qarakhanids since the 980s

A R Borders of the Samanid state in 990 Qarakhanid campaigns against

the middle of the 10th century the Samanids (with dates)
H

ol
im 965
G Bulghar Borders of the vassal states Oghuz attacks on the Khazars and

Ish
To
within the Samanid realm the Bulghars
M

L
23

1
D O 1
Borders of the Qarakhanid Defeat of the Samanid army by

U
Qaghanate before the 980s 992 the Qarakhanids at Rabat-i Malik
G
B IN 100 0 100 200 300 400 KM

985
I

rtï
sh
Yayïq
l
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K I M E K S
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M E K E K
N

965 Q S
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5/26/2003, 1:10 PM

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Oghurcha I. Cherchen
V Samarqand Riv e r of Soghd Surkh
ab
Q K a s h g ha r
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u- Paykend A R A S
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Merv a Alichur
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U nd Keriya
K H O RA A S A N Kelif Gu 4
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Damghan Balkh D
Rayy S Shapurgan Khulm khan-Da r
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a

Sebzevar Taleqan W
Nishapur FARIGUNIDS B
A I S TAN
HAR OR
l khab

BOL
Yehudiya
T OK
b

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ha

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Mu

Merverrud
Ba

gh rk In d u s
H ari r u d

u
r

ab S
Herat Kabul

A B C D E
© Yur i Br egel 2003

23
11. 10TH CENTURY: THE SAMANIDS, QARAKHANIDS, OGHUZ, KIMEKS, AND QÏPCHAQS
 24

12. THE CENTRAL REGIONS OF WESTERN TURKESTAN IN THE 10TH CENTURY

Although the greatest external expansion of the Samanid state took place under Isma#il b. Ahmad (892-907), it was during the reign of Nasr II b.
Ahmad (914-943) that the state experienced its greatest prosperity. The capital of the state was Bukhara, which was the seat of the central admin-
istration modelled upon the caliphal court in Baghdad. The head of the Samanid family had the title of amir, lit. “commander,” but meaning rather
“governor” (for the caliph); the Samanids continued to nominally recognize the supreme authority of the caliph, but actually were completely inde-
pendent. The amir appointed provincial governors, primarily from among the members of the Samanid family, but also from among other noble families
and later from among the Turkic slave soldiers. The governor had to collect taxes and supply troops for military campaigns, and for his service would
retain for himself a certain share of the tax revenue from the province (sometimes all of it). In a number of provinces the Samanids retained the old
dynasties as their vassals. While Khorezm was included in the Samanid state after 900, the local dynasty of the Khorezmshahs (in modern scholarly
literature, the Afrighids, from the name of its legendary ancestor), with their capital at Kath, continued to rule the southern part of the country, while
the Samanid governor (amir) ruled the northern part, with the capital in Gurganj. In 995 the amir of Gurganj defeated the Khorezmshah and annexed
his domain, assuming the title of Khorezmshah, but remained a Samanid vassal. Chaghaniyan was ruled by the Muhtajids (or Al-i Muhtaj), who were
descendants of either the pre-Islamic rulers, the chaghan-khudas, or of an Iranized Arab family that had settled in Khorasan after the Arab conquest.
Khuttal was ruled by a local dynasty known first as Banijurids and later (by the name of its other branch) Abu Davudids; the latter expanded their
domain and included in it Balkh, Tokharistan and Termez. The province of Guzganan (in Arabicized form, Juzjan), southwest of Balkh, was ruled
by the Farighunid dynasty. Kuhistan was the domain of the Simjurid family. Even the Saffarids remained for a while in Sistan as Samanid vassals.
In the west, Samanid vassals were the Zaydi Imams in the Caspian provinces. In the north, after the conquest of Isfijab, the Samanids left in place
the local Turkic rulers. All these vassals sent only annual presents to the Samanid court, but paid no taxes. The largest province of the Samanid state
was Khorasan, with its center in Nishapur, whose governor was also the commander-in-chief (sipahsalar) of the Samanid army. In the 940s and 950s
Abu #Ali Chaghani (from the Al-i Muhtaj dynasty) was the governor of Khorasan and was close to establishing his independent rule there. Later, it
was the commanders of Turkic slave troops who held this governorship, often hardly recognizing central authority; in 991 such a commander, Abu
#Ali Simjuri, appropriated all state revenues from Khorasan.
Samanid rule (except for its last years) was a period of economic prosperity and cultural efflorescence. The old Soghdian language mostly disap-
peared by the end of Samanid rule and was replaced by New Persian. Literature in New Persian (using the Arabic script), whose beginnings go back
to the time of the Tahirids and Saffarids, flourished under Samanid patronage. Persian was used in the state chancery (side by side with Arabic), and
an attempt (under Ahmad II b. Isma#il) to change back to Arabic failed. A Persian translation of the great Arabic historical work by Tabari (10th
century) was made by Bal#ami, a vizier of the Samanids; at the same time a Persian translation of the Arabic commentary on the Qur"an by Tabari
was made by a group of several scholars from Mavarannahr. The court library of the Samanids in Bukhara was famous. Samanid amirs and high
officials patronized Persian poetry. Rudaki, who is considered the father of Tajik poetry, wrote at the court of Nasr II, and Firdawsi began his Shah-
nama under the Samanids. In modern Tajikistan the Samanids are regarded the first (and only) Tajik national dynasty.

bregel2.pmd 24 5/26/2003, 12:47 PM

bregel2.pmd

A B C D
OGHUZ YABGHU
O
Aral Sea G Borders of the Samanid state in the middle of the 10th century
H Sïghnaq Borders of the vassal states within the Samanid realm
U
H U Z Z Main trade routes

G ? Cities located hypothetically

O
Uzgend Sawran 100 0 100 200 KM
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25

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5/26/2003, 12:47 PM

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A B C D

25
© Yu ri Breg el 20 0 3

12. THE CENTRAL REGIONS OF WESTERN TURKESTAN IN THE 10TH CENTURY

 26

13. THE EARLY 11TH CENTURY: THE GHAZNAVIDS, QARAKHANIDS, AND SELJUKS

With the demise of the Samanids in 999 (see maps 11-12), the territory of their state was divided between Mahmud b. Sebük-Tegin of Ghazna and
the Qarakhanid Nasr b. #Ali, who agreed that the Amu-Darya should be the boundary between the two states. Despite this agreement, the Qarakhanids
invaded the territory south of the Amu-Darya, but were decisively defeated by Mahmud in a battle at Balkh in 1008, after which they made no further
attempt to attack Mahmud’s territory. Mahmud spent his entire reign in relentless campaigning against the neighbors of his kingdom in all directions.
After securing his position in Khorasan, he extended his control over the former vassals of the Samanids in the south of their kingdom (Juzjan, Gharchistan,
Khuttal, and Sistan). He sent three expeditions to conquer the mountainous region of Ghur, in the upper course of the Harirud, which had remained
pagan and independent until then, and the local chieftains became his vassals. In 1017 Mahmud found a pretext for intervening in the affairs of
Khorezm, where the family of the amirs of Gurganj had ruled since 995; Khorezm was conquered after fierce fighting, and Mahmud installed as
governor (but with the traditional title of Khorezmshah) a former ghulam of his father Sebük-Tegin named Altuntash. In the west, Mahmud fought
the Buyids, a Shi#ite dynasty who ruled a vast empire in western and central Iran and Iraq and controlled the #Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad. Although
Buyid power was diminishing in the first half of the 11th century, Mahmud turned his attention to them only at the end of his reign, when he cap-
tured Rayy, subdued the Musafirid rulers of Daylam, and then sent his son Mas#ud to attack other Buyid vassals; this operation, however, was in-
terrupted by Mahmud’s death in 1030. After Khorasan and Tokharistan were secured for Mahmud, the main destination of Mahmud’s military cam-
paigns was India. These campaigns (17 in number) reached as far south as Kalinjar and Somnath, but only Panjab and Sind were annexed. The main
goal of Mahmud’s Indian campaigns was plunder, and they brought him enormous booty which allowed him to maintain a large army.
Mahmud was a despotic ruler whose power rested upon the army and a large bureaucratic apparatus and whose rule was supported by spoils from
his Indian campaigns. The central administrative system in his empire was inherited from the Samanids and further developed under his own rule,
so that for later Islamic writers the Ghaznavid state became a model of a well organized and highly centralized bureaucracy, with a professional
salaried standing army. Mahmud also stressed his role as a champion of Islamic orthodoxy, a protector and promoter of Sunnite Islam fighting the
Shi#ite Buyids, the Isma#ilis of Multan, and Hindu “idolaters.” It was also Mahmud Ghaznavi who began to be styled “sultan,” although “sultan”
became the official title of the Ghaznavid rulers only beginning with Mahmud’s grandson. Mahmud and Mas#ud also continued the Samanid tradition
of patronizing arts and literature (Firdawsi presented the Shah-nama to him), and their court in Ghazna was a great cultural center. But the mighty
state created by Mahmud suffered a severe blow from the Seljuk Turkmens just ten years after Mahmud’s death.
In the early 11th century the Turkmens, under the leadership of Seljuk’s three sons, Musa, Mika"il and Arslan Isra"il, and then two sons of Mika"il,
Toghrïl Bek Muhammad and Chaghrï Bek Davud, were nomadizing on the borders of Mavarannahr and Khorezm and in the Qara-qum desert, pro-
viding their military services to the Qarakhanids and the Khorezmshah (cf. map 11). In the 1020s the Turkmens in Mavarannahr under Isra"il were
allied with the Qarakhanid #Ali Tegin during the latter’s war with the head of the Qarakhanid dynasty, Qadïr-Khan Yusuf. Mahmud Ghaznavi inter-
fered in this conflict on the side of Qadïr-Khan in 1025, defeated and captured Isra"il, and transfered 4,000 Turkmens to Khorasan, where they re-
ceived pastures near Serakhs and Abiverd. Here they soon rebelled and were defeated and dispersed in several directions, and some of them migrated
as far west as Azerbayjan and Iraq, while the majority went to the Balkhan mountains. Mahmud, shortly before his death in 1030, took some of them
into his service and put them under the command of his son Mas#ud, who was the governor of Rayy. They helped Mas#ud in the fight for succession
in Ghazna after Mahmud’s death; however, they later fell out with the Ghaznavid administration of Khorasan, and fighting between the Turkmens
and Ghaznavid troops continued intermittently from 1031 to 1034. At the same time the Turkmens in Mavarannahr were nomadizing between Bukhara
and Khorezm, switching their allegiance, accordingly, between the Qarakhanids and the Khorezmshah. In 1032 they participated in the battle at Dabusiya
between Khorezmshah Altuntash and #Ali Tegin, but later they supported the Khorezmshah Harun, son of Altuntash, who ceased to be a Ghaznavid
vassal in 1034. In 1034-35 the Turkmens under the Seljuks in Khorezm were attacked and defeated by the Oghuz yabghu of Yangikent, Shah Malik
Barani, after which a large number of Turkmens, under Toghrïl, Musa, and Chaghrï, migrated to northern Khorasan, where they received pastures
in the regions of Abiverd, Nesa, and Ferava. It seems that many more joined them both from the Balkhan area and from across the Amu-Darya, and
they occupied the region of Merv. During the following years, Khorasan suffered greatly from Turkmen depredations. In 1035, at Nesa, the Seljuks
defeated Ghaznavid troops sent against them by Sultan Mas#ud. In 1038 the Ghaznavid troops suffered another defeat at Serakhs, and Nishapur was
occupied by the Seljuks. In 1040 Sultan Mas#ud himself led his army against the Seljuks, but at Dandanaqan, south-west of Merv, this army was
routed by the Seljuks, and Mas#ud fled to Ghazna; he was overthrown on the way there and died the next year, while Toghrïl Bek was crowned on
the battlefield as “the Sultan of Khorasan.” Thus a new, Seljuk, state emerged that was soon to become one of the largest empires in the Islamic
world.
The Qarakhanid Qaghanate also underwent important changes by 1040. After the elimination of the Samanids, the qaghanate included Mavaran-
nahr, Shash, Ferghana, Isfijab, Talas, Semirech’e, and the western part of the Tarim basin. From the very beginning, the qaghanate had a bipartite
structure similar to that of the Türk Qaghanate: the Great (or senior) Khan with the titles Arslan Khan and Qara Khan, who had two capitals, Bal-
asaghun, in the upper Chu valley (the main one), and Kashghar, ruled directly over the eastern part of the qaghanate, while the “associate” khan,
titled Bughra Khan, ruled the western part whose capital was initially Talas and, after 999, Bukhara. The empire, as was common in Inner Asian
nomadic states, was considered the common patrimony of the ruling clan, and its members were entitled to rule certain parts of it as appanages according
to their seniority in the family. There was a complex system of ranks and titles connected with this seniority (thus, immediately below qaghan there
was ilig, and below ilig the tegin), and when the members of the clan moved up the dynastic ladder, their titles (and often their appanages) changed;
this makes the study of their history extremely difficult. The relationships among various members of the Qarakhanid clan were often less than friendly,
and interdynastic feuds occurred frequently. One such feud took place in the 1030s, when Ibrahim b. Nasr, the son of the second conqueror of
Mavarannahr, who initially had the title of Böri-Tegin, was enlarging his appanage and fighting the other members of the dynasty, until he took
possession of all of Mavarannahr and was proclaimed khan in 1040, with the title of Tamghach (or Tabghach) Bughra Khan, and with his capital in
Samarqand. It was in this year, 1040, that the united Qarakhanid Qaghanate split into two independent qaghanates, eastern and western, under two
different branches of the dynasty.
Attempts at the territorial expansion of the western qaghanate (across the Amu-Darya) were blocked by the Ghaznavids. The khans of the eastern
qaghanate, on the other hand, enlarged their territory, spreading Islam into Eastern Turkestan. At the beginning of the 11th century Qadïr Khan Yusuf
conquered Khotan, and in 1016 he minted his coins in Uch. By the middle of the 11th century the borders of the eastern qaghanate were at Cherchen
and Kucha. Some of the eastern campaigns of the eastern qaghans were directed against the incursions of a new wave of heathen nomads which
began with the expansion of the Qitan in Mongolia in the 10th century and continued with chain migrations across the Inner Asian steppe belt in the
early 11th century. The Qarakhanids successfully defended themselves, but the Kimek confederation in the northern steppes disintegrated, and the
Qïpchaqs became predominant in the central part of the Central Asian steppe zone, moving to the Sïr-Darya and the Volga and replacing the Oghuz;
the latter either moved to Eastern Europe or joined the Seljuks. It is possible that the migration of the Turkmens to Khorasan was to a great extent
caused by Qïpchaq pressure from the north. By the first half of the 11th century “The Steppe of the Oghuz” began to be called “The Steppe of the
Qïpchaqs,” a name that was preserved through the 19th century.

bregel2.pmd 26 5/26/2003, 12:47 PM

bregel2.pmd

A B C D E

Q Ï P C H K I M
Black
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Y A B G H U
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1 EMPIRE Sea 1
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SH
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BULI Ghazna 1001 Srinagar

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IR
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R Che b
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Sialkot
5/26/2003, 12:48 PM

6, 10
26
A N Borders of the Qarakhanid vassals
A

PA
N
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Border of the Uyghur state of Qocho

0
N Lahore
J
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by Military campaigns of the Ghaznavids

S

10 A B 10
(with dates)
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14
SISTAN
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1003 Dates of the Ghaznavid conquests

10
Multan

T O M A
37
Turkmen raids of Khorasan (with dates)
Thanesar Migrations of Turkmens

ME QUS Migrations of other nomadic groups

KRA DA Hansi
N R Dehli
1008
Battle between Mahmud Ghaznavi and
the Qarakhanids near Balkh

R A
10 Defeat of the Seljuks by the Ghaznavids
18 1025 near Bukhara

on Somnath 1025–26
10 10
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S I CHAUHANAS Battle between Khorezmshah Altuntash
M

and the Qarakhanids at Dabusiya

A N Mathura 1032
D CH
N Ajmer
A Kanauj
1035
Defeat of the Ghaznavids by the Seljuks
at Nesa
4 RA N 4
JA Gwalior D Kanpur Battle between Mascud Ghaznavi and
STH E 1038 the Seljuks at Serakhs
L
AN L Defeat of Mascud Ghaznavi by the
A Seljuks at Dandanaqan
C Chitor S 1040
I n d i a n H Dates of the sacking of cities by the
Kalinjar 1040
A

Seljuks
O c e a n PARA MARAS
U
LU

100 0 100 200 300 400 KM

M A
KY

LVA Ujjain
AS

A B C D E

27
© Yu r i B r e g e l 2 0 0 3

13. THE EARLY 11TH CENTURY: THE GHAZNAVIDS, QARAKHANIDS, AND SELJUKS
 28

14. 1040 TO THE END OF THE 11TH CENTURY: THE SELJUKS AND QARAKHANIDS

After the Seljuk victory at Dandanaqan in 1040 (see map 13), the Seljuks continued their conquests in Iran. According to the division of authority
made by the Seljuks after their victory, Toghrïl, the supreme sultan, was in charge of the lands conquered in the west, while Khorasan and the east
remained under Chaghrï Bek. But first their attention was diverted to the north. The Oghuz in the lower course of the Sïr-Darya experienced an
increasing pressure from the Qïpchaqs and other nomadic groups as a result of the large scale east-west migrations in the steppes that took place in
the first half of the 11th century (see map 13); a part of the Oghuz began to migrate across the Volga into the East European steppe, while many
others migrated to Khorasan and joined the Seljuks. Those under the Oghuz yabghu Shah Malik attacked the Khorezmshah Isma#il Khandan in 1041,
defeated him in a three-day battle, and conquered Khorezm. Isma#il fled to Khorasan, and in 1043 the combined forces of Toghrïl and Chaghrï drove
Shah Malik from Khorezm; he fled to Dihistan and from there to Mekran (in southern Iran) where he was captured and later executed. Khorezm was
placed under a Seljuk governor; in the 1050s the governor rebelled and was subdued by Chaghrï Bek, who at that time also received the submission
of the “Amir of the Qïpchaqs” (apparently, on the Sïr-Darya). Toghrïl returned from Khorezm to Iran; in 1043 he entered Rayy, and in 1050 he
conquered Isfahan, which became his capital. The continuing pressure of the Qïpchaqs on the remaining Oghuz in the lower Sïr-Darya region caused
the migration of most of them to Khorasan, Azerbayjan and Iraq, where they joined the Turkmens who came there in the 1030s; but some of them
probably went to the Mangïshlaq peninsula, where Sultan Alp-Arslan had to fight them three decades later. The Turkmens under Toghrïl and other
members of the Seljuk family (but also often on their own) overran all of Iran, Iraq, and Azerbayjan. In 1055 Toghrïl entered Baghdad; he married
the daughter of the #Abbasid caliph, and the latter bestowed on him the honorific title Malik al-Mashriq wa’l-Maghrib (“King of the East and West”).
The dynasty founded by Toghrïl Bek became known in the historical literature as the “Great Seljuks” (as distinct from various local dynasties found-
ed later by the members of the same clan). The Shi#ite Buyids were eliminated, and the Seljuks vigorously promoted Sunni Islam in their possessions.
In the east, after indecisive warfare with the Ghaznavids, a peace agreement was signed in 1059 between Chaghrï Bek and Ibrahim b. Mas#ud, es-
tablishing the borders between the two empires; the peace was generally maintained to the end of the century.
Relations between the Seljuks and the western Qarakhanid qaghanate during the 1040s and the 1050s were generally peaceful. During the first
decades of their rule, the Qarakhanids, like the Samanids, left in place some old local dynasties as their tributaries, such as the dihqans of Ilaq, the
rulers of Isfijab, and the Muhtajids of Chaghaniyan. But from the second quarter of the 11th century these dynasties were eliminated or their author-
ity reduced. The first western qaghan, Tamghach Bughra Khan Ibrahim b. Nasr (1040-1068), was described by Muslim historians as a pious and just
ruler; he reduced the number of appanages ruled by princes and introduced a currency reform, and the country enjoyed economic prosperity. Ibrahim
b. Nasr, in addition to his title of qaghan, adopted also the title of sultan. In 1059-60 he conquered Ferghana, which had been a bone of contention
between the western and the eastern qaghanates; later on Ferghana, together with Shash, Taraz and Balasaghun, changed hands between the two
qaghanates. The capital of the eastern qaghanate was most often Kashghar, but sometimes Balasaghun. After 1068 Ferghana and the regions north
of the Sïr-Darya were recaptured by the eastern qaghanate. At about the same time, the Seljuks tried to impose their suzerainty on the Qarakhanids.
In the 1060s the son and successor of Toghrïl, Alp-Arslan, continued the Seljuk conquests in the west, culminating in 1071 with the defeat of the
Byzantine emperor at Manzikert (Malazgird); this was followed by more Seljuk conquests in Anatolia and Syria. But Alp-Arslan had to pay more
attention to his eastern borders. In 1065 he undertook an expedition from Merv to Khorezm. The reasons for this campaign are not quite clear; it
seems that its main target was the nomadic groups, both Oghuz and Qïpchaqs, who inhabited the regions between the Aral Sea and the Caspian, but
it is not clear why they caused such special concern among the Seljuks. Having arrived in Gurganj, Alp-Arslan marched through Üst-Yurt to the
Mangïshlaq peninsula with a punitive campaign against the Qïpchaqs, and from there went north of the Aral Sea to Jend, where the ancestor of the
Seljuks was buried. From Jend, Alp-Arslan marched along the Sïr-Darya up to Sawran, apparently also against the Qïpchaqs. Before returning to
Khorasan, he appointed in Khorezm his own governor named Arslan-Arghun (a son or brother of the sultan). In 1072 Alp-Arslan set out for the
conquest of Mavarannahr, and his army was already crossing the Amu-Darya when the sultan was killed by the commander of a fortress who had
been taken prisoner. Alp-Arslan’s son and successor, Malik Shah (1072-1092), under whom the Seljuk empire reached its greatest might, invaded
Mavarannahr in 1089, captured Bukhara and Samarqand, and reached as far east as Uzgend. After this the Qarakhanids remained vassals of the Seljuks
for half a century. Malik Shah appointed his slave Anushtegin Gharcha, keeper of the royal wash bowls, as titular governor of Khorezm (because the
expenses of this part of the royal household were covered by the revenues of Khorezm), but he did not actually rule this province. The Seljuk sultan
Berk-Yaruq (see map 15) in 1097 appointed another Turkish ghulam, Ekinchi b. Qochqar, as governor of Khorezm with the title of Khorezmshah;
he was killed in the same year, and his son Qutb ad-Din Muhammad received the post and the title of his father; he became the founder of the new
dynasty of the Khorezmshahs.
Under the Qarakhanids and the Seljuks the process of the Turkicization of Central Asia appears to have advanced considerably, although it is
impossible to evaluate this process on the basis of available sources. A general assumption is that the population of Eastern Turkestan in the Qa-
rakhanid period was already overwhelmingly Turkic-speaking, and Turkic was not only vernacular, but also the language of high culture; the first
known Turkic Islamic literary work, the Qutadghu bilig, a didactic poem (a “mirror for princes”), was written in Kashghar in 1069 by Yusuf Ba-
lasaghuni, and a member of the eastern branch of the Qarakhanid dynasty, Mahmud al-Kashghari, was a pioneer of Turkic philology, who compiled
(in Arabic, in Baghdad, between 1072 and 1094) the first comparative dictionary of Turkic languages (including, in effect, an anthology of Turkic
folk literature). At the same time the population of Western Turkestan was still predominantly Iranian, with the possible exception of Shash. The
number of Turkic tribesmen who moved into Western Turkestan with the Qarakhanid conquest is not known, they do not seem to have sedentarized
there, and the language of high culture in the western qaghanate was Persian. After the Seljuk conquest a Turkic tribal population was found through-
out the domains of the Great Seljuks, but its main concentration was in the west of the Seljuk empire, not in Central Asia; and the language of high
culture under the Seljuks was only Persian. The Oghuz/Turkmen tribes had their grazing grounds in various regions of Central Asia, but there is no
evidence of their sedentarization during this period, and the urban population seems to have been mainly Persian-speaking.

bregel2.pmd 28 5/26/2003, 12:48 PM

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A B C D E

Borders of the Eastern Seljuk Sultanate Borders of the Ghaznavids after 1059
Borders of the Seljuk vassals Military campaigns of the Seljuks
Borders of the state of the Oghuz Military campaigns of the Oghuz
Yabghu Yabghu
Bulghar

l
Borders of the Uyghur state of Qocho Migrations of Turkic nomadic groups

Tobo
Borders of the regions that changed Defeat of Shah Malik Barani by the
29

1 hands between the Western and 1043 Seljuks at Kath

1
Eastern Qarakhanid qaghanates

im 100 0 100 200 300 400 KM

Ish
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Q Ï P C H
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(Hami)
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5/26/2003, 12:48 PM

3 I 3
104

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su
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Ferava S
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of Bukhara V
A
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K
Dihistan K E S Nesef
A R i v e r o f Soghd Sur n
M Yazïr N

Khota
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4 1 0Y A R I D K H
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Rayy
A N D I D S Damghan Sebzevar
R Serakhs S Balkh Badakhshan
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an-Dary a
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to
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T I B E T
Azerbayjan
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and Iraq
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Merverrud r A’ -
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gh Su In d u s
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AZN AV I
Busheng Herat H DS
G Kabul
A B C D E

29
© Yuri Bregel 2003

14. 1040 TO THE END OF THE 11TH CENTURY: THE SELJUKS AND QARAKHANIDS
 30

15. THE FIRST HALF OF THE 12TH CENTURY: THE SELJUKS, QARAKHANIDS, KHOREZMSHAHS, QARA-KHITAYS

The Seljuk sultan Malik Shah and his vizier Nizam al-Mulk died in 1092. After two years of fighting for the throne between two contenders, the
winner, Malik Shah’s son Berk-Yaruq, became the new sultan. His reign, which lasted twelve years (until 1105), was a time of internal feuds and
warfare. Arslan-Arghun, who had been appointed governor of Khorezm by Alp-Arslan but under Malik Shah held another post, rebelled and was
defeated with some difficulty. Later, Berk-Yaruq had to fight his brother Muhammad Tapar for supreme authority. After the death of Berk-Yaruq,
Muhammad became the sultan; he ruled the western part of the empire, while his half-brother Ahmad Sanjar, based first in Balkh and later in Merv,
ruled Khorasan and other provinces in the east as a viceroy with the title malik. After the death of Sultan Muhammad in 1118, Sanjar became the
supreme sultan of the Seljuks, but the empire was now effectively divided into the eastern sultanate (which included, besides Khorasan, also Mazan-
deran, Damghan, and Rayy), under Sanjar, and the western sultanate centered in Iraq, under Sanjar’s nephew Mahmud. In 1119, after being defeated
by Sanjar, Mahmud acknowledged Sanjar’s supremacy. Sanjar interfered several times in the affairs of the Qarakhanids, primarily of the Western
Qaghanate, which remained a Seljuk vassal; but even the Eastern Qarakhanids recognized his overlordship. In 1130 Sanjar came with an army to
Mavarannahr to reinforce the authority there of his Qarakhanid vassal, Arslan Khan Muhammad II. In 1132 he placed on the throne in Samarqand
Arslan Khan Mahmud, who was his nephew. Sanjar also interfered in a succession dispute among the Ghaznavids: answering an appeal by the Ghaznavid
Bahram Shah, he conquered Ghazna in 1117, sacked the city, and placed Bahram Shah on the throne; the latter agreed to become Sanjar’s vassal and
to pay an annual tribute. In Khorezm, the Khorezmshah #Ala" ad-Din Atsïz, the son and successor of Qutb ad-Din Muhammad, recognized Sanjar’s
suzerainty; at the same time he was enlarging his domain, extending his authority over the Turkmens of the Üst-Yurt and Mangïshlaq, and in the
delta of the Sïr-Darya, including Jend. In 1138 Atsïz rebelled, provoking a punitive expedition by Sanjar; the army of Atsïz was routed and he fled.
Sanjar appointed his own governor for Khorezm, but the following year, as soon as Sanjar returned to Merv, Atsïz returned to Khorezm and banished
Sanjar’s governor. He again acknowledged himself as Sanjar’s vassal, but, nevertheless, within a year, in 1139 attacked Bukhara, captured the city,
and demolished its citadel and walls; this attack brought no reprisals from Sanjar.
The main threat to both Atsïz and Sanjar came from the new nomadic conquerors, the Qara-Khitays. These were the successors of the Qitan, a
people of Mongolic origin, who had conquered Mongolia and a part of northern China in 907 and established a dynasty there under the Chinese name
Liao. After most of their domains were conquered in 1115 by another nomadic people, of Manchu origin, which established a new Chinese dynasty
named Jin, a part of the Qitan, under a member of the Liao royal house, began their westward migration and conquests in 1124. They quickly grew
in number after they were joined by other groups, including some Mongol, Turkic, and even Jurchen elements. In 1131 the leader of these Qitan,
Yelü Dashi, was enthroned in Emil (in Jungharia) with the title of Gürkhan (“universal khan”); the new dynasty that he founded assumed the Chinese
dynastic name Xi Liao (Western Liao), but in the Islamic world they became known as Qara-Khitay. In about 1133 one group of the Qara-Khitays
moved into the territory of the Eastern Qarakhanids, but they were defeated by Arslan Khan Ahmad b. Hasan. Another part of the Qara-Khitays
moved to Semirech’e and captured Balasaghun, which became the capital of the Qara-Khitay ruler (or, rather, the city near which the Gürkhan had
his nomadic headquarters). In 1137 the Qarakhanid ruler of Samarqand, Mahmud Khan, was defeated by the Qara-Khitays near Khojend. In the following
years the Western Qarakhanid qaghanate was weakened because of a conflict between Mahmud Khan and his nomadic Qarluq subjects; the latter
rebelled against the khan and asked the Qara-Khitays for help. In 1141 Sanjar invaded Mavarannahr, but his large army was routed by the Qara-
Khitays in a battle on the Qatvan Steppe, near Samarqand; Sanjar and Mahmud Khan fled to Khorasan, while the Qara-Khitays occupied Samarqand
and Bukhara. Even before this, possibly after the battle at Khojend, the Qarakhanid rulers of Uzgend (Ferghana) separated from the Western Qa-
rakhanids and established their own independent line of hereditary rulers.
The lands under Qara-Khitay control now stretched from Khorezm in the west to the Altay and Hami in the east and from Lake Balkhash in the
north to the Amu-Darya in the south, but their core territory was in the Chu valley and around their capital, Balasaghun. The Gürkhans did not divide
their core territory into appanages, and they left local dynasties (Eastern and Western Qarakhanids, the Uyghur Idiquts, the Qarluq Yabghus in the
Semirech’e, and the Khorezmshahs) in place as their vassals, sometimes attaching to them representatives of the Gürkhan who supervised the col-
lection of tribute; Khorezm was only periodically visited by tribute-collectors, and the religious dignitaries, sadrs, who ruled Bukhara during this
period, would themselves bring the tribute to the Gürkhan’s court. The Gürkhans had a salaried standing army that was stationed only in the Qara-
Khitay core territory, as well as auxiliary troops from the subject kingdoms. The Qara-Khitays were only partly sinicized. They used some Chinese
official titles and Chinese for important decrees, but they had Muslim scholars and officials at the court of the Gürkhan as well. They were probably
Buddhist, but they showed tolerance toward other religions, and the Nestorian Christian church was very active in their dominions.
The defeat in the Qatvan Steppe was a strong blow to Sanjar’s prestige in the Islamic world. The Khorezmshah Atsïz immediately took advantage
of the situation and raided Khorasan, where he captured Serakhs, Merv (which was sacked), Nishapur, and several other cities. He had to return to
Khorezm, because it was also raided by the Qara-Khitays; Atsïz agreed to pay them an annual tribute and lost Jend, where the Qara-Khitays appoint-
ed their own governor. In 1143 Sanjar, having recovered after his defeat by the Qara-Khitays, marched against Khorezm and besieged Atsïz in his
capital, Gurganj; Atsïz expressed his submission, and Sanjar returned to Merv, but Atsïz again pursued an independent policy, leading to another
campaign by Sanjar against him in 1147. Sanjar was again satisfied with the Khorezmshah’s nominal submission. In 1152 Atsïz conquered Jend and
appointed his son Il-Arslan as its governor.
The fatal blow to Sanjar’s empire was dealt by the Oghuz who lived in the province of Balkh. It appears that some Oghuz tribes had already
migrated to this province at the time of the Seljuk conquests in the 1040s, while others came from Mavarannahr after the Qara-Khitay invasion. They
were subjected to increasing taxation by the governor of Balkh, and their growing discontent and unrest resulted in an open rebellion in 1153. Sanjar
moved against them with a punitive expedition, but his army was utterly defeated and the sultan himself was captured by the Oghuz, who kept him
prisoner under close watch (according to some accounts, he was kept in an iron cage at night) for three years, carrying him around during their raids.
In these raids they attacked and sacked the major cities of Khorasan, beginning with Sanjar’s capital Merv, and the province descended into a state
of anarchy. The Khorezmshah Atsïz led his army to Khorasan in 1156, but he suddenly died there. The same year Sanjar managed to escape from
captivity and returned to Merv, but in 1157 he died without being able to restore his authority and order in Khorasan. With his death, Seljuk rule in
eastern Iran came to an end.

bregel2.pmd 30 5/26/2003, 12:48 PM

bregel2.pmd

A B C D E

Borders of the Eastern Seljuk Sultanate Battle between the Seljuks and the
1137 Qara-Khitays at Khojend
Borders of the Seljuk vassals
Battle between Sanjar and the Qara-
Borders of the Uyghur state of Qocho 1141 Khitays in the Qatvan Steppe
R

ol
Bulghar
A im Borders of the Qara-Khitay state after 1141 Defeat of Sanjar by the Oghuz

Ish
1153

To
H Borders of the Qara-Khitay vassals Oghuz raids on the cities of Khorasan
31

1 G M 1
L O
Military campaigns of the Qara-Khitays Cities sacked by the Oghuz
B U D Military campaigns of the Khorezmshahs The capital of the Qara-Khitays
G Military campaigns of the Seljuks
N Migration of the Qara-Khitays
K I 1138 Defeat of Atsïz by Sanjar at Hazarasp Migration of the Qarluqs

100 0 100 200 300 400 KM

Yayïq

I
l

rtï
It i

sh
N A Y M
A N S

Irgiz
y
2 rga 2
Tu
Q Ï P C H A Q S
z L. Z
ba su gu
aysa n
Em rï-

a
Sa

Ay
A S H T - I Q Ï P C H A Q Q A R A - K H I T A Y
D S
L. Emil
Ala-köl
QANGLÏ
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Bars-köl
U ) O (Barkul)

Qa ra
S ‘ E M
Q A - A

S
I H
Yangikent R T t al E C

an
S
S e a

S I R
Q I

as
N A Q
S E L M
EU Q R L
U
L. Ebi- nur L
Bishbalïq R
M

H
E Aral TURKMEN S Y A B U

Y
C A G H U
A

M P S Q Qocho Qomul

(
Ï
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K A Sea Q L Jend
Ï P C H A Q S Almalïq
H
G

R G X S
N N Q Ch
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( T

Sey
U U Q A Tala Q u
H Sïghnaq G U
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s A

hu
T L S n
(S R Ses Chalïsh
Q
A H ï r- Sawran
A - A Y Tek 4 1 (Qarashahr) Y I
Q 2 Da K H I T 1 1
5/26/2003, 12:48 PM

Derbend T Madminiya 115 QA

3 E r Shavgar RLU köl F R O M
U I D 3

ya
G QS ssïq- L. Baghrash-köl
L. I R

)
I Taraz 1141 U
Gurganj N Mizdahqan
I D Balasaghun Otrar Kucha G H
K Isfijab Shelji ANA 73
TE
Barskhan (Kusan) U Y
Lake H S TO WESTERN QAGH ter 10
O af TE ha y la m
Sarïqamïsh
R Kath ca.1060 and A N A S
K Aqsu Tarim
E T O E A S T E R N Q A G Hy 1 0 7 0
Khiva Z M Hazarasp Binket i n 1 0 6 8 - e a r l Uch
Aq
or
C a

su
T S A op-n

1137
1138 U H N L. L
AS Nuket Kasan Akhsiket E A S T E R N Q A G H A N A T E

en
R H A
K
1156

Uzgend

ch
oy E H
M Nur Benaket N A T G Osh

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Cheleken I. Uzb E N 1141 G H A Marghinan E R I D S
( S E L J U K V A S S A L S ) Ch
S N
114 M Kerminiya Q A 1137 FQubaA
Jey h u

2 A a n Khojend H c a . 1 1 3 3
V R N Q atv
S t e p pe K
114

Ferava T E
A t s ïz

T U
n(

Oghurcha I. R Bukhara SA gharKashghar Cherchen

Samarqand Bunjiket A sh
3, 11

K E
Am

R
Dihistan M
u -D Amul W A o f S o gh d h a b Ka
r n
a N R Ri ve Su
rk

Khota
47

Yazïr E N
ry

Nesef Kesh A H R
A Yarkend
a)

N 3 0
Nesa 11
L Mu r hab
Q Chaghaniyan j ng g

nd
A

n S
Pan
41

g a t e
a
r
N

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T

G
Gorgan Atre Ya r
KH h

hs Niya
HA

T
11

k Khotan
U
Wak

Abiverd Merv lichur

Qazvin Amul ï z Zemm Hulbuk A
HS

Astarabad t s Gu n d Keriya
4 K H O R A AS A N Kelif
Termez 4
Badakhshan
o k c ha N
BADAK

B A
V A N D I D S Damghan S KHA
K

Balkh
Sebzevar Tus
O G W A khan-Da rya
Rayy Serakhs H
K
a

Shapurgan U Khulm Taleqan W

Nishapur
Balkhab

1153 Z
O
Maymana U Baghlan BOL
OR M
G J N T I B E T
b

L Merverrud G
ha

H
Mu

A
E
H ari r u d

U rk
S Z gh In d u s ‘-
R
u
r

ab S A Z IS
Bamiyan H A V
Herat G I D
Kabul S
Busheng V A S S A L S 1118-52
A B C D E

31
© Yuri Bregel 2003

15. THE FIRST HALF OF THE 12TH CENTURY: THE SELJUKS, QARAKHANIDS, KHOREZMSHAHS, QARA-KHITAYS
 32

16. THE SECOND HALF OF THE 12TH CENTURY: THE QARAKHANIDS, KHOREZMSHAHS, QARA-KHITAYS, AND THE GHURIDS

The Qara-Khitays, having imposed their overlordship on the Idiquts, the Qarakhanids and the Khorezmshahs (see map 15), left these dynasties in
place as their tributaries. Of the history of the Eastern Qaghanate during this period very little is known. As to the Western Qaghanate, it was plagued
by wars with the rebellious Qarluq nomads in the Zerafshan valley; in the course of these wars the qaghans won some major battles, of which, however,
none was decisive. In the 1160s the Western Qarakhanids, with the support of the Qara-Khitays, conquered Balkh. From 1178-79 the throne of Samarqand
was occupied by the members of the Ferghana line of the Qarakhanid clan, who adopted the title “Great Sultan of Sultans.” However, in reality in
the second half of the 12th century much of the Western Qaghanate was divided into a number of independent principalities, with three of them in
Ferghana (with centers in Uzgend, Kasan, and Marghinan), one in Shash (with a center in Benaket), and others in Otrar, Wakhsh (in the 1180s), and
possibly Termez and Chaghaniyan. Bukhara was ruled, from the first years of the 12th century, by the Burhanids, a dynasty of religious dignitaries
with the title of sadr, installed there by Sultan Sanjar; they were the immediate vassals of the Seljuks, not of the Qarakhanids. After the Qara-Khitay
conquest, the Sadrs became representatives of the Gürkhans and collected the land tax in Bukhara for them. The much-weakened Western Qaghanate
could not withstand the pressure of two new rising powers, the Ghurids from the south and the Khorezmshahs from the west.
The rulers of Ghur (about whom see also map 17), who belonged to the Shansabanid family, rose in the first half of the 12th century from the
chieftains of a small mountain principality on the upper Harirud, and the main branch of the family built its stronghold at Firuzkuh. In 1107 they
became vassals of the Seljuks, with the title of malik, but they began their own expansion, which was primarily directed against the Ghaznavids. The
Ghurid troops consisted of Ghurid mountaineers, who fought as infantry, and Turkic ghulams, who formed the cavalry. In 1150 the Ghurid #Ala ad-
Din Husayn conquered Ghazna, which was sacked for seven days and burned; after that #Ala ad-Din became known by the nickname “Jahansuz”
(“World-Incendiary”), and he adopted the title of sultan. In 1152 he stopped paying tribute to Sanjar, but then he was defeated near Herat by the
Seljuk army and spent some time in captivity. The simultaneous decline of the Ghaznavids and the anarchy in Khorasan after the defeat of Sanjar
by the Oghuz in 1153 gave the Ghurids much freedom of action. The dynasty split into three branches: the chief one, centered in Firuzkuh; the branch
of Bamiyan; and branch of Ghazna (established after they expelled the Oghuz, who had occupied the city for twelve years, in 1173). The Ghazna
branch took over the Ghaznavid possessions in India and continued the expansionist policy of their predecessors there. The Bamiyan branch ruled
over Tokharistan, Badakhshan, and Shughnan, up to the bank of the Amu-Darya (according to some information, also Chaghaniyan and Wakhsh on
the right bank of the river). The main branch, in Firuzkuh, assisted by the Bamiyan branch, took up westward expansion, in Khorasan. They took
advantage first of the internal disputes in the Khorezmshah dynasty and later of the enmity between the Khorezmshahs and the caliphs in Baghdad
(see below), and by 1200 occupied the whole of Khorasan, up to Damghan in the west. In 1198 they defeated the Qara-Khitay army, which crossed
the Amu-Darya, near Balkh. But soon after that they were decisively defeated by the Khorezmshah Muhammad.
In Khorezm, the Khorezmshah Atsïz was succeeded in 1156 by his son Il-Arslan, who invaded Mavarannahr in 1158 in support of the Qarluqs
who were fighting the Qarakhanid ruler of Samarqand. He defeated the Qarakhanids and their Qara-Khitay overlords and compelled them to allow
the Qarluqs to return to their grazing grounds in the Zerafshan valley. But then he had to deal with the situation in Khorasan after the death of Sultan
Sanjar. The formal successor of Sanjar, the Qarakhanid Mahmud Khan, who was also Sanjar’s nephew, did not have much authority, and the power
vacuum in Khorasan was filled by the amirs of Sanjar and the Oghuz, who fought one another. The most powerful among them were Mu#ayyid Ay-
Aba in Nishapur, Tus, and Serakhs, and Ikhtiyar ad-Din Aytaq in Dihistan and Gorgan. Ay-Aba was supported by Mahmud Khan, while Aytaq received
help from the Bavandid ruler of Tabaristan. In the 1160s Khorasan was in a state of anarchy: in 1161 Ay-Aba seized and blinded the khan and his
son and asserted his independence, and in addition to the fights between Aytaq and Ay-Aba, various groups of Oghuz occupied Balkh, Merv, Se-
rakhs, Herat, Taleqan, and the region of Gharchistan. A group of Oghuz under Yaghmur Khan, the chief of the Yazïr tribe, defeated Aytaq and oc-
cupied the region north-west of Nesa, along the Kopet-Dagh mountains. In 1167 Il-Arslan captured Nishapur and other cities in Khorasan and raided
Azerbayjan. In the following years Il-Arslan interfered again in the relations between the Qarakhanids and the Qarluqs on the side of the latter, but
in 1171 his troops were defeated by the Qara-Khitays, and in 1172 Il-Arslan died. At the time of his death his eldest son Tekesh was the governor
of Jend, and his younger brother Sultan Shah was proclaimed Khorezmshah. Tekesh was placed on the throne with the help of the Qara-Khitay army.
Sultan Shah fled to Nishapur and asked Ay-Aba for help; in 1174 Ay-Aba led an expedition to Khorezm, but was defeated by Tekesh near Gurganj
and executed. Sultan Shah first found refuge at the Ghurid court in Firuzkuh, but then was able, with Qara-Khitay help, to take possession of a large
part of Khorasan, including Nishapur, Nesa, Serakhs (from which he expelled the Oghuz in 1181), and Merv. Tekesh conquered Nishapur after two
campaigns, in 1186 and 1187; Sultan Shah had to make peace with Tekesh, but he still coveted the throne of the Khorezmshahs and tried to obtain
help from the Ghurids. When no help was forthcoming, he turned against the Ghurids, who defeated him at Merv in 1190 and took much of his
possessions. Finally, in 1193 the commandant of Serakhs, the last stronghold of Sultan Shah, surrendered the fortress, with Sultan Shah’s treasury,
to Tekesh; two days later Sultan Shah died, and the Tekesh rule in Khorezm was now uncontested.
Although Tekesh owed his throne to the Qara-Khitays, he soon threw off Qara-Khitay overlordship and ceased paying the annual tribute; when
the Qara-Khitays tried to invade Khorezm, he stopped their troops by opening the dikes of Khorezm and flooding the land in their path. In 1182
Khorezmian troops invaded Mavarannahr and captured Bukhara (but did not remain there). Tekesh greatly enlarged his possessions in the west, at
the expense of the Seljuk Sultanate. In 1194 he defeated the Seljuk army in a battle near Rayy, in which the last Seljuk sultan, Toghrïl III, was killed.
As a result, Tekesh became the master of most of western Iran. The #Abbasid caliph an-Nasir, who tried to assert the political power of the caliphs,
demanded that Tekesh should recognize his supreme authority, but Tekesh rejected this claim, and in 1196 defeated the caliph’s troops and killed
his vizier. In 1199 an-Nasir, nevertheless, was compelled to send Tekesh an investiture patent for the sultanate of Iraq, Khorasan, and Turkestan, but
the enmity between the Khorezmshah and the caliph continued during the reign of Tekesh’s successor. On the north-eastern borders of Khorezm, the
main concern for Tekesh was relations with his Turkic nomadic neighbors, many of them still pagan, in the lower Sïr-Darya basin. In 1194-95 he
conducted an expedition, reportedly a successful one, against the pagan Qïpchaqs in Sïghnaq. He married Terken Khatun, the daughter of a Qïpchaq
khan; she brought with her to Khorezm some of her Qïpchaq and Qanglï tribesmen, who began to play an important role in the Khorezmian army.
These troops terrorized western Iran and earned the general hatred of the local population, and when Tekesh died, the people of Jibal rose and massacred
all the Khorezmians they could find.

bregel2.pmd 32 5/26/2003, 12:48 PM

bregel2.pmd

A B C D E

Borders of the Anushteginids Borders of independent principalities

(Khorezmshahs) in Khorezm and within the Western Qarakhanid
Khorasan Qaghanate
R Borders of the Oghuz principalities in Benaket Centers of these independent principalities
Bulghar A Khorasan

M
Borders of the Ghurids in Central Asia
H

l
Tobo
O Borders of the Uyghur state of Qocho
G D
Ghurid military campaigns
1 L Borders of the Qara-Khitay state 1
U G
33

Military campaigns of Khorezmshahs

B N
K I
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1190 Defeat of Sultan Shah by Ghiyath ad-Din
Borders of the Qarakhanid qaghanates Ghuri at Merv
im

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5/26/2003, 12:48 PM

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A B C D E

33
© Yu r i B r e g e l 2 0 0 3

16. THE SECOND HALF OF THE 12TH CENTURY: THE QARAKHANIDS, KHOREZMSHAHS, QARA-KHITAYS, AND THE GHURIDS
 34

17. THE EARLY 13TH CENTURY: THE GHURIDS, KHOREZMSHAHS, QARA-KHITAYS, AND KÜCHLÜK

By 1201 the Ghurid empire reached its greatest might, but it was followed by a rapid decline. When the Ghurids took over all of Khorasan after the
death of Khorezmshah Tekesh, they caused the resentment in the local population by their financial levies and confiscations of grain, and the new
Khorezmshah, #Ala ad-Din Muhammad, was able to restore his possessions there. In 1201 the Khorezmshah Muhammad besieged Herat, but had to
retreat before the Ghurid army. Later the same year Muhammad captured Nishapur and in 1203, after the death of the Ghurid sultan Ghiyath ad-Din
Muhammad, he conquered Merv. In 1204 he besieged Herat again, but was repulsed by the Ghurid sultan Shihab ad-Din Muhammad, who pursued
the Khorezmian army into Khorezm itself. The Khorezmians opened the dikes on the canals and flooded the countryside; but after the water receded,
the Ghurid army defeated the Khorezmshah near his capital, Gurganj, and besieged the city. The Khorezmshah turned for help to his Qara-Khitay
suzerains, who came to his aid accompanied by the troops of their Qarakhanid vassals from Samarqand and Otrar. Shihab ad-Din was defeated, and
the Qara-Khitays pursued him to Andkhud, where he was defeated again and besieged. A truce signed due to the efforts of Sultan #Uthman, the
Qarakhanid ruler of Samarqand, allowed Shihab ad-Din to escape, but early in 1206 he was assassinated, and soon thereafter the Ghurids lost all of
Khorasan, except Herat.
During the following several years the expansionist policy of the Khorezmshah Muhammad was directed mainly eastward. As a pretext for his
invasion of Mavarannahr he used the rebellion in Bukhara in 1207, under a certain Sanjar “Malik,” the son of a vendor of shields. The Burhanid
rulers were banished by the rebels from Bukhara and, when they failed to get help from their Qara-Khitay suzerains, they turned to the Khorezmshah,
who conquered Bukhara the same year, captured Sanjar “Malik,” and sent him to Gurganj; the Burhanids became the vassals of the Khorezmshah.
After this the Khorezmshah Muhammad agreed with Sultan #Uthman of Samarqand on a joint campaign against the Qara-Khitays; the campaign ended
in defeat, and the Khorezmshah returned to Khorezm, while #Uthman pledged his allegiance to the Qara-Khitays. However, having failed to receive
a daughter of the Gürkhan for a wife, #Uthman switched sides again, but this time he became Muhammad’s vassal. This led to an attack on Samar-
qand by the Qara-Khitays; they had to leave the city, however, after having collected a small tribute, because the Qara-Khitay state was now threat-
ened from the east.
Around 1207 or 1208 a general revolt began in Eastern Turkestan as a result of the discontent of the Muslim population with the rule of the “infidels,”
but especially because of the extortions of the Qara-Khitay tax collectors. At that time the threat from the rising Mongol Empire also began to be
felt in Central Asia. In 1208, near the banks of the upper Irtïsh, Chingis Khan defeated the Naymans and the Merkits, two Mongol tribes which were
among his main opponents during his rise to power in Mongolia; the Naymans, under Küchlük, fled to the country of the Qara-Khitays, while the
Merkits fled to the Uyghur idiqut. The idiqut repelled the Merkits, and they joined Küchlük, while the idiqut entered an alliance with Chingis Khan.
Küchlük and his Naymans received the support of Arslan Khan, the Qarluq ruler in Semirech’e, who had rebelled against his Qara-Khitay suzerain,
and in 1210 Küchlük plundered the Gürkhan’s treasury in Uzgend. The Khorezmshah Muhammad took advantage of the difficulties experienced by
the Qara-Khitays and began an open war with them. In 1210 Muhammad, together with Sultan #Uthman of Samarqand, defeated the Qara-Khitays
on the Ilamish plain, near the Talas river; the victory was not decisive, but the Khorezmians captured the Qara-Khitay commander known only by
his title, Tayangu (chamberlain), and after this battle the Khorezmshah began to style himself “The Second Alexander” and “Sultan Sanjar.” The
inhabitants of Balasaghun locked their gates before the retreating Qara-Khitay troops, and the latter stormed the city and sacked it for three days, as
a result of which 47,000 Muslims perished there. Later, when the Qara-Khitay army rebelled against the Gürkhan, Küchlük joined the rebels and
placed himself at their head. In 1211 the Gürkhan surrendered, but remained until his death in 1213 the titular ruler, while actual authority was in
the hands of Küchlük. The Muslim population of the cities of Eastern Turkestan resisted Küchlük (who was initially a Nestorian Christian, but then
converted to Buddhism) for three or four years, and Küchlük raided the oases during harvest time, until they expressed their submission; all public
Muslim religious services and teaching were prohibited.
The Khorezmshah Muhammad, after the battle at the Talas, returned to Gurganj together with Sultan #Uthman, who married Muhammad’s daugh-
ter and, upon the insistence of Terken Khatun, the Khorezmshah’s mother, had to remain in Gurganj for one year. But this caused resentment among
the population of Samarqand, and the Khorezmshah had to send #Uthman back to Samarqand earlier. Upon his return, in 1211, #Uthman learned about
the excesses committed in the city by the representatives of the Khorezmshah, and in 1212 he ordered a general massacre of all Khorezmians who
were in the city. The Khorezmshah Muhammad immediately marched on Samarqand, which was soon forced to surrender; the city was sacked for
three days, during which some 10,000 men were killed, and #Uthman was executed. Samarqand became an actual capital of the Khorezmshah, who
built a new cathedral mosque (and probably also a palace) there, while Khorezm was left under the authority of Terken Khatun. Muhammad had also
other members of the Qarakhanid dynasty (like the ruler of Uzgend, Jalal ad-Din Qadïr Khan) executed, and the dynasty ceased to exist. Muhammad
stayed in Samarqand until 1214 in fear of a possible invasion by Küchlük. Finally, the inhabitants of Isfijab, Shash, and the parts of Ferghana north
of the Sïr-Darya were ordered to leave and to move to the south-west, and these regions were devastated so that they should not fall prey to Küchlük.
After that Muhammad felt secure enough to turn his attention toward his other neighbors. Earlier, possibly in 1209, he had already annexed the Qïpchaq
principality of Sïghnaq, on the Sïr-Darya. From Jend he conducted expeditions to the north, into the Dasht-i Qïpchaq. During one of these expedi-
tions that took place in 1215-16 he encountered Mongol troops, under the command of Subuday and Taghachar with the participation of Chingis
Khan’s son Jochi, that had been sent in the pursuit of the Merkits and had just anihilated that tribe in the region of the Irgiz and the Turgay. The
Khorezmshah attacked the Mongols, despite their unwillingness to give battle; the fight was indecisive, and at night the Mongols quickly left. It was
said that the bravery of the Mongols made a strong impression on the Khorezmshah, and that this was one of the reasons why he avoided meeting
them later in the open field.
While the Khorezmshah Muhammad was busy in Mavarannahr and the Dasht-i Qïpchaq, his generals continued the conquests elsewhere. The last
Ghurid sultans were deposed by 1215; their possessions (except those in India) were annexed to the Khorezmshah’s kingdom and given to the
Khorezmshah’s elder son Jalal ad-Din. Also in 1215, Khorezmian troops conquered Kerman, Mekran, and Hormuz, and Muhammad’s overlordship
was recognized even in #Oman. By 1217 Muhammad took possession of most of western Iran and Azerbayjan. Also by that time his enmity with the
#Abbasid caliph an-Nasir became an open conflict. Muhammad demanded that the caliph should recognize his authority in Baghdad, as had been the
practice under the Great Seljuks, so that the caliph should retain only his spiritual authority. This claim was flatly rejected by the caliph, after which
Muhammad had the Muslim clerics (#ulama) of Khorezm issue a ruling that the caliph was unworthy of his office and should be deposed; in accor-
dance with this ruling, the Khorezmshah declared the caliph an-Nasir deposed and proclaimed as caliph the Sayyid #Ala al-Mulk Termezi. In late fall
of 1217 he sent troops against Baghdad from Hamadan, but they suffered heavy losses from severe snowstorms and the attacks of the Kurds in the
mountains of Kurdistan, and only a small portion of them returned to Muhammad. This was a serious blow to the prestige of the Khorezmshah in
the Islamic world, and this prestige was further eroded by the continuing conflict between Muhammad and his mother, Terken Khatun, in which the
religious establishment, as well as many commanders of the Khorezmshah’s mercenary army, supported Terken Khatun; Muhammad often had to
make concessions to his mother in matters of appointments to the highest posts, and in the provinces under the government of Terken Khatun—
Khorezm, Khorasan, and Mazanderan—the authority of the Khorezmshah was practically not recognized. Thus, despite the scope of Muhammad’s
territorial acquisitions and the huge size of his empire, this empire developed an internal weakness that could be skilfully exploited by the Mongols,
when they began their conquests.

bregel2.pmd 34 5/26/2003, 12:48 PM

bregel2.pmd

A B C D E
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5/26/2003, 12:48 PM

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Ghurid military campaign

AN

A O Raids of Küchlük on the cities of Eastern

S I F T F Mathura Turkestan
N D
1

2
15 E G H
R Rebellions (1207 in Bukhara, 1211-14
U
RA 1 2 R I D S Kanauj
in Eastern Turkestan)
Daybul JA Ajmer 0 4 Defeats of the Ghurids by the Qara-
4 STH G an Kanpur Khitays in 1204 (at Gurganj and 4
AN Gwalior g 1204 Andkhud)

es
Defeat of the Qara-Khitays by
1210 Khorezmshah Muhammad near Taraz
I n d i a n Chitor Kalinjar Balkh Dates of conquests by Khorezmshah
1206 Muhammad
O c e a n Banaras
100 0 100 200 300 400 KM
M A Ujjain
LVA
A B C D E

35
© Yu r i B r e g e l 2 0 0 3

17. THE EARLY 13TH CENTURY: THE GHURIDS, KHOREZMSHAHS, QARA-KHITAYS, AND KÜCHLÜK
 36

18. THE MONGOL CONQUEST

At a quriltay (an assembly of Mongol princes) held in northern Mongolia in 1206 Chingis Khan was proclaimed the supreme ruler of all the Mon-
gols. By 1207-1209 he had already subjugated the Tanguts, who lived in the Ordos region, and in 1211 the Mongols invaded northern China. In 1215
they captured Beijing, and in 1216, with most of Northern China in their hands, Chingis Khan returned to Mongolia. Possibly soon after this (al-
though it could have happened about two years later) the Mongols under Subuday and Taghachar had their first encounter with the troops of the
Khorezmshah Muhammad in the Dasht-i Qïpchaq (see map 17). In 1215 Muhammad sent an embassy to Chingis Khan, who sent in return his embassy
to the Khorezmshah in 1218; at the same time a large trade caravan of Muslim merchants set out from Mongolia and reached Otrar after Chingis
Khan’s ambassador already returned. The governor of Otrar, named Inalchik, had all the 450 or so merchants of the caravan slaughtered and their
goods confiscated, accusing them of being spies (the massacre seems to have been sanctioned by the Khorezmshah himself). An ambassador of Chingis
Khan came to the Khorezmshah soon after this, demanding the extradition of Inalchik, but he was also killed. After this war became inevitable.
For some time before this, the Mongol Empire had become an immediate neighbor of the Khorezmshah’s empire: while Küchlük was taking possession
of the Qara-Khitay state, in 1211, the Qarluq ruler of Semirech’e, Arslan Khan, declared himself a subject of Chingis Khan; and at the same time
a certain Buzar, a former robber, adopted the title of Toghrul Khan, founded his own principality centered in Almalïq, and also submitted to Chingis
Khan, having sent to him his son, Suqnaq Tegin. Before his major campaign against the Khorezmshah, Chingis Khan sent troops under Jebe Noyon
against Küchlük in 1218. Jebe went from Almalïq to Balasaghun, which surrendered without resistance, and then entered Kashgharia, where he issued
an order returning to the Muslims the right to have public religious services; the population met the Mongols as liberators from the oppression of
Küchlük. Küchlük was pursued by Jebe until the Sarïqol, where he was caught and killed; his severed head was shown in the cities throughout Eastern
Turkestan.
Following the raid by Jebe, Chingis Khan set out with his main army in the summer of 1219. In Qayalïq he was joined by Arslan Khan, Suqnaq
Tegin, and Barchuq, the Uyghur idiqut. The Khorezmshah knew about the approaching enemy, but decided not to meet them in the open field and,
instead, divided his troops as garrisons among several key cities, while he himself waited on the left bank of the Amu-Darya for the results of the
battles. It is possible that he had no other choice, given the hostility of some of his military commanders and the unreliability of his troops. In the
fall of 1219 Chingis Khan came to Otrar. Here he divided his army: a part of it, under the command of his sons Chaghatay and Ögedey, was left
to lay siege to the city; another part, under the command of his eldest son, Jochi, was sent down the Sïr-Darya; a small detachment was sent up the
Sïr-Darya, toward Benaket; and the main army, under Chingis Khan himself and his youngest son, Toluy, advanced on Bukhara in January 1220,
through the Qïzïl-qum and Nur. Nur surrendered to the Mongol advance-guard under Subuday Bahadur without resistance. Chingis Khan approached
Bukhara in February 1220. Three days after the beginning of the siege, the garrison under Inanch Khan left the city and broke through the Mongol
troops, but only a few of them could escape the pursuing Mongols and cross the Amu-Darya. The city, abandoned by the garrison, surrendered, but
the citadel, defended by just 400 soldiers, resisted for 12 days. The inhabitants of Bukhara were driven out of the city and divided among the Mongol
troops as slaves, and the city was sacked and then burnt. From Bukhara the Mongols marched on Samarqand, moving along both banks of the Zerafshan
and driving with them a large number of people captured in Bukhara and the villages along the way, whom the Mongols used for the siege works
and as human shields. Chingis Khan came to Samarqand in March. Here Chaghatay and Ögedey joined him, having now captured Otrar; that city’s
defenders had all been killed, the city had been sacked, and its governor, Inalchik, was brought to Chingis Khan and executed. After five days of
siege Samarqand surrendered, except for the citadel’s defenders, who resisted until the citadel was stormed; the Turkic garrison of the city, allegedly
numbering 30,000, was massacred; artisans were divided as slaves among Chingis Khan’s relatives and taken away. The detachment sent against
Benaket, after capturing the city and massacring its garrison, returned to Samarqand. Another detachment was sent by Chingis Khan from Samarqand
against Khojend; the governor of Khojend, Timur Malik, valiantly resisted the Mongols and, being unable to hold the city, escaped by boat down
the Sïr-Darya, pursued by the Mongols. He had to land near Jend and was finally able to reach Gurganj, having lost all his men. From Samarqand
Chingis Khan also dispatched three detachments, under Jebe, Subuday, and Taghachar, in pursuit of the Khorezmshah Muhammad. The Khorezm-
shah, who during the siege of Samarqand waited between Kelif and Andkhud without taking any action, fled to Nishapur before the arrival of the
Mongols. From Nishapur he continued his flight, going to various places in western Iran in order to put the Mongols off his track, and finally came,
with a small retinue and his elder son Jalal ad-Din, to an island off the south-eastern shore of the Caspian Sea; here he died from pneumonia in
December 1220. The detachments of Jebe and Subuday, having sacked several cities in Khorasan and Mazanderan, finally lost the Khorezmshah’s
track near Hamadan. They continued their raid through the Caucasus and the South Russian steppe, where they crushed a united force of the Qïpchaqs
(Polovtsï) and Russian princes in a battle at Kalka in May 1223, and then returned to the Dasht-i Qïpchaq.
Terken Khatun fled from Gurganj with a small retinue after receiving word of the Khorezmshah’s flight to Khorasan; she was besieged by the
Mongols in a fortress in Mazanderan, was captured in the summer of 1220, and was eventually taken by Chingis Khan to Mongolia. Jalal ad-Din,
who came to Gurganj after the death of the Khorezmshah, encountered hostility among the Turkic amirs and left for Khorasan, together with Timur
Malik. Early in 1221 the Mongol detachment led by Jochi, coming from the north, and the detachments of Chaghatay and Ögedey from the south-
east, converged on Gurganj. The city offered stubborn resistance and was conquered after a siege that lasted four or five months; after the Mongols
stormed the walls, they had to fight the defenders from house to house. The surviving inhabitants were taken out of the city; the artisans, young
women, and children were separated and taken into captivity, and the rest were slaughtered. After this the Mongols destroyed the dam on the Amu-
Darya, and what was left of the city was flooded, so that Gurganj was destroyed completely. Jalal ad-Din, in the meantime, came to Ghazna, the
capital of his appanage. Chingis Khan had already crossed the Amu-Darya and occupied Balkh; the city was destroyed and the inhabitants slaugh-
tered. Next, Chingis Khan captured, after a long siege, Taleqan (in Guzgan), which was also destroyed. A Mongol detachment was sent against Jalal
ad-Din, who encountered it near Pervan. The Mongols were completely crushed; this was the only significant victory for the Muslims in this war,
but Jalal ad-Din was unable to use it to his advantage because of the discord between his Ghurid and Turkic military commanders. Chingis Khan set
off from Taleqan against Jalal ad-Din, and on his way captured Bamiyan, whose entire population was slaughtered because a grandson of Chingis
Khan was killed during its siege. He then occupied Ghazna (where a general slaughter of the population also followed and the city was burnt), and
in November 1221 attacked Jalal ad-Din on the northern bank of the Indus. Jalal ad-Din was defeated and could escape, with some 4,000 of his
troops, only by swimming across the river; Chingis Khan sent a detachment in pursuit, but it turned back because of the heat.
In early 1221, while Chingis Khan was at Taleqan, he dispatched his youngest son, Toluy, to occupy the cities of Khorasan. Toluy accomplished
his task in less than three months by capturing Merv, Nishapur, and Herat, as well as other, smaller cities. Nishapur was razed to the ground, the site
of the city was plowed, and the entire population was massacred in revenge for the death of Taghachar at the city wall in November 1220. The
population of Merv was also slaughtered, but not at once; after the remaining inhabitants, under one of the military commanders of Jalal ad-Din,
rebelled in the fall of 1221, the city was finally destroyed a year later. The population of Herat was also massacred after the city’s rebellion in 1222.
During 1222 and the first part of 1223 individual Mongol commanders were still capturing and destroying mountain fortresses north of the Hindu-
kush, but Chingis Khan himself, in the spring of 1222, already had set out for the return to Mongolia, where he arrived only in 1225.

bregel2.pmd 36 5/26/2003, 12:48 PM

bregel2.pmd

A B C D E

R Borders of the empire of Khorezmshah

Muhammad by 1218
Battle between the Khorezmshah's army
and the Mongols in Dasht-i Qïpchaq
A
H Borders of the Uyghur state of Qocho
1221
Battle between Jalal ad-Din and the
Mongols at Pervan
G Borders of the areas occupied by Küchlük
L

M
by 1218 Battle of Jebe and Subuday with the

ol
Bulghar
B U

b
O Bulghars

To
1223
1223 Borders of the areas conquered by the Mongols
D in Central Asia by 1225 Place of death of Khorezmshah
1 G * Muhammad 1
37

N The campaign of the main army of Chingis Khan

ud
ay
K I Irt
ïsh in 1219-21 Place, where Terken Khatun was
captured by the Mongols
b Military campaigns of the Chingisid princes and
Su
im
d

commanders Cities sacked and destroyed by the

Ish
an

Mongols
e
eb

Return of Chingis Khan to Mongolia in 1222-25

fJ

o Bukhara Dates of the capture of cities by the

rn Region, in which the Khorezmshah's army was
tu 1219 Mongols
re waiting at the beginning of the Mongol invasion

Yayïq 100 0 100 200 300 400 KM

l
It i

li a 1225
ongo
M E R K I oM
Flight in 1215-16 Kh an t
T S ing
is
Ch
of
Campaign of Jochi against the Merkits, 1216 (or u rn
1218?) ret

Irgiz

uhammad
y
2 rga 2
Tu
Q Ï P C H A Q S 24

9? )
1223
ï-su L. Z 12

ah M
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1
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gu

2
Em

a
H T - I Q Ï P C

Ay
r
S H A

zmsh
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1216
Ï

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GL Emil

n
a
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N Lake Balkhash s
QA
L. gi
Ala-köl in
2 7 Bars-köl
S U N Ch
2 (Barkul)
I - K H A

Qa ra
T H ‘
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C
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as
Bishbalïq
I R
Aral
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Idiqut
Qomul

8
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( -T 1 gis K
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1220
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Joc ssïq-
5/26/2003, 12:48 PM

rya
Lake O Taraz L. I Kucha (Qarashahr)

)
Sarïqamïsh Gurganj R Shelji Balasaghun (Kusan)
Otrar 23
1221
Mizdahqan
E
Z L 1219-20 12
Barskhan
M Aq
O Isfijab Khaylam su Aqsu
20

hlük
Kath
12

ah

Khiva
G Kasan or
C a

Binket Uch

Küc
op-n
at u n

im
oin the Khorezmsh

y
Hazarasp ar
Ög y
L. L
ede
a

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en
hat
Ch

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Terken Kh

ch
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N
a

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Chag

er
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gh

Ch

u rsu
Cheleken I. M Osh
and
ata
Ret

Kerminiya
Jey h u of C h

FERGHANA

Je b e in p
ya
u rn

A Khojend Kashghar
O
nd
Ru s s i a

Ferava
n ( ag

Oghurcha I. BukharaV Samarqand Bunjiket ab Kashg Cherchen

Ö

rkh h ar
ge
Am h

1219
in t o j

Dihistan u- A Su
de

D Riv e r of Soghd n
bu hern

at a R
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ay Amul R
M

A H
ry nd

Yazïr
Jalal ad-D

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t
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a) Ö
u

Yarkend
da

So

Nesa j ng M u rghab
to

n Chaghaniyan
Pan

Gor g a Gorgan At
Su

rt
a
Merv
Ba
ge

de

Yarkend
h

1222 hs Ali c hur Niya

12

re
* k y 22 Gun d Khotan
nd

Wak

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Yas

Qazvin Astarabad K Hulbuk Keriya

ea Zemm
Je b H
avu

4 n Termez 4
ada Amul Je Bistam O
m be R A S A N Andkhud Kelif 1220 K o k cha Badakhshan
r
Ha

Tus h ah
Rayy Damghan Sebzevar Khorezms Balkh Qunduz khan-Da r
ya
to

Serakhs
S u b u d ay 1221 Taleqan
a

Shapurgan
To

W
Mu r

lu

Nishapur Khulm Baghlan

y

Maymana
h ab
l khab
gh

To ab Taleqan
l uy T I B E T
Harir

Merverrud rk
Su
Ba

In d u s
ud

Pervan
har Bamiyan 1221
Taghac
Busheng Herat Kabul Jalal ad-Din

A B C to Indus D E

37
© Yu r i B r e g e l 2 0 0 3

18. THE MONGOL CONQUEST

 38

19. THE MONGOL ULUSES IN THE 13TH CENTURY

The empire created by Chingis Khan was considered, according to the Inner Asian nomadic tradition, the common patrimony of the ruling house,
and after the death of Chingis Khan in Mongolia in 1227 it was divided among the members of his clan, mainly among the four sons of his senior
wife. Their appanages were known by the term ulus, which referred to their nomadic subjects, but later this term was associated with the territory
as well. An appanage was limited, at least initially, to the pasture lands; the sedentary regions were under the joint authority of the ruling clan. The
initial distribution of the main uluses was made by Chingis Khan himself. The eldest son, Jochi, was assigned, according to custom, the part of his
father’s possessions that was the farthest from Mongolia—the Irtïsh valley, together with the lands yet to be conquered “as far as the hoofs of the
Mongol horses had reached,” that is, the westernmost regions of the Mongol Empire. Jochi died before his father, and Chingis Khan stipulated that
his ulus should be inherited by Jochi’s second son, Batu. Chingis Khan’s second son, Chaghatay, initially received the lands north of Mavarannahr,
more or less coinciding with the former Qara-Khitay country, to which Mavarannahr was soon added. The third son, Ögedey, received Jungharia; the
youngest son, Toluy, inherited the heartland of the empire, Mongolia. The sedentary regions had a separate administration (which was responsible
mainly for tax collection and other financial matters); in Central Asia it was headed by a local Muslim merchant, Mahmud Yalavach Khorezmi, and
after his transfer to China for a similar job, by his son Mas#ud Bek. Ögedey was designated by Chingis Khan to be his successor; he was confirmed
in this post by the assembly (quriltay) of Mongol princes in 1229 and adopted the title of qa"an, or “great khan.” Under him the Mongol expansion
continued: northern China was finally conquered in 1234, the Qïpchaq steppe and the Russian principalities were conquered in 1237-1241, and most
of Iran by 1241. After a long interregnum following the death of Ögedey in 1241 (and the death of Chaghatay in 1242) and the short and ineffectual
rule of Ögedey’s son Güyük (1246-1248), Batu nominated for the post of great khan the eldest son of Toluy, Möngke, who was elected at a quriltay
held in Batu’s territory and then reconfirmed at another one in Mongolia in 1251. The descendants of Ögedey and Chaghatay, most of whom opposed
this election, were executed or exiled; the ulus of Ögedey was effectively dissolved, and much of its territory incorporated into the domain of the
new qa"an, Möngke. The ulus of Chaghatay remained (because its senior prince supported Möngke), but it was significantly weakened, and the Jochids
extended their control to Western Turkestan, so that for some contemporary European observers the Mongol Empire at that time appeared to be a
condominium of Batu and Möngke (which it was not). Under Möngke the empire continued to expand until his death (in 1259): the rest of China
was conquered by Möngke’s brother Qubilay, founding a new ulus and soon adopting the Chinese dynastic name Yuan, while another brother, Hülegü,
conquered Western Iran and Iraq and destroyed the #Abbasid caliphate in 1258, founding also a new ulus which became known as that of the Ilkhans
(from the title used by its rulers).
After the death of Möngke the unity of the empire was shattered by two major wars between members of the Chingisid clan: between the newly
elected qa"an Qubilay and his brother Arigh Böke in the east, and between the ilkhan Hülegü and the khan Berke (Batu’s brother) of the ulus of Jochi
in the west. Arigh Böke appointed a grandson of Chaghatay, Alghu, as head of the Chaghatay ulus. Alghu set up his base in the region of Almalïq
and rapidly established his control over Semirech’e and Mavarannahr (areas that under Möngke had been taken from the ulus of Chaghatay), and also
over some areas that had belonged to the ulus of Jochi. In 1264 Arigh Böke surrendered to Qubilay, who reconfirmed the division of the empire,
assigning all the lands west of the Amu-Darya to Hülegü, the ulus of Jochi to Berke, and the areas between the Amu-Darya and the Altay to Alghu;
thus, the territories that had belonged to the ulus of Ögedey were absorbed into the ulus of Alghu, the Chaghatayid. After the death of Alghu in 1265/
66, a grandson of Ögedey, Qaydu, who had his base in Qayalïq, seized control of the areas up to the Talas and farther west, where he had to confront
the new head of the ulus of Chaghatay, Baraq, Chaghatay’s great-grandson. In 1268 Qaydu defeated Baraq near Khojend, and in 1269 the Mongol
princes descended from Chaghatay and Ögedey, as well as a representative of the Jochids, Möngke-Temür (who supported Qaydu against Baraq),
convened a quriltay on the Talas, at which they divided Mavarannahr among them (two thirds to Baraq and one third to Qaydu and Möngke-Temür)
and entrusted the sedentary regions to Mas#ud Bek. This quriltay symbolized the actual end of the imperial authority of the qa"an, who, moreover,
having already transferred his capital from Mongolia to China, became in effect one of the regional khans. Soon after this quriltay Baraq crossed the
Amu-Darya and invaded the Ilkhanid ulus, but his army was crushed by the Ilkhan Abaqa in a battle at Herat in 1270; soon after this Baraq died,
and his army was incorporated into that of Qaydu. In 1271 Qaydu was proclaimed khan in Talas; he also appointed the head of the Chaghatay ulus,
who became subordinate to him. He still had to fight the sons of Baraq and Alghu, who repeatedly plundered Bukhara and other cities of Mavaran-
nahr. A reconciliation between them and Qaydu was achieved in 1282, when Qaydu appointed Du"a, a son of Baraq, as head of the Chaghatay ulus;
from then on Du"a closely cooperated with Qaydu until the end of his rule. In the subsequent wars with Qubilay, Qaydu substantially enlarged his
ulus to the east, occupying all of Eastern Turkestan and reaching as far as central Mongolia. The civil administration in the ulus of Qaydu had been,
since 1271, in the hands of Mas#ud Bek, who was succeeded by his sons; he introduced an important monetary reform that helped to revive the
economy and urban life.
The second major ulus that occupied a large part of Central Asia, together with Western Siberia, was that of Jochi. Under his second son Batu it
expanded to the west, as Batu conquered most of the Russian principalities and the Northern Caucasus, and briefly invaded Central Europe. The ulus
of Jochi was divided into two wings, the eastern (otherwise the left wing, in accordance with the chief Mongol orientation to the south) and the
western (the right one). The first head of the right wing was Batu, and he and his descendants were at the same time the heads of the entire ulus.
The first head of the left wing was Jochi’s elder son Orda. The descendants of Orda, who ruled the eastern part of the ulus of Jochi, had a subordinate
status (but often only theoretically) in relation to the descendants of Batu. The ulus of Orda was, in turn, subdivided into left and right wings: the
left wing under Orda and his descendants, and the right wing under the fifth son of Jochi, Shïban (or Sïban). Somewhat later the term orda (“horde”)
began to be used as a synonym of ulus. In Turkic, the names of these uluses were used with color descriptors: Aq-Orda (White Horde) for the right,
or western, wing, and Kök-Orda (Blue Horde) for the left, or eastern wing, in accordance with the traditional association of the cardinal points with
colors. (In modern literature there is confusion concerning the attribution of the terms Aq-Orda and Kök-Orda to the western and eastern wings; the
confusion goes back to an error in a Persian source of the 15th century.) The ulus of Batu (Aq-Orda), whose center was on the lower Volga, later
became known to the Russians and in the West as “the Golden Horde,” but this name was not used by the Mongols and Turks. In Islamic countries
the ulus of Jochi was also known as the “Khanate of Qïpchaq.” The population of the Central Asian part of the Jochid ulus, the Kök-Orda, as distinct
from other Mongol uluses, was overwhelmingly nomadic.
The ulus of Batu (“the Golden Horde”), beginning with Batu’s brother and successor Berke, had mostly hostile relations with the ulus of Hülegü.
Some troops of the Golden Horde who participated in Hülegü’s campaign of 1256-58 in Iran and Iraq defected after the death of their two command-
ers, marched eastward under their general Negüder, and occupied large areas in the eastern part of the Ilkhanid ulus (approximately coinciding with
modern Afghanistan); these Negüderis or Qara"unas, as they were called, sometimes made marauding raids deep into Iranian territory. The relations
between the Ilkhanids and the ulus of Chaghatay and later Qaydu were often hostile, especially in the 1260s-1270s, during the wars between Ilkhan
Abaqa and Baraq and after Abaqa pillaged Bukhara in 1273. In the 1290s Du"a raided many regions of Iran, and in 1298/99 the Chaghatayids es-
tablished their control over the Qara"unas.

bregel2.pmd 38 5/26/2003, 12:48 PM

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A B C D E

Borders of the Ulus of Jochi Mint cities

Chimgi-Tura Borders of the main parts of the Ulus of Jochi Khojend Residence of Mascud Bek
Qazan
K a ma Borders of the areas ruled by Alghu in 1260-66 The initial locations of the main

Bulghar
«F O R E S T P E O P L E S » Eastern borders of the area held by Qaydu by headquarters (ordu) of Jochi, Ögedey,
1280 Chaghatay, Shïban, and Orda
1236
Destroyed Borders of the state of Qaydu by the end of 1255 The route of the army under Hülegü

ol
1 by Batu the 1290s Khan in 1253-57 (with winter stops) 1

b
39

To
Irt Borders of the Ulus of Qubilay c
ïsh Military campaigns of Qaydu and Du a
Borders of the Ulus of Hülegü (Ilkhans) 1268
im Defeat of Qaydu by Baraq at Khojend

Ish
Borders of the regions dominated by the
) Negüderi Mongols
1270 Defeat of Baraq by Abaqa at Herat
U Borders of the regions held by local rulers as 1238 Rebellion in Bukhara under Mahmud
T Mongol vassals Tarabi in 1238

N
A Yayïq
100 0 100 200 300 400 KM
D B I B I R - S I B I R

A
l

R
It i

B
O

Ï
U - L FU S O F J O C H I

H
Ir
O

gi
Jochi

S
Q

F
S

2 gay 2
Saray Tur
A

(Y U A N
ULUS
O
U

ï-su L. Z
K Ö K - O R D A D A
Ay aysa n
Saraychiq ba Sar a
Em
R

gu
L

D A S H T - I Q Ï P C H A Q O

z
Haji-Tarkhan
S O F
U

Emil Ögedey
U U S
Lake Balkhash Shïban
(

L. Bars-köl
L

U
1246 Orda
L U Ala-köl (Barkul)

Qa r a t
1246

OF
U SU
I a-l )
L. Ebi-nur
Manas
ET
S e a

‘E Bishbalïq
Y CH

D QU
D
S E captured
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5/26/2003, 12:48 PM

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A B C D E

39
© Yu r i B r e g e l 2 0 0 3

19. THE MONGOL ULUSES IN THE 13TH CENTURY

 40

20. THE MONGOL ULUSES FROM THE EARLY 14TH CENTURY TO THE RISE OF TIMUR

Two important developments took place in the Mongol uluses (except that of Qubilay): their nomadic population became Turkicized and converted
to Islam. In the two uluses that were formed on the territory of the Eurasian steppe belt west of Mongolia, those of Jochi and Chaghatay (and Qaydu),
Mongols formed only a small, privileged minority, while the great majority of their nomadic population was Turkic, as before the conquest. Some
Turkic groups retained their previous identity, while others were reduced in number and broken up, being completely or partially distributed among
the Mongol commanders and assuming the tribal names of these commanders. Although the Mongol tribes after the conquest seemingly appear everywhere
in these two uluses, the Mongols were actually absorbed by the Turkic majority. By the early 14th century the uluses of Jochi and Chaghatay were
Turkicized. The Mongols in the ulus of Hülegü probably retained their Mongolian language a little longer, but the process of Turkicization took
place there as well. Parallel to this process, but independent of it, was the process of Islamization, which, as it is generally believed, usually began
with the conversion of individual rulers, mostly followed by the conversion of their subjects. The first ruler of the ulus of Jochi to be converted to
Islam was Berke, the brother and successor of Batu; but his successors remained pagan, and the Islamization of the Jochids (and, with them, of their
ulus) is usually ascribed to the khan Özbek (1313-1341). In the Kök-Orda Islam spread in the second quarter of the 14th century. The Ilkhans were
converted to Islam a little earlier, under Ghazan Khan (1295-1304). Among the Chaghatayids the first to adopt Islam were Mubarak Shah (1266) and
Baraq (1266-1271), but their successors were again pagan, until the conversion of the khan Tarmashirin (1326-1334), and Islamization encountered
more resistance among the nomads of this ulus and took longer.
The Golden Horde under Özbek Khan experienced political stability and economic prosperity; under him the governor of Khorezm, the amir Qutlugh
Timur, played an especially important role in state affairs. But generally the interests of the rulers of the Golden Horde lay in the west and the south,
not in Central Asia. In the middle of the 14th century the Golden Horde was much weakened as a result of internal feuds that continued for two
decades, during which more than twenty khans were enthroned one after another in the Horde’s capital Saray. During this period, in 1360, Khorezm
seceded from the ulus of Jochi under rulers from the Turkicized Mongol tribe Qongrat, who bore the title, or nick-name, Sufi, and who resided in
Urgench (built in the 13th century near the site of the pre-Mongol Gurganj). In 1367 the first ruler of this dynasty, Husayn Sufi, annexed the southern
part of Khorezm, with the cities of Kat and Khiva, which had belonged to the ulus of Chaghatay since the second half of the 13th century.
The ulus of Orda expanded to the south at the very end of the 13th or in the early 14th century, at the expense of the ulus of Qaydu, and eventually
included the cities in the lower and middle course of the Sïr-Darya: Jend, Sïghnaq, Sawran, and Otrar. This acquisition was of great importance for
both the economic and the political life of the ulus; from then on the headquarters of the rulers of the Kök-Orda (as well as of the rulers of the
nomadic polities which succeeded the Kök-Orda on the same territory) were near the city of Sïghnaq, an important center of trade between the nomadic
and sedentary regions. During the years of anarchy in the Golden Horde the descendants of Orda took part in the feuds there, and in 1374 Urus Khan,
the ruler of the Kök-Orda since 1361, occupied the throne of the Golden Horde. By that time the ulus of Orda had become known, outside the ulus
of Jochi, as the Ulus-i Özbek “The Ulus of Özbek”—apparently, from the name of Özbek Khan. By the early 15th century the nomadic population
of this ulus began to be called “Özbeks.”
At the end of the 13th century relations between the Kök-Orda and the ulus of Qaydu became hostile, as Qaydu and Du"a interfered in a succession
struggle in the Kök-Orda. The ulus of Qaydu underwent an important transformation during the first years of the 14th century: in 1301 Qaydu died
shortly after a major battle with the army of Qubilay, and Du"a (see map 19) had Qaydu’s elder son, Chapar, appointed as head of the ulus. But later
Du"a, taking advantage of rivalries among the Ögedeyid princes and having recognized the suzerainty of the Yuan, was able to remove the Ögedeyids
and to restore the ulus of Chaghatay, now within the expanded limits of the former ulus of Qaydu. In 1318-1326 the ulus of Chaghatay was ruled
by the youngest son of Du"a, Kebek, who transferred his headquarters to Mavarannahr and built for himself a palace near Nakhsheb; it grew into a
city that was named Qarshi (from the Mongol and Turkic qarshi “palace”). Kebek was the first Mongol khan who started minting silver coins with
the name of the khan on them; they became known as kebeki dinars. It was probably under Kebek that an administrative reform was introduced in
the Chaghatay ulus: it was divided into administrative units called tümen, at the head of which were the chieftains of the Turko-Mongol tribes whose
yurts (grazing grounds) were located in the respective tümens; these chieftains began to be called by the Arabic term amir. The main tribal groups
within the Chaghatay ulus were the Barlas, Süldüs, Jalayir, Arlat, and Apardï. The tribes of the Chaghatay ulus became collectively known as “the
Chaghatays.” A separate large group (probably, the largest) was the Qara"unas (see map 19), whose main centers were Qunduz, Baghlan, Ghazna,
and Qandahar; with the transfer of their allegiance from the Ilkhans to the Chaghatayids at the very end of the 13th century, the southern border of
the ulus extended far to the south of the upper course of the Amu-Darya. Kebek was succeeded by Tarmashirin, a son of Du"a, who converted to
Islam. His preference for the western, sedentary, areas of the ulus (for four years in a row he remained in Mavarannahr and south of the Amu-Darya
and did not visit the capital of the ulus, Almalïq) caused resentment among his nomadic subjects, especially in the eastern part of the ulus, and he
was overthrown and killed. The death of Tarmashirin was followed by a period of internecine wars; the last khan of the entire ulus, Qazan, tried to
restore the khan’s authority, but he was killed in 1347 by rebellious amirs, and the amir of the Qara"unas, Qazaghan, became the ruler of the ulus.
Then the tribal chieftains of the eastern part of the ulus (Semirech’e and Eastern Turkestan) seceded from the ulus of Chaghatay and enthroned a
putative grandson of Du"a, Toghluq-Timur; the tribes of this eastern part of the ulus of Chaghatay became known as “the Moghuls” (i.e. the Mongols,
although they were already Turkic), and their country as Moghulistan (lit. “The Land of Mongols”). Toghluq-Timur converted to Islam, and his successors
were Muslims, but their nomadic subjects were recognized as Muslims by their western neighbors only a century later.
The end of Chaghatayid rule in Mavarannahr coincided with the end of Ilkhanid rule in Iran. The last Ilkhan, Abu Sa#id, who died in 1335, left
no offspring; for two decades the tribal amirs who dominated various regions of Iran and Iraq placed on the throne a series of Chingisids who did
not have any real authority, until the last of such puppet khans was killed in 1353. The Ilkhanid ulus was replaced by local dynasties in Iran and Iraq,
some of Persian, others of Mongol or Turkic, origin. The Iranian dynasty of the Karts, whose center was Herat and which traced its origin to the
Ghurids, had been a vassal of the Ilkhans, and after the demise of the latter established an independent state that competed with the Qara"unas amirs
in the east and the Sarbadar state in the west. The Sarbadar movement began in the district of Sebzevar in 1332 as an uprising against the heavy
burden of taxes; the Sarbadars included disparate elements, among whom radical Shi#ite sheykhs became especially influential. Despite sharp internal
conflicts that plagued the Sarbadars, they were sometimes able to occupy a large part of Khorasan. It was the Sarbadars who overthrew and killed
the last Ilkhanid, Togha-Temür. The region north-east of the Sarbadars, including Tus, Abiverd, Mashhad, and sometimes Nishapur, was occupied
by a Mongol group called Jawn-i Qurban.

bregel2.pmd 40 5/26/2003, 12:48 PM

bregel2.pmd

A B C D E

Borders of the Ulus of Jochi Borders of the principalities in Khorasan after

Chimgi-Tura the dissolution of the state of the Ilkhans:
Qazan Borders of the main parts of the Ulus
of Jochi Sayyids of Mazanderan
Mongol amirs of Astarabad
«FO R E S T P E O P L E S » Borders of the Ulus of Chaghatay
Sarbadars
Borders of the Ulus of Qubilay (“Ulus of

lo
the Great Khan”) Jawn-i Qurban

Tob
1 Borders of the Ulus of Hülegü (Ilkhans) Karts 1
41

by the end of 1330s Border of Badakhshan (independent?)

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5/26/2003, 12:49 PM

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S

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ILKHANS A
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(ULUS OF HÜLEGÜ) In d u s
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K A R T S
Q

Kabul
Herat
A B C D E

41
© Yuri Bregel 2003

20. THE MONGOL ULUSES FROM THE EARLY 14TH CENTURY TO THE RISE OF TIMUR
 42

21. TIMUR, THE CHAGHATAYIDS, AND THE ULUS OF JOCHI

In the Ulus of Chaghatay, the amir Qazaghan of the Qara}unas, who had held power since 1347, was killed in 1358 by a rival amir. His son, {Ab-
dallah, caused discontent among the tribal leaders when he moved his headquarters from the Qara}unas territory to Samarqand, because of which he
lost his authority. Then the Chaghatayid khan of Moghulistan, Toghluq-Timur, invaded Mavarannahr in 1360, and it was at this time that the career
of Timur Bek began. His Turkic name would have been pronounced “Temür”; in Iran he was known as Timur-i Lang, “Timur the Lame” (he was
lame as a result of a wound), hence Tamerlane, the corrupted form in which his name became known in the West. Timur was one of the leaders of
the Barlas tribe, whose territory was in the region of Kesh. When the “Moghuls” under Toghluq Timur invaded in 1360, the chief of the Barlas, Haji
Bek, fled across the Amu-Darya, and Timur accompanied him, but then received Haji Bek’s permission to return. In 1361 Toghluq-Timur Khan
invaded Mavarannahr again, and Haji Bek fled to Khorasan and was killed; this made Timur the head of the Barlas. For the following several years
Timur competed for power with the Qara}unas amir Husayn, a grandson of Qazaghan; sometimes they acted together against the Moghuls, while at
other times they confronted one another. In 1365 they fought the Moghuls on the banks of the Chirchik, but were defeated and fled across the Amu-
Darya. The Moghuls tried to capture Samarqand, but were defeated partly as a result of a popular movement in the city, whose participants were
called “Sarbadars” by analogy with the Sarbadars of Khorasan, and partly because of a horse-plague in the Moghul army. In 1366 Timur and Husayn
came to Samarqand and treacherously seized and executed the leaders of the Samarqand movement. The following three years Timur spent in almost
incessant fighting with Husayn and his supporters, and was often compelled to take refuge outside the ulus of Chaghatay, in particular in Makhan
(in the region of Merv), from which he occasionally raided the ulus. Timur and Husayn finally made peace in 1368. At the end of the same year
Husayn moved to Balkh and began to fortify the city. Almost all the Chaghatay amirs, including Timur, resisted this move; their troops, under the
general command of Timur, besieged Balkh in 1370. Amir Husayn surrendered and was executed. Timur became the head of the ulus of Chaghatay,
but for the next decade his authority was still often contested by powerful tribal leaders, and in relations with them Timur had to combine force with
shrewd political maneuvers. In particular, in dealing with the tribes of the ulus, he used non-tribal troops which owed their allegiance personally to
him, and this made him less dependent on tribal support. Even more important was the use of incessant military campaigns that provided booty to
the Chaghatay troops and their commanders, and the success of these campaigns ensured their continuing loyalty. The campaigns that began after
1380 were outside the territory of the ulus, and they also kept the Chaghatay troops removed from ulus politics.
Timur’s first military campaigns, directed against Khorezm and Moghulistan, were not of long duration. In 1372 Timur demanded that the ruler
of Khorezm, Husayn Sufi, should return to him, as the lawful heir of the ulus of Chaghatay, the southern half of Khorezm that had been annexed
by Husayn in 1367. Husayn Sufi refused, and Timur set out on a campaign against Khorezm. Husayn Sufi was defeated twice and died while Timur
was besieging Urgench; his brother Yusuf Sufi made peace, but, when Timur left, he captured Kat. It took Timur three more campaigns to capture
Urgench (in 1379); the city was pillaged, and its artisans and scholars were deported to Kesh. During the same decade Timur began his expeditions
against Moghulistan, where the tribal leaders, under Qamar ad-Din, the chieftain of the Dughlats, the most powerful Moghul tribe, had killed the son
of Toghluq-Timur, Ilyas Khoja Khan. Although all these expeditions were successful and resulted in Moghul defeats, the Dughlat leaders were al-
ways able to escape. Timur annexed Ferghana and the regions north of it, up to the western end of Lake Issïq-köl, and later also the city of Kashghar
and its district. Later, in 1389-1390, Timur penetrated much deeper into Moghulistan’s territory, but the purpose of these campaigns, like that of the
early ones, was mainly to weaken the rulers of Moghulistan and to prevent hostile actions on their part that were encouraged by some dissident
Chaghatay amirs.
Another nomadic neighbor which for a long time posed a serious threat to Timur was the Kök-Orda, and later the Golden Horde. Urus Khan, who
had united the Kök-Orda and Aq-Orda (see map 20), executed one of the princes of “the left hand,” Tuy Khoja Oghlan, who had been the ruler of
Mangïshlaq and had spoken against this unification. A son of Tuy Khoja Oghlan named Tokhtamïsh (or Toqtamïsh) in 1376 fled to Mavarannahr,
where Timur gave him shelter and supplied him with troops to fight Urus Khan. Tokhtamïsh was able to take possession of the throne of Kök-Orda
only after four attempts, in 1377, following the death of Urus Khan. The next year he established himself in the capital of the Golden Horde, Saray,
thus uniting again the Aq-Orda and Kök-Orda. Several years after this Tokhtamïsh invaded Azerbayjan, which set him on a collision course with
Timur, who was at that time conquering Western Iran and Azerbayjan. In 1386, south of Derbend, Tokhtamïsh was defeated by Miranshah, Timur’s
son, and retreated. But the next year, while Timur was again engaged in Iran, Tokhtamïsh raided Mavarannahr. Timur returned to Mavarannahr and
prepared to attack Tokhtamïsh. First he punished the Sufi ruler of Khorezm, Sulayman Sufi, who had supported Tokhtamïsh: in 1388 his capital,
Urgench, was captured and this time destroyed completely (the site was sown over with barley), while its inhabitants were deported to Mavarannahr.
Khorezm never fully recovered after this devastation. In 1391 Timur led a major expedition through the Dasht-i Qïpchaq against Tokhtamïsh and
routed his army on the Qundurcha river. Timur’s last war with Tokhtamïsh took place in 1395: Tokhtamïsh suffered a crushing defeat in a battle on
the river Terek (Northern Caucasus), after wich Timur raided the regions of southern Russia ruled by the Golden Horde and sacked and burned several
major cities of the Golden Horde, including Saray and Haji-Tarkhan.
Timur’s wars in Iran, as distinct from his campaigns against Moghulistan and the Golden Horde, led to large territorial acquisitions. Initially Timur
was mostly satisfied with establishing his protectorate over existing rulers, such as the Karts of Herat and the Sarbadars of Sebzevar. Gradually the
most powerful of them were removed and replaced by Timurid princes as governors, while small local dynasties would remain, often with reduced
territories. In 1381 Timur took Herat and in 1383, after a rebellion in the city, he removed the Karts (in 1396 Miranshah killed all the still-surviving
members of the dynasty). In 1384-85 he captured Astarabad. In 1386-1387, in the course of the “3-years campaign,” Timur conquered Luristan (in
Southern Iran), Azerbayjan (defeating Ahmad Jalayir), and Georgia (capturing Tiflis), and he fought the Qara-Qoyunlu Turkmens in northern Iraq
and the Muzaffarids in Fars. In 1392-1396, during the “5-years campaign,” he finally destroyed the Muzaffarids, captured Baghdad from the Jalayir-
ids, and conquered large territories in Western Iran and Anatolia. The wars in Iran were interrupted by an invasion of Northern India in 1398/99; that
was a plundering expedition that culminated in the sacking and burning of Dehli and the capture of a huge amount of booty and innumerable pris-
oners, but not in territorial annexation. In 1399-1404, during the “7-years campaign,” Timur campaigned again in Georgia, retook Baghdad (which
had been recovered by the Jalayirids), fought the Mamluks in Syria, where he captured Aleppo and Damascus, and invaded Anatolia, where he defeated
and captured the Ottoman Sultan Bayazid II in a battle of Ankara in 1402 (however, no annexations were made in Anatolia). Having returned to
Samarqand, he planned an invasion of China, and at the end of 1404 went to Otrar to collect and prepare the troops for this campaign, but there he
became ill and in February of 1405 he died.
Timur created a formidable military force completely faithful to him. In his conquests and the treatment of conquered cities he displayed cruelty
that sometimes surpassed even that of the Mongols under Chingis Khan. At the same time he deported numerous scholars, artists, and artisans from
various conquered regions and brought them to Mavarannahr in order to have them embellish his capital, Samarqand. He could neither read nor
write, but he knew Persian and showed a great interest in history.
Timur observed the tradition established since the Mongol conquest, according to which only the direct agnatic descendants of Chingis Khan had
the right to the title of khan, that is, a sovereign ruler; he was called only bek or amir (or “the great amir”) and installed puppet khans from among
the descendants of Ögedey, who constantly accompanied him. He took as a wife the former wife of Amir Husayn, Saray Mulk Khanum, a daughter
of Qazan Khan, and this marriage gave him the right to the title of “Güregen” (in Persian Gurgan), “[Royal] Son-in-Law,” a title reflecting a special
status among the Mongols. It was his descendants who gradually abandoned most of the Mongol political traditions and became completely accul-
turated into the Perso-Islamic civilization.

bregel2.pmd 42 5/26/2003, 12:49 PM

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A B C D E

Borders of the Ulus of Jochi Military campaigns of Timur

Chimgi-Tura
Qazan Borders of the main parts of the Ulus of Jochi Military campaigns of the rulers of
Dasht-i Qïpchaq
Borders of the Chaghatayids
Borders of the empire of Timur Military campaigns of the Chaghatayids
Tokhtamïsh "Mud battle" near the Chirchik river
Borders of the vassal principalities under Timur 1365
1391 Battle on "Sarbadar" uprising in Samarqand
1 Qundurcha R. Borders of the Ming empire (China) 1

lo
43

Tob
S I B I R Raids of Timur from Makhan into Mavarannahr Cities destroyed by Timur

im 100 0 100 200 300 400 KM

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to Russia
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A B C D E

43
© Yuri Bregel 2003

21. TIMUR, THE CHAGHATAYIDS, AND THE ULUS OF JOCHI

 44

22. 1405-1468: THE TIMURIDS, MOGHULS, AND ÖZBEKS

The death of Timur in 1405 signaled the beginning of a long succession struggle among Timur’s sons, grandsons (the usual title of Timur’s descen-
dants was mirza, a contracted form of Persian amir-zada, “amir’s son”), and amirs. Although Timur, before his death, designated as his successor
his grandson Pir Muhammad b. Jahangir, who was at that time the governor of Kabul, other members of the dynasty refused to recognize him. Power
in Mavarannahr was seized by Khalil Sultan, son of Miranshah, who had been with Timur’s army in Tashkent and was able to enter Samarqand
quickly and to take possession of Timur’s treasury. Khorasan, Sistan and Mazanderan were ruled by Timur’s son Shahrukh, with his capital in Herat;
Fars was under the authority of three sons of #Umar Sheykh b. Timur; and Azerbayjan was ruled by Timur’s son Miranshah and his children. Soon
two powerful amirs, who were, with their troops, in the region of the middle course of the Sïr-Darya, rebelled against Khalil Sultan and invited
Shahrukh to Mavarannahr. In 1409 Shahrukh took over Mavarannahr and appointed his son Ulugh Bek as a governor of this province, while he
himself returned to Herat. Then Shahrukh established his control over the rest of Iran, but Azerbayjan remained in the hands of the Turkmen dynasty
of the Qara-Qoyunlu. Shahrukh defeated the Qara-Qoyunlu rulers three times, but was unable to dislodge them entirely and, instead, left them as his
vassals; after the death of Shahrukh in 1447 Jahanshah Qara-Qoyunlu conquered Rayy, Isfahan, Fars, and Kerman, so that Iran became divided between
the Timurids and the Qara-Qoyunlu.
Ulugh Bek, as a governor of Mavarannahr, first tried to continue the policy of Timur in his relations with the nomadic neighbors. In 1421 he
helped Shir Muhammad, a Chaghatayid pretender to the throne of Moghulistan. When Shir Muhammad later refused to recognize Ulugh Bek’s suzerainty,
Ulugh Bek led a military expedition to Moghulistan in 1425, which, however, had very limited success (cf. below). An attempt by Ulugh Bek to
influence the events in the Dasht-i Qïpchaq resulted in outright failure. In 1423 Ulugh Bek helped Baraq, a grandson of Urus Khan, to defeat his
rivals in the Özbek ulus; Baraq, having obtained his goal, laid claim on the regions in the middle course of the Sïr-Darya, with the city of Sïghnaq,
that had belonged to the Kök-Orda but which had been annexed by Timur. In 1427 Ulugh Bek set out against Baraq, together with the prince Muhammad
Juki, who was sent, with reinforcements, by Shahrukh. The Timurid army was defeated and fled, after which the Özbeks raided Mavarannahr. After
this defeat Ulugh Bek did not undertake any new military campaigns during the remaining 20 years of his governorship of Mavarannahr, and both
the Moghuls and the Özbeks were able to raid his territory from time to time. In 1435 the Timurids lost Kashghar to the Moghuls; in 1449 the Moghuls
raided deep into Ferghana, and by the end of the rule of Ulugh Bek the Timurids lost the territory east of Sayram to the Moghuls as well.
The rule of Shahrukh in Khorasan, and that of Ulugh Bek in Mavarannahr, were marked by general internal stability (despite occasional rebellions
of some Timurid princes in Iran, which were usually quickly suppressed) and economic prosperity. The flourishing of literature, arts (especially architecture
and miniature painting) and crafts was supported by patronage of writers and artists at the central and provincial courts. Shahrukh stressed his strict
observance of Islamic law; he also adopted the Islamic title sultan and did not appoint puppet khans from among the Chingisids. Mongol customs
probably retained more importance for Ulugh Bek; he had several Chingisid wives and, therefore, like Timur, used the title Güregen (in Persian
Gurgan), “[Royal] Son-in-Law.” Ulugh Bek was unique among the Timurid rulers for his scientific interests: he had an astronomical observatory
built near Samarqand and gathered a large group of scholars who taught astronomy and mathematics at the madrasa that he built; the astronomical
tables that he compiled became widely used not only in the Islamic world, but also (in Latin translation) in Europe.
Shahrukh died in 1447, and in the brief war of succession that followed, Ulugh Bek and his eldest son #Abd al-Latif had to fight Shahrukh’s grandson,
#Ala ad-Dawla. They defeated #Ala ad-Dawla in 1448 in a battle at Tarnab, near Herat. However, Ulugh Bek lost Khorasan to other Timurid contend-
ers, and in 1449 #Abd al-Latif rebelled against his father, defeated him near Samarqand, and had him killed. In 1450 #Abd al-Latif himself was assassinated
by conspirators from among the former amirs of Ulugh Bek. The next year Abu Sa#id, a grandson of Miranshah, captured Samarqand with the help
of the Özbek ruler Abu’l-Khayr Khan (on whom see below). Khorasan was captured in 1458 by Abu Sa#id, who held it, together with Mavarannahr,
for the next ten years, using Herat as his capital. Under Abu Sa#id a Naqshbandi Sufi sheykh, Khoja Ahrar, enjoyed great influence in the affairs of
the state. In 1468 Abu Sa#id set out to Azerbayjan against the Aq-Qoyunlu Turkmens, but he was defeated in 1469 and executed. His descendants
retained only the territories north of the Amu-Darya, while the provinces south of this river were in the hands of another branch of the dynasty (see
map 23).
In the 15th century, the eastern regions of the former Ulus of Chaghatay that had seceded after 1347 (see map 20) and had become known as
Moghulistan, were divided into three parts: Moghulistan proper, between the Tien-Shan and Lake Balkhash, extending from Turkestan and Tashkent
in the west to Jungharia in the east, with a mostly nomadic population; the Tarim basin area, which was called by the Mongol name Manglay-Sube
(“The Advance-Guard Region”); and Uyghuristan, which included the areas of Turfan and Hami. Turfan and Hami were dominated by China begin-
ning in 1377, after the Mongols were banished from China by the new Chinese dynasty, Ming. Manglay-Sube was dominated by the Moghul tribe
Dughlat. In 1435 the Dughlats captured Kashghar, which from then on was lost to the Timurids. From 1415 to 1428 the Chaghatayid ruler of Moghulistan
was Vays Khan. During his reign Moghulistan began to be threatened by the western Mongols, who formed a powerful confederation of four tribes—
Choros, Khoshut, Torghut, and Khoyt—that occupied Jungharia; this confederation became known as Oyrat (more correctly, Oyirad) in Mongolia
and Qalmaq among the Muslims. Vays Khan had to fight the Oyrats constantly and was twice held captive by them. From the 1430s to the 1450s,
the Oyrats repeatedly raided Semirech’e and the region in the middle course of the Sïr-Darya. The culmination of these raids was an invasion in 1457
(see below).
In the first half of the 15th century major changes took place in the Dasht-i Qïpchaq. By the end of the 14th century, after the defeat by Timur,
the Ulus of Jochi began to disintegrate. A new nomadic grouping emerged on a large part of the territory of the former Kök-Orda, between the Emba
and the Volga, the core of which was the tribe Manghït (in Russia it became known as Noghay Horde), while several Jochids competed for suprem-
acy in the steppes east of the Volga. One of them, Baraq Khan, was killed a year after his victory over Ulugh Bek. In 1428 the princes and tribal
chieftains of the Özbek ulus and the Manghïts, at their quriltay in Chimgi-Tura, in Western Siberia, elected as khan Abu’l-Khayr, from among the
descendants of Shïban. During the 1430s and 1440s Abu’l-Khayr defeated several other Chingisids and extended his rule over all the Özbeks in the
Dasht-i Qïpchaq. In 1431-32 he conquered northern Khorezm, with the city of Urgench, but had to abandon it (possibly because of an outbreak of
plague); in 1435-36 he invaded and plundered Khorezm again (in the 1450s northern Khorezm was captured by Mustafa Khan, who had earlier fled
from Abu’l-Khayr to Mangïshlaq). In 1446 Abu’l-Khayr conquered the region in the middle course of the Sïr-Darya with several cities, including
Sïghnaq, which became his winter capital. In 1448, during the struggle for Herat among the Timurids, Abu’l-Khayr raided in Mavarannahr as far as
Samarqand. In 1451 Abu’l-Khayr marched with Abu Sa#id to Samarqand and helped him to capture it, but Abu Sa#id prevented him from entering
the city. In 1457 a severe blow was inflicted on the Özbeks of Abu’l-Khayr by the Oyrats, who invaded the Dasht-i Qïpchaq from the Chu valley;
Abu’l-Khayr’s army was routed near Sïghnaq, and the Oyrats plundered the cities on the Sïr-Darya. The heavy-handed rule of Abu’l-Khayr caused
resentment among his subjects, and in 1459-60 two of them, Kirey and Janibek, descendants of Urus Khan, along with the tribes they headed, aban-
doned the ulus of Abu’l-Khayr and migrated to Moghulistan, where the khan Esen-Buqa (the successor of Vays Khan) gave them grazing grounds
at the western limits of Semirech’e. This group of the Özbeks became known as “Özbek-Qazaqs” (from the old Turkic term qazaq applied to both
individuals and groups who would abandon their clan, tribe, or ruler, and live the life of a vagabond, adventurer, or freebooter). In 1468 Abu’l-Khayr
set out against the Özbek-Qazaqs, but died before confronting the enemy; his polity disintegrated, and interdynastic and intertribal strife in the Dasht-
i Qïpchaq continued for three decades.

bregel2.pmd 44 5/26/2003, 12:49 PM

bregel2.pmd

A B C D E

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A B C D E
© Yuri Bregel 2003

45
22. 1405-1468: THE TIMURIDS, MOGHULS, AND ÖZBEKS
 46

23. CENTRAL ASIA AND IRAN IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 15TH CENTURY

The first half of the 15th century was the last time when the principal sedentary regions of Central Asia were united with Iran as one state, the center
of which was in Khorasan. Since the final split of the Timurid empire in 1469 (see map 22) these two regions have never again been reunited po-
litically. After the death of Timur, Western Iran, together with Iraq and Azerbayjan, was dominated by Turkmen tribal confederations, at first the
Qara-Qoyunlu and then the Aq-Qoyunlu. Timur and later his son Shahrukh repeatedly fought these confederations, defeated them several times and
pushed them back, but were unable to destroy or subjugate them. With the split of the Timurid empire, the Aq-Qoyunlu emerged as an equal political
force centered in Azerbayjan, with its capital in Tabriz. At the same time Shi#ism gained strength in the western provinces of the former empire of
Timur. In 1501 Isma#il Safavi, the leader of another Turkmen group and the grand master of a Shi#ite Sufi order of Ardebil, in Azerbayjan, defeated
the Aq-Qoyunlu, ascended the throne in Tabriz, adopted the title shah and began his conquests, accompanied by the introduction of Shi#ism as the
official state religion in all of Iran. The Turkmen followers of the Safavids wore red turbans with twelve gores, in honor of the twelve Shi#ite imams,
and were therefore nicknamed Qïzïlbash, lit. “red head.” Shi#ism was introduced by Shah Isma#il by force, and many Islamic scholars and intellec-
tuals in the former Timurid possessions who refused to convert were either executed or fled to the neighboring countries, especially to Mavarannahr.
At the same time the latter was conquered by the Özbeks of Shïbani Khan (see map 25), who portrayed himself as the defender of Sunni orthodoxy.
From this time, the political division between Mavarannahr and Khorasan became a religious and cultural division between Shi#ite Iran and Sunni
Central Asia, which has remained down to the present time.

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Black D A S H T - I Q Ï P C H A Q Ir tï
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47

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5/26/2003, 12:49 PM

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A B C D E
© Yu r i B r e g e l 2 0 0 3

47
23. CENTRAL ASIA AND IRAN IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 15TH CENTURY
 48

24. 1469-1499: THE TIMURIDS, MOGHULS, AND ÖZBEKS

After the death of Abu Sa#id in 1469 (see map 22) and a brief succession fight in Khorasan, Herat was captured by Sultan Husayn Bayqara, a great-
great-grandson of Timur through #Umar Sheykh. At that time Khorasan was threatened by the Aq-Qoyunlu, who had replaced the Qara-Qoyunlu in
western Iran just before the ill-fated campaign of Abu Sa#id. The Aq-Qoyunlu ruler Uzun Hasan supported a Timurid contender, Yadigar Muhammad
(great-grandson of Shahrukh), who briefly occupied Herat in 1470, but Husayn retook the city a month later, Yadigar Muhammad was executed, and
the next year the Aq-Qoyunlu troops withdrew from Khorasan. After this, for 25 years, the political situation in the Timurid realm was relatively
stable. The regions north of the Amu-Darya were divided among the three sons of Abu Sa#id, of whom Sultan Ahmad, the eldest, ruled Mavarannahr,
Sultan Mahmud ruled Hisar, Chaghaniyan and Badakhshan, and #Umar Sheykh ruled Ferghana. The rule of Sultan Husayn Bayqara in Khorasan was
a period marked by great cultural achievements. The court of Sultan Husayn in Herat, which continued the traditions of Shahrukh’s court, became
especially famous as a gathering place of artists and poets, the most prominent among whom were the Persian poet (and the head of the Naqshbandi
Sufis of Khorasan) Jami, the Chaghatay poet Nava"i (a friend and confidant of Sultan Husayn), and the painter Behzad. As distinct from Sultan Husayn,
Sultan Ahmad was heavily under the influence of the Naqshbandi sheykh Khoja Ahrar, and the cultural life of Samarqand lacked the refinement of
Herat. Thanks to the works of Nava"i, the Chaghatay language (also known simply as Turki), which emerged in the early 15th century, became fully
developed as the literary language of the Central Asian Turks. With the cessation of the wars of conquest, the Chaghatay tribes apparently became
more or less sedentarized by the end of the Timurid period.
The relative stability of the Timurid realm ended in the mid-1490s. Sultan Ahmad died in 1494; his younger brother, Sultan Mahmud, replaced
him in Samarqand, but died several months later; #Umar Sheykh also died in 1495. Sultan Mahmud was succeeded by his son, Sultan #Ali, who was
an incompetent ruler. After the departure of Sultan Mahmud to Samarqand, he was succeeded in Hisar by his amir Khusrawshah, who banished two
sons of Sultan Mahmud and ruled this large appanage as an independent ruler. In Khorasan, Sultan Husayn’s son Badi# az-Zaman, governor of Balkh,
rebelled in 1497 and threatened Herat in 1498; Khusrawshah recognized his authority. Two other sons of Sultan Husayn rebelled in Merv and Abiverd,
and Sultan Husayn had to deal with these feuds, even as the Özbeks were already beginning their invasion of Mavarannahr.
Moghulistan, where nomadic traditions were much stronger, often suffered from internal strife and political instability during the second half of
the 15th century. After the death of Esen-Buqa Khan in 1462, the western part of Moghulistan was ruled by his elder brother Yunus (who had pre-
viously spent 28 years in exile in Iran, where he acquired a taste for sedentary culture), while the eastern part, from the city of Aqsu, was ruled by
Esen-Buqa’s son. Four years after the latter’s death, in 1472, Yunus Khan established himself in Aqsu and united the country. The same year the
Oyrats invaded Semirech’e and defeated Yunus on the banks of the Ili, but soon returned to Jungharia. In the early 1480s Yunus took advantage of
the feuds between the Timurids Sultan Ahmad Mirza and #Umar Sheykh Mirza and annexed Sayram (1482) and Tashkent (1485). He began to live
in these cities, and the majority of his nomadic subjects abandoned him. Yunus Khan died in 1487, after which the Chaghatayid khanate split into
three independent parts: the western (and smallest) part under the elder son of Yunus, Mahmud Khan, who inherited his father’s predilection for
sedentary life; the eastern (and largest) part, from Aqsu to Turfan, still dominated by the nomads, under the younger son of Yunus, Ahmad Khan,
who distinguished himself in the wars with the Oyrats, earning from them the nickname Alacha (“Killer”); and the third part, Manglay-Sube, or
Kashgharia, where the Dughlat amir Aba Bekr, having established his capital in Yarkend, took over Kashghar after defeating Yunus Khan around
1480 and then extended his control into the Pamirs as far as Badakhshan in the west and into Ladakh as far as the borders of Kashmir in the south.
By the end of the century all three of these rulers became deeply embroiled in the wars that resulted from the rise of Shïbani Khan among the Özbeks
and his conflicts with the Özbek-Qazaqs.
In the Özbek Ulus the death of Abu’l-Khayr Khan in 1468 (see map 22) was immediately followed by the disintegration of his polity. By the end
of the 1440s, the Manghïts had already withdrawn their support from Abu’l-Khayr, and around 1458 they supported another Chingisid, Yadigar Sultan
(by that time the title sultan began to be used for Chingisid princes), who was proclaimed khan somewhere north of the Aral Sea. Yadigar and Abu’l-
Khayr belonged to two different branches of the Shïbanids; in modern literature the branch of Abu’l-Khayr is called Abulkhayrids, while the branch
of Yadigar is known as the Yadigarids or #Arabshahids (from the name of the great-grandfather of Yadigar). A son of Yadigar, Bürge Sultan, was
one of the Chingisids who opposed Shah Budaq, the son of Abu’l-Khayr. Other enemies of Shah Budaq included Ibaq (or Aybaq, a Shïbanid ruler
of Tümen, in Western Siberia) and the Chingisid rulers of the Özbek-Qazaqs, Janibek Sultan and Kirey Sultan. Shah Budaq was killed by Ibaq, and
the ranks of the Özbek-Qazaqs were swelled by the Özbek nomads who tried to escape the strife in the Özbek ulus. Kirey and Janibek returned to
the Dasht-i Qïpchaq; Kirey was proclaimed khan, but for some time (probably simultaneously) Janibek was also recognized as khan. The Özbek-
Qazaqs became the dominant force in the central and eastern Dasht-i Qïpchaq. In the 1470s Kirey was succeeded by his elder son, Burunduq. At the
same time a son of Shah Budaq, Muhammad Shah-Bakht (the future Shïbani Khan), having been denied his patrimony in the Dasht-i Qïpchaq, tried
to carve out for himself a territory in the middle course of the Sïr-Darya, the old power base of Abu’l-Khayr, in preparation for his conquest of
Mavarannahr (see map 25).

bregel3.pmd 48 5/26/2003, 12:52 PM

bregel3.pmd

A B C D E

Borders of separate Timurid Military campaigns of Aba Bekr

N Qazan appanages by 1499
1488
Dughlat

E
Chimgi-Tura Badakhshan Military campaign of Sultan

T
(Tümen) Ahmad Mirza to Tashkent

A
Borders of the Chaghatayids and

ol
im

N
the Dughlats Raids of Shïbani Khan

Ish
To
A

A
Borders between separate parts of Return of the Oyrats from
S I B I R

H
Q
1 the Chaghatayid realm Semirech’e to Jungharia 1

K
Borders of the Aq-Qoyunlu empire Borders of the Ming Empire
49

K H A N A T E
Borders of the Sibir Khanate and Borders of the Qazaq Khanate
(Ibaq Khan) the Manghït ulus

Iti l until 1495

100 0 100 200 300 400 KM
I
Ta y b u g h i d s

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since 1495
Yayiq

M A
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( N U S Q Ï P C H
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gu
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a
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S 14
H U ) L. G Bars-köl
A N N

Qar a t a
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I I - ECH U
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region 1482-95
( Ö S

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contested
Qocho
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R

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1
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86

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Derbend N Sawran s Qarashahr U
Chin Sufi H
3 S an H 3

ea
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(1469-1505) h Yasï G ssïq- ce G
Urgench iK 149
0s O L. I (sin U Y
5/26/2003, 12:52 PM

Otrar
Vezir an M Yangi Ashpara
Kucha
Lake ïb han
K H Sh mud K Bay (Kusan)

Sïr-Da r ya
Sarïqamïsh
Mah
S O Aq
R Sultan Ahmad Sayram su
E

M
Baku Z Kat Mirza (1469-94)
N

M Aqsu
Narï
Khiva rim
Sultan Mahmud or

A
n
Uch
E

Tashkent Ta op-n
C a

Hazarasp
Mirza (1494-95) Akhsi Andijan L. L

N
M

N A Uzgend
R K Sultan cAli Nur

en
U R G H A Osh h
erc

G
T Shahrukhrya
Amu

Mirza (1498-1500) 488 F E Marghinan Ch

Aba Bekr
Cheleken I. Uzboy

L
1 Khojend
-

kh
Shey
Kashghar
Da

Bukhara Kermine
cU m a r

A
Oghurcha I.
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Samarqand Ab-i hg
M A
Kuhek a ab Kas h ar Cherchen
a

V A R M i r z Surkh

Y
A
N Shahrisabz n

Khota
Charjuy N A

-
Durun H R S
Qarshi 1480 Yarkend
Nesa Hisar Mu r g hab U
n At Sultan
r ek B Niya
Gor g a Mahmud rtang

nd
Sultaniya Merv Mirza Ba E

rke
Kerki (1469-94 ) Khotan
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G nd

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Amul Astarabad Abiverd u Keriya
Wak

4 Termez B A D AK 4
Andkhuy K o k cha
K H O R A S A N
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Damghan Kelif
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Badakhshan Wakhan- D
H

Sebzevar Serakhs Shibergan Balkh

AN
Surkhab

Mashhad Qunduz
A Q - Q O Y U N L U Semnan Nishapur
L O R T I B E T
BO
lkhab

S u l t a n H u s a y n B a y q a r a Baghlan
Maymana
(1470-1506)
Mu

Ba

gh In d u s
H ari r u d

ab
Bamiyan
Herat Kabul
A B C D E
© Yuri Bregel 2003

49
24. 1469-1499: THE TIMURIDS, MOGHULS, AND ÖZBEKS
 50

25. THE ÖZBEK CONQUEST OF WESTERN TURKESTAN

The political decline of the Timurid states of Mavarannahr and Khorasan coincided with the emergence of a new nomadic grouping in the northern
steppe, that of the Özbeks under Shïbani Khan, a grandson of Abu’l-Khayr (see map No. 22). His given name was Muhammad Shahi Bek (or Shey-
bek) and his nickname Shah-Bakht, while Shïbani was his pen name, derived from the name of his Jochid ancestor, Shïban; in the sources of the 16th
century the given name and the pen name were frequently combined in one as “Muhammad Shïbani Khan.” (The pen name was later often misun-
derstood as “Shaybani,” by analogy with the name of a well-known Arab jurist of the 8th century.) After Abu’l-Khayr’s death in 1468 and the ensuing
feuds on the steppe, the majority of the Özbeks gradually recognized the authority of the rulers of the Özbek-Qazaqs (see map No. 22). Shïbani tried,
unsuccessfully, to retain in his possession the region of Sïghnaq, but was compelled to leave it, and for two years found refuge in Bukhara, under
the protection of a Timurid governor of the city, spending this time in study. Then he returned to the steppe along the middle course of the Sïr-Darya,
where he lived the life of a freebooter, participating in the wars between the Timurids of Mavarannahr and the Chaghatayids of Moghulistan, and
switching his allegiance from one side to another. The first incursion of Shïbani Khan into territory under Timurid control took place in 1486, when
he raided north-western Khorezm (ruled by Chin Sufi, apparently a descendant of the Sufi dynasty that had ruled there in the 14th century) and
briefly captured two towns in that region; from there he raided Astarabad. In 1488 he participated in the campaign of the Timurid ruler of Samar-
qand, Sultan Ahmad Mirza, against the Chaghatayid Mahmud Khan in Tashkent, when he suddenly switched sides, thus contributing to the crushing
defeat of Sultan Ahmad Mirza. Only by 1500 was he able to attract to his side a significant number of Özbek tribesmen, with whom he could embark
upon a systematic conquest of the sedentary areas ruled by the Timurids.
This conquest began with the capture of Samarqand, the Timurid capital, in 1500. Bukhara was conquered shortly after this. Zahir ad-Din Babur,
son of #Umar Sheykh, captured Samarqand from the Özbeks the same year, but in 1501 Shïbani recaptured it after a long siege, and Babur retreated
to Kabul. During the next six years, Özbek troops under Shïbani Khan and the sultans, his relatives, conquered Tashkent, Ferghana, Khorezm (Ur-
gench was captured in 1505 after a 10-month siege), and the mountainous regions on the right bank of the upper course of the Amu-Darya. After
this Shïbani Khan crossed the Amu-Darya and in 1506 captured Balkh. Sultan Husayn belatedly set out from Herat against the Özbeks, but died on
his way, and his amirs proclaimed his two sons, who were mortal enemies, as co-rulers. Under these circumstances Shïbani Khan had no difficulty
in defeating the Timurids. In 1507 he crossed the Amu-Darya again and quickly occupied Herat, putting an end to the rule of the Timurids of Khorasan.
In the same year the Özbeks defeated the troops of the Timurid Abu’l-Muhsin Mirza at Jam, and in the following year they occupied the rest of
Khorasan as far west as Astarabad and made raids south to Kerman and Qandahar. The year 1508 marked the high point of the Özbek expansion.
The conquest of the sedentary regions of Central Asia by the Özbeks brought about the revival of the Mongol political tradition as established after
the time of Chingis Khan, according to which only the members of the Chingisid clan could be the supreme sovereign rulers with the title of khan;
this was combined with the more ancient Inner Asian nomadic custom, according to which the state was considered the common patrimony of the
ruling clan, the eldest member of which would succeed to the throne, while each of the other members could claim a share of this patrimony which
would be assigned to him as an appanage. The Özbek conquest also revived or strengthened some other nomadic political customs, but they were
combined with the preservation of much of the civil administration inherited from the Timurids, which was mostly in the hands of the Tajik bureau-
cracy, as well as with the continuation of some cultural traditions developed under the Timurids.
The conquest of the Timurid states by Shïbani Khan was not just a military campaign: it was a mass migration of a part (probably a smaller part)
of the nomadic Özbeks from the Qïpchaq steppes southward, to the sedentary areas of Western Turkestan; according to some (largely hypothetical)
modern estimates, the total number of these Özbeks was between 240,000 and 360,000. Their departure from the Dasht-i Qïpchaq left the northern
steppes in the hands of the rulers of the Özbek-Qazaqs, the descendants of Urus Khan (through Kirey and Janibek). Very soon the dynastic and
political differences between the nomads ruled by the descendants of Shïban, who left the Dasht-i Qïpchaq, and the nomads ruled by the descendants
of Urus, who remained in the Dasht-i Qïpchaq, became an ethnic division, and the Özbek-Qazaqs came to be known as simply Qazaqs already in
the time of Shïbani Khan.
The strengthened Qazaqs posed a serious threat to the northern borders of the empire of Shïbani Khan, and Shïbani responded to their repeated
raids on the Özbek territories in the middle course of the Sïr-Darya and Mavarannahr with several military campaigns intended to punish the Qazaqs
and eliminate their threat. A major campaign (the third) took place in the winter of 1509, when Shïbani Khan defeated two Qazaq sultans to the north
of the Sïr-Darya, plundered the Qazaq winter encampments, and returned with numerous prisoners. The fourth campaign took place at the beginning
of 1510, and in it the Özbeks, under the command of several sultans, were thoroughly defeated by the Qazaqs under Qasim Sultan, the son of Ja-
nibek. Shïbani retreated to Samarqand and redistributed some of the appanages among the members of the royal clan, having replaced the sultans
whom he saw as the culprits for this debacle. This caused resentment among the sultans, and this could have contributed to the defeat and fall of
Shïbani Khan later in the same year.
In the fall of 1510 Shïbani received news that the new Shi#ite shah of Iran, Isma#il Safavi, with his Qïzïlbash troops (see map 23), had begun an
offensive from the west against the Özbeks in Khorasan. Shïbani rushed from Herat, without waiting for reinforcements that were to be brought by
the other members of the dynasty, and encountered Shah Isma#il near Merv. On the 29th of November, 1510, the Özbek army was routed in this
battle and Shïbani Khan killed. This catastrophe resulted in the loss not only of Khorasan, but, for a short time, of all of Shïbani Khan’s conquests.
In addition to Mavarannahr, Khorezm was also captured by the Qïzïlbash. After the battle at Merv the Özbek sultans elected as khan Söyünch Khoja
(or Söyünch Muhammad), an uncle of Shïbani Khan. In the meantime Shah Isma#il occupied Herat. After this, Babur set out from Kabul for Mavar-
annahr in 1511, defeated the Özbeks near Pul-i Sangin on the Wakhsh, and captured Bukhara; the Özbeks then abandoned Mavarannahr and Fergha-
na and retreated across the Sïr-Darya, and Babur entered Samarqand. However, Babur caused discontent among the local population by accepting
Shah Isma#il as his suzerain and switching to the Shi#ite creed. Six months later, in the spring of 1512, #Ubaydallah Sultan, Shïbani Khan’s nephew,
crossed the Sïr-Darya and defeated Babur at lake Köl-i Malik, near Bukhara; after this Babur could not hold out in Samarqand and retreated to Hisar.
In the fall of 1512 a senior amir of Shah Isma#il, Yar Ahmad, nicknamed Najm-i Thani, set out with a large army against the Özbeks and was joined
by Babur. He took the city of Qarshi by storm, massacred its garrison and population, and marched to Ghijduvan, where his troops were routed by
the Özbeks and he himself was killed, while Babur fled again to Hisar and from there to Qunduz and Kabul; in 1526 he conquered Dehli and founded
the Timurid dynasty in India which became known in the West as the “Great Mughals.” The Özbeks recovered Mavarannahr. Earlier, in 1511, the
#Arabshahid sultans came to Khorezm from the Dasht-i Qïpchaq, destroyed the Qïzïlbash garrisons and established another Özbek khanate there,
under their own dynasty.
The Özbek conquest not only put an end to Timurid rule in Mavarannahr and Khorasan, but also strongly affected the Chaghatayid khanate. It lost
to the Özbeks all its territories in the west: Turkestan, Tashkent, and Ferghana, while after the death of Ahmad Khan in 1504, Mirza Aba Bekr, the
Dughlat ruler of Manglay-Sube (Kashgharia), captured Aqsu (the winter residence of Ahmad Khan). After the killing of Mahmud Khan with his sons
near Khojend by Shïbani Khan in 1508, the Chaghatayid khans retained under their authority only Turfan and the eastern part of Moghulistan, which
was ruled by Mansur Khan, the elder son of Ahmad Khan. The situation here changed again in 1514 (see map No. 26).

bregel3.pmd 50 5/26/2003, 12:52 PM

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A B C D E

The region from which Shïbani Khan began his Military campaign of cUbaydallah Sultan against

E
Qazan conquests (before 1500) Babur in 1512
1511

T
Chimgi-Tura Military campaign of Aba Bekr Dughlat to Andijan
Borders of the territories conquered by Shïbani

A
(Tümen)

Z
Khan by 1510 Battle near Akhsi between the Özbeks and the

N
A
Eastern borders of the territories conquered by 1503 Timurids

l
Shah Ismacil by 1510

o
Q
Battle at Dabusiya between the Özbeks and the

Tob
H
1 S I B I R Borders of the Chaghatayids and the Dughlats Timurids 1
51

K
Battle at Jam between the Özbeks and Abu'l-
Borders of the Sibir Khanate, the Manghït Ulus,
1507 Muhsin Mirza
T A Y B U G H I D S and the Qazaq Khanate
im Battle at Merv between Shah Ismacil and Shïbani
Military campaigns of Shïbani Khan and Özbek Khan

Ish
1510
sultans in 1500-1510
Balkh Battle at Köl-i Malik between Babur and the
It il 1506 Dates of Özbek conquest of major cities 1512 Özbeks under cUbaydallah Sultan

Arabshahids 1511
Conquest of Khorezm by Arabshahid sultans in Battle at Ghijduvan between the Qïzïlbash and the
1511 1512 Özbeks
Yayïq 1510 I
Military campaign of Shah Ismacil in 1510 Defeat of the Qazaqs by Shïbani Khan

rtï
1509

sh
Military campaigns of Babur in 1512 Defeat of the Özbeks under Muhammad Timur
1510 Sultan by the Qazaqs under Qasim Sultan
M A N G H Retreat of Babur from Samarqand in 1512
Ï T URebellion
L Uin S Qaraköl in 1501
O F T H E
U L 1512 Campaign of the Qïzïlbash army under Najm-i
( N O G H A U S Thani Mint towns of Shïbani Khan
G R E A T K H A N
Y H O
R D 100 0 100 200 300 400 KM
E )

Irgiz
y
rga
2 Tu 2
D A S H T - I Q Ï P C H A Q
ASTRAKHAN lta
n
z L. Z
Saraychiq ba Su gu
aysa n
KHANATE Em sim

a
Qa

Ay
Haji-Tarkhan
Q O Y R A T S
Ö Z 1510 su
B rï-
cA R Janish A Sa ( Q A L M A Q
A B E S )
S K Sultan Lake Balkhash
H S 1509
Z L. Bars-köl
A A Ala-köl (Barkul)
S U

Qa r a
E )
Q

H
I - t H ‘

1510
T C

M
I
E a l E
S e a

an
I R

15
D
Y

as
K E M

09
L. Ebi-nur Qomul

S
S
Aral H (
T

11 (Hami)
A
U

15
Turfan
Sea N Qocho
A
R

ids

T E A N
ah
K

Il i
sh

Ch
Sïghnaq Tala
K H
M
s p i a n

ÜST-YURT
ab

u
Suzak s
Ar

M A N S U R
E

Derbend Sawran
N

3 es Chalïsh 3
ssïq-
köl Tek L. Baghrash-köl
5/26/2003, 12:52 PM

(Qarashahr)
S

Lake Turkestan
Urgench
(Yasï) L. I Kucha
Sarïqamïsh 1505 (Kusan)

1 5 09
Otrar

S ï r- D a r y a
Vezir Bay
K H O R E ZM Sayram Q Ï R Aq
G su
Baku Kat H Ï Z
S

Narï n Aqsu
rim
Hazarasp Ta
A T
or
N

Khiva Uch
op-n
C a

Tashkent
1 L. L

M
H L
Akhsi Andijan Uzgend

en
E

50 mu-Da r y

ch
1503
M Shahrukhiya G
4

Nur

er
A
1 51

Cheleken I. R UzK Marghinan N A Osh Ch

U boy Ghijduvan Kermine 15
00 GHA U
0

T FER 15

N
1512 Dabusiya Ura-Tübe Khojend Ab
1 1 Kashghar D
a 1512 Samarqand a Bek d
1502

G
Oghurcha I. S v en
E N Qaraköl 1500, 1501 hab K ashg h a r Ya r k Cherchen

R
Bukhara
u rk

L
M R A N N Ab - i K u h ek S
K V A n

K
R M AQarshi A H R

Khota
Charjuy Shahrisabz

A
T
U Durun E A N Y
Hisar
K H B Yarkend
At r
ek Nesa 7
N I
1512
j r tang Mu r ghab
-
50 Ba
Pan

orga n A 03
S
N
03

H Ï B 15 Alichur S Niya
8

G Astarabad 50 sh A
15 Gu d
n
SHA

1 Kerki Khotan
Wakh

Qazvin Amul 1508

Abiverd Merv U
4

B
0 Keriya
4 15 K B 4
KH

Bistam Kelif
o k cha E
15 1 0 Tus Andkhuy 1 503 Termez
A
DA

1510 Qunduz ya
Damghan
Balkh 1504 khan-Da r
a
BA

Sebzevar Mashhad Serakhs Shibergan W

Semnan Nishapur 1506
I S M A CI L
Harir u d

A N
h ab

S
B a l k hab

A
15 1 0

K H O R
1512 k T I B E T
SAFAVI Maymana
r
Su

Jam In d u s
1507 M
ur g h a b
Herat
B A B U R
1507 Bamiyan Kabul
A to Kerman B 1507 to Qandahar C D E

51
1509 against Hazara
© Yuri Bregel 2003

25. THE ÖZBEK CONQUEST OF WESTERN TURKESTAN

 52

26. THE FIRST HALF OF THE 16TH CENTURY (1510s-1550s): THE ÖZBEK KHANATES, THE QAZAQS, AND THE MOGHULS

After their final victory over Babur and the Qïzïlbash in 1512, the Özbeks, at their quriltay in 1512, elected as their supreme khan an uncle of Shïbani,
Köchkünji Muhammad, who was the eldest in the Abulkhayrid clan. The territory conquered by the Özbeks was divided into appanages assigned to
the Abulkhayrid princes (sultans); the four most important appanages were held by the sultans representing the four main branches of the Abulkhay-
rids, descendants of the four sons of Abu’l-Khayr: Bukhara was given to Shïbani’s nephew, #Ubaydallah Sultan, representing the branch of Shah
Budaq (Shïbani’s father); Samarqand, which was considered the capital, was first assigned jointly to Köchkünji and Shïbani’s son, Muhammad Timur,
but after the latter’s death in 1514 it was left to Köchkünji; Miyankal (the region in the Zerafshan basin west of Samarqand) was given to Janibek,
son of another uncle of Shïbani, Khoja Muhammad; and Tashkent was given to Söyünch Khoja (also called Söyünch Muhammad or Söyünjük). The
authority of the supreme khan was largely nominal, and each appanage ruler pursued his independent policy in relations with neighbors and minted
silver coins in his own name. There was no single capital: the supreme khan would remain in the capital of his appanage. In the 1520s and 1530s
#Ubaydallah Sultan enjoyed special influence as a successful military leader, who was able to unite under his command all appanage holders in joint
military campaigns against Safavid Iran, so that he was often given the title of khan (he actually was the supreme khan in 1533-1539). Under his
leadership the Özbeks invaded Khorasan five times, in 1524-25, 1526-28, 1529-31, 1532-33, and 1535-38, and were sometimes able to occupy the
entire province as far west as Astarabad and Semnan. Herat was besieged three times and captured by #Ubaydallah twice, in 1529 and 1536. But the
only decisive battle, near Jam in 1528, was won by the Qïzïlbash under Shah Tahmasb (before that, in 1527, another battle, near Bistam, was won
by the Qïzïlbash governor of Damghan), and thereafter the Özbeks had to retreat before Tahmasb every time he came with his army to liberate the
province. The only permanent acquisition in Khorasan made by the Abulkhayrids was Balkh and its province, between the Hindukush and the Amu-
Darya, which was captured from a governor of Babur by Kisten Qara Sultan, son of Janibek Sultan, in 1526; after this conquest, Balkh became the
center of the appanage of Janibek, as well as an important area of Özbek settlement and a springboard for later Özbek raids and invasions of Kho-
rasan. In 1549 the Mughal emperor Humayun led an expedition from Kabul toward Balkh, but his army was defeated by the Özbek sultans. During
the first half of the 16th century the Abulkhayrid rulers of the appanages, despite occasional conflicts, generally maintained peaceful relations and
some cooperation with one another. #Ubaydallah, who was the supreme khan in 1533-1539, was not only an indefatigable warrior, but was also considered
an ideal Muslim sovereign; he knew Persian and Turkic poetry well, strictly observed Islamic law, and wrote poetry and Sufi treatises himself, like
his uncle. But his attempt to restore the Abulkhayrid state to the size it had in the time of Shïbani Khan was a failure.
The #Arabshahids, who took over Khorezm in 1511 (see map 25) under the leadership of the two sons of Bürge Sultan, Ilbars and Balbars, were
joined by other members of the clan and by some Özbek tribes that were hostile to the Özbek supporters of the Abulkhayrids. They subjugated the
Turkmen tribes that were nomadizing on the Üst-Yurt and in the Qara-qum, west and south of Khorezm, and after the death of Shah Isma#il in 1523
they occupied the oases of northern Khorasan, along the Kopet-Dagh mountains. The country was divided into appanages of the sultans, with the
eldest member of the clan usually elected as a khan. The seat of the first khans was Vezir (until ca. 1518), and then, for almost a century, Urgench.
A sultan’s appanage would often include a region in Khorezm (which was called “the side of the water,” i.e. the Amu-Darya) and a region in Kho-
rasan (which was called “the side of the mountain”), as well as a Turkmen tribe in the steppe. A partial redistribution of the appanages occured with
the accession of each new khan. Throughout the 16th century the khanate was a confederation of practically independent principalities. The #Arab-
shahids were divided into four sub-clans, and conflicts and wars among them resulted in the elimination of some of them, until, in the second half
of the century, only one branch of the dynasty could claim the title of khan.
Very soon after their establishment in Khorezm, the Özbeks under the #Arabshahids began to raid Khorasan and Astarabad, sometimes in coopera-
tion with the Abulkhayrids. Especially active in these raids were Din Muhammad Sultan, whose “mountain-side” appanage was in Nesa and Abiverd,
and #Ali Sultan, whose appanage was in Durun. In 1538 the Abulkhayrids interfered in the feuds among the #Arabshahids, and the Özbeks of Ma-
varannahr, under #Ubaydallah Khan, invaded and occupied Khorezm. But the next year the Khorezmian Özbeks under Din Muhammad Sultan, who
came from his appanage supported by a Qïzïlbash detachment, routed the Abulkhayrids in a battle near Hazarasp, and the Abulkhayrid troops aban-
doned Khorezm. The alliance between the Khorezmian Özbeks and the Qïzïlbash was short-lived: by 1543 Din Muhammad Sultan resumed his raids
into Khorasan, and the #Arabshahids continued these raids for two decades.
In the eastern part of Central Asia the rule of Aba Bekr Dughlat in Yarkend came to an end in 1514. The younger brother of Mansur Khan, Sultan
Sa#id, fled from Mansur in 1508 and found refuge with Babur in Kabul, and in 1510, when Babur advanced against Mavarannahr, Sultan Sa#id came
to Ferghana, which had been captured from the Özbeks by some Moghul amirs. Aba Bekr attacked him at Andijan and was defeated, but when the
Özbeks reannexed Andijan in 1514, Sultan Sa#id tried his luck against Aba Bekr and won: he captured Kashghar and Yarkend and pursued Aba Bekr
as far as Ladakh. After this Sultan Sa#id reached an agreement with Mansur, which recognized Mansur as supreme ruler, but effectively divided the
Chaghatayid khanate into two independent parts, one with its capital in Yarkend, and another with its capital in Turfan. By that time a Turkic no-
madic people called Qïrghïz was contesting the regions in the Tien-Shan, north of the Tarim basin, with the Moghuls. The origin and earlier history
of these Qïrghïz and the question of their possible connection with the ancient Qïrghïz of the Yenisey are problems that are still not solved in the
scholarly literature (see map 39). Some contemporary Muslim authors claim that the Qïrghïz were not Muslims, but a Qïrghïz leader named Muham-
mad appears in accounts of the events of the first quarter of the 16th century. In 1517 Sultan Sa#id Khan attacked and defeated the Qïrghïz at Bars-
kaun, near Lake Issïq-köl. Sultan Sa#id also raided Bolor, Ladakh, and Kashmir; when he died during an invasion of Ladakh in 1533, his son #Abd
ar-Rashid became khan of the western khanate. He broke the Moghul-Qazaq alliance which had existed since the mid-15th century and allied himself
with the Özbeks under #Ubaydallah Khan.
In the Qazaq khanate supreme authority passed in 1511 from Burunduq Khan, son of Kirey, to Qasim Khan, son of Janibek; under him the khanate
expanded westward up to the Yayïq (and probably even up to the Volga), as he subdued the Manghïts (or a large part of them). But after the death
of Qasim Khan (around 1521) his son Tahir lost these territories again to the Manghïts by 1523; in 1525 Tahir Khan was defeated near Yasï by the
son of Söyünjük, Keldi-Muhammad Sultan, and retreated to the Qïrghïz territory, in Semirech’e, where he died in the early 1530s. After this the
Manghïts dominated the western and central Dasht-i Qïpchaq until the 1540s, and some Qazaq tribes were subdued by them; the Taybughids, tribal
chieftains in Western Siberia, who had overthrown the Shïbanid Ibaq in 1497, did not now interfere in the affairs of the Dasht-i Qïpchaq. By the mid-
1530s an actual (though probably not formal) anti-Qazaq alliance formed among the Manghïts, the #Arabshahids, the Chaghatayids, and the Abulkhayrids.
Around 1537 #Ubaydallah Khan and #Abd ar-Rashid Khan undertook a joint expedition against the Qazaqs, which brought about the defeat of the
Qazaqs near the San-Tash pass, east of Issïq-köl; in this battle, reportedly, the khan of the Qazaqs named Tughum and 37 Qazaq sultans perished.
This resulted in the recovery by the Moghuls of some pastures that had previously been lost to the Qazaqs.

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A B C D E

Qashlïq
(Isker)
Borders of the Abulkhayrid state between 1512 Military campaigns of the cArabshahids

N
Chimgi-Tura

E
Qazan and 1526
Military campaigns of the Safavids
Kama

T
Expansion of the Abulkhayrid state after 1526
Military campaigns of the Chaghatayids

A
Z
Borders of the Khanate of Khorezm (Arabshahids)

N
T A Y B U G H I D S Military campaigns of the Qazaqs

A
Borders of the cArabshahid appanages in northern

l o
Oyrat raids

Q
Khorasan (since the 1520s)

Tob
H
1 Area of the cArabshahid Turkmen tributaries Defeat of the Qïrghïz by Sultan Sacid Khan at 1

K
53

1517 Barskaun
Area of the Safavid Turkmen tributaries
Battle at Yasï between the Qazaqs under Tahir
S I B I R Borders of the Safavid Iran 1525 Khan and Keldi-Muhammad Sultan
im

Ish
Borders of Babur's possessions until 1526 Battle at Bistam between the Qïzïlbash and the
1527 Özbeks
It il Borders of the empire of the Great Mughals
Borders of Moghuliya (the Chaghatayids), western Battle at Jam between the Özbeks and the
and eastern parts 1528 Qïzïlbash
Yayïq I
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5/26/2003, 12:52 PM

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A B C D E

53
© Yuri Bregel 2003

26. THE FIRST HALF OF THE 16TH CENTURY (1510s-1550s): THE ÖZBEK KHANATES, THE QAZAQS, AND THE MOGHULS
 54

27. THE SECOND HALF OF THE 16TH CENTURY: {ABDALLAH KHAN, THE {ARABSHAHIDS, AND THE DASHT-I QÏPCHAQ

After 1550 the Abulkhayrid appanages were engaged in almost incessant wars with one another, which continued for three decades. These wars resulted
in the elimination, one by one, of three competing clans of appanage holders: first, the descendants of Shah Budaq in central Mavarannahr, and then
the descendants of Köchkünji as well as those of Söyünjük. The winner in these wars was the clan of Janibek. #Abdallah b. Iskandar, a grandson of
Janibek, who initially ruled the small appanage of Miyankal, captured Bukhara in 1557, with the support of the Naqshbandi sheykhs of the city, and
made it his capital. After the death of Nawruz Ahmad (Baraq) Khan b. Söyünjük in Tashkent in 1556, #Abdallah’s uncle Pir-Muhammad was pro-
claimed khan in Balkh, but #Abdallah, taking advantage of an insurrection in Balkh in 1561, had his father, Iskandar, proclaimed the supreme khan
of the Özbeks. The latter remained a figurehead, while #Abdallah became the actual ruler; in 1583, after the death of Iskandar, #Abdallah became
khan. In a long series of wars that preceded his elevation to the position of khan, #Abdallah annexed all the appanages, and their rulers were mostly
killed or executed in the process, often with their entire families. The most stubborn resistance was offered by Baba Sultan, son of Nawruz Ahmad
and the ruler of Tashkent and Turkestan, who was killed in 1582; in the course of his last campaign against Baba Sultan #Abdallah penetrated deep
into the Dasht-i Qïpchaq and reached the Ulu-tagh. After abolishing the appanages of other branches of the Abulkhayrids and creating a single unified
state (in which there were still some appanages, but ruled by the members of #Abdallah’s own family), #Abdallah Khan began an expansion beyond
the borders of this state, first to Badakhshan and then to Khorasan. In Badakhshan #Abdallah intervened in the feuds between the Timurid ruler Sulayman
Mirza and the supporters of his grandson, and in 1584, in a campaign that lasted ten months, he conquered this province (which at that time included
also Qunduz, Taleqan, and Kulab) and annexed it to the Balkh appanage held by his son #Abd al-Mu"min. In the conquest of Khorasan #Abdallah
Khan took advantage of the difficulties experienced at that time by Safavid Iran, both internally and in the war with the Ottomans. The Khorasan
campaign of #Abdallah began with the conquest of Herat, which was stormed in 1588 after a nine-month siege. The chief role in this conquest be-
longed to #Abd al-Mu"min, who also commanded the troops in all subsequent conquests in Khorasan, while his father did not participate in these
campaigns. Instead, #Abdallah Khan undertook the conquest of Khorezm in 1593 (a campaign he had briefly attempted for the first time in 1576),
causing the #Arabshahid Hajim Khan to flee to Iran, and again, after a rebellion, in 1595-96. He also invaded Kashghar and Yarkend in 1594-95, but
without lasting results. In the campaigns in Iran that took place after the conquest of Herat, an important role was played by the three princes who
had come to Bukhara from Haji-Tarkhan (Astrakhan’) after its conquest by Ivan the Terrible of Moscow in 1556: Din Muhammad Sultan and his two
brothers, Baqi Muhammad and Vali Muhammad, from among the descendants of Toqay-Timur (the thirteenth son of Jochi). During the ten years
following the conquest of Herat, 1588-98, they conquered Kuhistan and Sistan and raided Fars.
During the conquest of Khorasan, a conflict developed between #Abdallah Khan and #Abd al-Mu"min, who claimed the same status, as an actual
khan, that his father had had before under Iskandar Khan. The intervention of the {ulama prevented open war, but the Qazaqs, under Tavakkul Khan,
used this opportunity to invade Mavarannahr in 1598. They defeated the army sent against them by #Abdallah between Tashkent and Samarqand, and
when the khan set out against them himself, he died in Samarqand at the beginning of the campaign. #Abd al-Mu"min, having become khan, imme-
diately began to kill his uncles and cousins and to execute his father’s amirs, but in June 1598 he was assassinated by a group of amirs. An inter-
regnum followed that lasted into 1599, when a new dynasty came to power—the Ashtarkhanids, or Janids (see map 28).
The reign of #Abdallah Khan was distinguished not only by his conquests and the unification of the Özbek state, but also by his activity that favored
the development of the economy: an important monetary reform, the construction of irrigation systems, roads, caravanserays, cisterns, etc. He also
built many other public buildings, such as mosques and madrasas. Until the 20th century popular tradition in Mavarannahr ascribed most of the old
preserved buildings either to Timur or to #Abdallah Khan. During his reign the Naqshbandi Sufi sheykhs, especially the Juybari family of Bukhara,
became very influential.
In Khorezm the #Arabshahid khan during most of the second half of the 16th century was Haji Muhammad (Hajim); his rule (since 1559/60) followed
the elimination of all other rival branches of the dynasty. The appanage of Merv was ruled by Din Muhammad’s grandson, Nurum (Nur Muhammad)
Sultan, who inherited also Nesa, Abiverd, and Durun after the death of #Ali Sultan. In 1591 Hajim Khan took over his appanage, and Nurum applied
to #Abdallah Khan for help, but the latter, having captured Merv, kept it for himself. The expansion of #Abdallah Khan caused the #Arabshahids to
seek a rapprochement with Iran, and they received some assistance from the Safavids. Shah #Abbas I set out for the reconquest of Khorasan after the
death of #Abdallah Khan; in August 1598 he routed the army of Din Muhammad Sultan (the Janid) in the battle at Pul-i Salar, near Herat, and grad-
ually retook Khorasan. At the same time Hajim Khan returned to Khorezm and quickly recovered it. Badakhshan also seceded from the Abulkhayrids
in 1599. Thus, all the conquests of #Abdallah Khan were lost by the end of the century.
In the second half of the 16th century important changes took place in the Dasht-i Qïpchaq. A new powerful neighbor emerged on its western
frontiers: the Tsardom of Muscovy. Tsar Ivan the Terrible conquered the successors of the Golden Horde in the Volga basin: the Qazan Khanate in
1552 and the Haji-Tarkhan (Astrakhan’) Khanate in 1556. Soon after that Russian freebooters, the Cossacks, began to settle in the middle course of
the Yayïq and to raid the Manghïts (the Noghay Horde). In 1573 the Cossacks raided Saraychiq, the capital of the Great Noghay Horde, and in 1581
they destroyed Saraychiq completely and burned it down; later the Moscow government built a town named Yaitskiy gorodok (the future Ural’sk)
in the middle course of the Yayïq. The Manghïts were weakened by internal conflicts and the migration of one group of them to the northern Cau-
casus, to the Lesser Noghay Horde; the Greater Noghay Horde (east of the Volga) came under the increasing control of Muscovy. At the same time
there was growing pressure on the Manghïts from the invigorated Qazaq Khanate. Since ca. 1559 the khan of the Qazaqs was Haqq Nazar, a grand-
son of Qasim Khan. Although before his accession he had been a Manghït protégé, as khan he pursued an independent policy. Taking advantage of
the weakening of the Manghïts, Haqq Nazar raided their territory several times and even crossed the Yayïq. In the 1570s he also became an ally of
#Abdallah Khan in his wars with the ruler of Tashkent, Baba Sultan, and in 1580 he perished in a battle against Baba Sultan near the Talas. After
Haqq Nazar, his cousin, Tavakkul Sultan (recognized as khan not later than 1590) played a prominent role among the Qazaqs. First he served #Ab-
dallah Khan, and in 1582 he killed Baba Sultan and brought his head to #Abdallah, but the following year he left #Abdallah for the Dasht-i Qïpchaq,
and then became #Abdallah’s enemy, raiding his territory several times and attempting to capture the cities on the Sïr-Darya. Tavakkul also had a
strong influence on the affairs of the eastern Chaghatayid khanate in Turfan. After the death of #Abdallah’s son #Abd al-Mu"min (see above) in 1598,
the Qazaqs under Tavakkul invaded Mavarannahr for the second time and captured Sayram, Turkestan, Tashkent, Andijan, and Samarqand, but were
stopped at Bukhara; Tavakkul was wounded and died in Tashkent, after which a peace was concluded and the Qazaqs retained Tashkent, Sayram,
and Turkestan.
In Western Siberia the Qazaqs had a hostile neighbor after 1563, when the Taybughid beks, who ruled this region from 1497 (see map 26), were
overthrown by Kuchum, a Shïbanid descendant of Ibaq. And after the Sibir Khanate was destroyed by the Russians between 1582 and 1598, Mus-
covy became a neighbor of the Qazaqs from the north as well.
The anti-Qazaq alliance concluded between the Chaghatayids and the Özbeks in the 1530s also continued during the rule in Yarkend of the son
of #Abd ar-Rashid Khan, #Abd al-Karim (1559-1591), but it fell apart after #Abdallah Khan’s raid on Kashghar and Yarkend. By the end of the reign
of #Abd al-Karim the Qïrghïz tribes, pressed from the north first by the Qazaqs and then by the Oyrats, occupied the entire northern Tien-Shan and
from there penetrated into the Ferghana and Alay valleys.

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A B C D E
Tobol‘sk Sïghnaq
1587 Qashlïq Urgench
(Isker) K
Tiumen' H
Y
Kazan‘ C O V 1586 O
R Kat
E
Kama S Tara Khiva
M U
Hazarasp Otrar
1552 1594

Z
M
Sayram
O F
M
D O
Tashkent
M Bukhara

l
R Andijan

o
Khojend NA

Tob
1 A Ufa
A Samarqand F E R G H A Uzgend 1
55

Durun V
S A Osh

Ishim

Irt
1586 Astarabad Nesa Charjuy
T sh R A Shahrisabz

ï
K
E S I B I R H
O Abiverd Merv Qarshi N N Hisar
A H
Samara Sebzevar R A R Kashghar
H 1586 S A Kerki

B
Nishapur N
T Vol
ga A Mashhad Serakhs Termez
Badakhshan
Shibergan
Saratov
1590
S K
Jam
Maymana
Balkh

H U
H Baghlan
K R D E Herat
I R S
IS
OSSAC H O Tun
TA
YAY Ï Q C Y
Qayin N
Bamiyan Pervan
S A

K
G H
Yaitskiy gorodok
1595/96 Kabul
1581

Tsaritsïn N O SISTAN Srinagar

1589 T E R Ghazni Peshawar

G R E A 1569
Zerenj
Kerman
Qandahar
0s

O
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rd

Irg
Sialkot
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iz
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a cas D A S H T - I Q Ï P C H A Q
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Borders of the Abulkhayrid state by the middle of

Yay

2 N o ern K 2

Y
the 16th century

1582
ay Q
e r rth

rg
Area of the initial appanage of cAbdallah Khan
s s No

Tu
e o Saraychiq
H A R z
L. Z
aysa n
L (t gu Borders of the Abulkhayrid state after the
ALTÏULÏ

a
conquests of cAbdallah Khan II

Ay
Astrakhan'
Emba BOY LUQ) A Z A
(J EM
1556 Borders of the Khanate of Khorezm (cArabshahids)
HORDE N A T Borders of the cArabshahid appanages in northern
Lake Ba lkhash S
A Q L.
Khorasan
Ala-köl Area of the cArabshahid Turkmen tributaries

Qa r a t
T S U )

u
‘ E

ï-s
I - C H
Area of the Safavid Turkmen tributaries

Sar
T al Bars-köl

M
E E
S e a

E
I R

an
Y Borders of the Safavid Iran before 1588(Barkul)
E M

as
QAR
AQ S L. Ebi-nur
Aral AL ( Borders of the empire of the Great Mughals
PA Qomul
T

Q Borders of Moghuliya (the Chaghatayids), (Hami)

western
Sea S Turfan
U

and eastern parts

Il i
R

Sïghnaq Borders of the Greater Noghay Horde and the

Ch
s p i a n

Suzak Ï Z Altïulï Horde

K

u
ÜST-YURT G H
M

Derbend Sawran 1580 R Borders of the Sibir Khanate before 1585

Chalïsh
3 E A R A L Q Ï es 3
Turkestan - k öl Tek (Qarashahr) L. Baghrash-köl
5/26/2003, 12:52 PM

Borders of the Tsardom of Muscovy by the end of

N Urgench 1582 L. Issïq Kucha
159 S Talas (Kusan) the 16th century
S 5 ID Otrar
1597

S ï r- D a r y a
Lake Vezir H AH Z M Ï Bay Borders of the Qazaq Khanate
cA R A B S R E Sayram Q R Aq
Sarïqamïsh O Kat 1582 G Z Borders of the Oyrat pasturelands
Baku K H15 H Ï su
93 Narï n Aqsu
rim Military campaigns of cAbdallah Khan and cAbd al-
Khiva Hazarasp Uch Ta or
C a

Tashkent Mumin op-n

98

Andijan
A L. L

M
15 1582 Akhsi 1579 Uzgend
15

en
c
Military campaign of Shah Abbas I
76 Y

ch
boy Nur Shahrukhiya

er
Uz

A
Cheleken I. Darghan 9
1582 Khojend S Osh I Ch
Military campaign of the Moghuls against the
Ghijduvan Kermine 157 1598
1579
I D Marghinan 15 L Qïrghïz

Khotan
R
Am

Y 94 Kashghar
A Ura-Tübe U Military campaigns of the Qazaqs

G
H
u- D

Oghurcha I. H Samarqand
S )
S Bukhara 1579 ghar 1581 Cherchen
EN 1578 khab sh G
ya Qaraköl 1557 Sur Raid of the Yayiq Cossacks on Saraychiq
ar

Ka

L
M KA R A N N A Ab-i Kuhek O
I D
K A V H R 1598
R Durun Charjuy M Yangi Hisar M Return of Hajim Khan to Khorezm

A
U Shahrisabz Hisar
T T 91 Y Y
L

Qarshi 1569 1574 Mashhad

T A
Nesa U M Dates of conquests by cAbdallah Khan
15

g u r ghab nd Yarkend 1589

596 1591-98R
1574 j r tan rke -
an 1
H A
U

Ba

Ya
K
Pan

Go r g Atr hur S 1556 Dates of Russian conquests

h

ek M E N S Merv hs nd Alic Khotan

Niya
Kerki Gu G Saratov
Wak

Astarabad U
H A
Qazvin Isferayin Kulab Dates of the founding of Russian cities
B

Amul Keriya 1590

4 7 Bistam 1591 Abiverd Kelif 4 B 4
AN
158 cha
( C
1591-98 Termez
9

1594 SH
15

Andkhuy E Defeat of the Qazaqs by Baba Sultan on the Talas

K ok A K H
A

rya 1580
Damghan Mashhad Balkh BA D Wakha n-Da Battle at Pul-i Salar between Shah Abbas I and c
Sebzevar 1589 Shibergan 1573 Qunduz R
Serakhs 1598 Din Muhammad
Semnan 1591 Nishapur LO
BO
Balkhab

S
Harir u d

K 1589 N Maymana A
(seceded in 1599-1602)
Battle between the army of cAbdallah Khan and
A
h ab

F A S
A V I D SH O R k 1598 the Qazaqs of Tavakkul Khan
r
Su

97 Jam
In d u s T I B E T
15 100 0 100 200 300 400 KM
M
15

ur g h a b A T M U G H A L S
9 R E
6

Herat G
1598 1588 Bamiyan Kabul
A B C D E

55
© Yuri Bregel 2003

27. THE SECOND HALF OF THE 16TH CENTURY: {ABDALLAH KHAN, THE {ARABSHAHIDS, AND THE DASHT-I QÏPCHAQ
 56

28. 17TH CENTURY: THE ASHTARKHANIDS, KHOREZM, THE QAZAQS, AND THE JUNGHARS

The new dynasty that came to power in Bukhara in 1599 is called by some modern scholars the Toqay-Timurids, from the name of its ancestor—
Toqay-Timur, the thirteenth son of Jochi, or the Janids, from the name of Jani Muhammad Khan, the first ruler of this dynasty, or the Ashtarkhanids,
from the name of the city of Haji-Tarkhan (Astrakhan’), from which the founders of this dynasty came in the 1550s (see map 27); in Central Asian
sources, however, only the latter name is found. The Ashtarkhanids ruled over a much reduced territory in comparison with that of the Abulkhayrids:
all the conquests of #Abdallah Khan (Khorasan, Khorezm, and since the 1650s Badakhshan) were lost, and the regions in the middle part of the Sïr-
Darya basin (with the cities of Turkestan, Sayram, and Tashkent) and the eastern part of the Ferghana valley (with Andijan) mostly belonged to
Qazaq khans and sultans, who ruled them sometimes as Ashtarkhanid vassals, but more often independently. In 1612 the khanate was divided into
two parts, Mavarannahr, with its capital in Bukhara, and Balkh with its region. For thirty years, 1612-1642, the ruler of Bukhara was Imam-Quli
Khan and the ruler of Balkh was his brother Nadhr Muhammad; the latter was also given the title of khan (or “little khan,” as distinct from the “great
khan” in Bukhara), and he was an independent, or almost independent, ruler. Later Balkh was the appanage of the heir-apparent. Thus the Ashtarkhanid
khanate during most of the 17th century was actually a double khanate, consisting of Bukhara (Mavarannahr) and Balkh. Both Mavarannahr and
Balkh were divided into smaller subappanages given to the Ashtarkhanid princes, but the princes did not play as important a role as under the
Abulkhayrids. In the second half of the 17th century the chieftains (amirs) of the Özbek tribes gradually acquired a greater role in state affairs, and
this weakened the central authority. But under Imam-Quli Khan the Ashtarkhanid state still enjoyed relative political and economic stability. In 1641
Imam-Quli Khan abdicated and left for Mekka, where he later died, and he was succeeded by Nadhr Muhammad. Nadhr Muhammad tried to intro-
duce a land reform (involving the conversion of land grants to the amirs into cash grants to be collected from the treasury), which caused strong
opposition. The amirs of Bukhara were also unhappy about the prominent role of the amirs he brought with him from Balkh. In 1645 a coalition of
Bukharan amirs persuaded the khan’s eldest son, #Abd al-#Aziz, who ruled Samarqand, to take Bukhara by force; he was proclaimed khan, and Nadhr
Muhammad returned to Balkh and ruled it until 1651, when he stepped down, went for Mekka, and died on his way there. From 1651 to 1681 the
Ashtarkhanid state was again a double khanate, with #Abd al-#Aziz Khan ruling in Bukhara and his brother Subhan-Quli Khan ruling in Balkh, but
in 1681 #Abd al-#Aziz abdicated in favor of Subhan-Quli, who ruled the reunified khanate from Bukhara until 1702.
During the first half of the 17th century the Ashtarkhanids tried to continue an aggressive policy both against the Safavids in Khorasan and against
the #Arabshahids in Khorezm. In the 1630s they conducted several large-scale raids on Khorasan, but after #Abd al-#Aziz became khan mostly peace-
ful relations with Iran were maintained. From 1642 to 1645 Nadhr Muhammad Khan installed his governor in Khorezm, upon the request of one
party in the civil war that erupted in Khorezm at that time, but then the Bukharans were defeated and forced to leave Khorezm. Later the Khanate
of Bukhara was repeatedly subjected to invasions and raids by its neighbors. In 1646 a Mughal army invaded the province of Balkh, but the next year
it had to retreat. Badakhshan, which was recovered by the Ashtarkhanids in 1602, became independent in 1657 under its amir Yar Bek and repelled
the attempts of the Ashtarkhanids and the Özbek amirs of Qunduz to subdue it by force. And after 1657 Mavarannahr suffered from several major
invasions of the Khorezmian Özbeks under the #Arabshahids (see below). The Khanate of Bukhara entered a period of slow economic and political
decline. State revenues diminished, and the government tried to compensate for the losses by successive debasements of the currency, which, how-
ever, negatively affected trade and only exacerbated the fiscal difficulties.
In Khorezm (where the city of Khiva finally became the capital between 1603 and 1622) the first half of the 17th century was a period of civil
strife, during which one member of the #Arabshahid dynasty, Isfandiyar Sultan, drew his support from the Turkmens, while his brother, Abu’l-Ghazi
Sultan, was supported by the Özbeks. Isfandiyar prevailed and ruled until 1642; Abu’l-Ghazi spent 11 years in captivity in Iran, while the Özbeks
who did not recognize Isfandiyar concentrated in the Aral, as the Amu-Darya delta region became known. After the death of Isfandiyar in 1642, the
country was briefly governed by a Bukharan governor sent by Nadhr Muhammad Khan, until Abu’l-Ghazi fled from Iran and liberated Khorezm
from Bukharan occupation in 1645. After this Abu’l-Ghazi embarked upon an aggressive policy aimed at Khorezm’s neighbors. In the 1640s he
fought several Turkmen tribes, banished them from Khorezm, and pursued some of them down to the Tejen and northern Khorasan. In the mid-1650s
Abu’l-Ghazi carried out several raids against Mavarannahr, causing great destruction. Even more devastating were the invasions of Mavarannahr by
Abu’l-Ghazi’s son Anusha in the years 1681-1685, during which he even captured Bukhara and Samarqand on separate occasions. At the end of the
last, unsuccessful, campaign Anusha was overthrown by his amirs, and his death was followed by a long period of instability and internal feuds in
Khorezm, in the course of which the #Arabshahid dynasty was extinguished.
In the political history of the Dasht-i Qïpchaq in the 17th century, the dominant factor was the expansion of the Oyrats. Since the end of the 16th
century, after the destruction of the Sibir Khanate by the Russians, some Oyrat groups had begun to nomadize in Western Siberia and the north of
the Dasht-i Qïpchaq, in the basins of the Irtïsh, Ishim, and Tobol rivers. In the early 17th century these north-western groups of the Oyrats gradually
moved farther west, separated from those who remained in Jungharia, and became known as Qalmïqs. In 1630-31 they invaded the upper Emba and
Yayïq regions; by 1640 most of the Noghays (Manghïts) had fled from them across the Volga (though some migrated to Khorezm), and the Qalmïqs
occupied their former territory and then began raiding Khorezm, the Turkmens of Mangïshlaq, and, in 1657-58, even the border regions of Iran. The
Oyrats who remained in the east in 1635 formed a confederation that became known as the Junghars (lit. “left wing”) under a ruler with the title
khun-tayiji (or khung-tayiji). By then, all the Oyrats had adopted Buddhism. The first ruler of the Junghars, Batur Khun-tayiji, repeatedly raided
Qazaq territories, only once, in 1643, suffering a defeat. Under his successor relations with the Qazaqs were mostly peaceful, but Galdan-Boshoktu
Khun-tayiji (1670-1697) began a series of even more destructive raids, attacking Sayram, Osh, and Andijan; these raids intensified in the first half
of the 18th century (see map 29). The Qazaqs could rarely counter these attacks with similar force. They lost Semirech’e to the Junghars, but they
preserved their political centers in the regions of Turkestan, Tashkent, and Andijan, with their grazing grounds stretching to the central Dasht-i Qïpchaq,
and under the khan Tavakkul Muhammad (known as Tawke) they even played a role in the affairs of Eastern Turkestan. Pressed by the Junghars
from the east, they tried to compensate for the pasturelands lost at the expense of the Qalmïqs; the latter, however, under the rule of Ayuki (who had
the title of khan), a nominal vassal of Russia, were too strong an adversary.
The Chaghatayid khanate in the early 17th century was divided into two independent khanates, one with its capital in Yarkend and another with
its capital in Turfan. In 1638-39 the khan of Turfan, #Abdallah, conquered Yarkend and restored the unified khanate, which existed until 1682 (dif-
ferent sources give the date from 1678 to 1683), when Galdan-Boshoktu Khun-tayiji conquered Yarkend and Kashghar, captured the last Chaghatay-
id, Isma#il Khan, and took him to Jungharia. After that, Eastern Turkestan was ruled by the khojas, leaders of the Naqshbandi Sufi order in this
region, as Junghar vassals.
In Western Siberia, the Moscow government, after conquering the Shïbanid khanate of Kuchum (see map 27), began to encourage Russian peasant
settlement. The main areas of initial peasant settlement were between the lower Tobol and the lower Ishim and in the upper Ob’. Gradually, peasants
began to occupy the grasslands that served as summer pastures to the Qazaqs, who began to raid these settlements. To protect them, the Russian
government began to build forts manned by military garrisons. The first line of such forts extended from the middle Tobol, south of Kurgan (founded
in 1670), to the lower Irtïsh, south of Tara (founded in 1594). In the next century the lines of these forts formed the Russian frontier with the Qazaq
steppe.

bregel3.pmd 56 5/26/2003, 12:52 PM

bregel3.pmd

A B C D E
Tobol‘sk
Borders of the Ashtarkhanid state Borders of the Tsardom of Muscovy in the first half
Borders of the Balkh appanage of the 17th century
Tiumen'
Kazan‘ Tara Borders of the Tsardom of Muscovy in the second
Kama Borders of Badakhshan
half of the 17th century
1 Borders of the cArabshahid state of Khorezm
66

l
Military campaigns and raids of the Junghars and

1
bo
Borders of Safavid Iran

To
the Qalmïqs

0
Y
M U S C O VKurgan

2
Area of the Safavid Turkmen tributaries

1615
O F

16
Military campaigns of the Ashtarkhanids
1 T H E T S A R D O M Ufa 1670 Borders of the empire of the Great Mughals Military campaigns of the cArabshahids 1
m
57

Ishi
Borders of the Chaghatayid Khanate (since 1683-

Irt
Military campaigns of the Chaghatayids

17
sh the Khojas)

ï
16
Samara B Borders of the Oyrat pasturelands before 1640 Raids of the governor of Astarabad against the
A Turkmens
ga S Borders of the Junghar state after 1640 1603
Vol H Raid of the Yaik Cossacks on Urgench

16
Borders of the Junghar vassals
Saratov K

41
1681 1685 Dates of the capture of Bukhara and Samarqand
I Borders of the Volga Qalmïqs since the 1630s by Anusha Khan
R
S Borders of the Qazaq Khanate in the first half of
C O S S A C K S the 17th century Battle at Shahrukhiya between Imam-Quli Khan
1621 and the Qazaqs under Tursun Khan

Q S
I K Yaitskiy gorodok Borders of the Qazaq Khanate in the second half of
the 17th century Battle at Orbulaq between the Qazaqs under
1643 Jahangir Khan and the Junghars
Y A

L P A
Borders of the region ruled by the Qazaq khans
Tsaritsïn sometimes as Ashtarkhanid vassals Qazaq pressure on the Volga Qalmïqs

100 0 100 200 300 400 KM

Q A R A Q A
n
tio QALMÏQ
gra
mi 1608 A L T
gh
ay
T AY ISHIS (SINC A
No E
2 1690-AYUKI KH N - 2
44 AN y K H
A N

rga
Yayïq

) Irgiz
16

Tu
L. Z
50
s
su gu
z aysa n S
16 rï-
16

a
Sa

Ay
03

Gur'ev
Astrakhan' a
Emb
J U N G H A R
0s

Q A
4

Z A Q
hïts and Qon g r a t s 16
16 4 9

Lake Balkhash
K H U N - T A Y I J I S Bars-köl

16
K

Qa r a t
H S U
L. 8 (Barkul)

7
A N A T E I - E)
Ala-köl

1678
T al H‘

M
S e a

E EC (FROM 1635)

an
Y I R

as
QA EM 1643
1657-8

RA L. Ebi-nur
Aral Q (S Qomul
9
T

(Hami)
63

A
1 Sea

LP
U

Turfan

A
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Q
3 Il i
164
R

Sïghnaq
s p i a n

84 s
16 ke Chalïsh

s
Suzak
K

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1620
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Sawran 16 GI
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Da
A R A L
N Lake UT
5/26/2003, 12:53 PM

Turkestan ss F
(old) Urgench L. I S P E E NT U R

rya
H I
S Sarïqamïsh
DS Otrar 95
Talas G D TW D
HI M E AN
HA 16 8 5 Ï R B Bay Kucha
cA R ABS R E Z

1 67

160
Sayram 16 Q Aq (Kusan)
Baku O su S

,
K H

8
84
Urgench H
I D ANC

9
Narï n Aqsu
S

16
Q Ï R G H Ï Z rim L
Khiva Hazarasp Uch Ta or
Y SA
C a

T Tashkent
BR op-n
Uzgend A S L. L

en
AN
9

Andijan
T
VA
Ï Z
164

ch
U
1649

1680
Darghan
Marghinan Nur 1621 RF )
A

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Cheleken I. oy N A 1657 H Ch
R G H AOsh U
R K

Uzb Shahrukhiya E G H R T 682 R

A

Kermine F
Ghijduvan 35 A
G DE 9-1
1646

165

Ï R
16 Khojend
H
V
47

3 Kashghar a
A
1628

UN 163
A gh r
Bukhara G
16

Ura-Tübe sh
khab
16

Oghurcha I. Samarqand
H

Q
4 Sur
1681 Ka N Cherchen
9

R b-i Kuhek Q ED 3
E

1685
EN
S T U Qaraköl A
N N A HD
A R S 1686 Ï R Yangi Hisar IT C IN J U 168
N

S Z N
Ï
A S INCE
M R Charjuy I G U
1667

K Durun Shahrisabz Q Ï R G H (
K H
Am

R N
U M Qarshi Ï Z Yarkend
T A Mu r ghab S S
u-

Da
80

g
JA
Hisar n

165 3
an Nesa E rya H j rta
16

Ba O
Pan

Go r g Atr N K Alichur
h

hs Niya
KH
ek S Merv R nd
Gu
Wak

Kulab 0 Khotan
Qazvin Amul 68 Astarabad Isferayin Abiverd
Kerki A 1 64 Keriya
4 16 T Kelif
Termez HA
N 4

40
Bistam HAndkhuy cha S
K ok KH

16
Sebzevar H Serakhs S Balkh Qunduz BKA D AFayzabad Wakha n-Da
rya Ya
r k e nd
Damghan A N
O 1633
Semnan Nishapur R A A Shibergan
Mashhad S MUGHAL M I R YA R B E K BOL O R Khotan
S A Maymana O C CU P A T I ON
h ab

1 6 5 7 -1 7 0 5
F A V I D 1 6 31
S 1 6 4 6 -4 7 k T I B E T
34
r

16
Su

Jam
In d u s
M DALAI-LAMAS (SINCE 1642)
H ar

ur g h a b A T M U G H A L S
ru G R E
i

d Herat Bamiyan Kabul

A B C D E

57
© Yuri Bregel 2003

28. 17TH CENTURY: THE ASHTARKHANIDS, KHOREZM, THE QAZAQS, AND THE JUNGHARS
 58

29. THE FIRST HALF OF THE 18TH CENTURY: NADIR SHAH, BUKHARA, KHOREZM, THE QAZAQS, AND THE JUNGHARS

By the beginning of the 18th century the sedentary regions of Western Turkestan were in a state of a deepening political and economic crisis char-
acterized by the decline of the ruling dynasties and central governments in the Özbek khanates, the resurgence of tribal forces, the disruption of
economic life, and increasing interference by the steppe nomads in the affairs of the sedentary states (the Qazaqs in Bukhara and the Turkmens in
Khorezm). In Bukhara the son and successor of Subhan-Quli Khan, #Ubaydallah Khan (II) (1702-1711), tried to reverse the process and to limit the
power of tribal chieftains, probably with the support of the urban population, but his miscalculated financial policy triggered a rebellion in the city
of Bukhara in 1708, which ended in a compromise between the government and the rebels. The khan became the victim of a conspiracy of Özbek
amirs and was assassinated, and under his successor, Abu’l-Fayz Khan (1711-1747), the central government lost all its authority, and the country
practically disintegrated into a number of tribal chiefdoms, the largest of which were the Mings in Ferghana, the Yüz in Ura-Tübe and Hisar, and
the Keneges in Shahrisabz. Balkh finally separated from the khanate, and the Özbek amirs, who ruled it, then invited as puppet khans some Ash-
tarkhanids who lived in Khorasan. Ferghana had already separated at the end of the 17th century. Wars between various rival tribal groupings affect-
ed most of all the central regions of Mavarannahr, which, in addition, were ravaged for seven years by the Qazaqs who fled across the Sïr-Darya
from the invading Junghars (see below). Both the urban and the rural population began to flee from the areas most seriously affected by these dis-
turbances, so that Samarqand was reportedly entirely abandoned (cf. map 41), and in Bukhara only two city quarters remained inhabited. By 1730,
when the Qazaqs left Mavarannahr, the authority of the central government in Bukhara remained limited to some of the districts closest to the capital.
And in Bukhara itself power was gradually concentrated in the hands of the khan’s atalïq (chief counselor), Muhammad Hakim Biy, chief of the
Manghït tribe.
A similar political and economic decline took place in Khorezm. The #Arabshahid dynasty was extinguished between 1694 and 1727, and the northern,
predominantly nomadic, half of the country, known as Aral, seceded and for more than a century remained most of the time not only independent
from, but also at war with, Khiva. From the end of #Arabshahid rule there was a marked increase in the Turkmen presence in Khorezm, and the
Turkmen tribes of Salor, Chowdur, and Yomut took part in the feuds among different Özbek factions. The increasing role of the Turkmens in Khorezm
coincided with the expansion of the Turkmen tribes into northern Khorasan, made possible by the fall of the Safavids in Iran. In the 1710s and 1730s
the khans of Khiva were also raiding Khorasan.
Safavid Iran in the early 18th century experienced a political and economic crisis similar to that of the Central Asian khanates. But the decline and
fall of the Safavids resulted first in the rise of Nadir Shah Afshar (regent from 1732, shah from 1736), a ruthless ruler and an outstanding general,
who suppressed rebellions in the provinces, defeated the Ottomans, subdued the Afghan tribes, repelled the Turkmens from the northern regions of
Khorasan, and invaded and sacked the Mughal capital, Dehli. In 1736-37 his son, Riza-Quli Mirza, occupied Balkh and its entire province, and later
in 1737, while Nadir Shah was at Qandahar, he launched an attack on Bukhara and besieged Abu’l-Fayz Khan in Qarshi, but was recalled by Nadir
Shah. The latter invaded Bukhara himself in 1740. One part of his army crossed the Amu-Darya at Kelif, while the main army went along the left
bank and crossed at Charjuy. Here a number of Özbek amirs came to his camp and offered their submission; then Nadir Shah marched on Bukhara,
set up his camp in a suburb of the city and received there the submission of Abu’l-Fayz Khan. Bukhara was spared a Persian occupation, but the
khanate had to supply to the Persian army a large quantity of grain and fodder as well as 10,000 horsemen, under Muhammad Rahim Biy, the son
of Muhammad Hakim Atalïq. From Bukhara Nadir Shah marched along the left bank of the Amu-Darya on Khiva, defeated the Khorezmian army
in two battles and besieged the khan in the city of Khanqah. After seven days’ siege Ilbars Khan surrendered and was executed together with twenty
of his amirs, and Khiva surrendered several days later. Nadir Shah set free all the slaves in Khorezm (Persians, Russians, Qalmaqs) and had Khorezm
provide the Persian army with grain and 4,000 horsemen. Nadir Shah left Khorezm after installing as khan a relative of the Bukharan Ashtarkhanids.
Later on Nadir Shah did not interfere in the internal affairs of either khanate (beyond sending troops to Khorezm to suppress a Turkmen rebellion
in 1745). Both khanates were now actually ruled by the chieftains of the Manghït tribe of the Özbeks, who enjoyed Nadir’s support.
In Bukhara, the death of Muhammad Hakim Atalïq in 1743 was followed by tribal feuds during which the city of Bukhara itself was sacked by
rebellious Özbek tribes in 1745. To help restore order Nadir Shah dispatched Muhammad Rahim Biy to Bukhara, with Qïzïlbash and Afghan troops.
With the help of these troops, Muhammad Rahim, who was now appointed to the post of atalïq, defeated the rebel Özbek tribes and consolidated his
rule in Bukhara, eventually usurping the title of khan (see map 30).
In Khorezm the period of turmoil lasted longer than in Bukhara, but it also resulted in the assumption of power by a non-Chingisid dynasty by the
end of the century.
During the first half of the 18th century the Turkmens, who many times were pushed back by Nadir Shah from the oases of northern Khorasan,
nevertheless increased their pressure on this area and gradually occupied it; this process was apparently completed during the second half of the
century.
In the Dasht-i Qïpchaq the unified Qazaq khanate ceased to exist after the death of its last khan, Tawke (Tavakkul), around 1717. By that time the
Qazaqs were already divided into three major groupings called zhuz, which in Russian sources (and from them in Western sources) were called orda,
“horde”: Ulï (“senior”) Zhuz, Orta (“middle”) Zhuz, and Kshi (“junior”) Zhuz (see map 38). Each zhuz had its own khan. In the first half of the 18th
century the Middle and Senior hordes were subjected to frequent massive raids by the Junghars under the khun-tayiji Tsevang-Rabtan and his suc-
cessor, Galdan-Tseren. An especially destructive Junghar invasion happened in 1723, when the Junghars captured Tashkent, Turkestan, and Sayram
and then raided Ferghana; many thousands of Qazaqs perished, and many of them fled from the Junghars across the Sïr-Darya, to Mavarannahr. The
Qazaqs recovered somewhat and defeated the Junghars in two battles around 1726 and 1730, but Junghar raids continued also in the 1740s, espe-
cially to the northern areas of the Dasht-i Qïpchaq. The Senior Horde remained under Junghar domination, while many Qazaqs of the Middle Horde
fled from the Junghars to the west and the north. At the same time Russia (which became the Russian Empire under Peter the Great) was advancing
its frontiers into the Qazaq steppes. Between 1715 and 1743 several lines (Russian liniya) of fortifications were built, forming a continuous fortified
border that had to protect Russian settlements both from Qazaq raids and from the possible Junghar threat, and that served as a base for the future
advance into the steppe.
In 1715, Peter the Great, prompted by information about internal feuds in the Özbek khanates, as well as the rumors of gold deposits found in
Central Asia, and wishing to find river routes from Central Asia to India, sent two military expeditions: one from Astrakhan’ to Khiva, under the
command of Prince Bekovich-Cherkasskiy, and another from Tobol’sk up the Irtïsh river under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Bukhgol’ts
(Buchholtz). Both expeditions ended in failure: the Bekovich party was slaughtered by the Khivans in 1717, and the Bukhgol’ts party was repulsed,
with heavy losses, by the Junghars in 1716 near Lake Yamïshevskoe. Subsequent Russian governments directed their attention to the Qazaq steppes.
In the first half of the 18th century the Russian government took advantage of the difficult situation of the Qazaqs who were suffering from Junghar
raids, as well as of the desire of some of the Qazaq rulers to strengthen their own position within Qazaq society with Russian support, and had a
number of Qazaq khans and tribal chieftains take an oath of allegiance to Russia between 1731 and 1740. This allegiance, however, remained purely
nominal until the end of the 18th century.

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A B C D E

Borders of the Ashtarkhanid state

Tiumen' Borders of the Balkh appanage before its
Kazan‘ Tara annexation by Nadir Shah
Kama
Borders of tribal principalities, Tashkent,

ol
Badakhshan, and Qarategin
I R E

b
P

ïs h
M

To
A N E Expansion of Badakhshan into Chitral

Irt
S S I
1 R U Borders of the Khanate of Khorezm
1
Ufa Kurgan Omsk

Ishim
Borders of the empire of Nadir Shah by 1747
59

Petropavlovskaya 1716 17
15
- Borders of Nadir Shah's vassals
Troitskaya

17
Samara Verkhneyaitskaya Borders of the state of the Khojas of Eastern
1743

1
Presnogor'kovskaya

7
1735 Turkestan

Bu
ga B
Vol

kh
go
Saratov A l't
s
Borders of the Junghar state in the early 18th
S century
H L. Yamïshevskoe Borders of the Junghar vassals
Orenburg 1 74 1
Yaitskiy gorodok 1743
K -42
I Koriakovskiy
KS
Borders of the Qazaq Khanate
C Iletskiy R forpost
S 1720 Yamïshevo Approximate divisions between the Qazaq zhuzes
SA
gorodok
(hordes)
YAIK COS

1740 Orsk
Tsaritsïn 1735 Semipalatnaya Borders of the area occupied by the Volga Qalmïqs
1718

S 17 4 1-
42 Ust'-Kamenogorskaya
Q Kalmïkovskiy 1719 Q
Ï forpost I
1743 N
2 M K S H I Z H U Z O R T A G 2
L Z H U

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Irgiz
Z

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A -su
Yayïq

L. Z
arï aysa n

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( J U N I O R H O R D E ) (MIDDLE S z

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Q gu
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M
Ay
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Emba
DE)

P
J U N G H A R

I
Lake Balkhash

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Ch

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r-
A R A L Turkestan - k öl

Da
N Issïq Kucha
5/26/2003, 12:53 PM

L.

rya
S K E) Z Bay (Kusan)
H RD Ï
HO Talas H
T

U O R
Lake Chimkent IO G Aq
Baku R 1718 R Urgench (SEN Q Ï R su rim Borders of the Qing Empire L.Lop-nor
K Khiva E Ta

S
Sarïqamïsh M Narï n Aqsu
E N Hazarasp Borders of the region occupied by the Qing in

Q
Z
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QÏRGHÏZ Uch
S M Tashkent Namangan 1721
A
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Andijan Uzgend

en
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Borders of the Russian Empire

ch
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er
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17

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Uzb M Ghijduvan G

IN
S Borders of the Yaik
E

N
37

T A Kermine D Marghinan
I M

R
V A Khojend I
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U A NSamarqand Ura-Tübe
Z
M Kashghar har Military campaigns of Nadir Shah in Central Asia
Ü

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174

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R N NH sh
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Oghurcha I.

Q
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Military campaigns of the khans of Khorezm
0

K Qaraköl A ur
T E Yangi Hisar
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S
Garm RA Qazaq military campaigns

Q
Durun M Charjuy A S QA
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T U

Ï
E 17 KENEGES Hisar SHA H S Yarkend Military campaigns of the Junghars

R
Nesa 40 Murgh a b
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B

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LA

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9

1 73

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1726? Qara-siïr

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H

Keriya
17 Termez Qurghan-Tübe

Z
4 4
S

Abiverd
A

1730? Angrakay
H

Quchan Andkhuy Kelif H

K

K S Fayzabad arya
Damghan H O R A S A N Qunduz Wakh an-D
Ya
r k e nd Battle of the expeditionary force of Bekovich-
A
UZ

S D
Semnan Sebzevar Shibergan Balkh A 1718 Cherkasskiy with the troops of Khiva
H A NS

Serakhs Q B
ND

Nishapur Mashhad 1737 H A Khotan

F
S A F A V I D S GS Ï P C O R Plundering of the Qaraqalpaqs by Abu'l-Khayr
QU

Maymana
IN L O 1743 Khan of the Junior Horde
AG

M Q B O
(to 1736) 17 3 6 QA
T
T I B E T Orsk Dates of the founding of Russian cities
In d u s 1735
17

NADIR SHAH M
51
H ar

ur g h a b
(1736-1747) ru DA LAI-LAMAS 100 0 100 200 300 400 KM
i

d Herat Kabul
A B C D E
© Yuri Bregel 2003

59
29. THE FIRST HALF OF THE 18TH CENTURY: NADIR SHAH, BUKHARA, KHOREZM, THE QAZAQS, AND THE JUNGHARS
 60

30. THE SECOND HALF OF THE 18TH CENTURY: BUKHARA, KHOREZM, QOQAND, THE QAZAQS, AND THE JUNGHARS

Major political changes took place in Central Asia in the second half of the 18th century, after Nadir Shah’s death in 1747. In Bukhara Muhammad
Rahim Atalïq Manghït had Abu’l-Fayz Khan killed the same year. After the brief nominal rule of his two Chingisid successors, during which Muhammad
Rahim Atalïq remained the actual ruler of the country, Muhammad Rahim organized his own enthronement as a khan in 1756, thus founding a new
ruling dynasty in Bukhara, usually known under its tribal name Manghït. This was a drastic break with the five-centuries-old Central Asian political
tradition, according to which only the members of the Chingisid clan, the direct agnatic descendants of Chingis Khan, had a legitimate right to become
supreme sovereign rulers with the title of khan. Such a change became possible because of the rise to power of Özbek tribal chieftains, who had been
almost independent rulers of their tribal territories since the end of the 17th century (see map No. 28), with the concomitant decline of the authority
of the Chingisids. Nevertheless, the royal charisma of the Chingisids was still an important legitimizing factor, so that Muhammad Rahim, before
his enthronement, married a daughter of Abu’l-Fayz Khan, to add at least some legitimacy to his usurpation. He had no male offspring, and when
he died in 1758, his infant grandson from a daughter, named Fazil Töre, was enthroned, while Muhammad Rahim’s uncle Daniyal Biy ruled with
the title of atalïq (chief amir). Soon, after a rebellion of Özbek tribes, Fazil Töre was deposed, and Daniyal Biy continued to rule retaining the title
of atalïq. He was succeeded by his elder son, Shah Murad (1785-1799), who abandoned any claims to Chingisid legitimacy altogether and stressed
his role as an Islamic ruler, having assumed the title of amir—not as the usual general title of tribal chieftains, but hinting at the title of the caliphs,
amir al-mu"minin, “The Commander of the Faithful.”
Muhammad Rahim Khan had to fight various unruly Özbek tribes throughout his reign, by the end of which he restored the authority of Bukhara
in all of Mavarannahr, though not in the region of Balkh, which was annexed by the founder of the new Afghan state, Ahmad Shah Durrani; the
Amu-Darya thus became the border between Bukhara and Afghanistan from 1768. Manghït rule stabilized under Daniyal Atalïq, but he still had to
fight some of the same tribes that had been subdued by Muhammad Rahim Khan. Central authority was further strengthened during the reign of Shah
Murad, who also adopted a policy of expansion in the south. For a while he contested the region of Balkh with Timur Shah, the successor of Ahmad
Shah, and most of the time the western parts of this region—Maymana and Aqcha—seemed to have been under his jurisdiction, although the Amu-
Darya was still recognized as an official border between Bukhara and Afghanistan. At the beginning of his reign Shah Murad started military cam-
paigns against Merv which, since the death of Nadir Shah, was an independent principality ruled by Bayram #Ali Khan, a chieftain of the Shi#ite
Qajars. Merv was conquered after the second campaign (probably in 1788 or 1789), most of its Shi#ite population was deported to Bukhara, and a
Bukharan garrison was installed. The area surrounding Merv remained under the control of nomadic Turkmen tribes, but Merv still could serve as
a staging ground for raids against Iran, which Shah Murad repeatedly launched until the end of his reign and which brought some spoils, but no
territorial acquisitions. Shah Murad became famous for his extreme piety, earning him the reputation of a “dervish on the throne” and the nickname
Amir-i Ma#sum, that is, “Sinless Amir.” But he also took important measures for the improvement of the economy: a monetary reform, the restora-
tion of numerous public buildings in Bukhara and Samarqand, the restoration and reconfirmation of numerous pious endowments (vaqf ), etc.
While the Manghïts consolidated their rule in Mavarannahr, the chieftains of another Özbek tribe, the Qongrats, came to power in Khorezm. The
Qongrats in Khorezm competed with the Manghïts throughout the first half of the 18th century, and Nadir Shah supported the Manghït chieftains
there just as in Bukhara. But after the death of Nadir Shah the Qongrats achieved superiority, and their leaders, with the title of inaq, became the
actual rulers of the country, while Chingisids (mostly invited from the Qazaq steppes) continued to be enthroned by the tribal nobility as puppet-
khans. The 1750s and 1760s were a period of great turmoil in Khorezm; there were almost incessant clashes between different ethnic groups—the
Sarts, Özbek tribes, and the Turkmens (especially the Yomuts), whose number in Khorezm grew significantly after Nadir Shah. In 1770 the Yomuts
even captured the capital, Khiva, plunging the country into a state of total anarchy. Muhammad Amin Inaq, the leader of the Qongrats, defeated and
banished the Yomuts later the same year. He became the actual ruler of Khorezm, but both he and his successor, #Avaz Inaq (1790-1804), continued
to enthrone Chingisid khans as figureheads. Only by the early 19th century did Khorezm achieve some political stability.
In Ferghana in the second half of the 18th century the rulers of Qoqand from the Özbek Ming tribe gradually became predominant. According to
Chinese accounts, at the end of the 1750s Ferghana was still divided between four principalities: Andijan, Namangan, Margelan, and Qoqand, of
which the latter was the strongest. After the destruction of the Junghars by China in 1758-59, Irdana Biy, the ruler of Qoqand, sent an embassy to
Beijing expressing submission, which, however, was a pure formality and did not lead to the extension of Chinese rule over Ferghana. Under Irdana
Biy’s successor, Narbuta Biy (1763-1798), all of the Ferghana valley was united under the Mings of Qoqand, whose state enjoyed a relatively long
period of political stability and economic prosperity.
Tashkent in the second half of the 18th century was an aristocratic “republic” with an autonomous administration under its local leaders who belonged
to the social group of the khojas. Since 1784 full authority was in the hands of Yunus Khoja, who extended his rule over the Qazaqs of the Senior
Horde and successfully fought the rulers of Qoqand.
While Mavarannahr, Khorezm and Ferghana were gradually overcoming the century-long political and economic crisis, the Qazaq zhuzes entered
a period of decline and social turmoil. Although the Junghar threat was eliminated after 1758 (see below), the political situation of all three hordes
remained unstable. Russia took advantage of this to expand her influence, which at first met with only partial success. In the Junior Horde, Russian
influence extended only over the northern half of the horde. The ruler of the Middle Horde, sultan (from 1771 to 1781, khan) Ablay took an oath
of allegiance to both Russia and China, but remained practically independent. By the end of the century, however, the authority of the Qazaq
Chingisids was undermined by social unrest (especially in the Junior Horde, where a rebellion, both anti-Chingisid and anti-Russian, under a tribal
leader named Batïr Srïm Datov continued, with some interruptions, during the 1780s and 1790s) and increased Russian pressure. The Qazaq nomads
were cut off from some of their best pasture lands by continuous lines of Russian fortifications, and the khans in both the Junior and Middle hordes
were appointed by the Russian government, while the Senior Horde (or most of it) was subordinate to Yunus Khoja of Tashkent.
In Eastern Turkestan the Junghar state, after a brief period of internal strife, was crushed by China. In 1755 Manchu troops occupied Jungharia,
but the same year a rebellion began there; it was brutally suppressed by 1759, and almost all the Junghars were slaughtered. During their campaigns
against the Junghars, the Manchu troops entered some regions in the Altay as well as the eastern parts of the Qazaq steppes, demanding submission
from the rulers of these regions, but they were unable to remain there. By 1760 the Manchus also occupied Kashgharia and put an end to the rule
of the khojas of Yarkend, pursuing the last khoja rulers, who fled from them, as far as Badakhshan. Eastern Turkestan became a part of the Chinese
Empire.

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Borders of the Khanate of Bukhara before 1785 Borders of area presumably under Borders of Aral and the Khanate of Khiva
Tiumen’ Bukharan control (until 1815)
Borders of Özbek tribal principalities Borders of the Junghar state before 1758
Kazan’ (sometimes independent from Bukhara) Borders of Chahar Vilayat (disputed
Border between the Junghars and their vassals
between Timur Shah and Shah Murad)
I R E Expansion of the Khanate of Bukhara under in Eastern Turkestan
Kam a
M P Shah Murad Borders of Badakhshan (independent or
controlled by the Qataghans of Khulm)
Borders of the Qing Empire after 1758
E Borders of the Qajar principality in Merv
Borders of the Qazaq hordes
N until 1785
1 A a
P r e s n o g o r ' k o v s k ya lini
Lines of Russian fortifications along the border
1

lo
I Kuznetsk with the Qazaqs

Tob
Ufa Borders of the Durrani Empire after 1747
61

S Omsk y Qing military campaigns against the Junghars

S l i n i ya Borders of the Afsharid vassals of the

a
U s i n s kaya
Petropavlovsk Durrani (from 1796 – to the Qajars)
Samara Military campaigns of Shah Murad
U
R Borders of Iran under Zands Main area of the rebellion of Batïr Srïm

ya
Troitsk
Biysk

im
Borders of the Ura-Tübe principalilty Qazaq raids across the Russian border in the

lin i

I sh
(contested between Qoqand and Bukhara) mid-1770s

Irt
Saratov h

ïs
Borders of Qarategin Chuguchak Dates of founding of new cities by the
(1767) Chinese
Borders of the Khanate of Qoqand
Orenburg Pavlodar
Ural’sk Ural

a ya
Russian punitive raids against Batïr Srïm
nbu r g
Borders of Tashkent “city state”
Raids of the rulers of Qunduz against
O r e
ga

s k

Z
liniya
ol

Badakhshan

17
V
U

85
Orsk I r tys h s
k a ya l i n iya
(Ura i k s k a y a

Tsaritsïn 100 0 100 200 300 400 KM

H Ust’-Kamenogorsk
17 8 5
k a ya)

Semipalatinsk
Q Z R
I O A )
H I E Z Z 1756 1755
l ’s

1 7 56
S A U
Q A L M Ï Q S K
Ya

2 N D y H 1 7 56 2
U ga

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( J
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R Z

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R
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lga D D

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Ma n a s
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(Hami)
(Z M Ili (Qulja)
M Sea A Q S Z E H Turfan

M
AN (1763)
T S
GÏS Ü S T- Y U R LP U
HLA A Tala HC R Ili
Q Q ya Suzak s
Z
s p i a n

A r O

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L Ï
T Ya n ï -

E
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Derbend A Sawran (Qarashar) öl

r -D
3 Q U N l Te k
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B a g h ra
s h -k 3
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U A R ss L.
L. I
A L
( S
Turkestan
5/26/2003, 12:53 PM

a
h
q ami s
ar ï KH 58
L. S OR 17 Bay
EZ
M
Chimkent 58 Z Kucha
R

(Kusan)

17
Yunus Khoja
Baku Urgench
E OF 1784-1808 Na r ï n Ï Aqsu
Khiva ATHazarasp ri m

G
N Tashkent Ta r
K

KHA Uchturfan -n o
C a

I VA T A S H K E NT Namangan H L. L
op
KH

en
Nur Andijan

ch
zboy
Darghan
N
M

MANGH Qoqand M I N G S

er
Cheleken I. ÏTS Osh G C
h

1759
U

Ghijduvan Jizak Khojend Margelan

N D)
T

M A Z Kermine R A - T O Q A
U I
Am

Oghurcha I. Bukhara V A e r a fs h ÜB
E (Q Kashghar
E

R an d

R
h ab ke n
u- D

Ura-Tübe K as Cherchen
Qïzïl-Arvat ary Qaraköl A Samarqand urk IN h g ha r r
N Garm S E G Ya
a (KH Q
R

n
A N

a
Shahrisabz T
N

OF NA A
A

Khot
AR
K

Charjuy BU TE

Ï
M KH H Q Yarkend
S A RQarshi R Hisar rgh
Mu a b
At E A) R ng
rg a n re rta Niya
Ba
A

Go 1759
sh

k N
nj

Q
K HSHAN
S

kh

Pa

Bojnurd Abiverd Kerki Qurghan-Tübe Khotan

Qazvin S a
W Kulab Keriya
HI

Astarabad Ag Merv Kelif

4 Amul ha 17 9 9 Termez 4
96 Quchan – Fayzabad
Mu 85 K o k cha
ha 17 Aqcha
Teje

Tehran Damghan mm Nishapur Andkhuy 1765

ad Serakhs
Sh a h Mashhad Shibergan Balkh Khulm Qunduz
n

Semnan 8
A

176
A D
b
l k ha b

Maymana
k ha

B
M

ZANDS E
ur

AFSHARIDS ur
gh

R
Ba

(to 1794) I
H a r ir u d

ab

(to 1796) D U M P In d u s
R R A N I E
Q A J A R S (from 1795) Herat Kabul
A B C D E
© Yuri Bregel 2003

61
30. THE SECOND HALF OF THE 18TH CENTURY: BUKHARA, KHOREZM, QOQAND, THE QAZAQS, AND THE JUNGHARS
 62

31. THE FIRST HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY: BUKHARA, KHOREZM, QOQAND, THE QAZAQS, AND RUSSIAN EXPANSION

By the beginning of the 19th century most of the sedentary areas of Central Asia were divided among three khanates, those of Bukhara, Khiva, and
Qoqand, and each of them had a new dynasty of Özbek tribal origin. The Khanate of Bukhara (to which its neighbors often referred as Mavarannahr
or “Vilayat-i Turan”) occupied the Zerafshan and Qashqa-Darya valleys, the region in the middle course of the Amu-Darya, and the mountainous
regions between the Shirabad-Darya and the Panj. The rulers of the Manghït dynasty in Bukhara, founded in 1756 by Muhammad Rahim Khan (see
map 30), beginning with Shah Murad, adopted amir as their chief title (although the title khan was also used in the full titulature). The son and
successor of Shah Murad, amir Haydar (1800-1826), had to fight the Khanate of Khiva in 1805-1806 (when the Khivan army was routed in Khorezm,
on the bank of the Amu-Darya) and in 1822-23, when various regions of Mavarannahr were subjected to frequent Khivan raids and Bukharan troops
suffered serious defeats. In 1823 Merv and its oasis were lost to Khiva. In 1821-1825 an uprising of two Özbek tribes, the Khitay and Qïpchaq, in
the central part of the Zerafshan valley, was suppressed with great difficulty and weakened the khanate. By the end of amir Haydar’s rule there were
still regions ruled by Özbek tribal chieftains, who recognized the authority of Bukhara only nominally, if at all (such as Shahrisabz, which belonged
to the Keneges tribe). The son and successor of Haydar, amir Nasrallah (1827-1860), brutally suppressed his opponents and was a despotic ruler,
gaining the nickname “the Butcher Amir.” He fought Shahrisabz during most of his rule and only in 1856 was he able to conquer it. His war with
the Khanate of Khiva in the early 1840s ended in a crushing defeat of the Bukharan troops in 1843 at Hazarasp, in Khorezm. Relations with the
Khanate of Qoqand were also often hostile, the main bone of contention being the principality of Ura-Tübe, ruled by the chieftains of the Özbek tribe
Yüz. In 1842 Nasrallah even managed to capture Qoqand, but this victory was short-lived (see below). On the left bank of the Amu-Darya, the regions
of Chahar Vilayat, with its capital in Maymana (ruled by the chieftains of the Özbek Ming tribe), and sometimes also Balkh, were Bukharan depen-
dencies until the late 1840s, but in 1849-50 the Afghan ruler Dost Muhammad Khan conquered all these regions, and the Amu-Darya became again
the Bukharan border with Afghanistan.
In Khorezm, the son of #Avaz Inaq, Eltüzer, had himself proclaimed khan in 1804, founding another Özbek dynasty known under its tribal name,
Qongrat. In 1806 he fell in battle with the Bukharan army and was succeeded by his brother, Muhammad Rahim (who ruled until 1826). Muhammad
Rahim Khan unified the country with the conquest of Aral in 1811, suppressed rebellions of various Özbek tribal chieftains, and began a series of
military campaigns whose purpose was the subjugation of the neighboring nomadic and seminomadic peoples—Qaraqalpaqs, Turkmens, and Qa-
zaqs—and the plundering of the sedentary regions of Khorasan and Mavarannahr. In 1811 he deported the Qaraqalpaqs, who lived on the eastern
shore of the Aral Sea, and settled them in the Amu-Darya delta. As a result of almost annual campaigns to Khorasan, he subdued the largest Turkmen
tribe in that area, the Teke, and deported to Khorezm the tribes of Qaradashlï, Göklen, and Yemreli; the Yomuts, who had been banished from Khorezm
under Eltüzer, now also returned. The Turkmens were given land in Khorezm and some privileges in return for their military service, and until the
Russian conquest they formed a large part of the Khorezmian army. The successors of Muhammad Rahim Khan continued his aggressive policy
toward their neighbors, especially the Turkmen tribes in northern Khorasan and Merv; major raids into Khorasan and northern Afghanistan were
launched in the 1830s and 1840s. Prisoners captured by the Turkmens in their raids in Khorasan and by the Qazaqs in their raids on Russian settle-
ments were sold as slaves in Khiva, which became the main slave market of Central Asia.
In Ferghana, a son of Narbuta Biy, #Alim Biy (1798-1810), proclaimed himself khan, founding an Özbek dynasty known under its tribal name,
Ming. #Alim Khan created a strong army, the core of which was formed by mercenaries, Tajik mountaineers from the regions south of Ferghana, and
began conquests beyond Ferghana. He conquered Khojend in 1805, and Tashkent in 1809. Tashkent later served as the base for the Qoqandian conquests
in the southern parts of the Qazaq steppes. #Alim Khan was killed as a result of a conspiracy and succeeded by his brother, #Umar Khan (1810-1822)
and then the son of the latter, Muhammad #Ali Khan (1823-1842). Under these two rulers the territory of the khanate greatly expanded so that it
stretched from the lower course of the Sïr-Darya in the west to Lake Issïq-köl in the east and included a large portion of the Qazaq Senior Horde
and the mountainous areas south of Issïq-köl inhabited by the Qïrghïz. In all these regions fortresses were built and Qoqandian garrisons stationed,
around which permanent settlements grew with Özbek and Tajik settlers coming from Ferghana. Some khojas of Kashghar who had fled from the
Manchus tried to reconquer Kashghar in 1826 and 1830 using Ferghana as their base, with Qoqandian support, but these attempts failed, and Qoqand
maintained peaceful relations with China. In 1834 the Qoqand Khanate conquered Qarategin, and its authority was nominally recognized by Darvaz,
Kulab, and Badakhshan. But when the khanate seemed to be at the peak of its power, in 1842, civil strife broke out in Ferghana, and this was ex-
ploited by amir Nasrallah of Bukhara, who captured Qoqand and other cities of the khanate and executed Muhammad #Ali Khan. Three months later
the Bukharans were driven out by a popular revolt, but after this the khanate was weakened by a series of rebellions and by fighting between the
sedentary population of the region and various nomadic groups.
In the Qazaq steppe, the Russian government strengthened its control over the Qazaqs. In the Junior Horde, the government abolished the post of
the khan and in 1824 divided the horde into three “parts,” Eastern, Western, and Middle, each under a “sultan-governor” from among the Qazaq
Chingisids, who became officials in Russian service; a small Russian military force was attached to each of them. For the Middle Horde, where no
new khans were appointed after the death of the last khan in 1819, another administrative system was introduced in 1822, according to which “The
Oblast’ of the Siberian Kirgiz” [as the Russians, erroneously, called the Qazaqs], including the Middle Horde and (later) some parts of the Senior
Horde, was divided into “internal districts” (along the right bank of the Irtïsh) and “external districts” (south of the Irtïsh); at the head of each district
stood a “senior sultan” who was elected by all the sultans belonging to this district and was confirmed by the Russian authorities. The new statutes
also introduced a new judicial system and regulated various aspects of the life of the Qazaqs. The establishment of the “external districts” in the
steppe took almost a decade to be completed. The khans existed longer in the Bukey Horde, or “Inner Horde,” formed in 1801, when the Russians
allowed a part of the Qazaqs of the Junior Horde, under Sultan Bukey, to migrate west of the Ural, where pasture land was assigned to them. In 1812
Bukey was given the title of khan, and his son Jangir succeeded him as khan, but after the latter’s death in 1845 the position of khan in the Bukey
Horde was also abolished.
The tightening of Russian control and the new administrative system were opposed by some Qazaq Chingisids, who rebelled against the Russians
and the Qazaq rulers supporting them: Sultan Qaratay (1805-1816) and Sultan Arïn-Ghazi (1815-1821) in the Junior Horde and Sultan Kenesarï (1836-
1847) in the Middle Horde. Especially stubborn resistance was offered by Kenesarï, a descendant of Ablay Khan; for more than a decade he raided
Russian settlements and the encampments of Qazaqs who did not recognize his authority. At the end, Russian punitive expeditions compelled him
to leave for Semirech’e and from there to the areas of the Qïrghïz, who killed him in battle. By the 1850s the Qazaqs were mostly pacified.
The Russian expansion south into the Qazaq steppes clashed with the simultaneous expansion of the khanates of Khiva and Qoqand in the opposite
direction. Khivan attempts at expansion into the territory of the Junior Horde and the support given by Khiva to Qazaq leaders who did not recognize
Russian authority, together with the plundering of Russian trade caravans by Qazaqs under Khivan patronage and accounts of Russian slaves in the
khanate resulted in several years of growing tensions and then culminated in a military expedition against Khiva from Orenburg in the winter of
1839/40. The Russian troops suffered from a severe winter and had to turn back after heavy losses, having advanced only half way to Khiva. But
soon after this Russia began to move its positions closer to the khanates: in 1847 the Raimskoe fortress was built near the Sïr-Darya delta and a
fortress named Kopal was built in Semirech’e. These were the forerunners of the systematic conquest of the Central Asian khanates.

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A B C D E

Lines of Russian fortifications along the border with

the Qazaqs
Military campaigns of the khans of Khiva (with
Kazan‘ Kama Tara dates)
Military campaigns of the amirs of Bukhara
E M P I

l
bo
N R Military campaigns of the khans of Qoqand

To
I A E 1838
Herat campaign of Muhammad Shah Qajar
h
S tïs
1849-50 Campaign of Dost Muhammad Khan in the

Ir
1 S Ufa Kurgan
Omsk
regions on the left bank of the Amu-Darya 1
U 1839-40
63

Abortive campaign of Perovskiy against Khiva

R Petropavlovsk Raids of Kenesarï against the Russians and the
Samara Troitsk m Qoqandians
hi

Is
Chushka-köl Temporary Russian fortification
ga
Vol
Borders of the Khanate of Bukhara by 1850
Saratov

iy a
Kokchetav Borders of Özbek tribal principalities (sometimes

lin
1824 Pavlodar independent from Bukhara)
y

a
va
Orenburg No Kush-Murun Borders of the area presumably under Bukharan
control until 1815
Ural'sk 1824

18
Ilek
Iletskaya Atbasar Borders of the Khanate of Khiva

44
Zashchita Orsk 1848
Limits of the occasional control by Khiva east of
Akmolinsk Semipalatinsk the Aral Sea
184 1824 Ust'-Kamenogorsk
Bayan-Aul

1839-40
Tsaritsïn 2 Borders of the area of Merv under Bukharan
38 1826 control until 1822
18
Orenburgskoe Borders of the region of Merv under Khivan
BUKEY
Ural

ukreplenie control (1805-06, 1822-1843) and under

HORDE independent Sarïqs (1827-28 and after 1843)
(from 1801) 1845 rgay Karkaralinsk
2 K S H I Z H U Z Tu 1824
Kokpektï
1827
Borders of the area of Turkmen tribes tributaries of 2
O R T A Z H U Z Khiva
Irgiz
Ulutavskiy Sergiopol' Borders of the Qajar Iran
S Ural'skoe 1846 L. Zaysan
ukreplenie 1831 Borders of the area of Serakhs captured by cAbbas
Ï Q

Astrakhan'
Gur'ev ( J U N I O R 1845 H O R D E ) ( M I D D L E H O R D E ) Mirza in 1832
Emba
Borders of Afghanistan until 1849
L M

Chushka-köl

uz
1820 Chuguchak
u
rï-s

g
Borders of Chahar Vilayat as Bukharan dependency

Aya
Sa Lake Balkhash L.
Q A

Borders of independent mountain principalities

Ala-köl Bars-köl

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Regions dependent on Afghanistan before 1849
(Barkul)
Fort Raimskoe M Borders of the regions annexed to Afghanistan by
Aleksandrovskiy 1847 al E)
S e a

U CH'

an
Dost Muhammad Khan by 1850

1845
1846 1812 S

as
- E Kopal
IR

18 4 1
I 1847 L. Ebi-nur Borders of the Khanate of Qoqand by 1834
Fort Aral T EM Urumchi
E U, S
M

Novoaleksandrovskiy ) Borders of the regions annexed by Qoqand in 1834

N Y -S Z DE
A

1834-46 Ch TI Ili to 1840 Turfan

G
ÏS
Sea Aq-Masjid u HE U R (Qulja)
HO
18
H ry a 47 (Z H Borders of the Qing Empire
LA ï -D a Il i
Z
s p i a n

Q Y an R Borders of the Qazaq hordes

ÜST-YURT
Derbend
T
Suzak
Ï IO Z es
Borders of the "external districts" established by
EN
Qongrat Sawran Ï Chalïsh
Russia in the Qazaq lands
3 Turkestan L H l Te k 3
S sïq- k ö Z (Qarashahr)
Kokchetav Centers ofL.the
Baghrash-köl
U Lake KHANATE K UAwliya-Ata ( L. Is Kucha "external districts" and the dates of
Sarïqamïsh Köhne-Urgench Nukus H G 1824 their founding
5/26/2003, 12:53 PM

831 Toqmaq Pishkek Ï (Kusan)

OF KHIVA A1 N R D Bay The Ura-Tübe principality (contested between

181
TU

KHOREZM A Talas HN

S ï r - Da r y a
Chimkent T E Qoqand and Bukhara)
Q O Q A
R

Tashhawz Ï

5
RK

Baku M(QONGRATS)Urgench Narï n O F rim Main area of the rebellion of Sultan Qaratay
EN 1831 G Ta
S 1806 ( M I NQ Aqsu (1805-16)
K

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Khiva G Uchturfan Aq no r
C a

Tashkent S
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Main area of the rebellion of Sultan
Uz

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(1815-21)
Andijan Uzgend

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M

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30

1843

ch
Darghan
36

Margelan A N

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18

Main area of the

h rebellion of Sultan Kenesarï
H Osh A

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18

Qoqand (1837-46) C
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1 8 Ghijduvan Katta- Khojend R G E

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23
1848, 1849
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18

Qurghan Jizak 1826, Maralbashi

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M Kermine 184 Area of the Qazaq rebellion against Qoqand in 1821

A-

30
18 1

M
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22,

A shghar
TÜ

Oghurcha I. A B E Ura-Tübe QARATEGIN Ka N Area of the rebellion of the Khitay-Qïpchaqs in

Qïzïl-Arvat VBukharaN Kashghar R Cherchen
U

18
1
N

Samarqand
Qaraköl A R A G H
1813, 1818

1821-25
84

3
2 N N I T S
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A K Charjuy OCCUPIED BY Defeat of Eltüzer Khan of Khiva by the Bukharans

K A Shahrisabz hab Yangi Hisar 1806
K Qarshi S urk
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QOQAND on the Amu-Darya

H M H Yarkend
Am

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AR

A Ashqabad
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1843
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Go r g Atr T N F BUKHARA
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1 8 32 A N CHAHAR D
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1849-50

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1 8 38
ru S T A T E S
i

d Herat A F G H A N I S T A N Kabul
A B C D E
© Yuri Bregel 2003

63
31. THE FIRST HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY: BUKHARA, KHOREZM, QOQAND, THE QAZAQS, AND RUSSIAN EXPANSION
 64

32. THE SECOND HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY: THE RUSSIAN CONQUEST OF WESTERN TURKESTAN

In the 1850s, when Russia was tightening her control over the Qazaqs and establishing her foothold in the lower Sïr-Darya and Semirech’e (see map
31), the khanates of Khiva and Qoqand, which were the closest to the Russian possessions, still did not realize the imminent danger. From 1851 to
1854, Muhammad Amin Khan of Khiva was busy with annual campaigns against the Turkmen tribe of the Sarïqs who inhabited Merv and its oasis,
and after their submission he campaigned against the Teke of Serakhs, where his army was crushed and he himself was killed; this was followed by
rebellions and wars in Khorezm itself, which continued until 1867. The Khanate of Qoqand was also affected by frequent violent conflicts between
nomadic groups and the sedentary population, and the khan’s authority weakened. The amir of Bukhara, where the internal situation was more stable,
not only did not offer any help to his neighbors during the Russian offensives against them, but even tried to avail himself of their difficulties and
to snatch a piece of territory for himself.
The Russian advance into the sedentary regions of Central Asia was planned already in 1854, but was delayed by the Crimean War and was not
undertaken until 1863. A number of reconnaissance raids were made between 1858 and 1863, especially to the south of the Ili. In 1863 a large part
of the mountainous country south of Lake Issïq-köl, inhabited by the Qïrghïz, was annexed by Russia. In 1864 Russia signed an agreement with
China regarding their common border in Central Asia, thus protecting the rear of the Russian troops advancing against Qoqand. Lines of Russian
fortifications were built along the Sïr-Darya and south of the Ili. In May 1864 Russian troops set out from the Sïr-Darya line and the Trans-Ili region
and captured Turkestan and Awliya-Ata, establishing the “New Qoqandian line.” The commander of this line, Major-General Cherniaev, continued
the offensive, but in July 1864 he was repelled from Chimkent, which was defended by the ruler of Qoqand Mulla #Alim-Qul. Soon after this the
Bukharan army invaded the Ferghana valley and #Alim-Qul had to leave Chimkent, which was captured by Cherniaev in September. In January 1865
the Russian government reorganized all the territories captured from Qoqand, and they were united into one Turkestan Oblast’ with Cherniaev as its
military governor. In May 1865 Cherniaev defeated the troops of Qoqand near Tashkent and conquered the city at the end of June, but it was offi-
cially annexed to Russia only in August 1866.
In the summer of 1865 the amir of Bukhara, Muzaffar ad-Din, demanded that the Russians withdraw from Tashkent; in response, all Bukharan
merchants on Russian territory were arrested and their goods sequestered. In early 1866 Cherniaev crossed the Amu-Darya, but failed to capture the
Bukharan town of Jizak, after which he was recalled and replaced by General Romanovskiy. In May 1866, in the locality of Irjar, the Bukharan army
under the command of the amir himself was defeated and fled. The battle was followed by the capture of Khojend (which was a part of the Khanate
of Qoqand); it was officially annexed to Russia together with Tashkent, and the Khanate of Qoqand was thus reduced to the Ferghana valley. The
conditions for peace that the Russians submitted to Bukhara were deliberately made unacceptable, and when they were rejected, Russian troops resumed
the offensive and took Ura-Tübe and Jizak. In July 1867 the Russian government again reorganized the conquered territories, creating the Governor-
ate-General of Turkestan with its center in Tashkent, comprising all lands conquered by Russia in Central Asia since 1847. A year later, an admin-
istrative reform of the steppe regions was carried out (cf. map 44), which, together with the transfer of the Russian customs border from the old
Orenburg-Irtïsh line that had taken place in 1865, marked the final annexation of the Qazaq steppe. Romanovskiy was replaced by the first Governor-
General of Turkestan, General A.P. von Kaufman, who was given almost unlimited authority.
In January 1868 Kaufman imposed a commercial convention on Qoqand, which guaranteed various privileges for the Russian merchants and symbolized
the end of hostilities between the khanate and Russia (no formal peace treaty was concluded). In April 1868, Amir Muzaffar ad-Din, yielding to
militant mullas of Bukhara and Samarqand, proclaimed a holy war against Russia. On May 1 Kaufman defeated the Bukharan troops on the Chopan-
Ata heights near Samarqand, and the next day Samarqand fell. On June 2 the army of Bukhara under the amir was again routed at Zirabulaq heights,
near Katta-Qurghan, after which the amir capitulated, and on June 30 he signed the peace conditions submitted by Kaufman. The khanate recognized
the loss of all the territories captured by the Russians, agreed to pay a war indemnity, and opened the country to Russian merchants. The fall of
Samarqand and the capitulation of the amir provoked a rebellion by the amir’s son #Abd al-Malik, supported by the semi-independent tribal chieftains
(beks) in Shahrisabz. The rebellion was suppressed the same year by Russian troops, who later conducted an expedition to the upper course of the
Zerafshan, which resulted in the Russian annexation of several small mountain principalities in that region.
After the conquest of Bukhara, Russian attention was focused on Khiva. At the end of 1869 Russian troops from the Caucasus landed in Krasno-
vodsk Bay, on the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea, where they founded the port of Krasnovodsk. During 1870-72 several reconnoitring expeditions
crossed the deserts from the west and from the east in the direction of Khiva. In the spring of 1873, Russian troops under Kaufman set out against
Khiva from Tashkent, Orenburg, Mangïshlaq, and Krasnovodsk (the latter detachment was unable to reach Khorezm); they met little resistance, and
on June 10, Khiva was captured, and Muhammad Rahim Khan surrendered to Kaufman. In July, Kaufman launched a brutal punitive raid against the
Khorezmian Turkmens, slaughtering hundreds of them. On August 24, 1873, Kaufman signed a peace treaty with Muhammad Rahim Khan II of
Khiva; the khanate had to pay a huge war indemnity and lost all its territories on the right bank of the Amu-Darya.
In 1875 a rebellion broke out in Ferghana against the oppressive rule of Khudayar Khan, which soon assumed an anti-Russian character. Russian
troops under Skobelev put down the rebellion, and the Khanate of Qoqand was abolished on February 2, 1876 and annexed to the Governorate-
General of Turkestan as Ferganskaya oblast’. From Ferghana Skobelev carried out a raid into the Alay valley in order to pacify the Qïrghïz of that
area.
After the Russians established themselves in Krasnovodsk, they advanced gradually into the Turkmens’ territory. In August 1879 a Russian ex-
peditionary force under General Lomakin was repelled by the Teke Turkmens from the fortress of Gök-Tepe. A new campaign against Teke started
in 1880 under General Skobelev, who in January 1881 stormed Gök-Tepe after a three-week-long siege; about 15,000 Teke were killed, and their
resistance was broken. The oasis of Akhal was annexed to Russia, together with the lands on the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea; at the end of 1881
Russia signed a convention with Iran establishing the frontiers between the two states. The Turkmens of Merv submitted to Russia at the end of
1883, and Merv was occupied in March 1884. The Yolotan and Penjdeh oases, further up the Murghab, were annexed in the same year. The final
stage of the Russian conquest was the annexation of the Pamir highlands in 1895 (according to previous Russian-British agreements), of which the
western parts were transferred in 1896 to the jurisdiction of Bukhara; earlier, in 1868-70, the amir of Bukhara, with Russian support, conquered the
mountain principalities of Hisar and Kulab.
While Russia was conquering Western Turkestan, a Muslim rebellion began in Eastern Turkestan. It started as a rebellion of the Dungans (Chinese
Muslims) in western China proper in 1862, spread to Jungharia and the Qulja region by 1863, and in 1865 the city of Qulja was captured and de-
stroyed by the rebels. After fierce internecine warfare between the Dungans and the Muslim Turks (called Taranchi) of this region, in 1867 power
passed to a Taranchi leader called “Sultan A#la Khan,” who was soon ousted by Ya#qub Bek. The latter, a Qoqandian, was sent, together with a
descendant of the Kashghar khojas, Buzurg Khoja, and a small party of Qoqandians, by the actual ruler of Qoqand, Mulla #Alim-Qul, with the aim
of restoring the rule of the khojas in Kashghar. They captured Kashghar in 1865 and in 1866-67 established their authority throughout the Tarim
basin. In 1867 Ya#qub Bek ousted Buzurg Khoja, in 1870 he defeated the Dungans and captured Urumchi, and thereafter he controlled almost all of
Eastern Turkestan and organized an administration and a regular army; he signed a treaty with Russia in 1872 and England in 1873, and received
some military assistance from the Ottoman Empire. But the Chinese army, under General Zuo Zong-tang, reconquered Eastern Turkestan in 1876-
77; Ya#qub Bek died in 1877, and his son, Bek-Quli Bek, fled to Qoqand in 1878. The events in Eastern Turkestan prompted Russia to occupy Qulja
and the upper Ili basin, which it held as “Qulja district” until 1883. It was returned to China (with the exception of its westernmost part), in accor-
dance with the 1881 treaty of St.Petersburg.

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Turfan
Line of the Russian border fortifications until 1864 1877 Date of the occupation of the city by the Chinese Borders of the khanates of Bukhara and Khiva under Battles of the Russian Army:
Russian protectorate
Lines of new Russian fortifications built in the 1860s Chinese military campaigns against the Muslim state 1864 near Turkestan with Mulla cAlim-Qul of Qoqand
Kazan‘ campaigns of Yacqub Bek Tara Mountain areas (“Eastern Bukhara”) annexed by the
Russian military Kam(with
a dates) 1865 near Tashkent with Mulla cAlim-Qul
International borders as established by the end of Khanate of Bukhara by 1870
Military campaigns of Muhammad Amin Khan of the 19th century; in Central Asia: 1866 at Irdar with the Bukharans

l
Borders of the Ili District occupied by Russia in 1871

bo
Kiva against the Sarïq and Teke Turkmens
1868 at Chopan-Ata heights with the Bukharans

To
-between Russia and China (1864, 1881)
Military campaigns of Mulla cAlim-Qul of Qoqand Borders of the area ceded to Russia by China in 1882
-between Russia and Iran (1881) h 1868 at Zirabulaq with the Bukharans
1865
against the Russians
-betweenKurgan
Russia and Afghanistan (1887, 1895) tïs c
Borders of the Muslim state of Ya qub Bek (1865-1878)
1875 at Mahram with the Qoqandians

Ir
1 Military campaign of Amir Muzaffar againstUfa
Qoqand 1
65

1868-70 Military campaigns of Amir Muzaffar for the 1879, 1881 Two sieges of Gök-tepe by the Russians (1881-capture)
annexation of the mountain principalities (”Eastern Omsk Battle at Serakhs (Qanlï-tepe) between the army of
Bukhara”) Petropavlovsk 100 0 100 200 300 400 KM 1855
Samara Troitsk m Khiva and the Turkmens
1865 hi
Raid of Buzruq Khoja and Yacqub Bek and their

Is
Area of the Qazaq rebellion on the Mangïshlaq in 1870
ga capture of Kashghar
Vol Area of the Qazaq and Qïrghïz rebellion against
Saratov Rebellions in the cities of Eastern Turkestan against Kustanay
1864 the Chinese rule 1879 Qoqand in 1857-58
Kokchetav
Chushka-köl Temporary Russian fortifications Area of the rebellion of Vose against Bukhara in 1885-87
Pavlodar
Kush-Murun
Ural'sk Ilek Orenburg
Atbasar
Iletskaya Orsk
Zashchita
Akmolinsk Semipalatinsk
Tsaritsïn Bayan-Aul
Ust'-Kamenogorsk
Aktiubinsk
1869
Ural

Turgay
Karkaralinsk Kokpektï
2 Embenskiy rga
y 2
post Tu
R U S S I A Irgiz N E M P I R E L. Z
Irgiz Ulutavskiy aysa n
Ayaguz
Zaysan
Astrakhan'
Gur'ev Q A Z A Q S
Emba
Chuguchak

uz
Chushka-köl u
rï-s

E
Aya
Sa Lake Balkhash
Aral'skoe more
L. Bars-köl

Qa r a t
Raimskoe Ala-köl (Barkul)
Fort 18 M

R
Aleksandrovskiy Kazalinsk 53 al U

an
1 8 73

)
S e a

1863 S
- ' E

as
I Kopal 1876
T H
C L. Ebi-nur Urumchi S
Aral E E N
M

I
Aq-Masjid H R 1864
N (Perovsk) Z I
S G A Hami
A

1866 Ili
G Sea 18
Ch
u E
M
(Qulja)
D U N Turfan
ÏS 6 Q ( S 1877
H ry a 1 8 71
Q

P
LA ï -D a Il i

4
Julek A ILI DISTRICT
Q ÜST-YURT Y an Z A
s p i a n

1861 Suzak (1871-1882)

Derbend Qarashahr L. Baghrash-köl
1873
Yanï-Qurghan 64 es 1877
18 Vernoe Te k

M
3 Turkestan 1854 3
Qongrat Awliya-Ata Pishpek Z
5/26/2003, 12:53 PM

Köhne-Urgench 1864 4 Bay

Nukus Toqmaq
K 186 Merke
63 Ï

E
H Talas L . I s sïq - k ö l Kucha

18
S ï r - Da r y a
Lake O Chimkent
1864 R
Narï n H

65
Baku Tashhawz R rim
Sarïqamïsh
KHANATE E Urgench 1873 Narïnskoe Aqsu Ta A

18
Z Hazarasp H
OF KHIVA Khiva Kurtka G Uchturfan Aq or
y

op-n
C a

Krasnovodsk G
bo

1873 M Tashkent Namangan su

S L. L
Uz

1869 Uzgend

en
(QONGRATS) Nur-Ata Chinaz 1865 Andijan
R

ch
Darghan-Ata Qoqand N A I

er
Cheleken I. A Osh Maralbashi N Ch
T
K H

Khojend H
18 7 3 Ghijduvan Katta- Jizak Margelan Ï

76
n 8 6 5 G
T U Qïzïl- a
Z e f sh Kermine Qurghan 1 8 6 1866
1875 1 8
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R v1
8 1 8 65 E I
Arvat R ra Skobele ash
ghar
18

1865
Oghurcha I. 18 Ura-Tübe Y
, 5 3 , 54

Bukhara 1868 Kashghar K Cherchen

A

7
7

81 K N Samarqand

Q
Qaraköl 8 b 1877
79 A 18 7 0 kha Q
6

Garm Sur
18

Chat 18 M Charjuy T E Shahrisabz

Yangi Hisar

Io n
Gök-Tepe Qarshi O F B U K H A R A
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1851, 5

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o
1879, 1881 18
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u

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Ashqabad N Hisar
an 18 G H nj Mur g hab S Niya
Go r g Atr
a

83 Ï T S) R Tashqurghan
Pa

ek
Astarabad Bojnurd 188 4 N Kerki Kulab Khotan

I
Qazvin Keriya
Amul Quchan Merv Kelif Qurghan-Tübe
M
4 1878 4
Te z

K H O R Andkhuy ch a
S Aqcha K ok
A
A
he

Damghan S Fayzabad -D ar y a Ya r k e nd
A Wakhan
n

Tehran N 1855
Sebzevar Serakhs Shibergan Mazar-i Sharif Qunduz
Nishapur Mashhad Khotan
Balkhab

1885 Tash-Köpri
I R A N In
du
Penjdeh Maymana s
(QAJARS) Jam
Kushka Mu
rghab
A F G H A N I S T A N B R I T I S H I N D I A
Ha

rir
ud Herat ( S A D O Z A I S ) Kabul
A B C D E

65
© Yuri Bregel 2003

32. THE SECOND HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY: THE RUSSIAN CONQUEST OF WESTERN TURKESTAN
 66

33. KHOREZM IN THE 18TH-19TH CENTURIES

Khorezm is one of the main agricultural regions of Central Asia (cf. map 1). It occupies the lower basin of the Amu-Darya, including its delta, and
it is relatively isolated from the rest of Central Asia by two great deserts, the Qïzïl-qum from the east and the north, and the Qara-qum from the south
and the west; northwest of Khorezm is the Üst-Yurt steppe plateau, as dry as a desert. Agriculture based on artificial irrigation developed in Khorezm
at least by the early 1st millenium B.C. Irrigation in Khorezm has been based on a single natural source: the Amu-Darya river. This river changed
its course many times, because of both natural causes and human activity. Especially frequent were the changes in the course of the river branches
that formed the lower delta of the Amu-Darya, downstream from the city of Khoja-eli. The Mongol invasion in the 13th century caused the destruc-
tion of sedentary life on the right bank of the Amu-Darya; it was only partially revived in the 19th century, and for more than five centuries sedentary
civilization existed in Khorezm almost entirely on the left bank of the Amu-Darya. The military campaigns of Timur in the late 14th century also
caused the destruction of irrigation systems and sedentary life in Khorezm. At the time when Khorezm was conquered by the Özbeks under the
#Arabshahids (early 16th century; see map 25) the great majority of its sedentary population was concentrated in the southern part of the country,
with its cities of Khiva, Hazarasp, and Khanqah, and the conquerors began to sedentarize only slowly. The arrival in Khorezm of new nomadic groups
by the middle of the 17th century (see map 28) required a redistribution of land among the Özbek tribes, which was carried out by Abu’l-Ghazi
Khan. It seems that important new canals were built under this khan and his son, Anusha. The political situation in Khorezm during much of the 18th
century was not favorable for the expansion of the irrigation system. Such an expansion took place only under the rulers of the Qongrat dynasty, and
it was connected with the resettlement of a number of nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes within this region: the deportation of part of the Aral Özbeks
to the south of the khanate; the deportation of the Qaraqalpaqs to the Aral delta; and the migration of several Turkmen tribes to Khorezm. Thus,
much of the irrigation system that existed in the middle and northern parts of Khorezm under the Qongrats was of a relatively recent origin.
Two cultural regions could be distinguished in Khorezm from at least the early 18th century: Besh Qala (lit. “Five cities”), the south of the coun-
try, and Aral, the Amu-Darya delta. The five cities included Khiva, Hazarasp, Urgench, Khanqah, and Shahabad. The predominant ethnic group in
the south (both in the cities and the countryside) was the Sarts, the Turkicized descendants of the ancient Khorezmians, while Aral was divided
between the mostly nomadic Özbeks and the Qaraqalpaqs. Özbeks also settled in the southern part of the country, especially near Khiva and Haz-
arasp, along the left bank of the Amu-Darya from Qïpchaq to Gurlen, and, in the 1840s, south of Köhne-Urgench across the Daryalïq. In the mid-
19th century the Turkmens, who formed about one quarter of the total population, were settled mostly in the western regions of the oasis of Khorezm,
from Aq-Saray in the south to Köhne-Urgench and Qïzïlcha-qala in the north. Other, smaller, ethnic groups included the Jamshidis (in 1842-1855),
and the Tajiks deported from the Khanate of Bukhara during the Khorezmian raids. Qazaqs, mostly from the Junior Horde, nomadized on their winter
pastures in the Qïzïl-qum and on the Üst-Yurt plateau along the edges of Khorezm.
Two important natural factors shaped the history of Khorezm: the Amu-Darya and the deserts. Communication between the northern and southern
parts of the country was possible both by roads and by river; however, the land to the north-west of Khoja-eli was often flooded in the spring, while
the Amu-Darya in Khorezm would freeze in the winter for one and a half to two months. Therefore Aral could be cut off from the south of Khorezm
for up to three months a year. Communication with other parts of the world was along the caravan routes through the deserts (there was no naviga-
tion on the Aral Sea before the Russian conquest). The deserts formed a somewhat protective shield from possible invasions from the directions of
the Dasht-i Qïpchaq, Mavarannahr, and Khorasan, but such protection was never absolute, and Khorezm experienced invasions from each of these
directions many times in its history. Still, the country was relatively isolated from the rest of Central Asia, and this isolation contributed to various
features of its culture that made it quite distinct from its larger neighbor, Mavarannahr.
The political and cultural importance of Khorezm was disproportionate to the size of its territory and population. From the post-Mongol era down
to the 20th century it played a major role in the development of the Turkic literary language and literature in Central Asia. Relations with the Khanate
of Khiva, which lay on vital trade routes between Russia and Central Asia, were of great concern for the Russian government, and the expansion of
this khanate into the Qazaq steppes, as well as the failure of two Russian military expeditions against the khanate in the 18th and 19th centuries,
created a perception in Russia of the Khanate of Khiva as a perfidious and dangerous enemy. Frequent raiding directed against Khorasan and Ma-
varannahr was a constant feature of the political life of Khorezm from the 16th century to the Russian conquest, and it prompted the Russian his-
torian V. Bartol’d to label Khorezm under the Özbeks as “a brigand state.” On the other hand, under the Qongrat dynasty the Khanate of Khiva
experienced a cultural revival that compared this khanate favorably with the Khanate of Bukhara.
The Khanate of Khiva under the Qongrats became more centralized than the two other khanates of Central Asia, Bukhara and Qoqand. The coun-
try was divided into about a dozen provinces known by the names of the towns that served as the seats of the governors, but the authority of these
governors (hakims) was limited mainly to preserving law and order, while the most important function, the collection of taxes, was in the hands of
the central government, which would send special tax collectors to the provinces twice a year. The importance of irrigation and its maintenance in
the life of Khorezm is highlighted by the fact that in all of Central Asia only in the khanate of Khiva was the irrigation system centralized, and the
four officials in charge of irrigation (mirabs) were among the highest dignitaries of the khanate.

bregel3.pmd 66 5/26/2003, 12:53 PM

 67

A B C

Flood plains, flooded reed growths and swamps

Meadows and thickets (tugays)
A r a l S e a Maximal overflow of Lake Aybugur
Sands
Canals and the Amu-Darya branches
Dry beds of the Amu-Darya 1
1
Seats of provincial governors
Shrines
At-Yo

to Ru

Main caravan routes

l ï r oa

ssia

Main crossings on the Amu-Darya

d

l ïq

h i p az
Tal
0 10 20 30 40 KM

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Qa
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r ya
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SH Q A N A - TAU B EL- TAU

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2
2

k- Ü
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ab

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Qara-köl
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ar
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Q
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rg a n (Yilanlï) l ïc S M t s .
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h Vezir
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ha 4
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he

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kc

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to

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Q a z ia
ba d Urgench
A Qosh-Küprük
R
A Qahraman Ala-Buluk
-
Q Qïyat
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yab

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kh a r a
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-Ucha
q ro a d
Hazarasp
Am u - D a r
ya 5
to Tezhen

Pitnak
to Buk
hara

A B C

© Yuri B re ge l 2 0 0 3

33. KHOREZM IN THE 18TH-19TH CENTURIES

bregel3.pmd 67 5/26/2003, 12:53 PM

 68

34. THE TRADE ROUTES OF CENTRAL ASIA IN THE 17TH-18TH CENTURIES

Until the last decade of the 19th century all trade between Central Asia and the other parts of the world was by means of camel caravans. Numerous
caravan routes connected Central Asia with other regions of the Eurasian continent. The direction of many of these routes remained mostly the same
over the centuries, but their relative importance would change with the changes in the political map of Asia. The so called Great Silk Route which
connected China, through Central Asia, with Iran and the Near East, did not exist as such in the post-Mongol period, and, beginning with the 17th
century, other trade routes acquired special prominence in the Central Asian economy. The most important of them were the routes connecting Central
Asia with the Tsardom of Muscovy (from the early 18th century, the Russian Empire). With the Russian conquest of the Golden Horde’s successor
states in the Volga basin in the mid-16th century and of the Sibir Khanate at the end of the same century, Russia became an immediate neighbor of
the Dasht-i Qïpchaq, and her trade with the Noghay and Qazaq steppe, as well as with the Central Asian khanates, quickly developed. Initially, the
trade route from Russia to Central Asia went down the Volga to Astrakhan’, from which it continued either along the northern shore of the Caspian
Sea and then to Khorezm (1½-2 months’ travel) and Mavarannahr, or by sea (8 to 27 days) to one of the two landings, Qabaqlï on the Buzachi
peninsula and Qaraghan on the Mangïshlaq, and from there to Khorezm (3-5 weeks) and farther on. In the 17th century, with the Russian Cossack
expansion on the Yayïq, a route from Samara (in the middle course of the Volga) to Gur’ev gained more importance. And after the founding of
Orenburg in 1743 this city became the main center through which almost all commercial and diplomatic communications between European Russia
and Central Asia took place. From Orenburg the caravan route went across the steppe to the Aral Sea and then divided into three main branches: to
Tashkent along the Sïr-Darya, and to Bukhara and Khorezm across the Qïzïl-qum. With the Russian colonization of Western Siberia, the old caravan
routes connecting the cities in the middle course of the Sïr-Darya with the Tobol, Ishim, and lower Irtïsh basins (which were previously used mainly
by Central Asian fur traders) acquired new importance for trade between Central Asia and the Russian settlements in Siberia. The travel from Tobol’sk
to Turkestan took 2½-3 months. From the early 18th century another route developed connecting Omsk with the upper Irtïsh and Jungharia. All these
routes were used both by Russian and Central Asian merchants. Among the latter, the most prominent role belonged to the Bukharans, but from the
late 18th century merchants of Tashkent were successfully competing with them. On the Russian side, merchants traveling to Central Asia were often
Volga Tatars (many of whom, however, were the agents of major Russian trading companies).
As distinct from the caravan routes between Central Asia and Russia, the routes connecting Central Asia with China lost their importance in the
post-Timurid period, especially with the rise of the Junghar state in Jungharia and Eastern Turkestan: its wars with Ming China and the eastern Mongols,
on the one hand, and with the Qazaqs, on the other, severely affected trade between Central Asia and China. The most important route to China, as
before, went from Balkh through Ishkashim and Tashqurghan to Yarkend and then along the southern rim of the Tien-Shan to Turfan and Hami (this
was the northern branch of the old Silk Route). Two other routes, one through the Ferghana valley to Kashghar (via Irkeshtam) and another from
Termez through Qarategin to Kashghar, were more difficult. The routes to China were somewhat revived in the early 19th century with the emer-
gence of the Khanate of Qoqand, and it was Qoqandian merchants who dominated trade on these routes.
From Central Asia to India the main route went from Balkh through Bamiyan and Kabul to Lahore (2 months’ travel). It was not passable for
several months a year because of snow in the mountains; otherwise the route was used intensively. Indian merchants seem to have dominated the
Central Asian trade with India, and they established their colonies in all important Central Asian cities.
The main route to Iran from Central Asia always went from Bukhara through Charjuy and Merv to Mashhad. Another route going through Merv
was from Balkh via Andkhuy. Trade between the Central Asian khanates and Iran continued in the 16th-19th centuries despite the religious rift between
the Sunni khanates and Shi#ite Iran, and, because of the key position of Merv on this route, Bukhara, Khiva, and Iran would often fight for command
of this oasis. The route to Iran was also important for Central Asian pilgrims traveling to Mekka, despite the harassment they frequently encountered
in Iran. There was also a western route through the Qara-qum desert, from Astarabad to Urgench and Khiva; although it was more difficult, it was
still used for travel from Khorezm to Khorasan.

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bregel3.pmd

A B C D E
Tobol'sk'

Tiumen'
Kazan' Tara

ol
im

Ish
To
1 Ufa Omsk 1
69

(from 1716)
I

rtï
Samara

sh
Troitsk
(from 1743)
Volga
Saratov
W E S T E R N S I B E R I A

Yaitskiy gorodok
(from 1595/96) Orenburg
(from 1743) Yamïshevo
q)
Ural (Yayï
Tsaritsïn
Semipalatinsk
(from 1718)

Irgiz
y
2 rga L. Zay s a n 2
D Tu
A S H T - I Q Ï P C H
Saraychiq (to 1580) A Q z
su gu
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a
Sa

Ay
Gur'ev
Astrakhan'
Emba Chuguchak

Lake Balkhash L.
Ala-köl I A
A R Bars-köl
H (Barkul)
Qabaqlï GM
N
U

an
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a

r-

as
Da S L. Ebi- nur
Qaraghan
M Aral rya I - C H
S e

T E Qomul
E
N T Y I R Turfan Qocho (Harni)
A

G Sea U Ch M
ÏS u E Qulja
R
HL
AQ K Tala ( S
Sïghnaq s I li es
E Tek
a s p i a n

Suzak
Derbend S
AR L. Baghrash-köl
AL Sawran T Qarashahr
3 R T Vezir
Q A köl 3
ÜST-YU Ï Turkestan N ssïq-
5/26/2003, 12:53 PM

Ashpara
Z L. I
(to 1660's-1670's)K Ï
H Urgench (to1646) L Otrar Yangi Bay
O - Kucha
R Chimkent Sayram
Lake E Kat (to 1660's-1670's) Q
Baku Sarïqamïsh Z Urgench (from1646) U
M Narï n Aqsu Tarim r
M Uchturfan no
Khiva Kasan
Aq
A op -
Hazarasp Tashkent su I L. L
Nur Andijan Uzgend R
oy Shahrukhiya A
Uzb
C

Darghan Osh H
Cheleken I. Ghijduvan Marghinan A G
Q M Kermine Jizak G H A N

n
A E R e
Oghurcha I. R A
Khojend
F
H
N e rch
Samarqand Ura-Tübe S Ch
A Bukhara V A Kashghar K A
- M A
Qïzïl-Arvat A Cherchen
an
R A N Ze rafsh H R ghar
- Qaraköl
Ka
s h Yangi Hisar K T A Q L A
Q N A

Khota n
Durun Charjuy
U
Am

Shahrisabz
M Qarshi Yarkend
u-

Murg hab
Atr Nesa ar Hisar
nj ang
D

an ek ya a rt
Gorg B
Pa

IR
h

Qazvin hs
KHSHAN

Merv Kerki M Tashqurghan

Wak

Astarabad Isferayin Abiverd Kulab PA Khotan

4 Amul K Kelif Termez 4
H Badakhshan (Fayzabad)
Tez

Bistam Andkhuy
Tehran O Balkh Qunduz
Wa k ha n-Da
rya
h

Damghan d
R Mashhad Yarken
en

Serakhs
A
A

Sebzevar Shibergan Taleqan Ishkashim

Semnan S Khulm
BA D

Nishapur
A
Balkha

Baghlan
N
h ab

Qum
Maymana k T I B E T
Ha

Mu

Sur

Jam
Kashan gh In d u s
r ir u d

ab
Herat Bamiyan Kabul

A B C D E

69
© Yu r i B r e g e l 2 0 0 3

34. THE TRADE ROUTES OF CENTRAL ASIA IN THE 17TH-18TH CENTURIES

 70

35. THE ÖZBEK TRIBES IN THE 19TH CENTURY

The name Özbek as an ethnic marker appeared sometime in the 14th century (see map 20). There is disagreement among scholars as to the origin
of this name, but the old traditional view still seems to be preferable; according to it, this name goes back to the name of Özbek Khan, the ruler of
the Golden Horde in 1313-1341, who was credited with the conversion of his nomadic subjects to Islam. During the conquest of the sedentary re-
gions of Western Turkestan by Shïbani Khan and then the conquest of Khorezm by the #Arabshahid sultans in the early 16th century (see map 25),
a substantial number of the tribal groups of the Özbek Ulus migrated to these regions, and it was these tribes that later were known as Özbeks, as
distinct from the nomads who remained in the Dasht-i Qïpchaq and were called Qazaqs. According to a theory widely accepted by Soviet scholars
in the 1940s and still current among modern scholars in Uzbekistan, the Turkic speaking tribes of the Dasht-i Qïpchaq who came to Mavarannahr
were gradually absorbed by the local Turkic-speaking population, while the latter adopted the name Özbek “as the last component” of their ethnic
identity. In fact, however, the old Turkic-speaking (and even much less so the Tajik-speaking) population of the sedentary regions, as a rule, did not
absorb the nomadic newcomers so easily. Until the revolution of 1917 in Russia, the name Özbek was applied in Central Asia only to the tribal
population. The Turkic-speaking sedentary population, which had been formed for many centuries through the process of the Turkicization of the
indigenous Iranians (Tajiks), was called by others and by themselves Sart in Khorezm, Tashkent, and Ferghana (where this population formed a
majority by the 16th century) and Chaghatay (or Chighatoy) in Mavarannahr. It was only after the “national delimitation of Central Asia” (see map
46), which was followed by an aggressive policy of “Özbekization” of the population of Uzbekistan, that all the Turkic-speaking (and very often also
Tajik-speaking) population of this republic became officially “Özbeks.”
After the conquest of the sedentary regions of Central Asia by Shïbani Khan, the Özbek tribes gradually occupied many parts of the irrigated
regions until then inhabited by the Tajiks, Sarts, and Chaghatays; in Mavarannahr they often replaced these earlier inhabitants and pushed them back
eastward, to the mountainous areas; in the mountainous regions themselves, the Özbeks would usually occupy the lower parts of the river valleys.
Central Asian sources give two different lists of Özbek tribes, one containing 32 names and another 92 names. The origin of these lists, which
were wide-spread in Central Asia, is not known, and quite a few of these names (especially in the long list) are found not among the Özbeks, but
among other Turkic, and even non-Turkic, peoples. But the actual number of Özbek tribes was indeed somewhere around 30.
The tribal Özbeks were mostly semi-nomadic until the 18th century, when many of them sedentarized. They usually lived in more or less compact
groups on their tribal territories, but clans that belonged to the same tribe could be found in more than one region. Until the mid-19th century tribes
were ruled by their traditional chieftains with the title of biy (which goes back to the title bäg from the time of Türk Qaghanate). Major tribes had
their tribal fortresses, which were the residences of the biys. The power of the biys was curtailed in the 19th century by the new Özbek dynasties of
tribal origin (see maps 30-31), and many tribal fortresses were destroyed.
The map shows the location of the most important and relatively compact groups; other, smaller, groups of tribal Özbeks were dispersed in the
regions occupied by the major tribes, or were interspersed with non-Özbek (Tajik, Sart, “Chaghatay”) populations. The tribal identities of the Özbek
tribes that were found within the territory of the former Soviet Union were ignored in official Soviet statistics, but they were sometimes well de-
scribed by ethnographers, whose data, to some extent, are good also for the 19th century. The Özbek tribes in Afghan Turkestan were much less
studied.
At the end of the 19th century and in the early 20th (for which we have more or less detailed data) there were several main regions where the
Özbek tribal population was concentrated. In Mavarannahr, the principal Özbek groups were the Manghït and Saray in the region of Qarshi, the
Keneges in the region of Shahrisabz, the Qïpchaq west of Samarqand and the Khitay next to them (often referred to as one tribal group, Khitay-
Qïpchaq), the Ming in the region of Ura-Tübe, the Yüz also in the region of Ura-Tübe and near Khojend, the Burqut in Nur-Ata, the Qongrat in the
Shirabad and Surkhan-Darya valleys, and the Durmen in the Kafirnihan valley. In Khorezm the chief Özbek groups were especially the Qongrat in
the Amu-Darya delta, the Manghït in the central part of Khorezm, and the Qanglï in the south. In Ferghana a distinct large group were the Qïpchaqs,
who migrated to this region in the 18th century from the Qazaq steppes and were usually regarded separate from the Özbeks. In Afghan Turkestan
the most numerous Özbek tribes were the Ming (especially around Maymana), the Qongrat south of Termez, and the Qataghan in the province of
Qunduz. This list is by far not exhaustive, as can be seen from the map, which also does not show a number of smaller groups.
There were also other tribal Turkic-speaking groups that in the 19th-20th centuries were often counted among the Özbeks, but clearly came to the
sedentary regions of Western Turkestan much earlier, some with the Qarakhanids, or even earlier, such as the Qarluq, Khalach, and the “Türk” (probably
the earliest such group), and others with the Mongols, such as the Barlas and the Jalair.

bregel3.pmd 70 5/26/2003, 12:53 PM

bregel3.pmd

A B C D

Aral Sea
Suzak

1 Qongrat Chu 1
71

Turkestan

Awliya-Ata

Khoja-eli
Kunia-Urgench Tala s

Manghït
Chimkent

Tashhawz ïn
Sheykh cAbbas Veli N ar
Urgench
Khiva

S ï r-Darya
Hazarasp

Tashkent
ik

h
irc
Chust

Ch
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Chinaz Namangan a
Uzgend
2 era n 2
A h an g Andizhan
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Kermine
Ghijduvan Khatïrchi Khojend
Jizak Zamin
Ramitan

Am
Ura-Tübe

Sokh
u-
Bukhara Katta-Qurghan

Da
Samarqand

rya
Qaraköl

Zerafsh
an
Farab Shahrisabz
Charjuy Garm

n
ha
b
kha

ni
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Murghatribes:
Location of "Dasht-i Qïpchaq" b
ad

b
3 3

Shira
Nokuz rtang Ming
Denau Ba
5/26/2003, 12:53 PM

Manghït u r Yüz
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QongratG un

an
Qurghan- Kulab Qïrq
Merv Kerki Shirabad rkh Tübe

Su
Qïyat r Saray

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mi

Wakhs
Panj Qïpchaq Pa Burqut
Kelif
Termez Qïpchaqs of Ferghana Keneges
a
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hen

Serakhs
Mu

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ays a

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Safed
rghab

Mashhad Mazar-i Sharif

Nayman Kesamir
-i Q

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Ab

Durmen

lkhab
Baghlan
Sar-i Pul
Maymana Ba
Location of other Turkic tribal groups:
4 hab Barlas Kaltatay 4
u rk
Bala-Murghab

S
Qarluq Taghchi

Jalair Qurama

us
Khalach Türk

nd
I

ar
100 0 100 200 KM

un
K
Herat Kabul

A B C D

71
© Yu ri Breg el 2 0 0 3

35. THE ÖZBEK TRIBES IN THE 19TH CENTURY

 72

36A. THE TURKMEN TRIBES AND THEIR MIGRATIONS (16TH-19TH CENTURIES)

The Turkmens are mentioned in Islamic historical sources as early as the 10th century, when this term did not yet have a clear ethnic meaning, but
was rather used to designate Turks in some steppe areas bordering the Islamic world who had converted to Islam, irrespective of their tribal affil-
iations. With the Islamization of a part of the Oghuz and the beginning of the Seljuk movement at the end of the 10th and early 11th centuries, this
name (whose etymology is not clear) became associated with the Islamized Oghuz, mostly the supporters of the Seljuk dynasty. Due to the role of
the Turkmens in the rise of the Seljuk empire (see maps 13-15), information on them is found in many historical sources, beginning with the 11th
century. During this period the Turkmens migrated westward as far as the Fertile Crescent and North Africa; but our maps deal only with the Turk-
mens who remained in Central Asia. Turkmen tribal genealogies traced their origin to the mythical Oghuz Khan, the progenitor of all the Oghuz.
According to these genealogies, reflected in historical sources of the 11th and 13th centuries, there were 24 Oghuz tribes; many of their names are
still the names of the modern-day Turkmen tribes or clans. Although general Turkmen migrations in the pre-Mongol period are sometimes well described
in historical sources, the movements and location of individual tribes in Central Asia at that time remain unknown; only some of it can be tentatively
reconstructed on the basis of Turkmen genealogical legends. More data are available from the early 16th century, primarily due to the two works
written by the #Arabshahid Abu’l-Ghazi Khan, one on the history and genealogy of the Turkmens and another on the history of the #Arabshahids.
In the process of the Seljuk conquests most of the Turkmens went west, to Azerbayjan, Iran, Iraq, and Anatolia (where their descendants eventu-
ally founded the Ottoman empire); in Azerbayjan and Northern Iraq they formed two powerful tribal unions, the Qara-Qoyunlu and Aq-Qoyunlu, and
many of them were included in the Qïzïlbash tribal union that founded the Safavid state in Iran. But from the beginning of the Seljuk conquests a
part of the Turkmens did not move west with their fellow tribesmen, but remained in the steppes and deserts between the Aral Sea and Khorasan.
Here, groups belonging to almost all Oghuz tribes could be found; some Turkmen groups that had moved westward later on, probably in the 13th-
14th centuries, returned east and joined those who had remained in Central Asia.
During the Mongol conquest battles and skirmishes between the Mongols and the Turkmens in Khorezm and Northern Khorasan are mentioned,
but historians of the Mongol and Timurid periods are silent about these Turkmens. Only a few events of Turkmen history during these periods can
be tentatively reconstructed on the basis of the Turkmen historical tradition and some circumstantial evidence. Apparently, during the Mongol con-
quest of Central Asia the Turkmens were driven away from the vicinity of the oases of Khorezm and Northern Khorasan, and during the next three
centuries they nomadized mainly along the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea. The Mongols were obviously little interested in this area, which was
unfit for the Mongol type of horse-breeding economy, and for almost three centuries the Turkmens were left to their own devices, practicing rela-
tively short-range nomadism based on camels (dromedaries) and sheep, and divided into independent tribes. As distinct from the nomads of the Dasht-
i Qïpchaq, they were not incorporated into the Mongol tribal and imperial structure, and, as a result, they remained outside the Mongol imperial
tradition: they did not have any Chingisid rulers, they did not have a “noble estate” comparable to the Qazaq “white bone” (cf. map 38), and they
were not directly subjected to the Chingisid khans.
In the post-Mongol period, the Turkmen tribes inhabited vast arid regions of the Mangïshlaq peninsula, the Üst-Yurt plateau, and the western Qara-
qum—areas to which they were mostly pushed from regions farther east by the Mongol invasion. From the middle of the 16th century some of these
tribes began a gradual migration eastward, in the direction of the agricultural oases of Khorezm and northern Khorasan; it is assumed that the main
causes of this movement were the growing desiccation of this part of Central Asia combined with increased population pressure, as well as the pressure
of stronger nomadic groups from the north (first Qalmïqs, later Qazaqs). Some of these movements were caused by the growing involvement of the
Turkmens in the affairs of neighboring states, Khorezm and Iran.
By the 16th century some of the original 24 tribes were no longer mentioned in Central Asia, while some new tribes emerged. One important tribe,
the Qaradashlï, believed to be a remnant of the large pre-Mongol Yazïr group (see map 16), was pushed into the foothills of the Kopet-Dagh moun-
tains, where it sedentarized and remained until the 19th century. But the strongest Turkmen tribal group before the 16th century was centered in the
Mangïshlaq peninsula, apparently under the leadership of the Salor tribe. This group of tribes included, besides the Salor, also the Ersarï, Teke, Sarïq,
and Yomut (none of these four is listed among the 24 Oghuz tribes, but the origin of the first three is traced back to the Salors). In the 16th century
the Salors were found from Mangïshlaq in the north to the Khorasanian mountains in the south, and they were divided into two main groups, Ichki
(i.e. “the Inner”) and Tashqi (“the Outer”); the Teke, Sarïq, and Yomut belonged to the “Outer Salors,” as did, most probably, the Ersarï. North of
the Salors in the Mangïshlaq peninsula was the group known as Esen-eli, which included the old Oghuz tribes Chowdur and Ighdïr, as well as new
ones, Abdal, Bozachi and Arabachi. Another group, which occupied the south-western corner of modern Turkmenistan, north of the Iranian border,
is known from Iranian sources as the Sayinkhani, or Yaqa (i.e. the Coastal) Turkmens, and included the tribes Yemreli (an old Oghuz tribe), Göklen
(formed of two old Oghuz tribes), and Oqlï. Yet another group seems to have emerged in the 14th-15th centuries along the Uzboy, the dry bed of
the Amu-Darya, when part of the Amu-Darya’s water was flowing through it. It included originally the “Üch-el,” i.e. “Three tribes”: from west to
east, the Qara-Öyli, Ali-eli, and Khïzïr-eli. The Qara-Öyli were joined by another newly formed tribe, Tiveji, and they lived between the Balkhan
mountains and the Caspian Sea, while the part of the Khïzïr-eli closest to Khorezm became known as the Adaqlï (from Adaq, the region of Khorezm
east of Lake Sarïqamïsh).
It was apparently the Üch-el who began the eastward migrations of the Turkmens, after the Uzboy dried up completely in the 16th century. The
Ali-eli moved to northern Khorasan, where part of them remained in the region of Abiverd, while others went on to the region of Merv. The Khïzïr-
eli and Adaqlï migrated to the northwestern regions of Khorezm. The Salors migrated to Khorezm, both from Mangïshlaq and Khorasan, in the early
17th century, but they had to abandon it as a result of the military campaigns against the Turkmens by Abu’l-Ghazi Khan; they then migrated partly
to northern Khorasan, and partly to the middle course of the Amu-Darya. The place of the Salor and Ersarï between the Küren-Dagh and Mangïshlaq
was gradually occupied by the much strengthened Yomut and Teke. The Yaqa Turkmens, after they had been attacked by the Safavid governors of
Astarabad in the early 17th century, disappeared as a group, and their remnants migrated to the middle course of the Atrek (the Göklen) and to the
foothills of the Kopet-Dagh (the Yemreli). Their place was occupied by the Yomut, who were expanding from the north. Finally, some of the Chow-
dur and some other Esen-eli from Mangïshlaq came to Khorezm by the end of the 17th century, while in the early 18th century another part of these
tribes migrated northward to the lower Volga region.
In the 18th century gradual movements of the Turkmen tribes continued. The largest of these were the migration of one branch of the Yomut, the
Bayram-Shalï, to Khorezm in the early 18th century, and the migration of the Teke to the northern rim of Khorasan at about the same time. The
Bayram-Shalï Yomut have remained in Khorezm ever since, with three brief interruptions: they were banished from the Khanate of Khiva after their
rebellions, in 1744-47, 1771-79, and 1804-06. The other branch of the Yomut, Qara-Choqa (or Choni-Sheref) firmly established itself in the region
between the Gorgan river and the Balkhan mountains. The Teke began their infiltration of the oases of northern Khorasan by the first half of the 18th
century, when these areas still nominally belonged to Nadir Shah, and in the second half of the century they occupied this whole region up to the
Tezhen in the east, having pushed out the Yemreli, who migrated to Khorezm. Some groups of the Teke came to Khorezm in the mid-18th century,
and for a while they played a political role there, together with the still remaining Salor, but in 1767 they were pushed out by the Yomut. The Chowdur
began to play a greater role in Khorezm, where they lived between the Amu-Darya delta and the Üst-Yurt plateau and on several occasions were
allied with the Yomut.

Text to map 36b see on p. 74

bregel3.pmd 72 5/26/2003, 12:53 PM

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A B C A' B' C'

© Yuri Bregel 2003

36A. THE TURKMEN TRIBES AND THEIR MIGRATIONS (16TH-19TH 36B. THE TURKMEN TRIBES AND THEIR MIGRATIONS (19TH-20TH
CENTURIES) CENTURIES)

73
 74

36B. THE TURKMEN TRIBES AND THEIR MIGRATIONS (19TH-20TH CENTURIES)

The last series of Turkmen migrations, in the 19th century, was connected with the policy of the Qongrat khans of Khiva. In the eyes of the chieftains
of other Özbek tribes, the Qongrats, who became khans at the beginning of the 19th century, not being Chingisids, did not have the required legit-
imacy. The Turkmens provided military support to the Qongrat dynasty in fighting both the internal opposition and the Khanate of Bukhara, the
traditional enemy of the Khanate of Khiva. The first Qongrat khans encouraged the Turkmen migration to Khorezm (and deported some tribes from
northern Khorasan by force), providing the Turkmens with land for their military service and exempting them from paying tax on the land and from
supplying laborers for irrigation works. The tribes settled in Khorezm this way included the Yomut (the Bayram-Shalï branch), Chowdur, Yemreli,
Göklen, Qaradashlï, Saqar, a group of the Teke, and some smaller tribes. In the middle of the 19th century Turkmen tribes formed about one quarter
of the total population of Khorezm, and they maintained their internal autonomy. However, in the 1850s the relations of the khanate with the Turk-
mens began to deteriorate, resulting in Turkmen rebellions that continued until 1868. Most of the Turkmens who settled in Khorezm became sed-
entary or semi-sedentary.
Among the Turkmens who remained in the south, the most important tribes were the Yomut (Qara-Choqa), Teke (the most numerous of the Turkmen
tribes in the 19th century), Sarïq (who inhabited the Merv oasis until they lost it to the Teke in 1857 and moved to the upper Murghab), Göklen (most
of the 19th century), and Ali-eli; the Ersarï and Salor were the only two major tribes that lived in the Khanate of Bukhara. All these tribes also
became sedentary or semi-sedentary; the nomadic way of life was maintained most of all by some of the Yomuts. The tribes of western and southern
Turkmenistan which remained outside the effective authority of the sedentary states lived as self-governing communities under their traditional lead-
ership. The clans and tribes were headed by chieftains, whose functions could sometimes be inherited in the family, but whose authority was ex-
tremely limited. They could have different titles, the most common in the later periods being the titles of bek and onbegi; there were also chieftains
with the title of khan, but these khans were not superior in rank to other chieftains and had nothing to do with the charismatic khans of the Dasht-
i Qïpchaq. None of the major tribes had one single chieftain, and all the tribes lacked internal cohesion. At a time of serious danger from outside,
several tribes could unite under a commonly recognized military leader, but such a union would break up after the danger subsided. Islamic law,
shari#a, was recognized by the Turkmens, who were all Sunni Muslims, but all criminal cases and civil disputes were decided by the elders according
to an uncodified common law. Strong influence on the Turkmens was exercised by Sufi sheykhs, usually called ishans, who were not only spiritual
guides, but also intermediaries in various conflicts, both within and among different clans and tribes; their role was especially important in the absence
of any strong authority among the chieftains. Intertribal conflicts and wars were frequent, but usually on a small scale; among the larger military
conflicts in the 18th-19th centuries were the wars of the Teke with the Yemreli for the possession of Akhal, and of the Teke with the Sarïq for the
possession of Merv (both resulted in victory for the Teke).
The Turkmens in the south practiced both agriculture and nomadic stock-breeding, and the usual division of labor was within the same family:
some family members tilled the land (they were called chomur), while others were nomadizing in the desert with the family herd (they were called
charva). The percentage of nomadic stock-breeders was the highest among the Qara-Choqa Yomuts. The Turkmen farming communities in the south
had well developed systems of irrigation (which differed depending on the sources of water), and they had a specific form of communal property
rights on land and irrigational water, called sanashiq, with periodic (mostly annual) redistribution of land and water shares among all adult married
members of the community.
The independent Turkmen tribes that inhabited the regions along the northern borders of Iran caused great concern to the Iranian authorities by
their frequent raiding of villages and sometimes even towns not only along the border, but deep inside Khorasan. The main purpose of this raiding,
besides plunder, was the capture of prisoners, who were either sold in the slave market of Khiva or kept until ransom money was paid by relatives.
The only thing the Iranian authorities were able to do was to retaliate with raids against the Turkmens. Therefore the conquest of the Turkmen regions
by Russia in 1881-1885, which brought about the cessation of Turkmen raiding, did not cause any protests on the part of Iran. As a result of the
demarcation of the Russo-Iranian border, all Turkmen tribes from the Caspian Sea to the Tezhen were now within the Russian Empire, with two
major exceptions: the majority of the Göklen, as well as part of the Yomut Qara-Choqa (between the Atrek and the Gorgan) remained in Iran. The
demarcation of the Russian border with Afghanistan also left some Turkmens within Afghanistan; the most numerous among them were the Ersarï
(along the left bank of the Amu-Darya and further south, from Andkhuy to Mazar-i Sharif), the Sarïq (along the Murghab and in some other parts
of Afghan Turkestan), and the Ali-eli (near Andkhuy). The latest migration of Turkmens was in the early 1930s, when some of them, primarily the
Sarïq, fled to Afghanistan, escaping forcible collectivization in the Soviet Union.

37. THE TURKMEN TRIBES IN THE EARLY 20TH CENTURY

After the Russian conquest and the division of Central Asia between Russia, China, Iran, and Afghanistan, the areas inhabited by individual Turkmen
tribes of Central Asia became generally stable. The map shows the regions inhabited by the Turkmen tribes according to early 20th century surveys
and mid-20th century ethnographic data. Turkmens of all tribes preserved a strong sense of their separate tribal identities, which was expressed not
only in various elements of material culture (especially female dress and the ornaments of their famous tribal rugs and other textile products), but
also in tribal dialects, which were specific to each major tribe. At the same time the Turkmens were well aware that they had a common origin and
belonged to the same people, notwithstanding their tribal differences. Until at least the middle of the 20th century, written tribal genealogies (or
genealogical trees, shejere) could be found among the various Turkmen tribes of Central Asia tracing their origin back to the mythical Oghuz Khan
and sometimes showing the kinship among the tribes. By the early 20th century the Teke was by far the largest tribe, forming about 30% of the entire
Turkmen population. Next were the Yomut (about 21%) and then the Ersarï (about 16%). More than a dozen other tribes together formed just 33%
of all the Turkmens. Several small tribes were settled in the middle course of the Amu-Darya, in the region of Charjuy and farther south, often interspersed
with Özbeks and Tajiks, and some of them were partially assimilated by the Özbeks. In the foothills of the Kopet-Dagh there existed several small
tribes (Nokhurli, Murchali, Annauli) who had no place in Turkmen genealogies; some modern linguists define their dialects as “Khorasanian Turkic,”
and a hypothesis has been advanced according to which these tribes are the remnants of the Turkmen groups that came to Khorasan with the begin-
ning of the Seljuk movement, the majority of whom migrated later to Azerbayjan and Anatolia.

bregel4.pmd 74 5/26/2003, 1:04 PM

bregel4.pmd

A B C D

Areas inhabited by Turkmen tribes:

Yomut Qara-Choqa

Yomut Bayram-Shalï
Sïr-Dar
y a
Teke

Salor
A r a l

M
1 1 Sarïq
75

A
S e a Ersarï

N
Chowdur

G
a Göklen

Ï
S e S
H Yemreli

L Qaradashlï
A
s p i a n

Ata
Q Qongrat
Ü S T - Y U R T Ali-eli

Saqar

Q Ï Z Ï L - Q U M Arabachi
Köhne-Urgench
Oghurjalï
Manghït
2 2 Khïzïr-eli
C a

L.Sarïqamïsh
Tashhawz c
Sheykh Abbas Veli Nokhurlï
Takhta Murchalï
Khiva Urgench
Hazarasp Khoja
Am
Shikh

u-
y

Dar
Uzbo
Bayat

ya
Olam
Darghan-Ata
Cheleken I. 100 0 100 KM

n
fs h a
Oghurcha I. Q A R A - Q U M era

Z
Bukhara
Kizil-Arvat

3 3
5/26/2003, 1:05 PM

Charjuy
Qarrï-qala Baharden Saqar

Gök-Tepe

At
rek Askhabad

G organ
Bojnurd
Kerki
Bayram-Ali
Astarabad Abiverd

Quchan
Yolotan

Damghan
Andkhuy
Te
zhen

Mashhad Serakhs Shibergan

4 Nishapur 4
Ke
she
f -r u d
M
rg
u
ha
b Maymana
H arirud

A B C D
© Yuri Bregel 2003

75
37. THE TURKMEN TRIBES IN THE EARLY 20TH CENTURY
 76

38. THE QAZAQ TRIBES IN THE EARLY 20TH CENTURY

The Qazaqs were, for the most part, not only the successors, but in many cases the direct descendants of the previous nomadic inhabitants of the
Dasht-i Qïpchaq. Very often a direct continuity is seen between various Turkic and Mongol tribes that were found on this territory shortly before and
immediately after the Mongol conquest, and various Qazaq tribes. Most of the conclusions about such continuity are based on the coincidence of
some Qazaq and pre-Qazaq tribal names, especially when the tribes with these names were found on the same territory. Many Qazaq tribal names
are found also among the Özbeks and the Qïrghïz, and these three peoples certainly have some common historical roots. The obvious historical
predecessors of the Qazaqs on the territory of the Dasht-i Qïpchaq were the Qïpchaqs; the nomadic population of the Aq-Orda (“Golden Horde”) was
referred to as Qïpchaq, and the Qïpchaq tribe is among the tribes of the Qazaq Middle Horde (Orta Zhuz); but the names of the individual pre-
Mongol Qïpchaq tribes seem to have no parallel among the tribes of the Qazaqs. On the other hand, the names of some important Qazaq tribes go
back to the Mongol tribes that appeared in Central Asia with the Mongol conquest (and which were later Turkicized). This may be an indication that
the tribes of Mongol origin were important components of the ethnic entity that was to be called Qazaq. Many Qazaq tribal names, mainly of the
Middle and Senior Hordes, are the same as the names of Özbek tribes; this can be explained by their common origin in the Ulus of Orda (Kök-Orda,
see maps 21-22).
After the emergence of the Özbek-Qazaq confederation in the 15th century, its territory expanded mostly to the west and the north. The Russian
expansion into Siberia, followed by Russian peasant colonization, gradually pushed the Qazaqs back from their summer pastures in the north. But
after the destruction of the Junghars by China in 1758-59 (see map 30), some Qazaq groups gradually spread eastward. Much earlier (not later than
the early 17th century), the Qazaqs divided into three major parts called zhuz. Neither the circumstances of this division nor the etymology of this
term are known; explanations offered by some modern scholars (deriving it from the common Turkic yüz, Qazaq zhuz, for “hundred,” also “face,”
or from Arabic juz for “part”) are unsatisfactory. In Russian sources the zhuzes were referred to as orda, and accordingly, in the West they became
known as “Hordes”; this term has no basis in Qazaq usage. Their names (Kshi, Orta, and Ulï) were also misunderstood as “Little,” “Middle,” and
“Big (or Great),” implying size, while they refer instead to seniority (apparently a genealogical seniority): “Junior,” “Middle,” and “Senior.” How-
ever, it is not clear whether the membership of a certain tribe or individual in a senior zhuz would give them any social or political advantage.
When the zhuzes were first described in Russian sources in the first half of the 18th century, they already occupied distinct parts of the Dasht-i
Qïpchaq, with the Junior Horde spread over the westernmost part, the Middle Horde in the central part, and the Senior Horde in the eastern part
(Semirech’e). At the end of the 19th and the early 20th centuries extensive statistical data on the Qazaqs were collected as a result of Russian sur-
veys. According to these data, the tribes of the Senior Horde were nomadizing between the middle and upper course of the Sïr-Darya in the west and
the upper course of the Ili in the east, and between the northern foothills of the Tien-Shan in the south and Lake Balkhash in the north. The tribes
of the Middle Horde occupied the largest territory, including the central, northern, and eastern parts of the Qazaq steppes, from the middle course
of the Tobol, Ishim, and Irtïsh rivers in the north to the middle course of the Sïr-Darya in the south, and from the Turgay in the west to the northern
part of Semirech’e and Jungharia in the east. The tribes of the Junior Horde occupied the western section of the steppe, from the upper course of the
Tobol and Ural rivers in the north to the Mangïshlaq peninsula, the Üst-Yurt, the shores of the Aral Sea, and the lower course of the Sïr-Darya in
the south. These data, however, did not include the Qazaqs in China, almost all of whom were concentrated in Jungharia and belonged to the Middle
Horde.
The Qazaqs inherited the political and social structure of the nomads of the Dasht-i Qïpchaq, which had existed since the Mongol conquest. At the
head of their society were the Jochids, the direct agnatic descendants of the eldest son of Chingis Khan, Jochi; they were called aq söyek, “white
bone,” and formed a closed estate that was not part of the Qazaq tribal structure. Only the members of this clan, who had the title of töre or sultan,
could be elected as khans, sovereign rulers; they also had other privileges that set them aside from the rest of the Qazaqs. Each zhuz had its own
khan, elected by an assembly of the sultans and prominent tribal chieftains, and sometimes there was more than one khan in the same zhuz. At the
head of the Qazaq tribes and their subdivisions stood chieftains with the title of biy, traditional among the nomads of the Dasht-i Qïpchaq (cf. map
35). They also served as judges by common law (adat), which was codified by the khan Tawke at the end of the 17th or early 18th century. Distin-
guished military leaders could gain the title of batïr (lit. “hero,” from Mongol bahadur), which could be combined with the status (and the title) of
a biy. Batïrs became prominent in Qazaq society in the 18th century, during the wars with the Junghars and the erosion of the authority of the khans
and sultans. With the final Russian annexation of the Qazaq steppes in the first half of the 19th century, the position of the khan was abolished, and
the sultans lost their privileged legal status.
The economy of the great majority of the Qazaqs was based on nomadic stock-breeding, combining sheep, horses, camels, and cattle; the mix of
these animals in the herds could vary greatly, depending on the natural conditions of specific regions. The natural conditions determined also the
range of seasonal migrations, whose radius could vary from about 100 km a year to as much as 1,000-1,500 km. The Russian colonization of the
northern steppe areas, which developed gradually, but especially intensively in the 19th century, deprived the Qazaqs of some of their best summer
pastures; the Russian administrative reforms of the first half of the 19th century also caused some disruptions of traditional migrations. Nevertheless,
the great majority of the Qazaqs remained nomadic even after the revolution in Russia, until their forced collectivization and sedentarization in the
early 1930s, which caused huge losses of livestock, famine, and the flight of many Qazaqs to China (see map 47).
At the end of the 19th and in the early 20th centuries the number of Qazaqs of the Senior Zhuz was estimated at about 700,000, of which the
largest tribes were the Dulat (about 250,000), Alban (about 100,000), and Zhalair (about 110,000). The number of Qazaqs of the Middle Zhuz was
estimated at 1,500,000, of which the largest tribe was the Arghïn (about 500,000); the next in number were the Nayman (over 400,000), the Qïpchaq
(about 150,000), and the Kerey (about 100,000). The number of Qazaqs of the Junior Zhuz was about 1,200,000 or 1,300,000, of which the subdi-
vision of Alimulï had about 350,000, the subdivision of Bayulï had 500,000-550,000, and the subdivision of Zhetiru had about 270,000-300,000. The
number of Qazaqs in China (mostly of the Middle Zhuz) was estimated at around 450,000.

bregel4.pmd 76 5/26/2003, 1:05 PM

bregel4.pmd

A B C D E

ol
77

b
Omsk DULAT Tribes of Ulï Zhuz (Senior Horde) Qazaq tribes:

To
Petropavlovsk ARGHÏN Tribes of Orta Zhuz (Middle Horde) Ulï Zhuz (Senior Horde):
Y hi
m A N
Troitsk KERE R A R G H Ï ALIMULÏ Tribes of Kshi Zhuz (Junior Horde) Dulat

Is
Q K
Vol
ga W A G E WA

Q
Q Dividing lines between the pasturelands of the zhuzes Zhalair

ÏP
Q H R

A
Kustanay

CH
Irtï
Ï N
H A E sh Sarï-Uysun

N
C Kokchetav Ï

AQ
QÏP H H N Y QÏ
PCHAQ
RE 100 0 100 200 300 400 KM

Y
Ï K E KE CHAQ Ïstï

C
1 G P HÏN 1
U R R Ï Pavlodar ARG

P
Orenburg IR AKush-Murun H E Q Oshaqtï
Ural'sk ET LÏ WA
Q

Q Ï
U ZH YU N Y EY
HE
TIR Z
H BA G Atbasar
H Ï Ï N KER Shaprashtï
E Orsk R G H
Z

BAY ULÏ T Z H R G Qanglï

IRU IR E T I R U A Akmolinsk R
ET Ï

N
ZH YUL E TIRU U Z H N A N A A Semipalatinsk Alban
BA TIRU ZH E T Ï Bayan-Aul Y
I R U Ï M

Z
B E Ï Ust'-Kamenogorsk
ZH YUL A R A N Suan

Z
A H L H H A
L Ï
BA IM

Q
Y ET ULÏ G N K E

W
U Ï IRU U G G Orta Zhuz (Middle Horde):

A
A R
Ural

LÏ

U
M
U L WA L I Turgay R R H

A
AR
Q M NAY M AN E Qïpchaq

H
Karkaralinsk
I M A A G
Y Y

Q
Ay H Ï
A L BAYU LÏ

C
ÏN

EY
N WAQ N A Y Arghïn

H
rga

A
Kokpektï
A Tu H Ï N M A

ER
Ï G N

Ï P
L I Irgiz

N
LÏ
BAYUL

A Emba R U Z K E R Nayman

N
K

K
H
YU

M L. Z

N
E Y
L
Irgiz U L A Z Sergiopol' A ay s a
BA

ALIMU n

Z
I N Kerey

E
LÏ Y

Q
ULÏ
M Ï A M A
ULÏ ba ZHETIRU

N
A

R
B AY U Q
B AY H EAT I R U T

A
Astrakhan' Em L Ï A Waq
AL UL

E Y
BA LIM L U R R Chuguchak
BA

Y
IM Ï

IM

uz
YU U M Qongrat
O
Y

M
LÏ LÏ G A N
UL

rï-s
u K E R E Y

g
ALIMUL

AL

Aya
Ï Sa H N
Ï

B AY U L Ï
Kshi Zhuz (Junior Horde):

P
Ï
I

L.

A L I
A N
Y M Alimulï:

Y
Lake Balkhash Ala-köl

C
2 A 2
N

Qa r a t
Man
H

Lepsinsk Qarakesek
N a

H
Kazalinsk

A
al M A KEREY

s
N Shektï
M R A Y

A
U L Ï Z I Kopal
S

H A L A L. Ebi-nur Shomekey

N
Aral U
L Ï IR

Q
IR
a

Y T N G LA Tortqara
RU N

A A Sea HE Ï A
)

D L I R A
Z YU Q U

S
HE B Ï

LA D Z H A L A I R ZH
K

BA AQ AN Qarasaqal
S e

A T
(BAYULÏ) Qulja
Ï HA U Z
CH ÏN ST Z AN U
TI

L A
(Z T A

P Ï Ï S T B H

T
Ï Q TS Ï L Il i Bayulï:

QANGL
Ï

LA
Q GH HA T A
AQ Z

G R
T A L B A
N es

DU
A R Ï P C Suzak

AR
ZH
A D A Y Te k
Ï DU SHAPRA DULA Aday

H
ÏN Qarashahr

ÏS

Ï-UYSUN
Q

ALAIR
T L SH Ï

OS
Qongrat H C hu TA
LÏ
G ÏS

Ï
AR Vernïy Zhappas
p i a n

TÏ
L

Ï
U Turkestan SARÏ- L. Baghrash-köl

O
5/26/2003, 1:05 PM

Köhne-Urgench M Q T UYSUN Alasha

LI A Awliya-Ata D U L A T U
Pishpek
Kucha
A DULAT Baybaqtï

L
Lake Talas L . I s sïq - k ö l
Chimkent

D U
Sarïqamïsh Sheykh cAbbas Veli
Narï n rim Tazdar
Aqsu Ta
Hazarasp Aq Zhetiru:
Khiva
y

Krasnovodsk su
bo

Tashkent Tabïn
Uz
a s

Sï Andizhan
r-D Tama
3 3
Osh
ar

Cheleken I. Zerafs Jizak Kokand Kerderi

ya

h an
C

Kashghar Kereit
Oghurcha I. shghar
Bukhara
Samarqand
Ura-Tübe Ka Zhaghalbaylï
s h
Charjuy Shahrisabz Wakh n Tlew

Khota
k
tre
Am

Hisar Yarkend Ramadan

A

-D
u

Askhabad

nd
ary
nj r ke
Ya
a

Pa

Khotan

A B C D E
© Yuri Bregel 2003

38. THE QAZAQ TRIBES IN THE EARLY 20TH CENTURY

77
 78

39. THE QÏRGHÏZ TRIBES IN THE 20TH CENTURY

The Qïrghïz as a separate ethnic group were first mentioned under this name and on the territory that they presently occupy at the end of the 15th
century. Their previous history and especially their relationship to the Qïrghïz of the Yenisey basin, who formed a powerful nomadic state which
destroyed the Uyghur Qaghanate in the 9th century (see map 10), are still a matter of controversy in scholarly literature. Several theories have been
offered to explain this relationship, but none of them seems to be definitively proven. The prevailing opinion now is that the Qïrghïz of the Tien-
Shan included some nomadic groups that inhabited this region for several centuries, as well as other groups, related to the Yenisey Qïrghïz, who
migrated to the south from the Altay region later (the time of this migration is uncertain, but it probably happened during the first expansion of the
Oyrats in the 15th century), bringing with them the ethnic name Qïrghïz. An important factor in the formation of the Qïrghïz of the Tien-Shan was
the decline of the Chaghatayid khanate of Moghulistan in the 15th-16th centuries (see maps 26-27), when some Moghul tribes (or parts of them)
apparently joined the Qïrghiz, while others joined the Qazaqs. In the process of their formation the Qïrghïz incorporated groups of various origins,
some of which may be traced back, according to many scholars, to the time of the Türk Qaghanate, and others may be traced to tribes of Mongol
origin (such as the Nayman) or to pre-Mongol tribes of the Dasht-i Qïpchaq (such as the Qangdï, from Qanglï). Whatever their origin, by the 16th
century they together formed one distinct entity. Since that time they were concentrated in the Tien-Shan and (especially later) farther south, down
to the Pamirs. In the 17th century the Qïrghïz were pressed by the Junghars and, escaping them, spread out southward, to the Ferghana basin, and
eastward, to the oases of Eastern Turkestan; after the destruction of the Junghars some of them returned to their previous homes.
The Qïrghïz tribes were divided into three main groups. Two of them together were called Otuz uul (“Thirty sons”), and had two “wings,” right
(ong) and left (sol); the right wing was much more numerous than the left, and it was subdivided into three branches, Tagay, Adigine, and Mungush.
The tribes of the Tagay branch occupied the largest section of the Tien-Shan mountain region. It included the largest Qïrghïz tribes, the Bugu, Solto,
and Sarï-Bagïsh, who lived in the upper course of the Chu, around Lake Issïq-köl, and farther east, while the tribes belonging to the Adigine and
Mungush branches lived to the southwest of the Tagay branch in the foothills of the Ferghana and Alay mountain ranges, the eastern part of the
Ferghana basin, and in the Alay valley. The small tribes of the left wing occupied the valleys and the foothills of the Talas and Chatkal mountains.
The third main group of the Qïrghïz was called Ichkilik and occupied the southern parts of the Qïrghïz territory, including the Pamir highlands down
to the Wakhan. They apparently migrated to the areas that they currently occupy from Eastern Turkestan in the 16th-17th centuries and later; some
of them still extend into Eastern Turkestan.
The Qïrghïz had a nomadic economy with cyclic migrations between winter pastures in the river valleys and gorges protected from snow, and
summer pastures in the alpine meadows. The Qïrghïz were the only Central Asian people who raised yaks. But before the Russian annexation, horses
formed the largest percentage of their livestock; after the annexation sheep became more important. The role of horses is explained by the frequent
intertribal wars that required greater mobility; frequent wars also required the Qïrghïz to concentrate in the winter in large communities: the tents
(“yurts”) of entire clans, up to 200 and more households, stretched out along the banks of rivers. The Qïrghïz also practiced some agriculture, which
was especially important around Lake Issïq-köl and in the Ferghana basin.
The Mongol imperial tradition, according to which the Chingisid clan had the exclusive right to the supreme authority embodied in the person of
a khan, did not affect the Qïrghïz. They did not have khans, nor any other paramount rulers, and each tribe or tribal subdivision was ruled by its
chieftain with the title of biy (as among the Özbeks and the Qazaqs). The title and position of a biy was usually hereditary, and he enjoyed great
authority within his tribe. In the first half of the 19th century a new title for tribal chieftains, manap, appeared among the northern Qïrghïz tribes.
Originally it was the name of a clan in the Sarï-Bagïsh tribe, which was named for one of its chieftains from the 17th century. The chieftains from
the Manap clan acquired a privileged position within the Sarï-Bagïsh and later extended their influence to other tribes, so that the term manap began
to be applied to chieftains of other northern Qïrghïz tribes as an equivalent of biy (it was not used among the southern tribes). Some of the Qïrghïz
chieftains acquired great influence and power in the cities of Eastern Turkestan from the 17th century to the first half of the 18th century. In the
1820s and 1830s the Khanate of Qoqand conquered most of the Qïrghïz tribes and annexed their territories. The tribes remained under the rule of
traditional chieftains, who were responsible to the Qoqandian officials. Some Qïrghïz chieftains were appointed to administrative posts in the kha-
nate, primarily in Qïrghïz territory, but also elsewhere in the country. Qïrghïz troops often formed a substantial part of the Qoqandian army, and
Qïrghïz chieftains played an important role in the political life of the Khanate of Qoqand in the 19th century, especially since the early 1840s, often
in alliance with the Qïpchaqs of Ferghana. But the Qïrghïz who inhabited the remote regions of the Tien-Shan and Pamir recognized Qoqandian
authority only nominally, or not at all. After 1876 most of the Qïrghïz regions were annexed by Russia; only small parts of the Ichkilik group re-
mained in Eastern Turkestan and in the Afghan Pamirs (the so called Wakhan corridor; these fled to Pakistan in 1978 and then resettled to eastern
Turkey in 1982).

bregel4.pmd 78 5/26/2003, 1:05 PM

bregel4.pmd

A B C D E

Tribes of the Otuz Uul:

Right wing (Ong)
Il i Branch Tagay:
Sarï-Bagïsh
Bugu
s Solto
ke
Te Tïnïmseyit
79

Ta Sayaq
1 las 1 Chekir-Sayaq
Almatï Cherik
Zhediger
Ch Azïq
u
B U G Bagïsh
T O H U
S O
L Ï S Suu-Murun
Bishkek A G U
Mongoldor

- MURUN
Zhambïl - B BUG Baarïn
Ï A Q U

O E
R A Y Branch Adigine:

LT I N
S O L T O S A S L. Issïq-köl U G Qongurat

IG

UU
Kucha Zhoru
S

O
D

U
S
ÏSH
G Börü

U
ZHETIGEN

A
SA Q U
B AG

Bargï

U
QUSHCHU G A

B
U R Y U
Y

Ï- A Qara-Bagïsh
K I R - S A Y A Q
U

B
C H E G

S
B A Sarttar
A

E
B AGÏSH G Ï S H B R I K
R

GÏ I N
TÏ C H E Branch Mungush:
T

C T

SH
Z N ÏMSEY I
H U

BA I G
Ï T
A

S E K ÏNÏ Zhagalmay
Ï

BA I R MS
D

S
- S EYI Qosh-Tamga
S

A MO Aksu
Q

QU SARUU A A T K
NG Y A Q B
OR

QÏ SHC Y SA Narïn I
HU AZÏ Q -BA O Left wing (Sol):
ARÏ GÏ SH YA
LD

PC S A Q O R R
H A BA MO NGO LD Qushchu
2 2

LD
O

G Y Q GÏ MUNDUZ E Z ri m
A SH Q N arïn DU Ta Saruu
O N Ï T B AG Ï

O
SH S AYA Q D U Z I K H Aq

R
R UN Munduz
M

Q UU E R U N E C ha a l M su
R IG M CH Koks
UZ

OR U H Zhetigen
D

S A M ONGOLD RU
EKI
AQ CHERIK
HE

B A S R- Y C U Qïtay
ND

S A Ï Z S A H
K H C
Z

ERI H U Basïz
CH IT Q U S
H C
MU

SEY S Tebey
M UNDUZ ÏM
A
D B A S ÏN Q U Chong-Bagïsh
rya Qara I G
Ï Z &T
ï r - Da Andizhan - D a
& C
H E
S rya I N R IK Tribes of the Ichkilik group:
E CH
Osh Qïpchaq
Qoqand MUNG E E O
N

CH
USH Nayman
N I N G
- Teyit

O
I I G BAGÏSH

N
TÖÖ

ZH D Kesek

G-
G A
Ï

K ES OO
D

N I Zhoo-Kesek

BA
BO

LÖS

A EK - D Qangdï
AN

Y N

G
A S
ST

M Ö
M ÖL N
A H hghar

ÏS
TE Boston
Q

Kas
AV

A S
YI QÏPCHAQ N Y Ö AT
O

H
T N A T YMA AV
U
Q Noygut
AT

N G
T NA I T AT U
N A Kashghar Avat
U H
K A V A T G Y AV M M C Töölös
E Y
T E N U P
Y M A
S O NG Ï
K E
5/26/2003, 1:05 PM

N
N A
US Q Note: small tribes are mostly
3 H 3
not indicated on the map
N
AY

end
hab M
Surk A D I AN

rk
N AY M A G I N

Ya
N E 0 50 100 KM
& Q ÏP C
HAQ TEYI
T
Yarkend
N AY

Khotan
E
N A Y M A N
MAN

S
N ÏP

E
&

K
AY C
Q

M HA

Aq
A Q

ang Murghab
N

su
nj

t
ar
Pa

B
N ÏP
&

AY C

Q Ï P C H A Q
Q

M HA

d
A Q

Gun
N

Alichur Khotan
N ÏP
&

AY C
Q

M HA

4 T E Y I T 4
A Q

BOSTO N
N

& Q Ï P C H AQ

-D rya
an a
h

ak K E S E K
W

A B C D E
© Yuri Bregel 2003

79
39. THE QÏRGHÏZ TRIBES IN THE 20TH CENTURY
 80

40. BUKHARA (CITY) IN THE 19TH CENTURY

A settlement on the present site of the city of Bukhara existed as early as the 4th or 3rd century B.C. Bukhara became one of the chief cities of
Soghd, and has remained on the same site down to the present time, despite the destruction caused over the centuries by fires and wars, including
the Mongol invasion. Bukhara became especially important in the history of Central Asia from the 9th century, as the capital of the Samanids; later
it often competed for prominence with Samarqand, but since the time of #Abdallah Khan II (from 1557) and until the Russian conquest it was the
capital of the Abulkhayrids and then of the Ashtarkhanids and Manghïts, and it became the largest and most prosperous city of Central Asia. Its
history and especially its conditions under the Manghïts (19th–early 20th centuries) have also been better studied than those of any other city of
Central Asia.
The ancient name of the city was, apparently, Numijket, while Bukhara was the name of the oasis, of which Numijket was the capital; gradually,
in the early Islamic period, Bukhara became the name of the city. The historical center of the city (shahristan), located to the east of the citadel (ark),
was rectangular in shape and surrounded by a wall that had seven gates; this wall has not survived, but its location has been well established. Later,
a wall encompassing the suburbs (rabads) was built; it was destroyed and rebuilt several times. The existing city wall was built by #Abd al-#Aziz
Sultan (1539-1550) and then extended by #Abdallah Khan (1557-1598). In 1752-53 it was reinforced by a new wall built next to it. This mud wall,
about 5-6 m thick at the base and about 10 m high, was about 12 km long and had 11 gates; most of the wall still exists. The folding gates had guards
and were locked at sunset and opened at sunrise. The citadel served as the official residence of the rulers of Bukhara, down to the time of the Manghït
amirs. Besides the audience hall of the amir, it had numerous government offices and rooms for officials and courtiers; these structures did not survive
the Russian revolution and the fall of the Manghïts.
The city was supplied by water brought from the Zerafshan by the Shahrud (Shahr-rud) canal, also known as the Rud-i Shahr (ancient Rud-i Zar).
The opening through which the canal entered the city from the east under the wall was protected by metal bars that did not allow anyone to penetrate
the city under the water. In the central part of the city the canal flowed through an underground channel. The Shahrud fed more than 200 small canals
which brought water to various parts of the city. The water of the Zerafshan would reach the city twice a month, in accordance with the established
system of water use for the entire Zerafshan valley; to ensure a continuous supply of water in the city, there were about 100 reservoirs (hawz) of
various sizes in all parts of Bukhara. The city was extremely densely built, so that almost no trees grew in its central parts; it was notorious since
the middle ages for its poor sanitary conditions.
The city was divided into guzars—city quarters (or neighborhood communities), whose number in the early 20th century was 220; they were the
main administrative units of the city. In some city quarters the population was more or less homogenous, consisting of the members of one trade
(artisans or merchants), or people of the same ethnic origin, but in others it was mixed, and usually members of groups of higher social status lived
intermixed with the commoners. The population of a guzar formed a community with its own elected elders; the center of communal life of the guzar
was its mosque. The guzars were loosely grouped into 12 larger territorial units called jarib or mahalla (these were, apparently, the original main
subdivisions of the city, which had mostly lost their administrative meaning by the 19th century). The exact figure of the city’s population is not
known, but according to modern estimates it was around 80,000-85,000. Ethnically, the population of the city was overwhelmingly Tajik, although
there were also groups of Özbeks, especially among the government officials and the military, and there were some Özbek groups who were linguis-
tically assimilated by the Tajiks. A substantial group (probably about 8,000) was formed by the Shi#ites, mostly the descendants of the inhabitants
of Merv deported to Bukhara by the amir Shah Murad at the end of the 18th century; they were called Irani or Marvi, and they lived partly inter-
mixed with the rest of the population. Another, separate, group was formed by the Jews, who numbered about 4,500; they spoke a dialect of Tajik
and lived in three city quarters in the southern part of the city.
Bukhara in the 19th century had a flourishing economy and the largest concentration of craftsmen and merchants in Central Asia. There were
about a hundred different crafts, whose members were organized in trade guilds. The most important crafts were weaving (especially of silk), em-
broidery (especially gold-embroidery), the making of robes, jewelry, and metal work. The products of Bukharan craftsmen were sold not only in the
city, but also in many other parts of Central Asia. Before the Russian conquest, Bukhara was the chief commercial center of Central Asia and had
a large number of merchants specializing in, among other things, such articles of trade as astrakhan fur, cotton, silk cocoons, carpets, and fabrics.
The city had numerous bazaars, and in the central part of the city entire streets were formed by the dense rows of shops of craftsmen selling their
products; some of these streets were covered by wooden roofs. The main trade centers of Bukhara were the five domed trade arcades (taq) connected
by a street (two of them were demolished after the revolution); the three taqs that still exist were built under #Abdallah Khan. A larger multi-domed
structure known as the tim of #Abdallah Khan was also built under the same khan; it was occupied by merchants selling the most expensive fabrics.
The second major trade area of the city was the Registan, to the west of the citadel, which mostly had shops selling foodstuffs and other items of
local consumption. Besides these areas, every square in the town was used for a bazaar. Of great importance were caravanserays, used not only by
travellers, but also by merchants, who often had their offices there; there were 38 of these in the 1840s.
Bukhara was the main religious center of Central Asia, and it had the greatest concentration of mosques, madrasas, and shrines (mazar). It had 217
mosques; eight of them were Friday mosques, including the largest mosque of Bukhara, the Masjid-i Kalan (see below). Many mosques had schools
(maktab) attached to them in separate buildings. The Shi#ites (Irani) had four prayer houses (Husayniya-khana), and the Jews had two synagogues.
The number of madrasas was mentioned as 103 by Khanïkov, who was in Bukhara in 1841-42; it grew to 185 by the early 20th century, but in only
22 of them was instruction offered by a professor (mudarris), while the rest were just student hostels. Bukhara had also a great number of large and
small shrines, which served as sites of pilgrimage and as centers of cemeteries. The most important of these were outside the city wall: the mazar
of Baha" ad-Din Naqshband (the founder of the Sufi order of the Naqshbandiya and the patron saint of Bukhara) 12 km northeast of the city, the
mausoleum of Sayf ad-Din Bakharzi to the east of the city, the mausoleum of Imam Abu Hafs-i Kabir to the north of the city, and Char Bakr, the
mausoleum of Imam Abu Bakr Sa#d and the necropolis of the Juybari sheykhs, 5 km to the west of the city.
The oldest remaining architectural monument in Bukhara is the so called “mausoleum of Isma#il Samani,” now thought to be instead the dynastic
tomb of the Samanids (end of 10th century). Among the dated monuments of the 12th century are the “Great Minaret” (Minar-i Kalan), 48 m high,
built in 1127, and the open prayer hall (Namazgah) to the south of the city wall (1119). Two buildings have survived from the Chaghatayid period
(14th century), both east of the city wall, close to one another: the mausoleum of Sayf ad-Din Bakharzi and the mausoleum of Buyan-Quli Khan. A
mausoleum known as Chashma Ayyub was built by Timur in the 1380s. The madrasa of Ulugh Bek (1417/18) is the only building of the Timurid
period in Bukhara. The majority of the surviving public buildings (mosques, madrasas, and khanqahs) were constructed under the Abulkhayrids,
Ashtarkhanids, and Manghïts. The most outstanding among them are: “The Great Mosque” (Masjid-i Kalan), built in 1514 and rebuilt by 1539, and
the Mir-i #Arab madrasa (1535/36), which, together with the minaret, form a group called Pay-i Kalan; two madrasas built by #Abdallah Khan op-
posite one another in 1566/67 and 1588-90 and known as the “Qosh Madrasa”; and the madrasa of #Abd al-#Aziz Khan, opposite that of Ulugh Bek
(1652). Numerous existing shrines and some of the smaller mosques are ascribed to various early dates, but their dating has not been verified.

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A B C D E

Mz. of Abu Hafs-i Kabir (d.?)

Kh. Fayzabad Mazar

(1598/99) gates Samarqand
gates

Mq. of Jan Qubad

1 Darugha (18th c.) Mq. of 1
81

cAlim Khoja
(19th c.)

Mq. & Md. of Shir-Muhammad

Juvazkan (18th c.?) Mq. Hakim-i
Ughlan
gates Sabungar (d.?)
Mq. & Md. cAskar Biy
(18th c.?)
5 6
Tal-i pach Mq. & Mz. 11
13
gates of Usta Rukhi
Ms. Chashma- Mz. Sufiyan-i
Ayyub (1380s) (16th c.) 12
Sawri (17th c.?) Mq. of Shah-i Akhsi
(17th–18th C.)

K
Mq. Bala-Hawz R 4
Md. of Ulugh Bek
Ms. of the Samanids (1712) A Md. Mir-i cArab (1417/18)

N
(9/10th c.) (1535/36)

ISTA
Shah 7
rud 3 10
3

REG
Md. of Md. of cAbd Md. of Jacfar Khoja
cAbdallahKhan Masjid-i al-cAziz Khan
Kh. Khoja Md. Kalabad (end 17th–early 18th c.)
(1588-90) Zayn ad-Din 2 (Kalan 4 (1652) (mid-16th c.) 16
2 (1514) 2

an d 1 d - D i n
(16th c.) Md. Kukeldash

2 km
Mt. Kalan Md. & Mz. of Khoja
1 (1568/69) Parsa (early 15th c.)
(1127)

aa
Md. of Khalifa Niyazqul
Kh. Mir Dustum Md. Madar-i Khan 1 Md. of Nadir (”Chor Minor”)

N aq . of B ah
Md. of Fathallah Mazar-i Sharif
(16th c.?) (1566/67) Divanbegi (1622) Qoshbegi (1595/96) (1807)
6 gates

sh b
Md. Mehtar-i Kafilan 7
8

h
(early 18th c.) 2 9

to K
2 d
Shirgiran Mz. Khoja 3 hru
gates Mq. & Md. Valida-i Khan-i Aspgardan (d.?) 4
Lab-i Hawz ha

S
Shahid (18th c.?) 5
1 (1620) Ms. of Halim
Khanqah of
Nadir Divanbegi ad-Din Demuni Qarshi (Qavala) gates
Md. Gawkushan (11th c.?) 17
a kr Mq. Lab-i (1570/71) (1619/20)
ar B Kh. Khalifa
t o Ch m Mq. Baland Hawz-i Arbab Mz. of Khoja Hasan Husayn (17th c.) Ms. of
5k (early 16th c.) 15

AD
(early 18th c.?) Bulghari (15th c.?) Sayf ad-Din Bakharzi
Mq./Mz. Khoja (end of 14th cent.)

AB
Turk-i Jandi (10th c.?)
Ms. of Buyan-Quli

TH
14
Khan (1358/59)

A
F
Mq. Khalifa Md. Ghaziyan
Khudaydad (1777) (late 18th c.)
Main streets of Bukhara by the end of the 19th cent. Numbered sites:
3 3
5/26/2003, 1:05 PM

Md. & Mq. Khiyaban Location of the walls of the shahristan (the city of the A. Religious institutions:
(1654/55) 9th cent.) 1. Mq. and Mz. Sadr-i Badr-i Maydani (before
Sallakh-khana the 2nd half of the 18th cent.)
Kh. Sheykh Namazgah gates The gates of the shahristan:
gates 2. Mq. Masjid-i Bi-sutun (17th cent.)
Jelal (1753/54) 1. cAttaran (Bazar) gates
3. Kh./Mq. Muhammad Yar Atalïq (19th cent.?)
Md. Juybar-i 2. Banu Sacd gates
Kalan (1670/71) 4. Mq. Madar-i Khan-i Lab-i Rud (before mid-
3. Banu Asad (Muhra) gates
Namazgah Mq. 18th cent.)
(1119) 4. Kuhandiz gates
S H 5. Mq. of Khoja Sacd (16th cent.)
Mz. Salar-i Mq. Hawz-i Sheykh Jelal E M S 5. Iron gates
6. Md. Tursun-Jan (date?)
Hajj (16th c.?) gates A B A D 6. Haqq-rah gates
Naw (16th c.) 7. Mq. Amiri (16th cent.?)
7. Naw (New) gates
8. Mq. Magak-i Kurpa (17th cent.)
City walls of the 16th–19th cent. built by cAbdallah 9. Mq. Magak-i cAttari (10th/12th cent.)
Khan and rebuilt in the 2nd half of the 18th cent.
10. Mz. of Abu'l-Hasan Hamadani (Sayyid
Qaraköl gates Mz. of Imam City wall of the 1st half of the 16th cent. (built by Bandkusha) (16th cent.?)
Bakr-i Fazil (d.?) cAbd al-cAziz Khan) 11. Mz. Awliya-yi Kalan (14th cent.?)
Citadel (kuhandiz, later ark) 12. Mz. Awliya-yi Gharib (14th–15th cent.?)
Roads (beyond the city walls) 13. Mq. of Mirza Ghafur (18th cent.)
14. Mq. Ghaziyan (18th cent.)
Mosques and khanqahs (Mq., Kh.)
15. Md. cAlimjan (date?)
4 Madrasas (Md.)
16. Mz. of Imam Qazi Khan (14th–15th cent.?) 4
Mausoleums (Ms.) and mazars (Mz.) 17. Mz. of Sheykh Rangrez (12th or 15th cent.?)
Minaret (Mt.) B. Trade centers:
Cemeteries 1. Taq-i sarrafan (Dome of money-changers)
2. Taq-i tilpak-furushan (Dome of the sellers of
Gardens
skullcaps)
3. Taq-i zargaran (Dome of jewellers)
100 0 100 200 300 400 M
4. Tim (domed trade arcade) of cAbdallah Khan

A B C D E

81
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40. BUKHARA (CITY) IN THE 19TH CENTURY

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41. SAMARQAND (CITY) IN THE 19TH CENTURY

Samarqand is the most ancient city of Central Asia; the earliest archeological remains on the territory of the city belong to the 7th century B.C. The
city first appears in historical records in the accounts of the campaigns of Alexander the Great (see map 3). Greek authors mention the name of the
city as Marakanda, which is, presumably, a Greek transcription of the original Soghdian Smarakanda. It was the capital of Soghdiana, and was reportedly
destroyed by Alexander, but then rebuilt. There is almost no information about the subsequent history of the city until the time of the Arab conquest
(late 7th-early 8th centuries; see map 8), when it was the residence of a Soghdian ruler with the title ikhshid. Samarqand was captured by Qutayba
b. Muslim in 712 and remained in the hands of the Arabs. In 819 the Samanid Nuh b. Asad became the governor of Samarqand, but later, under
Isma#il b. Ahmad, Bukhara became the capital of the Samanids and Samarqand remained the second city, in importance, of Mavarannahr (see map
10). During the first centuries of Islam the city consisted of three parts: the citadel (kuhandiz), the town proper or inner city (shahristan, or madina),
and the suburbs (rabad). The citadel and the shahristan were located on a hill on the southern bank of the Siyah-ab (now pronounced Siob), a major
canal carrying water from the Zerafshan (“The River of Soghd”); but the main source of water for Samarqand was another canal, Dargham (pro-
nounced Darghom), much farther south, from which secondary canals took water northward to the city. The shahristan, together with the citadel, was
surrounded by a wall and a deep moat. In order to supply water to the shahristan across the moat, an aqueduct covered with lead was built, probably
in pre-Islamic times. The suburbs were south of the shahristan. The suburbs located closest to the shahristan were also surrounded by a wall, which
later became known as Divar-i Kundalang (lit. “Transverse wall”), and the entire oasis of Samarqand was surrounded by yet another wall popularly
known as Divar-i Qiyamat (“The Wall of the Day of Judgement”).
Samarqand was destroyed in 1219 during the Mongol conquest. The Mongols also destroyed the aqueduct supplying water to the shahristan. The
pre-Mongol city became known first as Hisar-i Qadim (“Old City”) and later as “Afrasiyab,” from the name of one of the main heroes of the Shah-
nama. In the next century city life gradually concentrated in the former suburbs, and Afrasiyab was abandoned. A new flourishing of the city took
place under Timur, who made it his capital; he built new city walls with a citadel on the city’s western side, and embellished the city with some
outstanding buildings and gardens (see below). Under the Abulkhayrids and the Ashtarkhanids Samarqand yielded its primacy in the state to Bukha-
ra, which became the capital from 1557. In the second and third quarters of the 18th century, during the internal feuds and general political turmoil
under the last Ashtarkhanids and the first Manghïts, Samarqand suffered more than other cities of Mavarannahr, and, according to some sources,
remained almost uninhabited. However, other sources indicate that the devastation to the city was not so complete and that probably more than half
of its former population still remained there. The city was restored to some extent by the Manghït amir Shah Murad, but it still did not reach its
previous size and prosperity. The city was repopulated by various groups who resettled from other cities and from some rural areas of the Khanate
of Bukhara, and even from outside of the khanate (thus, three new city quarters were formed by people who came from Tashkent).
The city was divided, like Bukhara (cf. map 40), into guzars—city quarters (or neighborhood communities); in 1871 the total number of guzars
was 102, but after the Russian military fortress was established in the citadel, the surrounding 17 guzars were demolished. Each guzar elected its
elders and had at least one mosque (many had more), which was the center of communal life. The total number of guzar mosques in the 19th century
was 155. Under the amirs of Bukhara, the administrative center of the city was the citadel (ark) with the palace of the amir; the amirs would spend
some time in Samarqand in the summer, because the city’s climate was much better than that of Bukhara. The famous Kök Tash, “Grey Stone,” was
also in the citadel; a new amir of Bukhara would sit on the Kök Tash in a concluding ceremony of his enthronement (after he was raised on a piece
of white felt in the city of Bukhara). The main commercial center of the city was the market square known as the Registan, surrounded by three large
madrasas (see below); from this center the main streets radiated to the city gates. The city had 58 caravanserays.
The population of Samarqand was overwhelmingly Tajik, even after some Turkic-speaking groups resettled in the city at the end of the 18th century;
some of them were assimilated by the Tajiks. A group of Iranian Shi#ites (“Irani”) came to Samarqand, apparently from Merv, at the same time that
the major part of this group was deported to Bukhara, at the end of the 18th century; some of them settled in the city suburbs. From 1843 there was
also a Jewish quarter near the eastern wall of the city with a population of about 1,000. In the middle of the 19th century a large group of Ersarï
Turkmens settled in one guzar (this shows that even at that time there were uninhabited parts in the territory of the city). All the groups that settled
in Samarqand from the end of the 18th century were concentrated in the northern and eastern parts of the city.
After the defeat of the Khanate of Bukhara by Russia in 1868, Samarqand was occupied by Russian troops and, in accordance with the peace
treaty, was annexed by Russia; it formed the center of the Zerafshan District, which in 1886 became the Samarkandskaya Oblast’ of the Governorate-
General of Turkestan. A new Russian part of the city was built to the west of the city wall (the wall itself was demolished by the Russians), and the
citadel was transformed into a Russian military fortress. In 1897 the entire population of Samarqand was 55,128; in 1908 the Russian part had a
population of more than 11,000, out of a total of more than 84,000.
Archeologists began exploring the site of the pre-Mongol city, Afrasiyab, at the end of the 19th century. More or less systematic excavations began
only in the 1950s, but the very large size of the area and its relief make this task very difficult. The excavation, in 1965, of a large mural painting
of the 7th century with Soghdian inscriptions was a sensational discovery. Outside of Afrasiyab, the most important archeological work was done
by the Russian archeologist V.L.Viatkin, who discovered and excavated in 1908-09 the remnants of the observatory of Ulugh Bek to the north-east
of Afrasiyab.
The most important surviving architectural monuments of Samarqand belong to the 14th and 15th centuries, mainly to the time of Timur and the
Timurids. The oldest is the Shah-i Zinda ensemble on the southern slope of Afrasiyab, a complex of 25 mausoleums, mostly of Timurid princes and
princesses, and a mosque of the 14th-15th centuries, built near the shrine of Qutham b. al-#Abbas (known as “Shah-i Zinda”). The Friday mosque,
popularly known as the Bibi Khanïm mosque, was built between 1398 and 1405 and was one of the largest and most lavishly decorated mosques in
the Islamic world; but it was built too fast and soon began to deteriorate, until the earthquake of 1897 finally destroyed its domes. The ruins of the
mosque are still impressive, and long-term restoration work is being carried out there. The Gur-i Mir (or “Gur Amir”), the madrasa and khanqah of
Muhammad Sultan Mirza, the favorite grandson of Timur, was originally built in 1401; in 1403 a large mausoleum was attached to it, where Mu-
hammad Sultan, Timur himself, and later Timurids are buried. The #Abdi Darun ensemble (a mausoleum built in the 1440s, with a khanqah and
madrasa built later) in the south-eastern part of the city, is well preserved. Another Timurid mausoleum, the #Ishrat-khana, built in the southern part
of the city in 1464, is in ruins. The city center (the former market place, the Registan) is dominated by three large madrasas: one built by Ulugh Bek
from 1417 to 1421, another, named Shir-Dar (pronounced “Shir-Dor”), built opposite it in 1619-1636, and the third, named Tilla-Kari, between the
first two, built between 1646 and 1660 (the latter served as the Friday mosque instead of the crumbling Bibi Khanïm). To the northwest of the Registan,
where it was relocated in the 1880s, is the funeral platform (dakhma) of the Abulkhayrids, of grey marble, with 31 tombstones of the members of
the dynasty, beginning with Shïbani Khan.

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41. SAMARQAND (CITY) IN THE 19TH CENTURY
 84

42. KHIVA (CITY) IN THE 19TH CENTURY

A settlement (probably an urban one) existed on the site of Khiva as early as the 4th-3rd centuries B.C.; as a city it is first mentioned by Arab geographers
of the 10th century. The ancient form of the name was Khivaq, which was still in literary use even in the 19th century, but the form Khiva was
registered already in the 10th century. It was then (as now) at the edge of cultivated land, close to the desert; Khiva was then one of the two cities
along the southern rim of the oasis of Khorezm, but the other, Hazarasp, was probably of greater importance. In pre-Mongol times the political and
economic centers of Khorezm were on the right bank of the Amu-Darya and in the north. It was only after the decline of these centers by the 17th
century that Khiva attained some prominence. After the Özbek conquest of the early 16th century, Khiva was still just one of the appanages of the
#Arabshahid sultans (see map 26). During the 16th century Khiva twice served briefly as a residence of the supreme khan, but only with the reign
of #Arab Muhammad Khan (1603-1622) did it finally become the capital of the Özbek khanate of Khorezm, which in Russian and West European
literature was known since the 18th century as “the Khanate of Khiva.” In 1740 Khiva was captured by Nadir Shah (see map 29) after he subjected
the city to a severe bombardment; a Khivan historian of the 19th century claims that this bombardment destroyed “most of the buildings” of the city,
but two English merchants who were in Khiva during the siege did not mention such destruction in their account. The same Khivan historian men-
tions in another place that the city wall of Khiva remained in ruins after the invasion of Nadir Shah, and that it was rebuilt in 1785-86 by Muhammad
Amin Inaq. Probably more destruction was caused to Khiva by the disturbances of the second half of the 18th century, when the Yomuts captured
the city in 1770, after which only forty families (according to another version, fifteen families) remained there. It was under the rulers of the Qongrat
dynasty, beginning with Muhammad Amin Inaq, that the city was restored and almost all the public buildings that now exist in it were built. The fact
that the great majority of the architectural monuments of Khiva were built during a relatively short period and have much in common in their style
makes this city a unique architectural ensemble.
Khiva is divided into two parts, the Ichan-qala (“Inner city”) and the Dïshan-qala (“Outer city”), which correspond, respectively, to shahristan and
rabad elsewhere in Central Asia. The Ichan-qala, which occupies an area elevated above the outer city by about 3-6 m, is of rectangular shape, about
650 m from north to south and about 400 m from west to east. It is surrounded by a mud wall about 5-6 m thick at the base and about 7-8 m high,
with towers. It initially had three gates, on the northern, western, and eastern sides, to which a fourth gate, on the southern side, was added between
1858 and 1867, after a lake that had existed on that side was drained. Most of the wall is well preserved. The walls of the Dïshan-qala, with 10 gates,
were built in 1842 by Allah-Quli Khan; they have been only partly preserved. Dïshan-qala is of an irregular shape, stretching from west to east about
2.5 km and from north to south about 1.5 km. As its main source of water, the Dïshan-qala had the Sïrchalï canal, which branched from one of the
major canals of Khorezm, the Palvan-(Pahlavan-)yab (or Palvan-arna), to the north. The Ichan-qala had no supply of running water, and its inhab-
itants had to bring water to their homes from reservoirs constructed near each of its gates, and from wells.
The exact figure of the city population in the 19th century is not known; estimates of Russian travellers give figures between 4,000 and 5,000
(apparently, only for the Ichan-qala). At the beginning of the 20th century the population (apparently, the Ichan-qala and Dïshan-qala combined) was
more than 19,000. Ethnically, the people were mostly Sarts (cf. map 35), with some Özbeks. The population consisted of craftsmen and merchants,
religious and state officials, and students of the madrasas, but the proportion of each of these groups is not known. Craftsmen and merchants were
concentrated more in the Dïshan-qala, where all the city bazaars were also located. The Ichan-qala was densely built and had no vegetation, while
the Dïshan-qala had numerous gardens, including the garden of Rafanik, which was the summer residence of the khans, and the garden and palace
of Nurallah Bay, which became the residence of Isfandiyar Khan in the early 20th century.
In the center of the western side of the Ichan-qala is the Kuhna Ark (“the old citadel”) of Khiva, built originally in the late 17th century, with an
open audience hall (körünüsh-khana) of the khan, built in 1804; this audience hall has a round platform for the ceremonial felt tent (“yurt”) used by
the khan to receive visitors. It also has a winter mosque and a summer mosque, and had other structures, mostly not existing now, where the khan’s
harem, the mint (from the early 19th century), and various offices were located before the construction of the Tash-hawli (see below). On the western
side of the Kuhna Ark there is a tower (or a mound) called Aq Shikh Baba, whose origin and purpose are not clear.
Khiva was not the chief center of commerce and crafts in Khorezm; this role remained that of the city of Urgench (rebuilt in the 17th century on
a new site), which also had a much larger population. The importance of Khiva was in its being the capital of the khanate and the seat of its central
administration, as well as in the fact that it had the highest concentration of Islamic institutions (mosques and madrasas) in the khanate. By 1920
Khiva had 79 mosques and 43 madrasas (in the Ichan-qala and Dïshan-qala together); a Russian envoy who visited Khiva in 1842 mentioned only
17 mosques and 22 madrasas (apparently, only those in the Ichan-qala). The madrasas of Khiva were not as popular in Central Asia as those of
Bukhara, but they did attract students not only from Khorezm, but also from the surrounding areas, especially Turkmens.
The oldest preserved architectural monument of Khiva is the mausoleum of Seyid #Ala ad-Din (14th century, reconstructed in the 18th century).
Several other buildings originally built before the 18th century were also substantially repaired or reconstructed at the end of the 18th and in the 19th
century. The most famous and conspicuous among them is the shrine of Pahlavan (“Palvan”) Mahmud, a saint, poet, and professional wrestler of the
14th century, who became the patron-saint of Khiva and the Qongrat dynasty. The shrine, which is known in Khorezm as “the gumbaz (dome) of
Palvan Mahmud,” is a complex that also includes a madrasa and a summer mosque; it also served as the burial place of the khans of Khiva, including
the #Arabshahids Abu’l-Ghazi and Anusha and almost all the Qongrats, beginning with Muhammad Rahim Khan I. The Friday mosque of Khiva is
an unusual open rectangular hall, with a minaret 32 m high next to it; its wooden roof is supported by 213 wooden columns with carved ornaments
and Kufic inscriptions. Other outstanding buildings are: the madrasa of Shir Ghazi Khan; the madrasa of Muhammad Amin Khan, with a minaret that
was intended to become the highest in Central Asia (up to 70 m, to judge by its base of 14 m diameter; the height of the finished part is 26 m) but
which remained unfinished after the khan was killed in a battle with the Turkmens in 1855 (hence its popular name Kalta Minar, “Short Minaret”);
two large madrasas near the eastern gates, those of Qutlugh Murad Inaq and Allah-Quli Khan; the caravanseray of Allah-Quli Khan and, opposite
it, the Tash-hawli palace built by the same khan; and the minaret of Islam Khoja, the highest in Khiva (44 m).

bregel4.pmd 84 5/26/2003, 1:05 PM

bregel4.pmd

A B C A' B' C'

Ca
1

na
85

lP
a. Ichan-qala ("Inner city")

al
an

v
cemeteries a 45 -ya
b
1 The preserved sections of 1 1 1
the inner city wall
The preserved sections of
the outer city wall 43 46
Dashayaq 44
1. Baghcha-darvaza gates (18th cent.) gates
42
2. Mosque of Ata Murad Qoshbegi
(19th cent.) 41

3. Mosque of Hasan Murad Qoshbegi Shahimardan C anal Sïrchalï

(19th cent.) 3 gates

alï
2

ïrch
4. Madrasa of Amir Türa (1870) 4

al S
5. Madrasa of Musa Türa (1841) 49 51

C an
5 47 48
6. Kuhna Ark ("old citadel"): e
a. Aq Shikh Baba tower (17th/19th cent.)
6 50
b. Körünüsh-khana (audience hall) c 7 Qoy-darvaza
(1804-06) a gates
c. Mint (1806-25) and summer mosque f 9
b d
20 8 52
d. Zindan (dungeon) (1910) 10 54
14
22 53
2 e. Harem (1865, 1910) 11 2 2 2
13
12 Tazabagh
f. Eastern gates gates
7. Madrasa of Yusuf Yasavulbashi (1906)
23 15 17 a
21 25 16
c
8. Madrasa of Dost A lam (1882)
24 26 18 b
27 29 19
9. Üch Awliya mausoleum (1549/1821) 28 Ca
n al Shikhlar
30 Zay gates
10. Madrasa of Muhammad Rahim Khan II kas
(1871) h
35 31
11. Madrasa of cArab Muhammad Khan 33
(1617/1838) 32 34
36 Baghishamal/Angarik
b. Dïshan-qala ("Outer city")
12. Madrasa of Muhammad Amin Inaq 37 gates
(1785) cemeteries
38
13. Tash-hawli palace (1830-38) 41. Madrasa Rafanik (1894)
14. Mosque of Sheykh Mukhtar Ata 50. Complex (mosque, madrasa, and
42. Madrasa at the house of Nurallah Bay
39 minaret) of Muhammad Mahram (1903)
5/26/2003, 1:05 PM

15. Madrasa of Muhammad Panah (1893)

("Matpana") Bay (1905)
16. Madrasa of Qutlugh Murad Inaq
(1804-12)
17. Caravanseray and tim of Allah-Quli Khan
3 (1832-33)
18. "Khurjum" madrasa (of Khojam-Berdi
Biy) (1688/1834)
19. Madrasa of Allah-Quli Khan (1834-35)
20. Ata-darvaza gates (18th cent.)
21. Madrasa of Muhammad Amin Khan
(1852-55)
22. "Kelte-minar" minaret (of Muhammad
Amin Khan) (1852-55)
23. Madrasa of Muhammad Niyaz
("Matniyaz") Divanbegi (1871)
c
24. Mausoleum of Seyid Ala ad-Din
(14th/18th cent.)
25. Madrasa of Qazï Kalan (1905)
26. Madrasa of Khojash Mahram (1839)
51. Tört Shabbaz complex (3 madrasas,
43. Nurallah Bay palace (1906)
mosque, mausoleum, minaret) (1885)
44. Audience-hall of Isfandiyar Khan (1912)
52. Complex (mosque, madrasa, minaret) of
45. Qosh-darvaza gates (early 20th cent.) Seyid Shaliker Bay (1842)
3 3 46. Mausoleum of Seyid Muhammad Mahruy 53. Complex (madrasa and minaret) of 3
("Magrum-Jan") (1887) Pahlavan ("Palvan") Qari (1905)
47. Mausoleum of Shah Qalandar Baba (16th 54. Abdal Baba complex (mosque and
cent. (?)-19th cent.) minaret) (18th-19th cent.)
40
48. Complex (madrasa and minaret) of Bike note: The size of Ichan-qala is approximately
Jan Bike (1894) 650 x 400m.
27. Friday mosque, with a minaret (end of the 34. Mausoleum of Pahlavan ("Palvan")
49. House of Muhammad Safa ("Mat-Safa")
18th cent.) Mahmud (1810, 1825)
Karvanbashi (19th cent.) 0 50 100 200 400 M
c
28. Madrasa of Abdallah Khan (1855) 35. Mazar-i Sharif madrasa (1882)
29. Mosque Aq-masjid (1838-42) 36. Madrasa of Atajan Bay (1884)
30. Bath of Anusha Khan (1657/19th cent.) A' B' C'
37. Madrasa and minaret of Islam Khoja
31. Pahlavan ("Palvan")-darvaza gates (1908-10)
(1806/1835)
38. Madrasa of Shir Ghazi Khan (1719-26)
32. Madrasa of cAbd ar-Rasul Bay (1906)
39. Baghbanlï mosque (1809)
33. Qari-khana, 1-4 (rooms for the reciters of
Qurcan) (1863, 1860-70, 1874, 1870-80) 40. Tash-darvaza gates (19th cent.)

A B C

© Yu r i B r e g e l 2 0 0 3

42. KHIVA (CITY) IN THE 19TH CENTURY

85
 86

43. MONUMENTS OF ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

Note: only the most important and better preserved buildings are mentioned below

Khorezm:
Aq-Saray Ding: mausoleum, 11th–12th cent.
Astana: mausoleum of Sheykh Mukhtar Vali, end of 13th–14th cent.
Baqïrghan: mausoleum of Hakim Ata and Seyid Ata, 15th cent.(?)
Dev-Kesken: complex (3 mausoleums and mosque), end of 15th–16th cent. (on the site of the city of Vezir)
Hazarasp: Friday mosque, 18th cent.
Imarat Baba: complex (3 mausoleums and mosque) near Qosh-Qupïr, 18th–19th cent.
Isma#il Baba: mausoleum in the region of Baghat, 19th cent. (?).
Ism-i Mahmud Ata: complex (mausoleum and mosque), south of Takhta, 18th–19th cent.
Khanqa: mosque and khanqah of Seyid Ata, 1766.
Khiva: see city map
Köhne-Urgench:
– minaret of Qutlugh Timur, between 1321 and 1333
– “mausoleum of Fakhr ad-Din Razi”, 12th cent. (as mausoleum was used from the 16th–17th cent.)
– “mausoleum of Töre-Bek Khanïm” (supposedly a mausoleum of the Sufi dynasty), 1360s
– “mausoleum of #Ali Sultan”, 14th or 16th cent.
– mausoleum (or khanqah) of Najm ad-Din Kubra, between 1321 and 1333
– mausoleum of Pir-Yar Vali, 14th–16th cent.
– mausoleum of #Ali Ramitani, 14th–16th cent.
Lalazem Ata: complex (khanqah and mausoleum), south-west of Takhta, 17th cent.
Mizdahqan: mausoleum of Mazlum-Khan Sulu, end of 13th–early 14th cent.
Mizrab Shah Khorezmi: mausoleum near Hazarasp, 16th–18th cent.
Sultan Uveys Baba: complex (mosque and mausoleums) in the Sultan Uveys Mountains, early 19th cent.
#Uthman Seyid Baba: mausoleum near Gurlen, 16th/19th cent.
Vayengan Baba: mausoleum in the region of Shavat, 16th/19th cent.

Turkmenistan (excluding Khorezm):

Aqcha-qala: caravanseray ca. 50 km northeast of Merv, on the road to Charjuy, 11th cent.
Daya-Khatïn: caravanseray on the road from Charjuy to Khorezm, early 12th/15th cent.
Gök Gumbez: three mausoleums in a cemetery 70 km north of Bayram-Ali, 14th–15th cent.
Khuday-Nazar Ovliya: mausoleum 28 km north of Bayram-Ali, 12th cent.
Makhtum-qala: mausoleum Makhtum, 15th cent.
Mashhad-i Misriyan:
– Shir-Kabir, mosque, 9th–10th/12th cent.
– minaret of Abu Ja#far Ahmad, 1004/5
– mosque of Khorezmshah Muhammad, with minaret, early 13th cent.
– anonymous mausoleums, 11th–12th cent.
Meana: mausoleum of Abu Sa#id b. Abi’l-Khayr, mid-11th/14th cent.
Merv (Old Merv):
– mausoleum of Sultan Sanjar, 1140s
– mausoleum of Muhammad b. Zayd, 1112/13
– tombs of the ashab (companions of the Prophet), 15th/19th cent.
– mausoleum of Yusuf Hamadani, 16th cent.
– Ovliyalï-köshk and Kelte-Minara: castles south of Merv, ca. 8th–11th cent.
Paraw: mausoleum of Paraw-Bibi, 11th–12th cent.
Serakhs: mausoleum of “Serakhs Baba” (Sheykh Abu’l-Fazl), 1020s/1417-18
Talkhatan Baba: building of ca. 1095, opposite the tomb of Sheykh Abu Bakr Muhammad
Vekil Bazar: two medieval castles, 10th–11th cent.
Yartï-gumbez: mausoleum about 8 km from Serakhs, 1098

Mavarannahr (including the left bank of the Amu-Darya in its middle course):
Astana-Baba:
– complex (2 mausoleums, ziyaratkhana, mosque), 12th/14th/19th cent.
– #Alam-Bardar mausoleum, 11th cent.
Bukhara: see city map
Chashma-Ayyub: mausoleum 10 km west of Vabkent, 11th–12th cent.
Dahbid: mosque of Mahdum-i A#zam, 16th cent.
Denau: madrasa of Seyid Atalïq, 16th cent.
Ghizhduvan:
– madrasa of Ulugh Bek, 1433/1583
– mausoleum of Khoja #Abd al-Khaliq
Hazara: mosque Diggaran, 11th cent.
Hisar:
– mausoleum of Makhdum-i A#zam, 15th–16th cent.
– Madrasa-i Kuhna, 16th–17th cent.
– Madrasa-i Naw, 17th–18th cent.
– Darvaza (gates of the citadel), 18th–19th cent.

bregel4.pmd 86 5/26/2003, 1:05 PM

bregel4.pmd

A B C D E
87

Baqïrghan

Ta
Qongrat Ch Almatï

las
u
Türkistan
l
Toqmaq s ï q - kö
1 L . Is 1
Zhambïl Bishkek
Dev-Kesken Nukus Burana
Lake Manas maus.
Sarïqamïsh Mizdahqan
Köhne-Urgench
Talas
c
Dashhowuz Uthman Seyid Baba

Sïr-D
Sultan Uveys Baba
Takhta Vayengan Baba Narïn
Aq-Saray Ding Beruni

arya
Ism-i Mahmud Ata Urgench
Safid-Bulend
Lalazem Ata Imarat Baba Khanqa
Khiva Hazarasp
Astana
Mizrab Shah Khorezmi
Ismacil Baba Tashkent

Amu-
Tash-Rabat
Namangan

D
Buston-Buva Uzgen

ar
Nurata Andizhan

ya
Qoqand Osh
Darghan-Ata Bibi Buveyda

A
Hazara Rabat-i Malik Khojend Ferghana
Daya-Khatïn Kanibadam
Chashma-Ayyub Kermine
Ghizhduvan Qala-i Dabus Jizak Artush
Ramitan Vabkent Ura-Tübe
Chorku
Paraw Sumitan Baha ad-Din Katta-Qurghan Dahbid Kashghar
Bukhara Tuti
Gïzïlarbat Tim Ingichka

N
2 Samarqand Penjikent 2
Qaraköl Zerafshan
Mazar-i Sharif
Qarrï-qala Kamashi Kitab Khoja Ilim Kan
Mashhad-i Misriyan Tura-masjid Pudina
Makhtum-qala Charjow
Kasbi Pulati Shahrisabz
Kawchin

I
Qarshi Yarkend
Kamashi Langar Dushanbe
Regar nj
Khuzar
Pakhtaabad Pa Murghab
Atre Hisar
k Ashgabat Vakhshuvar Aq-Astana Baba
Gök Gumbez Aqcha-qala Denau

ih a n

H
G or g a n Khuday-Nazar Ovliya

n
Astana-Baba

ha
Vekil-Bazar

h
rn
Kerki

hs
Kaahka Old Merv Sherabad rk k
Su Kulab

Kafi
Gorgan Marï Bayram-Ali Wa
Khoja 'Isa Bridge of Iskandar
Talkhatan Baba Khoja Rushna'i Jarqurghan

C
5/26/2003, 1:05 PM

Zu'l-Kifl Shaartuz
Fayzabad
Andkhuy

Ko
Meana Abu HurayraTermez Sayed kc h a
Aqcha Balkh
Serakhs Haji Piyada Qunduz
Mu

Shibergan
I R A N Imam-Sahib Mazar-i Sharif
rghab

Mashhad Yartï-gumbez
N
Sar-i Pul A
Maymana T Madrasa-i Varzu
3
Bala-Murghab ab
S 3
International borders (borders between the Central Kushka I

lkh
Asian republics not indicated)

Ba
Shah-i Mashhad N
Major urban centers with architectural monuments A
Kuhsan
Kush-Rabat H Sarkhushak
Other sites of architectural monuments
A F G Bamiyan
Azadan GazurgahKarukh Shahr-i Ghulghula
100 0 100 200 300 KM Ghalvar Chisht
Rabat-i Pay Herat Kabul
Obeh
Ziyaratgah Sirvan Harir u d Jam

A B C D E
© Yu r i B r e g e l 2 0 0 3

43. MONUMENTS OF ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

87
 88

Ingichka: mosque of Astana Ata, 16th cent.

Iskandar bridge: near Jarqurghan, second half of the 16th cent.
Jarqurghan: minaret, 1110
Kamashi: sardoba, 1892
Kasbi: Sultan Mir Haydar, complex (2 mausoleums of 14th cent., summer mosque of 16th cent. (?), winter mosque and minaret of 18th–19th cent.)
Kermine:
– Mir Seyid Bahram, mausoleum, ca. 1020
– Qasim Sheykh (complex: khanqah, mosque, and dakhma), 2nd half of the 16th cent.
Khoja Ilim Kan: khanqah, 16th cent.
Khoja #Isa: mosque and mausoleum, 11th–12th cent.
Langar: mausoleum of Langar Ata, first half of the 16th cent.
Mazar (or Mazar-i Sharif): Muhammad Bashshara mausoleum, 11th–12th cent./1342-43
Pakhtaabad: “Podsho Pirim” mausoleum, 15th cent.
Pudina: complex (mausoleum of Ishaq Ata, 11th cent.; mausoleum of Ishaq Ata’s daughter, 12th cent.; mausoleum of Qutham Ata (Qutham Sheykh),
11th–12th cent.; two mausoleums of the 14th cent.; mosque of 16th–17th cent.; other structures)
Pulati: mosque-khanqah, 16th cent.(?)
Qala-i Dabus: khanqah of Imam Bahra, 16th cent.
Qaraköl: two mausoleums on ancient cemetery near Qaraköl: Shaburgan Ata, 11th cent., and Chiburdan Baba, end of the 14th (?) cent.
Qarshi:
– Kök-Gumbaz, mosque (namazgah), 16th cent.
– bathhouse, 1592-93
– bridge over the Qashqa-Darya, second half of the 16th cent. (mostly reconstructed)
Rabat-i Malik: caravanseray, 11th cent. (only a part of the main façade extant)
Ramitan: khanqah of Mulla Mir, ca. 1587
Regar: Khoja Nakhshran, 2 mausoleums, 11th–12th and 15th cent.
Samarqand: see city map
Sayed: Khoja Mashad, complex (two mausoleums and madrasa), 11th–12th cent.
Shaartuz: Khoja Durbad, mausoleum on a cemetery south of Shaartuz, 11th–12th cent.
Shahrisabz:
– Aq-Saray, palace, end of the 14th cent.
– Dar as-Siyadat, complex (mausoleum of Timur’s son Jahangir, 1379-80; crypt intended for Timur’s tomb; mosque, 19th cent.)
– Dar at-Tilavat, complex (mausoleum of Sheykh Shams ad-Din Kulal, end of the 14th cent.; mausoleum known as Gumbaz-i Seyyidan, 1437;
mosque Kök-Gumbaz, 1434-35)
– Charsu (trade arcade), 17th cent.
– Bathhouse, 18th cent. (possibly earlier)
Telpak-Chinar: mausoleum Aq-Astana Baba, 10th–11th cent.
Termez:
– Hakim-i Termezi, complex (mausoleum, 1081-95; mosque, 12th cent.; mausoleum, end of the 13th cent.; khanqah, 15th cent.)
– Sultan Sa#adat, complex (13 mausoleums of the seyids of Termez, 10th to 17th cent.)
– Kokildora, khanqah, 16th cent.
Tim: #Arab-Ata, mausoleum, 977
Ura-Tübe: Kök-Gumbaz (mosque of #Abd al-Latif), mid-16th cent.
Vabkent: minaret, 1196-1199
Vakhshuvar: Sufi Allahyar mosque, 1713
Zu’l-Kifl: complex (mausoleum, mosque, ziyaratkhana) on Aral-Payghambar Island on the Amu-Darya, 11th–12th cent.

Sïr-Darya basin (Tashkent, Ferghana, Kïrgïzstan):

Andizhan: Madrasa-i Jami#, 1874-77, and a minaret, 1877
Bibi Buveyda: mausoleum, 20 km from Qoqand, 15th–16th cent.(?)
Burana: minaret, 11th cent.
Buston Buva: mausoleum, 15th–16th cent.
Chorku: Mazar-i Amir Hamza, mausoleum, 11th–12th cent.
“Gumbez of Manas”: mausoleum of Kenizek Khatun, 1334
Kanibadam: madrasa of Mir Rajab Dodkho, 16th–17th cent.
Khojend: mausoleum of Maslahat ad-Din, 16th cent.; mosque, 20th cent., and a minaret
Namangan: mausoleum of Khoja Amin (“Khujamnï Qabrï”), end of the 18th cent.
Qoqand:
– madrasa of Narbuta Biy, 1799
– Friday mosque, 1815
– Dakhma-i Shahan, mausoleum, 1830s
– Madar-i Khan, mausoleum, 1825
– Urda (palace of Khudayar Khan), 1870
Safid-Bulend: Shah Fazil mausoleum, 11th–1st half of the 12th cent.
Tash-Rabat: caravanseray, 12th cent., restored between 1408 and 1415
Tashkent:
– Zengi Ata, complex (mausoleums of Zengi Ata and his wife, Ambar Ana, end of the 14th – first half of the 15th cent.; mosque, 19th cent.;
madrasa, 17th/early 20th cent.; minaret and gates, 1914-15)
– mausoleum of Yunus Khan, 1490s
– “Sheykhantaur” (Sheykh Khavand-i Tahur), complex (of which only two mausoleums remain: that of Sheykh Khavand-i Tahur, 15th–19th cent.,
and of Qaldïrghach Biy, presumably 1st half of the 15th cent.)
– Baraq Khan, complex (madrasa of Baraq Khan, 1531-32; mausoleum of Söyünch Khoja Khan, 1530-32; anonymous mausoleum)

bregel4.pmd 88 5/26/2003, 1:05 PM

 89

– mausoleum of Abu Bakr Qaffal Shashi, 1541-42

– Kukeldash madrasa, 1560s
– mausoleum of Zayn ad-Din Baba, 12th/14th–16th/19th cent.
Turkestan: mausoleum of Ahmad Yasavi, early 15th cent.
Tuti: mausoleum of Abd al-Qadir Jilani, end of the 15th–16th cent.
Uzgen:
– 3 mausoleums of the Qarakhanids (early 11th cent., 1153, 1186-87)
– minaret, 11th cent.

Afghan Turkestan:
Abu Hurayra, mausoleum, 11th cent.
Andkhuy:
– mausoleum of Ishan Baba Vali, 1386
– madrasa, 15th cent.
Azadan: mausoleum of Abu’l-Valid, 15th cent.
Balkh:
– mausoleum and mosque of Khoja Abu Nasr Parsa, 1460/61
– madrasa of Subhan-Quli Khan, late 17th cent.
– mausoleum of Mir-i Ruzadar, 15th cent.
– mausoleum of Khoja Rushna"i (Rawshana"i?)
Chisht: madrasa, 12th cent.
Gazurgah: Khoja #Abdallah Ansari, complex (mausoleum, pavilion, cistern), 1428-29
Ghalvar: mosque, 1441/42
Haji Piyada (Nuh Gunbadh) mausoleum, 16th cent.
Herat:
– Qal#a-i Ikhtiyar ad-Din, citadel, 15th cent.
– madrasa of Tuman Agha, 14th cent.
– mausoleum of Shahzada Abu’l-Qasim, 15th cent.
– Gawhar Shad complex (mausoleum, remnants of the madrasa, minarets), 15th cent.
– mausoleum of Mir-i Shahid, 1485/86
Imam-Sahib: mausoleum of Baba Hatim, 11th cent.
Jam (= Firuzkuh): minaret, 12th cent.
Karukh: mosque, 1128
Kuhsan: madrasa of Tuman Agha (known as Gawhar Shad mausoleum), 15th cent.
Kush-rabat: caravanseray, late 15th cent.
Madrasa-i Varzu, 1st half of the 11th cent.
Mazar-i Sharif: shrine of #Ali, second half of the 15th cent.
Obeh: Friday mosque, 1428/29
Rabat-i Pay: mosque, 13th–16th cent.
Sarkhushak: fortified complex (citadel, palace, mosque, tomb), 10th–13th cent.
Shah-i Mashhad: madrasa, 1175/76
Shahr-i Ghulghula: fortress, remains of two mosques, 11th–13th cent.
Sirvan: minaret (collapsed), 11th cent.
Ziyaratgah:
– Chihil Sutun mosque, 12th cent. (?)—1510
– Friday Mosque, late 15th cent.

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 90

44. THE END OF THE 19TH AND THE EARLY 20TH CENTURIES: WESTERN TURKESTAN UNDER RUSSIAN RULE

At the time of the conquest of the Central Asian khanates (see map 32), Russia began to introduce a new administrative system for the conquered
territories. This administration underwent several modifications and received its final form only in 1899. After that time, all territories in Central
Asia annexed by Russia during the 19th century were divided among five different jurisdictions. The major part of these annexed territories formed
the Governorate-General of Turkestan, with its capital in Tashkent, subdivided into five oblast’s (the map gives their official Russian names): Trans-
caspian, Sïr-Darya, Samarqand, Ferghana, and Semirech’e. The oblast’s of Akmolinsk and Semipalatinsk formed the Governorate-General of the
Steppe, and two oblast’s, of Turgay and Ural’sk, were directly subordinate to the Russian minister of the interior. The truncated khanates of Bukhara
and Khiva were retained, under their existing rulers, as Russian protectorates. Following the pattern of the administrative structure in the rest of
Russia, the oblast’s were subdivided into uezds, and the latter into volost’s. The governor-general of Turkestan was a serving general under the war
ministry, and the governor-general of the Steppe was subordinate to the ministry of the interior. The governors of the oblast’s and the “uezd com-
mandants” were also military officers. The administration of the lower units, heads of volost’s and village elders, were natives elected by popular
vote. Officially this system was called “military-popular administration” (voenno-narodnoe upravlenie), and it resulted, on the one hand, from the
Russian government’s belief that only firm military rule could keep the country in the hands of the Russians, and, on the other hand, from the desire
to make the local administration as inexpensive as possible. Such a desire was also the main reason for the preservation of the two khanates. Each
of them had a special status. Bukhara did not officially become a Russian protectorate, and its amir was treated by the Russian government as an
independent ruler. Amir #Abd al-Ahad (1885-1910) even played a visible role in Russian society, visiting Russia annually and being received at the
court in St. Petersburg. Until 1888 official relations between the khanate and Russia were conducted through the exchange of occasional embassies
between Bukhara and Tashkent; in 1888 the Russian Political Agency in Bukhara was established, with a dual responsibility, to the foreign ministry
in St. Petersburg and to the governor-general in Tashkent. Greater control of the khanate came with the construction of the railroad through its ter-
ritory and the establishment of Russian border posts on the Amu-Darya, which also became Russia’s customs border in 1895. The Khanate of Khiva
never enjoyed even a semblance of independence. All relations between the khanate and Russia were conducted through the commandant of the
Amu-Darya district (otdel) in the newly built Russian town of Petroaleksandrovsk, subordinate to Tashkent. The khan was not treated as an indepen-
dent ruler and did not often visit Russia. One thing the two protectorates had in common was that the Russian government did not interfere in their
internal affairs and administration, being content as long as peace was preserved, the rulers were in full command, and the legal rights of Russian
subjects, especially merchants, were observed. The entire administrative and social structure of the khanates remained unchanged, except that their
armies were reduced and slavery was abolished.
After the creation of an entirely new administrative structure, the strongest effect of Russian rule was on certain aspects of the Central Asian economy.
In agriculture, the major economic impact was a sharp increase in cotton cultivation, following the increased demand of the Russian textile industry
and the introduction of American cotton to Central Asia in the early 1880s. By the beginning of the 20th century Central Asia supplied half of Russia’s
cotton needs. In the industrial development of Russian Central Asia the main innovation was the railroads, the first of which, from Mikhaylovskiy
Bay on the Caspian Sea to Qïzïl-Arvat, was built in 1881 by Skobelev, but for purely strategic purposes. By the end of the 1890s it was extended
to Tashkent (crossing the Khanate of Bukhara), with a branch line to Ferghana. In the early 20th century other branch lines were added, and in 1906
the railroad from Orenburg to Tashkent was completed. The railroads gave a great boost to cotton cultivation, making the transport of the Central
Asian crop to the textile centers in European Russia much cheaper and faster. The railroads also contributed to the development of industry in the
cities they connected, as well as to a greater mobility of the population. Most of the industrial enterprises were cotton-ginning mills, and by World
War I almost two thirds of them were own by the locals. About 80 percent of all skilled workers (on the railroads, practically all) were Russians,
and this social group, new in Central Asia, was especially susceptible to the socialist propaganda brought from European Russia at the beginning of
the 20th century.
In cultural life, the most important innovation brought by the Russians was the introduction of the printing press, book publishing, and newspa-
pers. New ideas were brought to the native population, from the end of the 19th century, by Tatar intellectuals who developed a program of liberal
cultural and political reforms among the Muslim subjects of the Russian Empire, based on a reformed system of Muslim education called usul-i jadid
“new method”; from this term the Muslim reformers in Central Asia began to be called “Jadids.” The Jadids established their schools and in 1905-
1907, and then again between 1912 and 1916, published several newspapers in Persian and Turkic; but all the Jadid newspapers failed due to a lack
of subscribers, and, on the whole, the influence of the Jadids on Central Asian society before 1917 was almost negligible.
From the mid-1880s there were sporadic local riots, sometimes as a response to certain Russian administrative measures, and, more generally, as
expressions of popular discontent with “infidel” rule. The most serious was a revolt, under religious slogans, in the region of Andizhan in 1898 led
by Muhammad #Ali Ishan, in which some 2,000 local people participated; the revolt was quickly suppressed. Resentment of the local population
against Russian rule and outbursts of hostility against the Russians increased in the first years of the 20th century, especially as a result of the eco-
nomic crisis of 1899-1903 and the defeat of Russia in the war with Japan in 1904. During the Russian revolution of 1905-1906, there were strikes,
as well as troop disorders, in the Governorate-General of Turkestan, but this revolutionary activity involved only the Russians, and the native pop-
ulation did not participate in it in any noticeable way.
The resentment toward Russian rule grew sharply with the increase of Russian colonization after 1910 and the beginning of World War I, which
caused a steep rise in the cost of living and an increase in taxes, as well as other economic difficulties. The first open native uprising, however,
happened not in the Governorate-General of Turkestan, but in the Khanate of Khiva, where the Turkmens, under Junayd Khan, captured Khiva in
early 1916, deposed the khan and killed three of his ministers. The rebellion was suppressed in February and March by the governor of Sïr-Darya
oblast’, who levied a huge indemnity upon the Turkmens. Three months later, on 25 June 1916, Tsar Nicholas II issued a decree ordering the mobilization
of the native male population (19 to 31 years old) of Turkestan, Siberia, and some other regions for the construction of defense and communication
lines in the rear of the Russian armies. The decree came at the height of field work in the cotton-growing areas, and, to add insult to injury, during
the Muslim month of fasting (Ramazan). Riots and rebellions began immediately in July, and spread throughout the Governorate-General and in the
Qazaq steppe, both in the major cities and in the countryside. The Russian government answered with a proclamation of martial law and mass re-
prisals. The most serious outbreak in the sedentary areas was the rebellion in the Jizak district, where the religious leaders proclaimed holy war
against the Russians. During the suppression of this revolt by Russian troops a thousand natives were killed and the town of Jizak was destroyed.
In August, the rebellion spread to Semirech’e and to the Qïrghïz regions, where it became a virtual war between the Qazaqs and Qïrghïz on the one
side, and the Russian settlers on the other; some 2,000 settlers and an even greater number of Qazaqs and Qïrghïz perished, and many Qïrghïz fled
to China. In September, disturbances began among the Yomut Turkmens near the Iranian border, and their rebellion was put down only in December.
Rebellions also took place throughout the Qazaq steppe, where the most stubborn fighting was around the town of Turgay, which was besieged by
the Qazaqs from late October to mid-November. All of Russian Central Asia was finally pacified by the end of 1916. But the rebellions of 1916 were
only a prologue to the events of the revolution that began the next year.

bregel4.pmd 90 5/26/2003, 1:05 PM

 91

A B C D

Kazan'
Borders of the Russian Empire in Central Asia
Perm' Borders of the khanates of Bukhara and Khiva under
the Russian protectorate
Borders of the Governorate-General of Turkestan
Saratov
1 Borders of the oblast's (before the WWI) 1
Samara Main areas of Russian peasant colonization
ga
Vol Ekaterinburg Main areas of anti-Russian rebellions in 1916
Tsaritsïn Ufa Tobol'sk Raid of Junayd Khan on Khiva in 1916

Tiumen' 100 0 100 200 300 400 KM

Khanskaya Cheliabinsk
Stavka Ural'sk
Y Ilek Orenburg
E
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al

U D
Ur

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R
O B

U R A L'S K A Y A
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n

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F Hisar Osh
4 Kelif Dushanbe N A 4
B U SK Bay
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u

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hs
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T'

rir Yangi Hisar

Fayzabad
ud A N Ya
rk e nd Yarkend

A B C D
© Yuri Bregel 2003

44. THE END OF THE 19TH AND THE EARLY 20TH CENTURIES: WESTERN TURKESTAN UNDER RUSSIAN
RULE

bregel4.pmd 91 5/26/2003, 1:05 PM

 92

45. REVOLUTION AND CIVIL WAR IN WESTERN TURKESTAN, 1917-1922

On February 27 (by the Julian calendar, as was used in Russia before 1918; March 11 by the Gregorian calendar) of 1917, as a result of the revo-
lution in St.Petersburg, Tsar Nicholas II abdicated and the Provisional Government came to power in Russia. At first this government left in place
the old administration in Turkestan, but in April it replaced it with its own Turkestan Executive Committee. At the same time, following the pattern
of European Russia, Soviets (“councils”) of Workers’ and Soldiers’ (but not Peasants’) Deputies were organized in the major cities of Turkestan.
They included representatives of only the non-native population; the native population lacked the political organization to represent its interests adequately.
In the 1910s revolutionary propaganda was very strong among the Russian soldiers and railway workers in Central Asia, and they were the chief
force behind the revolutionary events that ensued. The Tashkent Soviet played the central role in these events. It was dominated by the Bolsheviks,
who were able to win over the Russian military forces stationed in Central Asia. The situation became explosive in the fall of 1917, with a deepening
economic crisis, severe food shortages, and growing unrest in various parts of Central Asia. On September 12-16 (Julian; 25-29 Gregorian) the Tashkent
Soviet organized an uprising, which was suppressed by the forces of the Provisional Government. But after the Bolshevik revolution won in St.Petersburg
on October 25/November 7, a new uprising in Tashkent was successful, and on November 1/14 the Tashkent Soviet seized power. The same month
the Third Regional Congress of Soviets in Tashkent formed the new government, the Turkestan Council of Peoples’ Commissars (Turksovnarkom),
whose chairman was F. Kolesov.
After the flat refusal of the Soviet authorities in Tashkent to co-opt the Central Asian Muslims into the new government, the National Central
Council (a Muslim organization that had been formed in May 1917) convened a conference in Kokand at the end of November 1917, where it pro-
claimed the creation of the Government of Autonomous Turkestan. The government in Kokand lacked financial and military resources and failed in
its attempts to gain recognition and support in other parts of Central Asia. The Turksovnarkom was unable to suppress the “Kokand Autonomy” as
long as Turkestan was cut off from European Russia by the White forces south of Orenburg (see below). When the Orenburg front of the Whites was
pierced in January 1918, Red troops from this front arrived in Tashkent. In January 1918 Kolesov proclaimed that the Kokand government was “counter-
revolutionary,” and at the end of February Soviet troops captured the old city of Kokand after a four-day siege; the city was sacked and destroyed,
and more than 10,000 of its inhabitants were massacred. This was accompanied by the confiscation of food from the population of the area, resulting
in famine. The Muslim population of the Ferghana region soon responded by beginning guerrilla fighting, which became known as the Basmachi
movement, against the Soviet authorities. In Ferghana the Basmachis established contacts with the “Peasant Army” of the Russian settlers of Semirech’e,
who also fought the Bolsheviks; together, they captured the eastern part of Ferghana in the fall of 1919.
In Bukhara, after the “February” revolution in Russia, the amir #Alim Khan, fearing for his throne and yielding to Russian pressure, issued a manifesto
with a vague promise of reforms. The manifesto disappointed the Bukharan Jadids (who had become more active after the beginning of the revolu-
tionary events in Russia), but it encountered strong opposition from the much more numerous conservative Bukharan clerics and their supporters,
and the reforms were abortive. The Jadids, who began to be called the Young Bukharans, split into moderate and radical factions, and after the Bolshevik
revolution the radicals established contacts with the Turksovnarkom and proposed to Tashkent that it send troops to Bukhara in support of the planned
uprising there. The amir tried not to provoke Tashkent into taking actions against him, but after the liquidation of the Kokand government, the Turk-
sovnarkom directed its attention to Bukhara. In the middle of March 1918, Kolesov marched on Bukhara with a small military unit, but he was defeated
and repelled by the amir’s forces, which were supported by the population, and could extricate himself only with difficulty.
In Khiva, Russian troops withdrew from the Amu-Darya district in January 1918, and the khanate came under the domination of Junayd Khan, a
Yomut chieftain, who acted through Isfandiyar Khan and arrested and executed some Jadid leaders; the remaining ones escaped to Tashkent and
formed a Young Khivan revolutionary committee-in-exile there.
Another challenge to the authority of the Turksovnarkom came from the Transcaspian Region. After the fall of the Provisional Government, the
Turkmens convened a regional congress, which elected a National Executive Committee under Colonel Oraz Serdar, supported by a squadron of
Turkmen cavalry. Kolesov arrived at Askhabad (before his Bukhara adventure) with a detachment of Soviet troops, disarmed the Turkmen squadron,
and restored Soviet authority. But in June 1918 there were anti-Soviet riots in Askhabad. The Turksovnarkom sent Commissar Frolov there, who
started reprisals and unleashed a “Red Terror”; this provoked a new rebellion, Frolov was killed in Kizil-Arvat, and the rebels seized power. They
formed a Government of the Transcaspian Region, supported by an All-Turkmen Congress, and Oraz Serdar became the commander of its forces.
These forces were, however, inadequate to withstand the anticipated attack from Tashkent, and the Transcaspian government appealed for assistance
from General Malleson, commander of the British forces in northern Iran; he sent a small detachment of Anglo-Indian troops, which were placed
along the Transcaspian railway. However, the Transcaspian government lost its support among the Turkmens, and in March 1919 the British troops
withdrew to Iran. In May 1919, Red troops captured Merv, and by early February 1920 they occupied the entire Transcaspian region.
In the second half of 1918 and the first half of 1919 a serious threat to the emerging Soviet rule in the former Governorate-General of Turkestan
came from the steppe regions in the north. In the fall of 1917 these regions were in a state of anarchy. Initially, the Bolsheviks took control of the
Soviets in the cities in the steppe oblast’s, while, after the fall of the Provisionary Government, in December 1917, the All-Qazaq Congress in Orenburg
formed an autonomous Qazaq government named Alash-Orda. In some cities the Bolsheviks and the Alash-Orda claimed authority simultaneously,
but neither of them was able to enforce it. Real power in the northern part of the steppe in 1918 was mostly in the hands of the Ural, Orenburg, and
Sibir Cossacks. The Alash-Orda was divided into two parts, the western (with its center near Ural’sk) and eastern (with its center in Semipalatinsk);
the western part allied itself with the Orenburg Cossacks of Ataman Dutov, while the eastern part was allied with the Sibir Cossacks of Ataman
Annenkov and the government of Siberia in Omsk under Admiral Kolchak. Dutov’s Cossacks were able to cut the connection between European
Russia and Tashkent two more times, in July 1918 and April 1919. But in July 1919 the Red Army began a general offensive on the eastern front,
and by the end of the year all the steppe regions were captured by the Reds. At the end of December the Alash-Orda in Semipalatinsk was disbanded
and officially joined the Soviets.
By the end of 1919 the Soviet government could start dealing with the Khanates of Khiva and Bukhara. Taking advantage of disturbances in the
Khanate of Khiva brought on by the fighting between the Turkmens under Junayd Khan and his Turkmen and Özbek enemies, and by the appeal of
the Young Khivans, the commander of Soviet troops in Turkestan, M. V. Frunze, launched an invasion of the khanate from Petroaleksandrovsk (Turtkul’).
Junayd fled to the Qara-qum desert, the last Qongrat khan of Khiva, #Abdallah, was forced to abdicate, and at the end of April 1920, the First All-
Khorezmian Congress of Soviets abolished the khanate and proclaimed the Khorezmian People’s Soviet Republic. Next, it was Bukhara’s turn. After
several more months of political maneuvering, Frunze orchestrated a “popular revolt” in Charjuy at the end of August 1920, and the “Bukharan
Revolutionary Committee” asked the Red Army for help. The khanate was invaded from three directions, and Bukhara fell on September 2; on October
6, the First All-Bukharan Congress of Soviets abolished the khanate and proclaimed the Bukharan People’s Soviet Republic. The amir #Alim Khan
escaped to the Basmachis in the eastern regions of the khanate, and in the spring of 1921 he left for Afghanistan.
The Basmachi movement received a strong boost with the arrival in 1921 of a Turkish adventurer, Enver Pasha, a Young Turk, who was able to
unite the various Basmachi bands in the southeast into a stronger fighting force. The Soviet government answered by intensifying punitive expedi-
tions, but at the same time took some political and economic measures aimed at attracting the native population to its side. On June 15, 1922 the
forces of Enver Pasha were defeated decisively, and on August 8 he himself was killed. In the mountainous regions and among the Turkmens, the
attacks of the Basmachis continued until the early 1930s, but they had only local importance. And during the civil war a new administrative structure
began to emerge in the former Russian Central Asia (see map 46).

bregel4.pmd 92 5/26/2003, 1:05 PM

bregel4.pmd

A B C D E

Tiumen' Front lines:

9.8.19
Ekaterinburg
15.7.19 -at the end of August 1918
Tara
-at the end of February 1919

End Ju
Kazan‘
Kama
-at the end of April 1919

l
bo
ne 1919

ïsh
-at the end of June 1919

To
Ir t Novonikolaevsk
Cheliabinsk Kurgan -in the middle of August 1919
Ufa 24.7.19
1 1
93

22.11.17 Offensives of the Red Army on the Eastern

.1 919
-A p r Front:
March Omsk

E nd F e
Samara Petropavlovsk 14.11.19 -in September – November 1918
m 31.10.19
Troitsk hi Barnaul -in December 1918 – February 1919

b.
En

Is
d -in 28 April – 19 June 1919

19
Ap
r. 1 28.12.18

19
End Jun 91
9 General offensive of the Red Army on the
Saratov ga e 19
Vol 19 Kustanay Kokchetav Eastern Front in July – December 1919

July 1919
19.8.19
June
1919
15.1.18 Mid Aug. 1919 Kush- Offensives of the White troops
Orenburg Pavlodar
Murun
Ilek 2.1.18
Attack of the troops of the Tashkent Soviet
Ural'sk Orsk against the government of “Autonomous
18

Atbasar 25.12.17
11.7.19
O 30.8.19 Turkestan” in Qoqand
19

. End Feb
ug . 191
r Akmolinsk
9 e n b u Operations of the Red Army in Central Asia
A

28.11.19
d

Co r g in 1919 – 1920
En

ks Ust'-Kamenogorsk

19
ssacks 19 Bayan-Aul
ps

Tsaritsïn 15.12.19
ac
19 eb
. Semipalatinsk Operations of the Red Army against the
(D
oo

19 uto v ) dF 3.12.19
s s v)
. Aktiubinsk En Du Basmachi in 1921 – 1922
ug
da tr

A o o 2.9.19 to v
id
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l To l 19
M 0
g. Turgay Kokpektï
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r ( d 5.12.19
2 En Karkaralinsk 1919 2
U
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Emba y 12.12.19
ga
Jan. 1920
A las

Ural

11.9.19 Siege of Ural’sk by the Whites

r
Tu
Irgiz Sergiopol' L. Z
aysa n Concentrations of the White troops

19
Chelkar 19.9.19
1 0. Zaysansk
3. destroyed by the Red Army

A yaguz
11.9.19
to

Ja n . 1 9 1 9
Astrakhan' Gur'ev Emba
92
Retreat of the White troops in 1920

1
5.1.20
0 Chuguchak
u British intervention in the Transcaspian on
rï-s
Sa Lake Balkhash 12 August 1918
Aral'skoe More
Withdrawal of the British in March 1919
L. Barköl

Qa r a
2.12.17 Ala-köl Man Main regions of the Basmachi movement in
Fort ta a
Aleksandrovskiy Kazalinsk l 1918 – 1922

s
Lepsinsk
S e a

Kopal Regions of anti-Soviet uprisings of Russian

L. Ebi-nur Urumchi
Aral 30.10.17
Il i peasants
Hami
Perovsk
Sea Ch Qulja Red army garrisons Turfan
u
12.6.20 Dates of the initial proclamation of the
a 6.11.17
ï- D ary Soviet rule in the cities
Y an
s p i a n

Suzak 3.3.18 Askhabad

to

Derbent 9.7.19 Dates of

L. capture of cities
Baghrash-köl
Vernïy es
Ir a

Qongrat 1.1.18 Yanï-Qurghan

3 20.6.20 Te k Qarashahr
3
n

Chimbay 6.11.17 1.1.18 Anti-Soviet rebellions (with dates)

5/26/2003, 1:05 PM

-A

Feb. 1920 Turkestan Aulie-Ata

pr.

Kunia- Nukus Government of Admiral Kolchak

Urgench Pishpek
19

27.11.19 Przheval'sk

S ï r - Da r y a
L. I Government of “Autonomous Turkestan” in
20

2.1.20 Talas s sïq - k ö l Bay Kucha

Lake Chimkent Qoqand
Sarïqamïsh
Baku Tashhawz Urgench Narï n rim
y

14.11.17 Narïn Ta “Provisional government of Ferghana”

U z bo

Turtkul' Aqsu
f
o n Khiva 7.11.20 (Madamin Bek)
Krasnovodsk
t r e at K h a Hazarasp 18-20.1.19
Tashkent 20.11.20 Uchturfan Aq
-no
r
6.2.20 su LopRed troops
C a

re ayd 1.2.20 Namangan

Occupation of Bukhara byL.the
Jun 23.12.17 Andizhan
A

en
Nur-Ata Chinaz –22.2.18

rch
Darghan-Ata 24.9.19
Raids of Junayd Khan in Khorezm
Amu -

Kokand

he
6.12.19 Khojend Osh C
Cheleken I. Ghijduvan
9

N
91

Kazanjik Kermine Jizak 26.9.19 Offensive of Madamin Bek and the “Peasant
Skobelev Maralbashi
.1

Da

ya Bukhara Army” of Monstrov against Andizhan in

ug

Irkeshtam
20
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2.9.20 Ura-Tübe
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19 Katta- Kashghar summer 1919

. Oghurcha I. Qurghan Samarqand erafshan Kashgh a r Cherchen
en

eb Qaraköl

I
Kizil-Arvat Z
F
hsh Attacks of the Basmachi in Eastern Bukhara
Wak
by

15.12.17 Kitab
11-12.7.18 Charjuy 1.9.20 21.2.21 Yangi Hisar in 1918 – 1922

H
Dushanbe Garm

K h o tan
Rasht Qarshi Yarkend
un

Askhabad Siege of Baysun by the Basmachi

Chikishliar Murghab
t il

9.7.19 Denau
17
an . 5 .19 nj Siege of Dushanbe by the Basmachi under

C
Go r g Atr Baysun Kulab Tashqurghan
Pa

e Merv Enver Pasha

Astarabad Bojnurd k Bayram-Ali Kerki Qurghan- Khotan
Qazvin Amul 23.5.19 Kelif 17.7.22
21.5.19 Tübe Keriya Defeat and death of Enver Pasha at Baljuan
4 4
Quchan Aqcha Termez on 8 August 1922
Damghan Andkhuy Fayzabad Ya
r k e nd
Tehran
Bu

Sebzevar Qunduz
Serakhs Shibergan
kha

Nishapur Mazar-i
Balkhab

Mashhad
Am

Meruchak Sharif 100 0 100 200 300 400 KM

ra Fe
ir of

In
dus
Maymana
b. 1921

I R A N Jam rghab S T A N
Mu
N I
Kushka
24.5.19
A BRITISH
A F G H
Ha

rir
ud Herat Kabul INDIA
A B C D E

93
© Yu r i B r e g e l 2 0 0 3

45. REVOLUTION AND CIVIL WAR IN WESTERN TURKESTAN, 1917-1922

 94

46. THE “NATIONAL DELIMITATION” OF CENTRAL ASIA AND THE CREATION OF THE SOVIET REPUBLICS

Before the revolution of 1917 the program of the Russian Communists (Bolsheviks) on the nationality question in the Russian Empire included the
right of each nation of the empire to self-determination up to and including secession. However, after the revolution and during the Civil War this
program evolved away from the right of separation toward the idea of a federation of autonomous republics under one central government. The republics
had to be based on the national principle: each of them had to unite within its borders the population that belonged to the same “nation” defined
primarily on the basis of their ethnicity, and especially a common language. The idea of a “nation” was, however, totally alien to Central Asia in the
1920s, so that the creation of the new republics had to be accompanied by the creation of the respective nations themselves. This task was relatively
easier in the regions inhabited by the three major nomadic, or semi-nomadic, peoples of Western Turkestan—the Qazaqs, the Qïrghïz, and the Turkmens,
each of whom differed from the rest of the Central Asian population not only by its language, but also by various ethnographic features and by their
distinct ethnic consciousness. It was much more difficult with the population of the major sedentary areas, which had normally defined itself not on
the basis of language (the more so, as Turkic-Iranian bilingualism had been widespread in these areas for many centuries), but on the basis of re-
ligion and of belonging to a specific geographical region or even a local community. There was an understanding among the Soviet leaders that the
Özbeks were the politically dominant group in the sedentary regions, but there was a total misunderstanding of the origin and place of the Sarts (cf.
maps 30, 33, 35, 42), so that even the use of this term was banned and the Sarts (as well as the “Chaghatays” in Mavarannahr, cf. map 35) were
equated with Özbeks. The Tajiks, the most ancient sedentary group of Central Asia, were initially almost entirely forgotten.
The first republic that emerged in the former Russian Central Asia was not yet based on the national principle: it was the Turkestan Autonomous
Soviet Socialist Republic, or ASSR (as a part of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, RSFSR), which was initially proclaimed by the
Tashkent government in April 1918 on the territory of the former Governorate-General, but whose draft constitution was rejected by Moscow. The
new constitution, under which the Turkestan ASSR was admitted to the RSFSR, was adopted in September 1920. In August 1920 the Qazaq regions
(the former Semipalatinsk, Akmolinsk, Turgay, and Ural oblast’s, a part of Astrakhan’ oblast’, and the Mangïshlaq uezd of the former Transcaspian
oblast’) were united into the Kirgiz ASSR with its capital in Orenburg, within the RSFSR (the name “Kirgiz” continued the erroneous Russian usage
of the 18th-early 20th centuries). In December 1922 the RSFSR was included, together with Ukraine, Belorussia, and the Transcaucasian Federation,
in the newly formed SSSR (in English, USSR, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics).
The main obstacle for the recarving of Central Asia according to the national principle was the existence of the successors of the khanates of
Bukhara and Khiva—the respective “people’s republics.” In 1922-1923 Moscow tightened its control over these republics and organized purges of
“hostile elements” in their governments. In October 1923 the Khorezmian People’s Republic was proclaimed anew as the Khorezmian Soviet Social-
ist Republic, and in September 1924 Bukhara was proclaimed anew as the Bukharan Soviet Socialist Republic. During the same years, intensive
ethnographic and statistical surveys were done in all regions of Central Asia, to establish a basis for the expected redrawing of the boundaries. In
October 1924 the Central Executive Committee of the USSR voted to create two new union republics, the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR)
and the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic, as well as the Tajik Autonomous Republic (ASSR) within the Uzbek SSR, and the Kara-Kirgiz Auton-
omous Oblast’ within the RSFSR (Kara-Kirgiz being the name used by the Russians before the revolution for the Qïrghïz). In May 1925 the Kirgiz
ASSR was renamed the Kazak ASSR, and it included the Kara-Kalpak Autonomous Oblast’, which became the Kara-Kalpak ASSR in 1932; also in
May 1925, the Kara-Kirgiz Autonomous Oblast’ was renamed the Kirgiz Autonomous oblast’ (and in February 1926 it became the Kirgiz ASSR).
In December 1929 the Tajik ASSR was separated from the Uzbek SSR and became a union republic, the Tajik SSR; at the same time the Khojend
district (which also included the western part of the Ferghana valley) was transferred from the Uzbek SSR to the Tajik SSR. The last such changes
took place in 1936, with the adoption of the new constitution of the Soviet Union: two autonomous republics of the RSFSR were elevated to the rank
of union republics and became the Kazakh (the new spelling adopted at that time) SSR and the Kirgiz SSR, and the Kara-Kalpak ASSR was trans-
ferred from the Kazakh SSR to the Uzbek SSR.
The new republics were carved out of the administrative units that had existed before and during the first years after the revolution (see map). The
drawing and redrawing of the borders between the republics was ostensibly based on surveys conducted before the “national delimitation,” but it had
to take into account not only the languages, but also economic factors and (sometimes above all) the often conflicting interests of influential groups
of Communist leaders in the republics. As a result of the partition of the sedentary regions of Central Asia between the Uzbek and the Tajik repub-
lics, the main urban centers of the Tajik population, Samarqand and Bukhara, remained in the Uzbek SSR—a fact that has remained a source of
tension between the two republics to the present time. There were also many other areas where the “national delimitation,” far from being ideal,
became the source of future conflicts.
Since a nation was defined first of all on the basis of its language, defining “national languages” in Central Asia presented a difficult problem. At
the time of the revolution the sedentary peoples of Central Asia did not have their “national languages”: the main literary language (and the language
of official correspondence) in the khanates of Bukhara and Qoqand was Persian (or Tajik), while in Khorezm it was Chaghatay (or “Central Asian
Türki”); the latter was the common literary language of all Turkic-speaking groups of the Central Asian population until the 20th century. After the
creation of the Soviet republics, the use of Chaghatay, advocated by some Central Asian intellectuals, was rejected by the Soviet authorities, because
of its perceived connection with Pan-Turkic ideas that were considered subversive. A new literary language was gradually created for the Özbeks
based on vernacular dialects. The traditional Arabic alphabet, which had been in use for all Central Asian languages, was replaced in 1923 by a
reformed version. In 1929-30 this was replaced by Latin alphabets modified for each language, and in 1940-41, these were replaced by modified
Cyrillic alphabets.
The independence of the Central Asian Soviet republics proclaimed in their constitutions was pure fiction. In reality, they were under strict control
from Moscow, this control being exercised through the centralized apparatus of the Communist party of the Soviet Union; it decided all matters of
policy and especially the appointments to key positions in the party and in the governmental apparatus of the republics. The first party secretary in
a republic was, as a rule, a representative of the “titular nationality” of this republic, but the second secretary was always a Russian, sent from Moscow,
who would ensure the compliance of the local party and government with the decisions of the center. The local authorities usually had more leeway
in matters of culture, but only insofar as they followed the general ideological guidelines established by the Central Committee of the Communist
party of the Soviet Union.

bregel4.pmd 94 5/26/2003, 1:05 PM

bregel4.pmd

A B C D

International borders
Perm' Borders of the Soviet republics as of 1 May 1922
Borders of the Soviet republics as of 20 November 1924:
Saratov borders of Kirgiz [=Kazak] ASSR of RSFSR, and
1 1 Turkmen SSR
borders of Kara-Kirgiz [=Kirgiz] Autonomous
Samara
ga Oblast' of the RSFSR
Vol Ekaterinburg
95

border of Uzbek SSR

Tsaritsïn Ufa R S F S R Tobol'sk border of Tajik Autonomous Oblast' (since March 1925
– ASSR) of Uzbek SSR
Tiumen'
Cheliabinsk Borders of the Soviet republics as of 1 September 1925:
Ural'sk border of Tajik ASSR (since 1929 – Tajik SSR)
Orenburg
Ilek (capital 1920-24) borders of other union republics
Troitsk Kurgan

al
Border of Kara-Kalpak Autonomous Oblast' within Kazak

Ur
Ishim ASSR (since October 1924)
Border of Kara-Kalpak Autonomous Oblast' within RSFSR
Astrakhan'
(since July 1930)
Orsk
To b ol Kustanay Petropavlovsk Territory of the former Turkestan Governorate-General
Aktiubinsk
Omsk included in Turkestan Autonomous Republic (of RSFSR) in
April 1918
Gur'ev
Temir Territory of the former Turkestan Governorate-General
included in Turkestan Autonomous Republic in 1918 and
2 a Kokchetav 2 transferred to Kirgiz Autonomous Republic on 26 August

m
Emb a

z
e

Ishi
Irgi
1920
S

Novonikolaevsk
Fort Atbasar Territory of the Khanate of Khiva to February 1920 and

Ir tï
Aleksandrovskiy Turgay then Khorezmian People's Soviet Republic from May 1920
i a n

sh
Irgiz O to September 1924
Chelkar

b'
gay Territory of the Khanate of Bukhara to August 1920 and
ur Akmolinsk then Bukharan People's Soviet Republic from October

T
Pavlodar Barnaul
1920 to September 1924
C a s p

K A Z A K A S S R Territory ceded by Uzbek SSR to Tajik SSR in 1929

1 Uzbek SSR
(within RSFSR) Bayan-Aul
2 Tajik SSR

Aral 3 Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Oblast' of Tajik SSR

Sea Kazalinsk -su Border of Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Oblast'
Sa r Karkaralinsk Semipalatinsk

ï
Krasnovodsk
Qongrat Ust'-Kamenogorsk
Chimbay 100 0 100 200 300 400 KM

3 Kunia-Urgench AK Kzïl-Orda Kokpektï 3

Uzbo
(w R A (capital 1924-29) alkhash
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Tashhawz
ith - K L. B Sergiopol'
T i n A L. Z
U Khiva Urgench Ka L PA a
5/26/2003, 1:05 PM

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las

k
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Askhabad
Poltoratsk (1921-24) Aulie-Ata
Ashkhabad
IRAN
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(from 1924) Bukhara Kermine Tashkent (capital

Chimkent
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Sebzevar Kaahka 1 Pishpek (from 1921 Alma-Ata; L. Ebi-nur
R

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Am

Khojend Chust Qulja

Nishapur Qurghan Frunze)
(Leninabad)
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A CHINA 4
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ud AFGH ANISTAN
Ya
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Yarkend

A B C D
© Yu r i B r e g e l 2 0 0 3

95
46. THE “NATIONAL DELIMITATION” OF CENTRAL ASIA AND THE CREATION OF THE SOVIET REPUBLICS
 96

47. CENTRAL ASIA TO THE YEAR 2000

The republics created during the “national delimitation” of Central Asia, with some later changes (see map 46), existed until the dissolution of the
Soviet Union in December 1991. Among the most dramatic political developments during this period was the forced collectivization carried out from
1930 to 1932, affecting most heavily the Qazaqs, who were subjected at the same time to forced sedentarization. This caused huge losses of livestock
(slaughtered by the Qazaq nomads) and a widespread famine; in many regions there were spontaneous rebellions suppressed by Soviet troops, and
some 300,000 Qazaqs fled to neighboring countries, primarily China. The Qazaqs lost 85% of their beef cattle, 88% of their horses, 93% of their
sheep, and 94% of their camels; at least 1.5 million Qazaqs died as a result of famine and epidemics. In other republics the collectivization caused
a new flare-up of the Basmachi movement, as well as the flight of some groups of the population to Afghanistan and Iran. Collectivization was soon
followed by Stalin’s “Great Purges” of the mid-1930s, during which hundreds of thousands were persecuted and perished. The purges wiped out
most of the old Central Asian educated class.
The economic development of Soviet Central Asia, besides the disastrous collectivization, was characterized by an overwhelming stress on cotton
cultivation (at the expense of cereals). Although there was substantial industrial development, especially in mining, the production of electric power
and natural gas, and in industry serving agriculture (manufacture of fertilizers, irrigation equipment, and cotton machinery), the stress on cotton not
only remained, but increased during the Soviet period, and Soviet Central Asia became a region of monoculture. Exacerbated by extremely ineffi-
cient central planning, insufficient investment, low productivity, and widespread corruption, it had disastrous consequences for the environment. Since
cotton requires more water for irrigation than other crops, more and more water was diverted to irrigation canals and reservoirs from the two main
Central Asian rivers, the Amu-Darya and the Sïr-Darya. As a result, by the 1990s these rivers dried up before they reached the Aral Sea; the Aral
Sea began quickly to lose water to evaporation and was on its way to becoming a salt marsh. Northern winds carried salt and sand from the dry sea
bed over hundreds of miles, creating numerous public health problems, especially in Khorezm. The Soviet authorities were unable and unwilling to
cope with these problems. In Kazakhstan another severe environmental problem was caused by the testing of nuclear weapons, conducted west of
Semipalatinsk without any concern for the health of the population.
Soviet rule in Central Asia was marked by attacks against Islamic institutions, the closing of numerous mosques and shrines, the persecution of
religious officials, and the growth of anti-religious propaganda aimed at Islam; all this was combined with efforts to use the cultural achievements
of Central Asian Muslims in Soviet propaganda aimed at other Islamic countries. One of these achievements was the educational system, which
included compulsory primary and secondary education in the native languages, as well as the opening of universities and colleges in all major urban
centers. From the 1940s, a new native educated elite emerged, whose members were co-opted by the Soviet system, rose to positions of influence
in the party and state apparatus, and had a vested interest in the preservation of this system.
When the Soviet system collapsed and the Soviet Union disintegrated after the August 1991 abortive “Putsch” in Moscow, the Communist leaders
of the Central Asian republics quickly proclaimed their independence (in Kazakhstan, however, with some hesitation). But the democratic forces in
Central Asia were weak, and independence resulted in the emergence of regimes that were at best autocratic, like those of Kazakhstan and Kyr-
gyzstan, and at worst despotic, like the neo-Stalinist regimes of Uzbekistan and especially Turkmenistan. The president of Turkmenistan, Saparmu-
rad Niyazov, established a bizarre personality cult, adopting the name Türkmenbashi (“Father of the Turkmens,” obviously imitating Kemal Atatürk)
and renaming cities, streets, and even the days of the week with his own name. The economy of the republics is still plagued by the old woes, especially
the reliance on cotton-growing, although Kazakhstan has good prospects of becoming a major oil-exporting country with the development of the
Tengiz oilfields on the north-eastern shores of the Caspian Sea, and Turkmenistan may become a major exporter of natural gas. The environment is
in even worse shape than under the Soviet regime, and the Aral Sea has all but entirely disappeared. The worst situation has been in Tajikistan,
where civil war has raged since 1992, as a result of which about 50,000 people were killed in 1992 alone (especially in the Pamir region), about
800,000 have had to flee their homes, and the economy has been devastated. In 1997, a political and military settlement was reached, but complete
peace has still not been achieved.
While Western Turkestan was firmly under Russian rule from the 1870s on, Eastern Turkestan, after the restoration of Chinese rule in 1877 (see
map 32), enjoyed a great deal of autonomy and was initially administered by the Chinese bureaucrats who accompanied Zuo Zong-tang in his recon-
quest. In 1884 the entire region (Kashgharia and Jungharia) was made a province of China under the name Xinjiang (“The New Dominion”). After
the Chinese revolution of 1911, and until 1944, the province was ruled by three successive warlords, all of them ethnic Chinese (Han), who had their
own armies, collected their own taxes, and maintained their own diplomatic relations with Russia; the local administration remained in the hands of
native leaders. It was during this period that the name Uyghur, long forgotten in Eastern Turkestan, was revived and began to be used to designate
all of the sedentary Turkic-speaking population of the oases, who until then used to call themselves only by the names of their localities (Kashghar-
lïq, Aqsulïq, Loplïq, etc.). Under the governor Yang Zengxin (1911-1928), Xinjiang was, for all practical purposes, independent. During the 1920s
and 1930s there was growing Soviet influence in Xinjiang, which was especially strong in the regions of Qulja, Chuguchaq, and Altay; in Kashghar
and the Tarim basin the predominant influence (until the end of Yang’s rule) was that of Great Britain. In 1930 Yang’s successor attempted to centralize
the administration of the province, triggering the major Dungan rebellion from 1931 to 1934. A new governor-warlord, Sheng Shicai (1933-1944),
in return for aid from Moscow in quelling the rebellion, granted the Soviet Union exclusive rights to the exploitation of Xinjiang’s mineral and petroleum
resources, and a monopoly on its export trade. He proclaimed himself a Marxist and joined the Communist party of the Soviet Union, but no Com-
munist party was established in the province. At the end of 1942, when the Soviet Union looked as if it was close to being defeated by Germany,
Sheng purged the province of Communists and had the Soviets withdraw from Xinjiang; in 1943 he pledged his allegiance to the Guomindang government,
which began to send its troops and officials to the province. But in 1943-1944 a mass rebellion broke out in Jungharia, where rebel Qazaqs and
Uyghurs proclaimed the establishment of an independent “Eastern Turkestan Republic,” which had its center in Qulja, and which received help from
the Soviet Union. In October 1949, Xinjiang was captured by the Chinese People’s Liberation Army, and Communist rule in the province was es-
tablished.
Under the the People’s Republic of China, Eastern Turkestan has formed the Xinjiang-Uyghur Autonomous Region, which also has five autono-
mous districts, including two with Mongol populations, one with a Qazaq population, and one with a Qïrghïz population. The Beijing government
has pursued a policy of directing a large-scale Chinese migration to the province, mainly to the Junghar basin, where the ethnic Chinese (Han) now
form a majority.

bregel4.pmd 96 5/26/2003, 1:05 PM

bregel4.pmd

A B C D E
Tavda
Borders between the union republics until 1991;
Tiumen' Tomsk since 1991 – international borders
Ekaterinburg
Tara Other international borders
Kazan‘
U S S I A Natural gas pipelines
R

ol
b
Crude oil pipelines

sh
To
ï
S S I A N F E D E R A T I O N ) Irt Novosibirsk 1 Qaraqalpaqstan (autonomous republic within Uzbekistan)
( R U Ufa
97

Cheliabinsk Kurgan Gorno-Badakhshan (Mountain Badakhshan)

1 Omsk
2 1
Autonomous Oblast'

Samara Area disputed between China and India

'
Ob
Petropavl
Troitsk (Petropavlovsk) The border of Gorno-Badakhshan within Tajikistan
Barnaul

im
The border of Qaraqalpaqstan within Uzbekistan
Magnitogorsk

Ish
ga
Vol The border of Xinjiang-Uygur Autonomous Region
Qostanay
Saratov within China
Kökshetau
(Kokchetav)
Tobol 100 0 100 200 300 400 KM
Kush-Murun Pavlodar
Orenburg
Oral Atbasar
(Ural'sk) Orsk

Öskemen
Astana (Ust'-Kamenogorsk)
Volgograd Bayanaul
Aqtöbe
(Aktiubinsk)
(Akmola, Tselinograd,
Akmolinsk)
Semey
Zïrian M O N G O
(Semipalatinsk) L I
A
Ural

Qaraghandï
Turgay (Karaganda)
2 rga
y
Qarqaralï Qaraghaylï 2
Emba Tu
Irgiz
K A Z Irgiz
A K H S T A L. Z
aysa n
Astrakhan' ba
Ayaguz N
Em
Shalqar (Chelkar)

Aya g u z
Atïrau Zhezqazghan
(Gur'ev) Baykonur Tacheng
u
rï-s (Chuguchak)
Sa Balqash Lake Balkhash
Aral
L. Ala-köl

Qa r a t
Barkol
Fort al
Shevchenko L. Ebi-nur Urumqi
Shihezi
S e a

Qazalï Taldïqorghan (Urumchi)

Aral
Hami
Aqtau Mangïshlaq Sea Qïzïlorda Ch
u Yining (Qulja) Turpan (Qomul)
U P E O P L E S R E P U B L I C
Z Il i
B
Tenge O F C H I N A
i a n

Suzak
Derbent E Almatï
Yanïqurghan es

Ta
3 Qongrat K (Alma-Ata) Te k
Yanqi (Qarashahr)

las
Zhambïl
Chimbay I Türkistan (Jambul)
Kuqa
(Kucha)
Korla
L. Lop-no
r
S

S ï r - D ar a
Nukus Bishkek
5/26/2003, 1:05 PM

Köhne- 1 (Frunze) Przheval'sk

Arïs
Urgench Uchquduq T L . I s sïq - k ö l Baicheng
a s p

Baku Beruni Shïmkent (Chimkent) Aq

A
y
(Bay) im
K Y R G YNarZ S T A N
Dashhowuz su Aksu r
Urgench ïn Ta
Khiva Narïn
N Tashkent
Wushi (Uchturfan)
Namangan Jalalabad X I N J I A N G - U Y G U R
Türkmenbashi T U Nurata
L. Ayda
r-k Qoqan Andizhan
A U T O N O M O U S R E G I O N
R K
C

(Krasnovodsk) Darghan-Ata Osh

Gazli
öl

Nebitdag M Navoi Jizak Ferghana Qïzïl-Kiya

en
Shule
Gïzïlarbat E Bukhara Kattaqurghan Khojend (Kashi, Kashghar) Bachu (Maralwexi)
erc
h
(Kizil-Arvat) N Qarakul Ura-Tübe Ka
shghar Ch
I Samarqand Qiemo
S Zerav
s h an Yengisar (Qarqan, Cherchen)
T Charjow
Shahrisabz
Garm
A
Am

Dushanbe
J I K I S T A N
Ashgabat u Qarshi Shache (Yarkend)
(Ashkhabad) N T A
-D

ar y
an a Denau nj Mur g hab
Go r g Atr
Tez

Bojnurd Kulab Taxkorgan (Tashqurghan) Minfeng (Niya)

Pa

ek Marï 2 Yutian (Keriya)

Qazvin Gorgan Kerki Hotan
he n

Qa Bayram-Ali Qurghan-Tübe Khorog

4 Amol 4
Quchan ra q
um can a l cha
Tehran
Sebzevar Andkhuy Termez K ok Ya
Damghan Fayzabad r k e nd
Mashhad Serakhs Aqcha
Shibergan Mazar-i Sharif N
Nishapur A Khotan
Balkhab

Qum T In
Maymana S dus
I R A N Torbet-e Jam rghab
I
Kushka
Mu ol
K

Kashan
Line of contr
A

A F G H A N I S T A N
Ha

rir
P

ud Herat Kabul I N D I A
A B C D E
© Yuri Bregel 2003

47. CENTRAL ASIA TO THE YEAR 2000

97
This page intentionally left blank

Note: the index refers to the map numbers; a number with an asterisk indicates a name that appears on the map as a number, or a symbol (explained in the legend); a number in italic
indicates the text accompanying the respective map
Ab-i Kuhek R. 19 4C, 20 4C, 21 4C, 22
4C, 23 2C, 24 4C, 25 4C, 26 4C, 27 4C,
28 4C, 41 1C; see also Zerafshan
Ab-i Mashhad can. 41 2B
Ab-i Qaysar R. 12 4B, 35 4B
Ab-i Rahmat can. 41 1C
Ab-i Safed R. 35 4B
Aba Bekr Dughlat 23 2D, 24, 24 4D, 25,
25 4/3C-D, 26
Abaqa 19, 19 4B
{Abbas I 27
{Abbasid Caliphate 10 4A-B, 19
{Abbasid Caliphs, {Abbasids 9, 10, 13, 13
2A, 14, 16, 17, 17 2A
{Abd al-Ahad 44
{Abd al-{Aziz Khan, Ashtarkhanid 28
{Abd al-{Aziz Khan Md. 40, 40 2C
{Abd al-{Aziz Sultan, Abulkhayrid 40
{Abd al-Karim Khan 27
{Abd al-Latif b. Ulugh Bek 22
{Abd al-Malik b. Muzaffar ad-Din 32
{Abd al-Mu}min b. {Abdallah 27
{Abd al-Qadir Jilani, Ms. of (in Tuti) 43
{Abd ar-Rashid Khan 26, 27
{Abd ar-Rasul Bay Md. 42a 2B*
Abdal (Turkmen tribe) 36a, 36a 1A, 36b
1A
Abdal Baba complex 42b 2C*
{Abdallah Ansari, Khoja, Ms. (in
Gazurgah) 43
{Abdallah b. Qazaghan 21
{Abdallah Khan, Chaghatayid 28
{Abdallah Khan, Qongrat 45
{Abdallah Khan II b. Iskandar 27, 28, 40
{Abdallah Khan Md. (in Bukhara) 40 2B
{Abdallah Khan Md. (in Khiva) 42a 2C*
Abiverd 6 4B, 7 4B, 8 4B, 9 4B, 10 4B,
11 4B, 12 3A, 13, 13 2B, 14 4B, 15 4B,
16 4B, 17 2B, 18 4B, 19 4B, 20, 20 4B,
21 4B, 22 4B, 23 2B, 24, 24 4B, 25 4B,
26, 26 4B, 27, 27 4B, 27 insert, 28 4B,
29 4B, 30 4B, 31 4B, 34 4B, 36a,
36a 3B, 36b 3B, 37 4C
Ablay Sultan (Khan) 30, 31
Abu {Ali Chaghani 12
Abu {Ali Simjuri 12
Abu Bakr Qaffal Shashi, Ms. of (in
Tashkent) 43
Abu Bakr Muhammad, Sheykh, tomb
of 43
Abu Bakr Sa{d, Imam 40
Abu Davudids (dynasty) 11 4C, 12, 12 3C
Abu’l-Fayz Khan 29, 30
Abu’l-Ghazi Sultan (Khan) 28, 33, 36a,
42
Abu Hafs-i Kabir Mz. 40, 40 1A
Abu Hurayra Ms. 43, 43 3C
Abu Ja{far Ahmad, minaret of 43
Abu’l-Khayr Khan 22, 22 1C,2A-C,3B,
24, 25
Abu’l-Muhsin Mirza 25
Abu Muslim 9, 10
Abu Nasr Parsa, Ms. and Mq. of 43
Abu Sa{id, Ilkhanid 20
Abu Sa{id, Timurid 22, 22 4/3A-C, 24
Abu Sa{id b. Abi’l-Khayr, Ms. of 43
Abu’l-Valid, Ms. of (in Azadan) 43
Abulkhayrids (dynasty) 24, 26, 26 4/3B-
C, 27, 27 4/3B-C, 28, 40, 41
Achaemenids (dynasty) 2, 3, 4
Adaq 36a
Adaqlï (Turkmen tribe) 36a, 36a 2B
adat 38
Aday (Qazaq tribe) 38 2A-B
Adigine (Qïrghïz tribe) 39, 39 1/3B-C
Afghan Turkestan 1, 2, 35, 36b, 43
Afghanistan 19, 30, 31, 31 4B-C, 32 4B-
C, 36b, 37, 43 3C-D, 44 4A-B, 45, 45
4B-C, 46 4A-B, 47, 47 4B-C
Afghans 29, 30, 31
Afrasiyab (pre-Mongol Samarqand) 2
4C*, 41, 41 1B
Afrighids (dynasty) 11 3B, 12, 12 1/2A
Afsharids (dynasty) 30 4B
afshin 8, 11
Agha Muhammad Shah 30 4A-B
Ahangeran R. 1, 35 2C
bregel5.pmd 99
index
INDEX
Ahmad [I] b. Asad 10, 11
Ahmad II b. Isma{il 11, 12
Ahmad Jalayir 21
Ahmad Khan (“Alacha”), Chaghatayid 23
2D-E, 24, 25
Ahmad Khan, of Golden Horde 22 2A
Ahmad Sanjar – see Sanjar
Ahmad Shah Durrani 30
Ahmad Yasavi, Ms. of 43
Ajina-tepe 2 4C*
Ajmer 13 4D, 17 4D
Akes R. 3 4A-B, 4 4A, 5 4A; see Atrek
Akhal 1 4B, 32
Akharun 12 3C
Akhsi 20 3C, 21 3C, 22 3C, 23 2D, 24
3C, 25 3C, 26 3C, 27 3C; see also
Akhsiket
Akhsiket 2 3C*, 5 3C, 6 3C, 7 3C, 8 3C,
9 3C, 10 3C, 11 3C, 12 2D, 13 2D, 14
3C, 15 3C, 16 3C, 17 2D, 18 3C, 19
3C; see also Akhsi
Akhsisek 10 4C, 11 4C, 12 3B
Akmola 47 2C; see Akmolinsk
Akmolinsk 31 2C, 38 1C, 44 2C, 45 2C,
46 2C
Akmolinsk (Akmolinskaya) oblast’ 44, 44
3/2B-C, 46
Aksu (Gumo) 39 2E, 47 3D; see Aqsu
Aktiubinsk 32 2B, 32 2C, 44 2B, 45 2B,
46 2B, 47 2B
Al-i Muhtaj – see Muhtajids
Ala-Buluk 33 4C
Ala-Dagh Mts. 1 4B
{Ala ad-Dawla [b. Baysunqar] 22
{Ala ad-Din Atsïz – see Atsïz
{Ala ad-Din Husayn, “Jahansuz” 16
{Ala ad-Din Muhammad – see Muhammad,
Khorezmshah
{Ala al-Mulk Termezi 17
Ala-köl L. 1 2D, 2 2D, 3 2D, 4 2D, 5 2D,
6 2D, 7 2D, 8 2D, 9 2D, 10 2D, 11 2D,
14 2D, 15 2D, 16 2D, 18 2D, 19 2D, 20
2D, 21 2D, 22 2D, 24 2D, 25 2D, 26
2D, 27 2D, 28 3D, 29 3D, 30 2D, 31
2D, 32 2D, 34 2D, 38 2E, 44 3D, 45
2D, 46 3D, 47 2D
{Alam-Bardar Ms. 43
Alash-Orda 45, 45 2A
Alay Ra. 1 4C, 39
Alay valley 27, 32, 39
Alban (Qazaq tribe) 38, 38 2D-E
Aleppo 21
Alexander the Great 3, 4, 41
Alexandria ad Caucasum 3, 3 4C
Alexandria Eschatae 3, 3 4C, 4
Alexandria in Ariana (Aria) 3, 3 4B, 4
Alexandria in Margiana 3, 4
Alexandria of Bactriana 3; see Bactra
Alexandria (Antiochia) on the Oxus 2
4C*, 3, 3 4C
Alexandria (Antiochia) Tarmata 4 4C;
see Termez
Alghu 19
{Ali (imam), shrine of (in Mazar-i
Sharif) 43
Ali-eli (Turkmen tribe) 36a, 36a 2/3B,
36b, 36b 3B-C, 37 4C,D*
{Ali Ramitani, Ms. of 43
{Ali Sultan, {Arabshahid 26, 27
“{Ali Sultan, Ms. of” 43
{Ali Tegin 13
Alichur R. 1 4C, 6 4C, 7 4C, 8 4C, 9 4C,
10 4C, 11 4C, 12 3D, 15 4C, 16 4C, 18
4C, 19 4C, 20 4C, 21 4C, 25 4C, 26 4C,
27 4C, 28 4C, 31 4C, 39 4B
{Alim Biy (Khan) 31
{Alim Khan, amir 45
{Alim Khoja Mq. 40 1C
{Alim-Qul, Mulla 32
{Alimjan Md. 40 3C*
Alimulï (Qazaq tribal group) 38, 38 1/3A-
C Anusha Khan’s bath 42a 2C*
Allah-Quli Khan 42
Allah-Quli Khan Md. 42, 42a 2C*
Allah-Quli Khan’s caravanseray and
tim 42, 42a 2C*
Alma-Ata (Almatï) 46 4C, 47 3D; see
also Vernïy
Almalïq 15 3D, 16 3D, 17 1D, 18, 18 3D,
19, 19 3D, 20, 20 3D, 21 3D
Almatï 39 1C, 43 1E, 47 3D; see also
Alma-Ata, Vernïy
Alp-Arslan 14, 14 3/2B, 15
Alp Qutlugh Bilge Qaghan 10
Altan-Khans (dynasty) 28 2E
Altay Mts. 1 2E, 7, 8, 11, 15, 19, 30, 39
Altay region (of Xinjiang) 47
Altïn-asar 2 3B*
Altïshar 1 3/4D; see also Kashgharia
Altïulï Horde (Jemboyluq) 27 2B
Altuntash 13
Alvand 23 1A-B
Ambar 33 4B
Ambar Ana 43
Amin Mq. 40 2C*
amir 12, 20, 31
Amir-i Ma{sum – see Shah Murad
Amir Türa Md. 42a 1C*
Amol 47 4A; see Amul (in Mazanderan)
{Amr b. Layth 10, 11
Amu-Dar’inskiy otdel (Amu-Darya
district) 44 3B, 45
Amu-Darya R. 1, 1 3/4B, 2 3/4B, 3, 3 4B,
4, 4 3/4B, 5, 5 4B, 6, 6 4B, 8, 9, 10 3/
4B, 11, 11 4B, 12 2/3B, 13, 13 2C, 14,
14 4B-C, 15, 15 4B, 16, 16 4B-C, 17
2C, 18, 18 4B, 19, 19 4B, 20, 20 3/4B,
21, 21 4B, 22, 22 3/4B, 23 2C, 24, 24
3/4B, 25, 25 3/4B, 26, 26 4B, 27 4B,
28, 28 4B, 29, 30, 30 4B, 31, 31 4B,
32, 32 4B, 33, 33 2A,5C, 34 4B, 35, 35
2B, 36a, 36a 2C, 36b, 36b 2C, 37, 37
2C, 38 3C, 42, 43, 43 2C, 44, 44 4B, 45
3/4B, 46 4B, 47, 47 4B; see also Oxus,
Wehrot, Jeyhun
Amu-Darya district – see Amu-Dar’inskiy
otdel
Amul (in Mazanderan) 10 4A, 11 4A, 14
4A, 15 4A, 16 4A, 18 4A, 19 4A, 20
4A, 21 4A, 22 4A, 23 2B, 24 4A, 25
4A, 26 4A, 27 4A, 28 4A, 29 4A, 30
4A, 31 4A, 32 4A, 34 4A, 45 4A; see
also Amol
Amul (on the Amu-Darya) 4, 5, 9 4B, 10
4B, 11 4B, 12 3B, 13 2C, 14 4B, 15 4B,
16 4B, 17 2C, 18 4B, 19 4B, 20 4B, 21
4B; see also Charjuy
Anatolia 11, 14, 21, 36a, 37
Anau 2 4B*
Anbar 12 4B
Anderab 12 4C
Andijan 1 3C, 19 3C, 20 3C, 21 3C, 22
3C, 23 2D, 24 3C, 25 3C, 26, 26 3C, 27
3C, 27 insert, 28, 28 3C, 29 3C, 30, 30
3C, 31 3C, 32 3C, 34 3C; see also
Andizhan
Andizhan 35 2D, 38 3D, 39 2B, 43, 43
2D, 44, 44 4C, 45 3C, 46 4C, 47 3C;
see also Andijan
Andkhud 12 3/4B, 17, 17 2C, 18, 18 4B;
see also Andkhuy
Andkhuy 1 4B, 19 4B, 20 4B, 21 4B, 22
4B, 24 4B, 25 4B, 26 4B, 27 4B, 28 4B,
29 4B, 30 4B, 31 4B, 32 4B, 34, 34 4B,
35 3/4B, 36b, 36b 3C, 37 4D, 43, 43
3C, 45 4B, 47 4B; see also Andkhud
Anhar tümen 41 2/1A
Ankara 21
Annauli (Turkmen tribe) 37
Annenkov, Ataman 45
Antiochia in Aria 4; see Hare
Antiochia in Margiana 4, 4 4B, 5 4B; see
Merv
Antiochia in Scythia 4, 4 4C; see Khojend
Antiochia Tarmata 4; see Termez
Antiochus [I] 4
Antiochus III 4
Antonovskoe 2 3D*
Anusha Khan 28, 33, 42
Anushtegin Gharcha 14
Anushteginids (dynasty) 15 3A-B, 16 3A-
B Arsaces 4
Anxi 8; see Four Garrisons
Aornos 4 4C
Aorsi 5; see also Yancai
5/26/2003, 1:06 PM
99
Apardï (Chaghatay tribe) 20, 20 4B-C
Apasiacae 3
Apavarktika 4 4B, 5 4B; see also Abiverd
Aq-Astana Baba Ms. 43, 43 2D
Aq-Beshim 2 3D*; see Suyab
Aq-Darya R. 41 1C
Aq-Masjid 1 3C, 31 3C, 32 3C; see also
Perovsk, Kzïl-Orda
Aq-Masjid Mq. 42a 2C*
Aq-Orda (Ulus of Batu, “Golden
Horde”) 19, 19 2/1A, 20 2A, 21, 22
2/1A, 38
Aq-Qoyunlu 22, 23, 23 1/2A-B, 24, 24
4A, 36a
Aq-Saray 33, 33 4B
Aq-Saray Ding Ms. 43, 43 1B
Aq-Saray Ms. 41 2B*
Aq-Saray palace (in Shahrisabz) 43
Aq Shikh Baba 42 42a 2B*
aq söyek 38
Aqcha 30, 30 4C, 31 4C, 32 4C, 35 4B,
43 3C, 45 4C, 47 4C
Aqcha-qala, caravanseray 43, 43 2B
Aqsu (Gumo) 1 3D, 2 3D*, 7 3D, 8 3D,
9, 9 3D, 10 3D, 11 3D, 13 2D, 14 3D,
15 3D, 16 3D, 17 2D, 18 3D, 19 3D, 20
3D, 21 3D, 22 3D, 23 2D, 24, 24 3D,
25 3D, 26 3D, 27 3D, 28 3D, 29 3D, 30
3D, 31 3D, 32 3D, 34 3D, 38 3E, 44
4C, 45 3D, 46 4C; see also Aksu
Aqsu R. (in Eastern Turkestan) 1 3D, 2
3D, 5 3D, 6 3D, 7 3D, 8 3D, 9 3D, 10
3D, 11 3D, 14 3D, 15 3D, 16 3D, 18
3D, 19 3D, 20 3D, 21 3D, 22 3D, 24
3D, 25 3D, 26 3D, 27 3D, 28 3D, 29
3D, 31 3D, 32 3D, 34 3D, 38 3E, 39
2E, 44 4C, 45 3D, 46 4C, 47 3D
Aqsu R. (in the Pamir) 39 4C
Aqtau 47 3A
Aqtöbe 47 2B; see Aktiubinsk
{Arab-Ata, Ms. of 43
Arab Caliphate 8
{Arab Muhammad Khan 42
{Arab Muhammad Khan Md. 42a 2C*
Arabachi (Turkmen tribe) 36a, 36a 1A,
36b 1A, 37 2C*
Arabs 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 41, 42
{Arabshahids (dynasty) 22 2B, 23 1C, 24,
24 2/3B, 25, 25 2/3B, 26, 26 3B, 27, 27
3B, 28, 28 3B, 29, 33, 35, 36a, 42
Arachosia 3 4B
Aral 27 3B, 28, 28 3B, 29, 29 3B, 30 3B,
31, 33, 34 3B, 47 2B
Aral Özbeks 33
Aral-Payghambar I. 43
Aral Sea 1, 1 3B, 2 3B, 3, 3 3B, 4, 4 3B,
5, 5 3B, 6 3B, 7 3B, 8 3B, 9 3B, 10 3B,
11, 11 3B, 12 1A, 13 1C, 14, 14 3B, 15
3B, 16 3B, 17 1C, 18 3B, 19 3B, 20 3B,
21 3B, 22 3B, 23 1C, 24, 24 3B, 25 3B,
26 3B, 27 3B, 28 3B, 29 3B, 30 3B, 31,
31 3B, 32 3B, 33, 33 1B, 34, 34 3B, 35
1A, 36a, 36a 1B-C, 36b 1B-C, 37 1C,
38, 38 2B, 44 3B, 46 3B, 47, 47 3B
Aral’skoe more 32 2B, 45 2B
Arang R. 5 3C; see Sïr-Darya
Aras R. 13 1A, 17 1A, 23 1B
Arbinjan 2 4C*, 12 2B
Arctic Ocean 1
Ardashir I 6
Ardebil 24
Areia (Ariana), Aria 3, 3 4B, 4
Arghïn (Qazaq tribe) 38, 38 1/3C-D
Aria – see Areia
Arians 3
Arigh Böke 19
Arïn-Ghazi Sultan 31
Arïs 47 3C
Arïs R. 1 3C
Arius R. 4 4B, 5 4B; see Harirud
ark 40, 41
Ark (of Bukhara) 40, 40 2B
Arlat (Chaghatay tribe) 20, 20 4B-C
Arran 13 1A, 17 1A, 23 1A
Arsacides (dynasty) 5 4A, 6
Arsakia 5 4A
Arslan-Arghun 14, 15
 100
Arslan Isra}il b. Seljuk 13
Arslan Khan, Qarluq 17, 18, 18 3/2D
Arslan Khan Ahmad b. Hasan 15
Arslan Khan Mahmud 15
Arslan Khan Muhammad II 15
Artaxerxes 3; see Bessos
Artush 43 2E
Asad b. Saman-Khuda 10
Asengin can. 41 2B
Ashgabat 43 2B, 47 4B; see also
Ashkhabad, Ashqabad, Askhabad
Ashina (clan and dynasty) 7, 9, 10
Ashkhabad 46 4A; see also Ashqabad
Ashpara 2 3C*, 21 3C, 22 3C, 23 2D, 24
3C, 34 3C
Ashqabad 1 4B, 31 4B, 32 4B; see also
Ashgabat, Ashkhabad
Asht 12 2C
Ashtarkhanids (dynasty) 27, 28, 28 4B-C,
29, 29 4B-C, 40, 41
Asia 34
Askar Biy Mq. & Md. 40 1B
Askhabad 37 3B, 38 3B, 44 4A, 45, 45
4B; see Ashqabad
Aspara 2 3C*; see Ashpara
Astana (in Eastern Turkestan) 2 3E*
Astana (in Kazakhstan) 47 2C; see
Akmolinsk
Astana (in Khorezm) 43, 43 1B
Astana Ata, Mq. of 43
Astana-Baba 43, 43 2C
Astana-Baba complex 43
Astarabad 1 4A, 9 4A, 10 4A, 11 4A, 13
2B, 14 4A, 15 4A, 16 4A, 17 2B, 18
4A, 19 4A, 20 4A, 21, 21 4A, 22 4A,
23 2B, 24 4A, 25, 25 4A, 26, 26 4A, 27
4A, 27 insert, 28 4A, 29 4A, 30 4A, 31
4A, 32 4A, 34, 34 4A, 36a, 36a 3A, 36b
3A, 37 4A, 45 4A
Astrakhan’ 1 2A, 27 2A, 28, 28 2A, 29, 29
2A, 30 2A, 31 2A, 32 2A, 34, 34 2A,
38 2A, 44 2A, 45 2A, 46 2A, 47 2A;
see also Haji-Tarkhan
Astrakhan (Haji-Tarkhan) Khanate 24
2A, 25 2A, 26 2A, 27
Astrakhan’ oblast’ 46
At-Yolï L. 33 2A
At-Yolï road 33 1A
Ata (Turkmen tribe) 36a 2A-B, 36b 2A-C,
37 3B,2/3C*
Ata-darvaza gates (of Ichan-qala,
Khiva) 42a 2B*
Ata Murad Qoshbegi Mq. 42a 1B*
Atajan Bay Md. 42a 2C*
Atatürk, Kemal 47
Atbasar 31 2C, 32 2C, 38 1C, 44 2C, 45
2C, 46 2C, 47 2C
Atïrau 47 2A; see Gur’ev
Atrek R. 1 4A-B, 2 4A-B, 3 4B, 4 4A, 5
4A, 6 4B, 7 4B, 8 4B, 9 4B, 10 4B, 11
4B, 13 2B, 14 4B, 15 4B, 16 4B, 17 2B,
18 4B, 19 4B, 20 4B, 21 4B, 22 4B, 23
2B, 24 4A-B, 25 4B, 26 4B, 27 4B, 28
4B, 29 4B, 30 4B, 31 4B, 32 4B, 34
4A, 36a, 36a 3A, 36b, 36b 3A, 37 3B,
43 2A, 44 3A, 45 4B, 46 3A, 47 4B
Atsïz, {Ala} ad-Din 15, 16
{Attaran (Bazar) gates (of Bukhara) 40
2C*
Aulie-Ata 44 4C, 45 3C, 46 4C; see also
Awliya-Ata
Aval 12 2D
Avat (Qïrghïz tribe) 39 3A-B
{Avaz Inaq 30, 31
Awliya-Ata 1 3C, 31 3C, 32, 35 1D, 38
3C; see also Aulie-Ata
Awliya-yi Gharib Mz. 40 1/2C*
Awliya-yi Kalan Mz. 40 1C*
Awzaj 12 4C
Ay-Aba – see Mu{ayyid Ay-Aba
Ay-Khanum 2 4C*, 3; see Alexandria
(Antiochia) on the Oxus
Ayaguz 32 2D, 47 2D; see also Sergiopol’
Ayaguz R. 1 2D, 3 2D, 4 2D, 5 2D, 6 2D,
7 2D, 8 2D, 9 2D, 10 2D, 11 2D, 14
2D, 15 2D, 16 2D, 18 2D, 19 2D, 20
2D, 21 2D, 22 2D, 24 2D, 25 2D, 26
2D, 27 2D, 28 2D, 29 2D, 30 2D, 31
2D, 32 2D, 34 2D, 38 2D, 44 3D, 45
2D, 46 3D, 47 2D
Aybugur L. 33 2A
Aydar-köl L. 47 3C
Aypache 41 3C
Ayrtam 2 4C*, 5 4C, 6 4C
Ayuki Khan 28, 28 2A-B
Ayvaj 2 4C*
Azadan 43, 43 3B
bregel5.pmd 100
index
Azerbayjan 13, 13 1/2A, 14, 14 4A, 16,
17, 17 1/2A, 21, 22, 23, 23 1A-B, 36a,
37
Azïq (Qïrghïz tribe) 39 2B
Baba Hatim, Ms. of (in Imam-Sahib) 43
Baba Sultan b. Nawruz Ahmad Khan 27
Babish-Mulla 2 3B*
Babur, Zahir ad-Din 25, 25 4C, 26
Bachu 47 4D; see Maralbashi
Bactra 3, 3 4C, 4, 4 4C, 5, 5 4C, 6, 6 4C,
7 4C, 8, 8 4C; see also Zariaspa, Balkh
Bactria 3, 3 4C, 4, 4 4C
Bactrians 3
Badakhshan, city 9 4C, 10 4C, 11 4C, 12
3D, 13 2C, 14 4C, 15 4C, 16 4C, 17
2C, 18 4C, 19 4C, 20 4C, 21 4C, 22 4C,
23 2C, 24 4C, 26 4C, 27 insert, 34 4C
Badakhshan, province 6, 8, 12 4/3C-D, 14
4C, 15 4C, 16, 16 4C, 19 4C, 20 4C, 21
4C, 22 4C, 23 2D, 24, 24 4C, 26 4C,
27, 27 4C, 28, 30, 30 4C, 31, 31 4C, 34
4C
Badghis 1 4B, 8, 12 4A
Badi{ az-Zaman Mirza 24
Bagh-i Baland 41 1B
Bagh-i Chinar 41 1B
Bagh-i Dawlatabad 41 3C
Bagh-i Dilafruz 41 1B
Bagh-i Dilkusha 41 2C
Bagh-i Firuza 41 2B
Bagh-i Maydan 41 1B
Bagh-i Naw 41 2B
Bagh-i Shimal 41 1A-B
Baghat 33 5C, 43
Baghbanlï Mq. 42a 3C*
Baghcha-darvaza gates (of Ichan-qala,
Khiva) 42a 1C*
Baghdad 10, 11, 12, 13, 13 2A, 14, 16,
17, 17 2A, 21, 23 2A
Baghdad caliphs 16; see {Abbasids
Baghishamal (Angarik) gates (of Dïshan-
qala, Khiva) 42b 2C
Baghlan (in Afghanistan) 1 4C, 12 4C, 13
2C, 15 4C, 16 4C, 17 2C, 18 4C, 20, 22
4C, 23 2C, 24 4C, 27 insert, 34 4C, 35
4C
Baghlan (in Khorezm) 33 4C
Baghrash-köl L. 1 3E, 2 3E, 3 3E, 4 3E, 5
3E, 6 3E, 7 3E, 8 3E, 9 3E, 10 3E, 11
3E, 14 3E, 15 3E, 16 3E, 18 3E, 19 3E,
20 3E, 21 3E, 22 3E, 24 3E, 25 3E, 26
3E, 27 3E, 28 3E, 29 3E, 30 3E, 31 3E,
32 3E, 34 3E, 38 3E
Bagïsh (Qïrghïz tribe) 39 2A-B
Baha ad-Din 43 2C
Baha ad-Din Naqshband 40
Baha ad-Din Naqshband Kh., road to 40
2E
bahadur – see batïr
Baharden 37 3B
Bahl – see Bactra, Balkh
Bahram Chubin 7
Bahram Shah 15
Baicheng 47 3D; see Bay
Baku 1 3A, 19 3A, 20 3A, 21 3A, 22 3A,
23 1B, 24 3A, 25 3A, 26 3A, 27 3A, 28
3A, 29 3A, 30 3A, 31 3A, 32 3A, 34
3A, 45 3A
Bala-Hawz Mq. 40 2B
Bala-Murghab 35 4B, 43 3C
Balalïq-tepe 2 4C*
Baland Mq. 40 2/3B
Balasaghun 2 3D*, 11 3D, 13, 13 2D, 14,
14 3D, 15, 15 3D, 16 3D, 17, 17 2D,
18, 18 3D
Balavaste 2 4D*
Balbars Sultan 26
Balkh 1, 2 4C*, 3, 6, 8, 9 4C, 10, 10 4C,
11 4C, 12, 12 4C, 13, 13 2C, 14 4C, 15,
15 4C, 16, 16 4C, 17 2C, 18, 18 4C, 19
4C, 20 4C, 21, 21 4C, 22 4C, 23 2C,
24, 24 4C, 25, 25 4C, 26, 26 4C, 27, 27
4C, 27 insert, 28, 28 4C, 29, 29 4C, 30,
30 4C, 31, 31 4C, 34, 34 4C, 35 4C, 43,
43 3C; see also Bactra
Balkhab R. 1 4C, 6 4C, 7 4C, 8 4C, 9 4C,
10 4C, 11 4C, 12 4C, 14 4C, 15 4C, 16
4C, 18 4C, 19 4C, 20 4C, 21 4C, 22 4C,
24 4C, 25 4C, 26 4C, 27 4C, 30 4C, 31
4C, 32 4C, 34 4C, 43 3C, 45 4C, 47 4C
Balkhan Mts. 13, 36a, 36a 2A, 36b 2A
Balkhash L. 1 2D, 2 2D, 3 2D, 4 2D, 5 2D,
6, 6 2D, 7 2D, 8 2D, 9 2D, 10 2D, 11
2D, 13 1D, 14 2D, 15, 15 2D, 16 2D,
17 1D, 18 2D, 19 2D, 20 2D, 21 2D,
22, 22 2D, 23 1D, 24 2D, 25 2D, 26
2D, 27 2D, 28 2D, 29 2D, 30 2D, 31
2D, 32 2D, 34 2D, 38, 38 2D, 44 3C,
45 2D, 46 3C, 47 2D
Balqash 47 2C-D
Bamiyan 2 4C*, 3, 10 4C, 12 4C, 13 3C,
15 4C, 16, 16 4C, 17 3C, 18, 18 4C, 22
4C, 23 3C, 24 4C, 25 4C, 26 4C, 27 4C,
27 insert, 28 4C, 34, 34 4C, 43 3C
Ban Chao 5
Ban Yun 5
Banijurids (dynasty) 12; see also Abu
Davudids
Banu Asad (Muhra) gates (of
Bukhara) 40 2C*
Banu Sa{d gates (of Bukhara) 40 2C*
Baqi Muhammad Sultan 27
Baqïrghan 33 2A, 43, 43 1B
Barani (Oghuz clan) 11
Baraq, Chaghatayid 19, 20
Baraq Khan, Özbek 22
Baraq Khan, Md. of (in Tashkent) 43
Baraq-tam 2 3B*
Barchuq, Idiqut 18
Barkdiz 12 4A
Barkol 47 3E; see Bars-köl
Barkul 1 2E; see Bars-köl
Barlas (Chaghatay tribe) 20, 20 4C, 21
Barlas (Özbek tribe) 35, 35 3C*
Barmakids 10
Barnaul 44 2D, 45 1D, 46 2D, 47 1D
Bars-köl (Barkol, Barkul) 11 3E, 14 3E,
15 3E, 16 3E, 18 3E, 19 3E, 20 3E, 21
3E, 22 3E, 24 3E, 25 3E, 26 3E, 27 3E,
28 3E, 29 3E, 30 3E, 31 3E, 32 3E
Barsh can. – see Dargham
Barskaun 26
Barskhan 10 3D, 11, 11 3D, 13 2D, 14
3D, 15 3D, 16 3D, 17 2D, 18 3D
Bartang R. 1 4C, 6 4C, 7 4C, 8 4C, 9 4C,
10 4C, 11 4C, 12 3D, 14 4C, 15 4C, 16
4C, 18 4C, 19 4C, 20 4C, 21 4C, 22 4C,
24 4C, 25 4C, 26 4C, 27 4C, 28 4C, 30
4C, 34 4C, 39 4B
Bashjird 9 2B
Bashkirs 27 1B, 28 1B, 29 1/2B
Basista 5 4C
Basïz (Qïrghïz tribe) 39 2B-C
Basmachi 45, 47
Basmïls 11 3E, 9
Basra 13 3A, 17 3A, 23 3A
batïr 38
Batïr Srïm Datov 30
Batu 19, 19 1A, 20
Batu, ulus of 19, 19 2/1A
Batur Khun-tayiji 28
Bavandids (dynasty) 14 4A, 15 4A, 16, 16
4A
Bawli-Khana can. 41 2A
Bay 22 3D, 24 3D, 25 3D, 26 3D, 27 3D,
28 3D, 29 3D, 30 3D, 31 3D, 32 3D, 34
3D, 44 4D, 45 3D, 46 4D, 47 3D; see
also Baycheng
Bayan-Aul (Bayanaul) 31 2D, 32 2D, 38
1D, 44 3C, 45 2D, 46 3C, 47 2D
Bayat (Turkmen tribe) 37 3D*
Bayazid II 21
Baykonur 47 2C
Bayram-Ali 37 4C, 43 2B, 43, 45 4B, 47
4B
Bayram {Ali Khan 30
Bayram-Ali-khan-qala 2 4B*; see also Old
Merv
Bayram-Shalï (branch of the Yomut) 36a,
36b
Baysun 45 4C
Bayulï (Qazaq tribal group) 38, 38 1/2A-
C Panchikat
Bazar-qala 2 3B*
Begram 2 4C*, 3; see Kapisa
Behzad 24
Beijing 18, 30, 47
Beiting (Jinman) 2 3E*, 5 3E, 7 3E, 8, 8
3E, 9, 9 3E, 10, 10 3E; see also
Bishbalïq
bek 36b
Bek-Quli Bek 32
Bek-tobe (Juvikat) 2 3C*
Bekovich-Cherkasskiy 29, 29 2/3A-B
Bel-tau, height 33 2C
Beleuli 2 3B*
Belorussia 46
Benaket 2 3C*, 10 3C, 11 3C, 12 2C, 14
3C, 15 3C, 16, 16 3C, 18, 18 3C
Berk-Yaruq 14, 15
Berke 19, 20
Beruni 43 1B, 47 3b; see Sheykh {Abbas
Veli
Besh Qala 33
Bessos 3
5/26/2003, 1:06 PM
Betpak-Dala (“Hunger Steppe”) 1 2/3C
Bezda 2 4C*, 12 3B
Bibi Buveyda Ms. 43, 43 2D
Bibi Khanïm Mq. 41, 41 2B*
Bibi Khanïm (Saray Mulk Khanïm) Ms.
41 2B*
Big Balkhan Mts. 1 3A
Big Bursuq Sands 1 2B
Bike Jan Bike complex 42b 2B*
Binket 2 3C*, 10 3C, 11 3C, 12 2C, 13
2C, 14 3C, 15 3C, 16 3C, 17 2C, 18 3C,
19 3C; see also Chach, Tashkent
Bishbalïq 2 3E*, 7 3E, 8, 8 3E, 9, 9 3E,
10, 10 3E, 11 3E, 13 1E, 14 3E, 15 3E,
16 3E, 17 1E, 18 3E, 19 3E, 20 3E, 22
3E, 24 3E; see also Beiting
Bishkek 39 1B, 43 1E, 47 3D; see also
Pishkek
Bistam 13 2B, 17 2B, 18 4A, 19 4A, 20
4A, 23 2B, 25 4A, 26, 26 4A, 27 4A,
28 4A, 34 4A
biy 35, 38, 39
Black Sea 3, 13 1A, 17 1A, 23 1A
Bögü Qaghan 10
Bojnurd 29 4B, 30 4B, 31 4B, 32 4B, 36a
3B, 36b 3B, 37 3B, 45 4B, 47 4B
Bolor 1 4C-D, 11 4C-D, 12 4D, 13 3D,
15 4C-D, 16 4C-D, 17 3D, 22 4C-D, 23
3D, 24 4C-D, 26, 27 4C-D, 28 4C-D, 29
4C-D
Bolsheviks 45
Böri-Tegin – see Ibrahim b. Nasr
Borokhoro Mts. 1 3D
Boston (Qïrghïz tribe) 39 3A,4D
Bozachi (Turkmen tribe) 36a, 36a 1A,
36b 1A
Bridge of Iskandar 43, 43 2C
British India 32 4C-D, 45 4D
Buddhism 5, 10, 28
Buddhists 10
Budrach 2 4C*
Bughra Khan Harun (or Hasan) b.
Sulayman 11
Bugu (Qïrghïz tribe) 39, 39 1/2C-E
Bukey, Sultan 31
Bukey Horde 31, 31 2A, 44 2/1A
Bukhara 1, 1 4B, 2 4B*, 5 4B, 6, 6 4B, 7,
7 4B, 8, 8 4B, 9, 9 4B, 10 4B, 11, 11
4B, 12, 12 2B, 13, 13 2C, 14, 14 4B,
15, 15 4B, 16, 16 4B, 17, 17 2C, 18, 18
4B, 19, 19 4B, 20 4B, 21 4B, 22 4B, 23
2C, 24 4B, 25, 25 4B, 26, 26 4B, 27, 27
4B, 27 insert, 28, 28 4B, 29, 29 4B, 30,
30 4B, 31 4B, 32, 32 4B, 34, 34 4B, 35
2B, 36b 2C, 37 3D, 38 3C, 40, 41, 42,
43 2C, 44, 44 4B, 45, 45 4B, 46, 46 4B,
47 4B
Bukhara, the khanate of 28, 30 4B-C, 31,
31 4B-C, 32 4B-C, 33, 36b, 41, 44, 44
4B; see also Manghïts
Bukhara (Chahar-su) gates (of
Samarqand) 41 2B*
Bukhara gates (of Afrasiyab) 41 1B*
Bukharan People’s Soviet Republic 45, 46
Bukharan Soghd 8
bukhar-khuda 8
Bukhgol’ts 29, 29 1C-D
Bulghar 9 1A, 10 1A, 15 1A, 16 1A, 18
1A, 19 1A
Bulghar Kingdom 10 1A, 11 1A, 15 1A,
16 1A, 18 1A
Bulghars 9 1A
Bumïn Qaghan 7
Bunjiket 8, 9 4C, 10 4C, 11 4C, 12 2C,
14 4C, 15 4C, 16 4C, 18 4C; see also
Burana, minaret 2 3D*, 43, 43 1E; see
Balasaghun
Burchmula 2 3C*
Bürge Sultan 24, 26
Burhanids (dynasty) 16, 17
Burqut (Özbek tribe) 35, 35 2B*
Burunduq Khan 24, 26
Busheng 14 4B, 15 4B, 16 4B, 18 4B, 19
4B
Bust 17 3C
Buston-Buva Ms. 43, 43 2D
Buttem 12 3C
Buyan-Quli Khan Ms. 40, 40 3E
Buyids (dynasty) 11, 13, 13 2/3A, 14
Buzachi Pen. 1 3A
Buzar (Toghrul Khan) 18
Buzghala 2 4C*
Buzurg Khoja 32
Byzantine Empire, Byzantium 7, 13 1A
Caspian provinces 12
Caspian Sea 1, 1 3A, 2 3A, 3, 3 3A, 4

3A, 5 3A, 6 3A, 7 3A, 8 3A, 9 3A, 10
3A, 11 3A, 13 1B, 14, 14 3A, 15 3A,
17 1B, 18, 18 3A, 19 3A, 20 3A, 21
3A, 22 3A, 23 2B, 24 3A, 25 3A, 26
3A, 27 3A, 28 3A, 29 3A, 30 3A, 31
3A, 32, 32 3A, 34, 34 3A, 36a, 36a
1/2A, 36b, 36b 1/2A, 37 1/2A, 38 3/2A,
44, 44 3/2A, 45 3A, 46 3/2A, 47, 47 3A
Caucasus 7, 11, 18, 27, 32
Central Asia 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 17,
19, 24, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36a, 37,
38, 40, 42, 44, 45, 46, 47
Central Europe 19
Chach 2 3C*, 7 3C, 8 3C, 9, 9 3C; see
also Binket, Tashkent
Chach, province 1, 5, 6, 7, 7 3C, 8, 8 3C,
9, 9 3C, 10, 10 3C; see also Shash
chaghan-khuda 12
Chaghan-rud (Surkhan) R. 12 3C
Chaghaniyan 6 4C, 7 4C, 8 4C, 9 4C, 10
4C, 11 4C, 12 3C, 13 2C, 14, 14 4C, 15
4C, 16, 16 4C, 17 2C, 18 4C
Chaghaniyan, province 8, 9, 12, 12 3C,
24
Chaghatay 33 4B
Chaghatay, ulus of 19, 20, 21, 22, 20
4/3C-E
Chaghatay (Khan) 18, 18 3/4B-C, 19
Chaghatay language 24, 46
Chaghatay princes 19 4C
Chaghatayid khanate 26, 27, 28, 39
Chaghatayids (dynasty) 19, 20, 21, 21
4/3D-E, 22, 22 3C-D, 23 2D-E, 24, 25,
26 4/3D-E, 27 4/3D-E, 40
Chaghatays (tribal group) 20, 21, 24, 35,
46
Chaghrï Bek Davud 13, 14
Chahar Vilayat 31, 31 4B-C
Chalïsh 11 3E, 13 2E, 14 3E, 15 3E, 16
3E, 18 3E, 19 3E, 20 3E, 21 3E, 22 3E,
23 2E, 24 3E, 25 3E, 26 3E, 27 3E, 28
3E, 29 3E, 30 3E, 31 3E; see Qarashahr
Chapar 20
Char Bakr 40, 40 2A
Charikar 3
Charjow 43 2C, 47 4B; see Charjuy
Charjuy 1 4B, 4, 22 4B, 23 2C, 24 4B, 25
4B, 26 4B, 27 4B, 27 insert, 28 4B, 29,
29 4B, 30 4B, 31 4B, 32 4B, 34, 34 4B,
35 3B, 36a 2C, 36b 2C, 37, 37 3D, 38
3C, 43, 44 4B, 45, 45 4B, 46 4B; see
also Charjow
Charsu (in Samarqand) 41 2B*
charva 36b
Chashma-Ayyub Ms., near Vabkent 43, 43
2C
Chashma-Ayyub Ms., in Bukhara 40, 40
1B
Chat 32 4A, 44 3A, 46 3A
Chatkal R. 1 3C, 12 2D, 39
Chatkal Ra. 1 3C
Chauhanas (dynasty) 13 4C-D
Chaulukyas (dynasty) 13 4C
Chekdalik R. 12 3B
Chekir-Sayaq (Qïrghïz tribe) 39 2B-C
Cheleken I. 1 4A, 3 3A, 4 3A, 6 3A, 7 3A,
8 3A, 9 3A, 10 3A, 11 4A, 14 4A, 15
3A, 18 3A, 19 3A, 20 3A, 21 3A, 22
3A, 24 4A, 25 3A, 26 3A, 27 3A, 28
3A, 29 3A, 30 3A, 31 3A, 32 3A, 34
3A, 36a 2A, 36b 2A, 37 3A, 38 3A, 45
3A
Cheliabinsk 44 1C, 45 1B, 46 1C, 47 1B
Chelkar 44 2B, 45 2B, 46 2B, 47 2B
Cherab R. 13 3D, 17 3D, 23 3D
Cherchen (Qiemo) 1 4E, 7 4E, 8 4E, 9
4E, 10 4E, 11 4E, 13, 13 2E, 14 4E, 15
4E, 16 4E, 17 2E, 18 4E, 19 4E, 20 4E,
21 4E, 22 4E, 23 2E, 24 4E, 25 4E, 26
4E, 27 4E, 28 4E, 29 4E, 30 4E, 31 4E,
32 4E, 34 4E, 47 4E
Cherchen R. 1 3E, 2 3E, 3 3E, 4 3E, 5 4E,
6 3E, 7 3E, 8 3E, 9 3E, 10 3E, 11 3E,
13 2E, 14 3E, 15 3E, 16 3E, 17 2E, 18
3E, 19 3E, 20 3E, 21 3E, 22 3E, 23 2E,
24 4/3E, 25 3E, 26 3E, 27 3E, 28 3E,
29 3E, 30 3E, 31 3E, 32 3E, 34 4E, 47
4E
Cherik (Qïrghïz tribe) 39 2C-D
Cherniaev 32
Chiang 8
Chiburdan Baba Ms. 43
“Chighatoy” 35
Chigil (tribe) 10, 11 3C-D
Chihil Sutun Mq. (in Ziyaratgah) 43
Chikishlar, Chikishliar 32 4A, 44 3A, 45
4A, 46 3A
Chil-Hujra 2 4C*
bregel5.pmd 101
index
Chimbay 33 2B, 44 3B, 45 3B, 46 3B, 47
3B
Chimgi-Tura 19 1C, 20 1C, 21 1C, 22, 22
1C, 24 1C, 25 1C, 26 1C
Chimkent 1 3C, 29 3C, 30 3C, 31 3C, 32,
32 3C, 35 1C, 38 3C, 44 4B, 45 3C, 46
4B, 47 3C
Chin Sufi 23 1C, 24 3B, 25
China 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 18, 19, 21, 22,
30, 31, 32, 34, 37, 38, 43 2E, 44, 44
4C-D, 45 4/3D, 46 4D, 47
China gates (of Afrasiyab) 41 1B*
Chinaz 2 3C*, 31 3C, 32 3C, 35 2C, 45
3C
Chinese (Han) 4, 10, 47
Chinese Empire 30
Chingis Khan 17, 17 1/2E, 18, 18 2/3D-E,
19, 21, 25, 30, 38
Chingisids (dynasty) 19, 20, 22, 24, 25,
30, 31, 36a, 36b, 39
Chionites 6
Chirchik R. 1, 1 3C, 21, 35 2C
Chirik-rabat 2 3B*
Chisht 43, 43 3B
Chitor 13 4D, 17 4D
chomur 36b
Chong-Bagïsh (Qïrghïz tribe) 39 3C
Choni-Sheref – see Qara-Choqa
Chopan-Ata (Kuhek) heights 32, 41 1C
Chopan-Ata Ms. 41 1C*
“Chor Minor” – see Khalifa Niyazqul
Chorasmia 3, 3 3B, 4, 4 3B, 5; see
Khorezm
Chorasmians 3
Chorku 43, 43 2D
Choros (Oyrat tribe) 22
Chortambay can. 33 3B
Chowdur (Turkmen tribe) 29, 36a, 36a
1A-B, 36b, 36b 1A-B, 37 2A-C*
Chu R. 1 3C, 2 3C, 3 3C, 4 3C, 5 3C, 6
3C, 7 3C, 8 3C, 9 3C, 10 3C, 11 3C, 12
1D, 13, 13 1D, 14 3C, 15, 15 3C, 16
3C, 17 1D, 18 3C, 19 3C, 20 3C, 21
3C, 22, 22 3C, 23 1D, 24 3C, 25 3C, 26
3C, 27 3C, 28 3C, 29 3D, 30 3C, 31
3C, 32 3C, 34 3C, 35 1D, 38 3D, 39, 39
1B, 43 1E, 44 3C, 45 3C, 46 3C, 47 3C
Chuguchak 30 2D, 31 2D, 32 2D, 34 2D,
38 2E, 45 2D, 47, 47 2D
Chukur (Siobcha) can. 41 2A
Chumanay R. 33 2A
Chushka-köl 31 2B, 32 2B
Chust 2 3C*, 35 2D, 44 4B, 46 4B
Chuy-tobe 2 3C*; see Shavgar
Cossacks 27, 34, 45
Crimea 7
Ctesiphon 6
Cyrus II 3
Dabusiya 2 4C*, 6 4C, 9, 12 2B, 13, 13
2C, 25 4C
Dahae 3
Dahbid 43, 43 2C
Dakhma-i Shahan Ms. (in Qoqand) 43
Dalai-Lamas 28 4D-E, 29 4E
Dalverzin 2 3C*
Dalverzin-tepe 2 4C*
Damascus 21
Damghan 3, 10 4A, 11 4A, 14 4A, 15, 15
4A, 16, 16 4A, 18 4A, 19 4A, 20 4A,
21 4A, 22 4A, 23 2B, 24 4A, 25 4A,
26, 26 4A, 27 4A, 28 4A, 29 4A, 30
4A, 31 4A, 32 4A, 34 4A, 36a 3A, 36b
3A, 37 4A, 45 4A, 47 4A
Dandanaqan 12 3A, 13, 13 2C, 14
Daniyal Biy Atalïq 30
Dar as-Siyadat, complex (Ms. of Jahangir,
Mq.) 43
Dar at-Tilavat, complex (mausoleums,
Mq.) 43
Dar-i Tubbat 12 3D
Dargham 41 2A
Dargham (Barsh, Darghom) can. 41, 41
3B
Darghan 12 2A, 27 3B, 28 3B, 29 3B, 30
3B, 31 3B, 34 3B, 36a 2C, 36b 2C; see
also Darghan-Ata
Darghan-Ata 2 3B*, 32 3B, 35 2A, 37
3D, 43 2B, 45 3B, 47 3B; see also
Darghan
Darius II 3
Darius III 3
Darvaz 1 4C, 31, 31 4C
Darvaz Ra. 1, 1 4C
Daryalïq, dry bed of the Amu-Darya 33,
33 3B
Dashayaq gates (of Dïshan-qala,
Khiva) 42b 1A
Dashhowuz 43 1B, 47 3B; see Tashhawz
Dashicheng 7 3D, 8 3D, 9 3D, 10 3D; see
Uch
Dasht-i Qïpchaq 1 2B-C, 14 2B-C, 15 2B-
C, 17, 18, 18 2B-D, 19 2B-C, 20 2B-C,
21, 21 2B-C, 22, 22 2B-C, 23 1C-D, 24,
24 2B-C, 25, 25 2B-C, 26, 26 2B-C, 27,
27 2B-C, 28, 29, 33, 34, 34 2B-C, 35,
36a, 36b, 38; see also Qïpchaq steppe
Dashtak can. 41 2C
Dastjird 12 4B
Dawdan, dry bed of the Amu-Darya 33
4B
Dawlat Sheykh b. Ibrahim 22 1C
Daya-Khatïn, caravanseray 2 4B*, 43, 43
2B
Daylam 13
Dayuan 5, 5 4C, 6 4C; see Ferghana
Dehli 13 4D, 17 4D, 21, 23 4D, 25, 29
Dehli Sultanate 23 3/4D
Delhi – see Dehli
Demetrius I 4
Demodamos 4
Denau 35 3C, 43, 43 2D, 45 4C, 47 4C
Der-i Ahenin pass 12 3C
Derbend 1 3A, 7, 9 3A, 10 3A, 11 3A, 13
1A, 14 3A, 15 3A, 16 3A, 17 1A, 18
3A, 19 3A, 20 3A, 21, 21 3A, 22 3A,
23 1B, 24 3A, 25 3A, 26 3A, 27 3A, 28
3A, 29 3A, 30 3A, 31 3A, 32 3A, 34
3A
Derbent 45 3A, 47 3A; see Derbend
Dev-Kesken 2 3B*, 43, 43 1B; see Vezir
Diggaran Mq. 43
Dihistan 7 4A, 8 4A, 9 4A, 10 4A, 11
4A, 13 2B, 14, 14 4A, 15 4A, 16, 16
4A, 17 2B, 18 4A
Dilberjin 2 4C*, 5 4C, 6 4C
Dimishk 41 2A
Din Muhammad Sultan, {Arabshahid 26,
26 3/4B
Din Muhammad Sultan, Ashtarkhanid 27
Diodotus 4
Dïshan-qala (of Khiva) 42
Divar-i Kundalang 41, 41 2B
Divar-i Qiyamat 41, 41 3B
Diyarbakr 13 1A, 17 1A, 23 1A
Dizak 12 2C; see also Jizak
Dost A{lam Md. 42a 2C*
Dost Muhammad Khan 31
Drangiana 3 4B
Drapsaca 3 4C, 4 4C
Du}a 19, 19 4A-B, 20
Dughlats (Moghul tribe) 21, 22, 22 4/3D,
24, 25
Dulat (Qazaq tribe) 38, 38 2/3C-D
Dulu 7, 7 3D, 8, 8 3D
Dungans 32, 32 3E, 47
Durman-tepe 2 4C*
Durmen (Özbek tribe) 35, 35 1/2A-B,
3/4B-C*
Durrani Empire 30 4B-D
Durun 21 4B, 22 4B, 23 2B, 24 4B, 25
4B, 26, 26 4B, 27, 27 4B, 27 insert, 28
4B, 29 4B, 34 4B, 36a 3B, 36b 3B, 44
3A, 46 3A
Dushanbe 2 4C*, 43 2D, 44 4B, 45 4C,
46 4B, 47 4C
Dutov, Ataman 45, 45 2B-C
Dzhambul – see Zhambïl
Dzharkent – see Jarkent
Dzhizak – see Jizak
Dzosotïn Elisun Sands 1 2E
East European steppe 11, 14
Eastern Europe 13
Eastern [Türk] Qaghanate – see Türk
Qaghanate, Eastern
Eastern Turkestan 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10,
13, 14, 17, 18, 19, 20, 28, 30, 32, 34,
39, 47
Eastern Turkestan Republic 47
Ebi-nur L. 1 3D, 2 3D, 3 3D, 4 3D, 5 3D,
6 3D, 7 3D, 8 3D, 9 3D, 10 3D, 11 3D,
14 3D, 15 3D, 16 3D, 18 3D, 19 3D, 20
3D, 21 3D, 22 3D, 24 3D, 25 3D, 26
3D, 27 3D, 28 3D, 29 3D, 30 3D, 31
3D, 32 3D, 34 3D, 38 2E, 44 4D, 45
3D, 46 4D, 47 3D
Egypt 4
Ekaterinburg 44 1C, 45 1B, 46 1C, 47 1B
Ekinchi b. Qochqar 14
El Qaghan 7
Elburz Mts. 1 4A
Elterish Qaghan 9
Eltüzer Khan 31
Emba 38 2B, 45 2B, 47 2B
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101
Emba R. 1 2B, 3 2B, 4 2B, 5 2A, 6 2B, 7
2B, 8 2B, 9 2B, 10 2B, 11 2B, 14 2B,
15 2B, 16 2B, 18 2B, 19 2B, 20 2B, 21
2B, 22, 22 2B, 24 2B, 25 2B, 26 2B, 27
2A, 28, 28 2A, 29 2A, 30 2B, 31 2A,
32 2A, 34 2A, 38 2B, 44 2B, 45 2A-B,
46 2B, 47 2B
Embenskiy post 32 2B; see also Emba
Emil 15, 15 2D, 16 2D, 18 2D, 19 2D, 20
2D, 22 2D
Endere 2 4E*
England 32
Enver Pasha 45
Ereng-qïr 33 2A; see Üst-Yurt
Erivan 13 1A, 17 1A, 23 1A
Erk-qala 2 4B*; see also Old Merv
Ersarï (Turkmen tribe) 36a, 36a 1A-B,
36b, 36b 3C, 37, 37 3/4D*, 41
Esen-Buqa Khan 22, 24
Esen-eli (Turkmen tribes) 36a, 36a 1A-B
Eucratideia 4 4C
Eucratides 4
Euphrates R. 13 2A, 17 2A, 23 2A
Eurasian continent, Eurasia 1, 7, 34
Eurasian steppe belt 20
Europe 22
Euthydemus 4
Eylatan 2 3C*
Faghdiza 41 2B
“Fakhr ad-Din Razi” Ms. of 43
Farab (near the Sïr-Darya) 10 3C, 11 3C,
12 1C; see also Otrar
Farab (on the Amu-Darya) 35 3B; see
also Old Farab
Farabr 12 3B
Farah R. 13 3C, 23 3C
Farigunids (dynasty) 11 4B-C, 12
Farrukhshid 41 2B
Fars 13 3A, 17 3A, 19 4B, 21, 22, 23 3A-
B, 27
Faryab 12 4B
Fathabad 40 3E
Fathallah Qoshbegi Md. 40 2D
Fayzabad 28 4C, 29 4C, 30 4C, 31 4C, 32
4C, 34 4C, 35 3D, 43 3D, 44 4B, 45
4C, 46 4B, 47 4C; see also Badakhshan
Fayzabad Kh. 40 1B
Fazil Töre 30
Ferava 10 4A, 11 4A, 13, 13 2B, 14 4A,
15 4A, 16 4A, 17 2B, 18 4A
Fergana, Ferghana 43 2D, 46 4B, 47 3C;
see also Skobelev
Ferganskaya oblast’ 32, 44 4B-C
Ferghana, province (valley, basin) 1, 1
3/4C, 4, 5, 5 4C, 6 3/4C, 7, 7 3C, 8, 8
3C, 9, 9 4/3C, 10, 10 3C, 11 4/3C, 12
2D, 13, 13 2D, 14, 14 4/3C, 15, 15 3C,
16, 16 4/3C, 17, 18 4C, 19 3C, 20 3/4C,
21, 21 3C, 22, 22 4/3C, 23 2D, 24, 24
3C, 25, 25 4/3C, 26, 26 4C, 27, 27
insert, 28, 28 3C, 29, 30, 31, 31 3/4C,
32, 32 4/3C, 34, 34 3C, 35, 39, 44, 45,
46
Ferghana Ra. 1 3C-D, 4 4C, 39
Fertile Crescent 36a
Fil (al-Fil) 10 3B, 12 2A; see Kath
Firdawsi 12, 13
Firuza gates – see Qalandar-khana gates
Firuzkuh 16, 17 3C, 43
“Forest peoples” 19 1B-C, 20 1B-C
Fort Aleksandrovskiy 31 3A, 32 3A, 44
2A, 45 3A, 46 2A
Fort Novoaleksandrovskiy 31 3A
Fort Shevchenko 47 3A; see Fort
Aleksandrovskiy
“Four Garrisons” (Anxi) 8, 8 4/3D-E, 9
4/3D-E, 10
Friday mq. (in Khiva) 42a 2C*
Frolov, Commissar 45
Frunze 46 3C, 47 3D; see Pishpek,
Bishkek
Frunze M.V. 45
Gabaza 3 4C
Galdan-Boshoktu Khun-tayiji 28
Galdan-Tseren Khun-tayiji 29
Gandhara 5
Ganges R. 23 4D
Gansu corridor 4, 5
Gao Xianzhi 9
Gaochang 5 3E, 6 3E, 7 3E, 8 3E, 9 3E,
10 3E; see Qocho
Gardani-Hisor 2 4C*
Garden of Muhammad Amin – see
Muhammad Amin, garden of
Garm 29 4C, 30 4C, 31 4C, 32 4C, 35
3C, 44 4B, 45 4C, 46 4B, 47 4C
 102
Gawhar Shad complex (Ms., Md.) (in
Herat) 43
Gawkushan Md. 40 2C
Gazli 47 4B
Gazurgah 43, 43 3B
Georgia 21
Germany 47
Ghadavad 41 1A
Ghalla-Asiya 41 2C
Ghalvar 43, 43 3B
Gharchistan 12 4B, 13, 13 2C, 16
Ghazan Khan 20
ghazi 11
Ghaziabad 33 4B
Ghaziyan Md. 40 3C
Ghaziyan Mq. 40 3B*
Ghazna (Ghazni) 11, 13, 13 3C, 15, 17
3C, 18, 20, 23 3C, 27 insert
Ghaznavids (dynasty) 11, 13 2/3B-C, 14,
14 4C, 15, 15 4C, 16
Ghijduvan 12 2B, 25, 25 4B, 26 4B, 27
4B, 28 4B, 29 4B, 30 4B, 31 4B, 32 4B,
34 4B, 35 2B, 45 4B; see also
Ghizhduvan
Ghiyath ad-Din Muhammad 17
Ghizhduvan 43, 43 2C; see Ghijduvan
Ghorband R. 12 4C
ghulam 11, 13
Ghur 12 4B, 13, 13 3C, 16
Ghurids (dynasty) 16, 16 4C, 17, 17 2/3B-
D, 20
Ghurids of Bamiyan (dynasty) 16, 17 2C-
D Harirud R. 1 4B, 2 4B, 4 4B, 5 4B, 6 4B, 7
Giaur-qala 2 3B*; see Mizdahqan
Giaur-qala 2 4B*; see also Old Merv
Gissar – see Hisar
Gïzïlarbat 43 2A, 47 4A; see Qïzïl-Arvat,
Kizil-Arvat
Gök Gumbez mausoleums 43, 43 2B
Gök-Tepe 32, 32 4B, 37 3B
Göklen (Turkmen tribe) 31, 36a, 36a 3A,
36b, 36b 3/2A-B, 37 3B*
Göklen-qala 33 3B
“Golden Horde” (Aq-Orda) 19, 20, 21, 20
2A, 22 2A, 27, 34, 35, 38; see also
Jochi, ulus of
Gorgan 10 4A, 11 4A, 14 4A, 15 4A, 16,
16 4A, 18 4A
Gorgan (= Astarabad) 43 2A, 47 4A
Gorgan, province 11, 23 2B
Gorgan R. 1 4A, 2 4A, 6 4A, 7 4A, 8 4A,
9 4A, 10 4A, 11 4A, 14 4A, 15 4A, 16
4A, 18 4A, 19 4A, 20 4A, 21 4A, 22
4A, 24 4A, 25 4A, 26 4A, 27 4A, 28
4A, 29 4A, 30 4A, 31 4A, 32 4A, 34
4A, 36a, 36a 3A, 36b, 36b 3A, 37 4A,
43 2A, 44 3A, 45 4A, 46 3A, 47 4A
Gorgan, road to 33 4A
Great Britain 47
Great Khan, ulus of 20 2E,4E
Great Kushans (dynasty) 5
Great Mughals (dynasty) 25, 26 4C, 27
4C-D, 28 4C-D
Great Seljuks (dynasty) 14, 14 4A-C, 17
Great Silk Route 5, 6, 7, 34
Great Yuezhi 4
Greater Noghay Horde 27, 27 2/1A-C, 28
Greco-Bactria, Greco-Bactrian kingdom 4,
4 4C, 5
Greece 3
Guizi 5 3D, 7 3D, 8 3D, 9 3D, 10 3D;
see Kucha
“Gumbez of Manas” – see Kenizek Khatun
Ms.
Gumbez-i Seyyidan Ms. 43
Gumo 5 3D, 6 3D, 7 3D, 8 3D, 9 3D, 10
3D; see Aqsu
Gund R. 1 4C, 4 4C, 6 4C, 7 4C, 8 4C, 9
4C, 10 4C, 11 4C, 12 3D, 14 4C, 15
4C, 16 4C, 18 4C, 19 4C, 20 4C, 21 4C,
22 4C, 24 4C, 25 4C, 26 4C, 27 4C, 28
4C, 39 4B
Guomindang 47
Gur Amir (Gur-i Mir) Ms. 41, 41 2B*
Güregen 21, 22
Gur’ev 1 2A, 28 2A, 29 2A, 30 2A, 31
2A, 32 2A, 34, 34 2A, 44 2A, 45 2A,
46 2A, 47 2A
Gurganj 7 3B, 8 3B, 9 3B, 10 3B, 11 3B,
12, 12 1A, 13, 13 1B, 14, 14 3B, 15, 15
3B, 16, 16 3B, 17, 17 1B, 18, 18 3B, 20
Gürkhan 15, 16, 17
Gurlen 33, 33 4B, 43
Gurzivan 12 4B
Güyük 19
guzar 40, 41
Guzar – see Khuzar
bregel5.pmd 102
index
Guzganan (Guzgan) 12, 12 4B, 13 2C, 17
2C, 18
Gwalior 13 4D, 17 4D, 23 4D
Haji Bek Barlas 21
Haji Muhammad Khan – see Hajim Khan
Haji Piyada, Ms. of 43, 43 3C
Haji-Tarkhan 19 2A, 20 2A, 21, 21 2A,
22 2A, 24 2A, 25 2A, 26 2A, 27, 28;
see also Astrakhan’
Haji-Tarkhan khanate – see Astrakhan
khanate
Hajim Khan 27
Hakim Ata Ms. (in Baqïrghan) 43
Hakim-i Sabungar Mq. 40 1C
Hakim-i Termezi, complex (Ms., Mq.,
Kh.) 43
Halaverd 2 4C*, 12 3C
Halim ad-Din Demuni Ms. 40 2D
Hamadan 13 2A, 17, 17 2A, 18, 18 4A,
23 2A
Hami (Yiwu, Qomul) 1 3E, 2 3E*, 7 3E,
8 3E, 9 3E, 10, 10 3E, 11 3E, 14 3E,
15, 15 3E, 16 3E, 18 3E, 19 3E, 20 3E,
21 3E, 22, 22 3E, 24 3E, 25 3E, 26 3E,
27 3E, 28 3E, 29 3E, 30 3E, 31 3E, 32
3E, 34, 34 3E, 47 3E
Han (dynasty) 4, 5
Hansi 13 4D
Haqq Nazar Khan 27
Hare 3, 4, 4 4B, 5 4B, 6 4B, 7, 7 4B, 8
4B; see Herat
4B, 8 4B, 9 4B, 10 4B, 11 4B, 13, 13
2B, 14 4B, 15 4B, 16, 16 4B, 17 2B, 18
4B, 19 4B, 20 4B, 21 4B, 22 4B, 23 3C,
24 4B, 25 4B, 26 4B, 27 4B, 28 4B, 29
4B, 30 4B, 31 4B, 32 4B, 34 4B, 36a
3C, 36b 3C, 37 4C, 43 3C, 44 4A, 45
4B, 46 4A, 47 4B
Harun b. Altuntash 13
Hasan Murad Qoshbegi Mq. 42a 1C
Hashim al-Muqanna{ – see al-Muqanna{
hawz 40
Hawz-i Naw Mq. 40 3B
Haydar, amir 31
Haytal 6; see Hephthalites
Hayvan-qala 2 3B*
Hazara 43, 43 2C
Hazara (tribe), campaign against 25 4B
Hazarasp 1 3B, 2 3B*, 5 3B, 6 3B, 7 3B,
8 3B, 9 3B, 10 3B, 11 3B, 12 2A, 13
1C, 14 3B, 15 3B, 16 3B, 17 1C, 18 3B,
19 3B, 20 3B, 21 3B, 22 3B, 23 1C, 24
3B, 25 3B, 26, 26 3B, 27 3B, 27 insert,
28 3B, 29 3B, 30 3B, 31, 31 3B, 32 3B,
33, 33 5C, 34 3B, 35 2A, 36a 2C, 36b
2C, 37 2C, 38 3B, 41, 43, 43 1B, 44
3A, 45 3B, 46 3A
Hazrat Khizr Mq. 41 1B*
Hecatompylos 3 4A
Heliocles 4
Helmend R. 4, 13 3C, 23 3C
Hephthalites 6, 6 4/3C-E, 7, 7 4/3B-C
Heraclius 7
Herat 1 4B, 3, 7, 8, 9 4B, 10, 10 4B, 11
4B, 12 4A, 13 2B, 14 4B, 15 4B, 16, 16
4B, 17, 17 2B, 18, 18 4B, 19, 19 4B,
20, 20 4B, 21, 21 4B, 22, 22 4B, 23 2C,
24, 24 4B, 25, 25 4B, 26, 26 4B, 27, 27
4B, 27 insert, 28 4B, 29 4B, 30 4B, 31
4B, 34 4B, 35 4A, 43, 43 3B, 44 4A, 45
4B, 46 4A, 47 4B; see also Hare
Herodotus 3
Hilali (Yïlanlï) 33 4B
Hindukush Mts. 1, 1 4C, 4, 5, 6, 18, 26
Hisar 1 4C, 21 4C, 22 4C, 23 2C, 24 4C,
25, 25 4C, 26 4C, 27 4C, 27 insert, 28
4C, 29 4C, 30 4C, 31 4C, 34 4C, 35 3C,
38 3C, 43, 43 2D, 44 4B, 46 4B
Hisar, province 23 2C, 24, 27 4C, 29, 29
4C, 30 4C, 32
Hormuz 17, 17 3B, 23 3B
Hotan (Yutian) 5, 5 4D, 6 4D, 7 4D, 8, 8
4D, 9 4D, 10, 10 4D, 47 4D; see also
Khotan
Hotan R. 4 4D, 5 4D, 6 4D, 7 4D, 8 4D, 9
4D; see also Khotan R.
Hsiung-nu – see Xiongnu
Hulbuk 7 4C, 8 4C, 9 4C, 10 4C, 11 4C,
12 3C, 14 4C, 15 4C, 16 4C, 18 4C
Hülegü 19, 19 3C
Hülegü, ulus of 19 4A, 20, 20 4A
Humayun 26
Hungary 1
Hunger Steppe 1 3C
Hurmuzferra 12 3A
Husayn, Qara}unas 21
Husayn Sufi 20, 21
Husayniya-khana 40
Hyrcania 3 4A, 4 4A
Ibaq (Aybaq?) Khan 24, 24 1C, 26, 27
Ibir-Sibir 19 2C, 20 2C
Ibrahim b. Mas{ud 14
Ibrahim b. Nasr (Böri-Tegin, Tamghach
Bughra Khan) 13, 14
Ichan-qala (of Khiva) 42, 42A, 42B 1/2B
Ichki Salor (Turkmen tribe) 36a, 36a
1/2A-B
Ichkilik (branch of the Qïrghïz) 39
idiqut 10
Idiqut-shahri 2 3E*
Idiquts (dynasty) 15, 16, 18 3E
Ighdï-qala 2 3/4B*, 5 3/4B
Ighdïr (Turkmen tribe) 36a, 36a 1A-B,
36b 1A
ikhshid 8, 9, 41
Ikhtiyar ad-Din, qala (in Herat) 43
Ikhtiyar ad-Din Aytaq 16, 16 4A
Il-Arslan 15, 16, 16 4A-B
Ilamish plane 17
Ilaq 1, 12 2C, 14
Ilbars Khan [b. Shah-Niyaz Khan] 29
Ilbars Sultan (Khan), {Arabshahid 26
Ilek 31 2A, 32 2A, 44 1B, 45 2A, 46 1B;
see also Iletskiy gorodok
Iletskaya Zashchita 31 2B, 32 2B
Iletskiy gorodok 29 2A; see also Ilek
Ili 31 3D, 32 3D; see Qulja
Ili District 32 3D
Ili R. 1 3D, 2 3D, 3 3D, 4, 4 3D, 5, 5 3D,
6 3D, 7, 7 3D, 8 3D, 9 3D, 10 3D, 11
3D, 13 1D, 14 3D, 15 3D, 16 3D, 17
1D, 18 3D, 19 3D, 20 3D, 21 3D, 22
3D, 23 1D, 24, 24 3D, 25 3D, 26 3D,
27 3D, 28 3D, 29 3D, 30 3D, 31 3D,
32, 32 3D, 34 3D, 38, 38 2D, 39 1D, 44
3C, 45 3D, 46 3C, 47 3D
Ilibalïq 11 3D, 23 1D, 24 3D
Ilkhans, Ilkhanids (Ulus of Hülegü)
(dynasty) 19, 19 4A, 20, 20 4A
Ilyas b. Asad 10
Ilyas Khoja Khan 21
Imam Bahra, Kh. of 43
Imam Bakr-i Fazil Mz. 40 4A
Imam Qazi Khan Mz. 40 2D*
Imam-Quli Khan 28
Imam-Sahib 43, 43 3C
Imarat Baba Ms. and Mq. 43, 43 1B
Imlak 2 3C*; see Tunket
Inalchik 18
Inanch Khan 18
inaq 30
India 4, 5, 6, 11, 13, 16, 17, 21, 29, 34,
47 4D
India, campaign to 21 4C
Indian Ocean 13 4B, 17 4B, 23 4B-C
Indo-Greek kingdom 4
Indus R. 1 4D, 2 4D, 3 4D, 4 4D, 5 4D, 6,
6 4D, 7 4D, 8 4D, 9 4D, 10 4D, 11 4D,
12 4D, 13 3D, 14 4D, 15 4D, 16 2D, 17
3D, 18, 18 4D, 19 4D, 20 4D, 21 4D,
22 4D, 23 3D, 24 4D, 25 4D, 26 4D, 27
4D, 28 4D, 29 4D, 30 4D, 31 4D, 32
4D, 34 4D, 45 4D, 47 4D
Ingichka 43, 43 2C
Inner Mongolia 4
Ionov, Pamir expedition of 32 4C
Iran 1, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 14, 15, 16, 17,
18, 19, 19 3C, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26,
27, 28, 29, 30, 31 4A, 32, 32 4A, 34,
36a, 36b, 37, 43 3A, 44 4A, 45, 45 4A,
46 4A, 47, 47 4A
Irani (in Bukhara and Samarqand) 40, 41
Iranians 7, 10, 35
Iraq 13, 14, 14 4A, 15, 16, 19, 20, 21, 24,
36a
{Iraq-i {Arab 23 2A
Irdana Biy 30
Irgiz 32 2B, 38 2B, 44 2B, 45 2B, 46 2B,
47 2B
Irgiz R. 1 2B, 3 2B, 4 2B, 5 2B, 6 2B, 7
2B, 8 2B, 9 2B, 10 2B, 11 2B, 14 2B,
15 2B, 16 2B, 17, 18 2B, 19 2B, 20 2B,
21 2B, 22 2B, 24 2B, 25 2B, 26 2B, 27
2B, 28 2B, 29 2B, 30 2B, 31 2B, 32 2B,
34 2B, 38 2B, 44 2B, 46 2B, 47 2B
Irjar 32
Irkeshtam 34, 45, 45 4C
Iron gates (of Bukhara) 40 1C*
Iron gates (of Samarqand) 41 2B*
Irtïsh R. 1, 1 1D, 3 1D, 4 1D, 5 1C, 6
2D, 7 1D, 8 1D, 9 1D, 10 1D, 11, 11
1D, 13 1E, 14 1D, 15 2D, 17, 17 1E, 18
1C, 19, 19 1C, 20 2D, 21 1D, 22 2D, 23
5/26/2003, 1:06 PM
1E, 24 1D, 27 1C, 28, 28 1C, 29, 29
1C, 31, 31 1C, 32, 34, 34 1C, 38, 38
1D, 44 2C, 45 1C, 47 1C
Irtïshskaya liniya 30 2D
Isbask (Isbisket) 41 1A
Isfahan 13 2A, 14, 17 2A, 22, 23 2B
Isfandiyar Sultan (Khan), {Arabshahid 28
Isfandiyar Khan, Qongrat 42, 45
Isfandiyar Khan’s audience-hall (in Dïshan-
qala, Khiva) 42b 1B*
Isfara 2 3C*, 12 2C
Isferayin 26 4B, 27 4B, 28 4B, 34 4B
Isfijab 2 4C*, 7 3C, 8 3C, 9, 9 3C, 10, 10
3C, 11, 11 3C, 12, 12 1C, 13, 13 1C,
14, 14 3C, 15 3C, 16 3C, 17, 17 1C, 18
3C; see also Sayram
ishan 36b
Ishan Baba Vali, Ms. of (in Andkhuy) 43
Ishaq Ata, Ms. of 43
Ishim 44 2C, 46 2C
Ishim can. 33 2B
Ishim R. 1 1C, 3 1C, 4 1C, 5 1C, 6 1C, 7
1C, 8 1C, 9 1C, 10 1C, 11 1C, 15 1C,
16 1C, 18 1C, 19 1C, 20 1C, 21 1C, 22
1C, 24 1C, 25 1C, 26 1C, 27 1C, 28, 28
1C, 29 1C, 30 1C, 31 1C, 32 1C, 34, 34
1C, 38, 38 1C, 44 2C, 45 1C, 46 2C, 47
1C
Ishkashim 12 4D, 34, 34 4C
{Ishrat-khana Ms. 41, 41 2B*
Ishtemi 7
Ishtikhan 2 4C*, 8, 12 2C
Iskandar, bridge of – see Bridge of
Iskandar
Iskandar Khan, Abulkhayrid 27
Iskandar Mirza, campaign of 21 3D
Iskandergham can. 41 2B
Isker – see Qashlïq
Islam Khoja Md. and minaret 42, 42a 3C*
Ism-i Mahmud Ata, complex (Ms. and
Mq.) 33 4B, 43, 43 1B
Isma{il b. Ahmad, Samanid 10, 11, 12,
40, 41
Isma{il II b. Nuh al-Muntasir 11
Isma{il Baba Ms. 43, 43 1B
Isma{il Khan, Chaghatayid 28
Isma{il Khandan 14
Isma{il Safavi 24, 25 4A, 26
Isma{ilis 13
Issïq 2 3D*
Issïq-köl L. 1 3D, 2 3D, 3 3D, 4 3D, 5
3D, 6 3D, 7 3D, 8 3D, 9 3D, 10 3D, 11,
11 3D, 13 2D, 14 3D, 15 3D, 16 3D, 17
2D, 18 3D, 19 3D, 20 3D, 21, 21 3D,
22 3D, 23 2D, 24 3D, 25 3D, 26, 26
3D, 27 3D, 28 3D, 29 3D, 30 3D, 31,
31 3D, 32, 32 3D, 34 3D, 38 3D, 39, 39
1C, 43 1E, 44 4C, 45 3D, 46 4C, 47 3D
Ïstï (Qazaq tribe) 38 2/3C
Itil 10 2A, 11, 11 2A
Itil R. 4 1A, 5 1A, 6 1A, 7 1A, 8 1A, 9
1A, 10 1A, 11 2A, 14 1A, 15 2A, 16
1A, 18 2A, 19 2A, 20 1A, 21 1A, 22
1A, 24 1A, 25 1A, 26 1A; see also
Volga
Ivan the Terrible 27
Izmukhshir 33 4B
Jadids 44, 45
Ja{far Khoja Md. 40 2D
Jahanshah Qara-Qoyunlu 22
Jakerdiza 41 2B
Jalair (Özbek tribe) 35, 35 2C-D*
Jalayir (Chaghatay tribe) 20, 20 4C
Jalayirids (dynasty) 21
Jalal ad-Din (Khorezmshah) 17, 18, 18
4B,C
Jalal ad-Din Qadïr Khan 17
Jalalabad 47 3C
Jam (in Ghur) 43, 43 3C; see Firuzkuh
Jam (in Khorasan) 25, 25 4B, 26, 26 4B,
27 4B, 27 insert, 28 4B, 31 4B, 32 4B,
34 4B, 45 4B; see also Turbat-i Jam
Jami [{Abd ar-Rahman] 24
Jamshidis 33
Jan Qubad Darugha Mq. 40 1A
Jana-qala 2 3B*; see Jend
Janbas-qala 2 3B*
Jangir Khan, of Bukey Horde 31
Jani Muhammad Khan 28
Janibek, Qazaq sultan 22, 24, 25, 26
Janibek [b. Özbek], campaign of 21 3A
Janibek Sultan b. Khoja Muhammad 26,
27
Janids (dynasty) 27, 28; see
Ashtarkhanids
Janish Sultan, campaign of 25 2B
Jankent 2 3B*; see Yangikent

Japan 44
Jar-tepa 2 4C*
Jar-tepe 2 4B*; see Varakhsha
Jar-tepe (in Tokharistan) 2 4C*
jarib 40
Jarkent 44 4C, 46 4C
Jarqurghan 43, 43 2C
Jaryab R. 12 3C; see also Panj
Jawn-i Qurban 20
Jebe Noyon 18, 18 1A,3D,4A,4D
Jend 11, 11 3B, 13 1C, 14, 14 3B, 15, 15
3B, 16, 16 3B, 17, 17 1C, 18, 18 3B, 19
3B, 20
Jerm R. 12 4D
Jews, Jewish quarter 40, 41
Jeyhun R. 8, 8 4B, 9 4B, 10 3/4B, 11 4B,
12 2/3B, 13 2C, 14 4B-C, 15 4B, 16
4B-C, 17 2C, 18 4B; see Amu-Darya
Jibal 13 2A, 16, 17 2A, 23 2B
Jigirbend 2 3B*, 12 2A
Jin (dynasty) 15
Jingjue 5 4E; see Niya
Jinman 6 3E; see Beiting
Jizak 1 4C, 30 4C, 31 4C, 32, 32 4C, 34
4C, 35 2C, 38 3C, 43 2D, 44, 44 4B, 45
4C, 47 4C
Jochi 17, 18, 18 2C,3B, 19, 19 2D, 27,
28, 38
Jochi, ulus of 19, 19 2A-C, 20, 22
Jochids (dynasty) 19, 20, 22, 25, 38
Jou-Jan – see Rouran
Jul – see Sokuluk
Julek 32 3C
Jumaduq b. Sufi 22 2B
Junayd Khan 44, 45, 45 3B
Junghar basin 1, 47
Junghar Gates 1 3/4D
Junghar Khun-tayijis (dynasty) 28 2D-E,
29 2D-E
Jungharia 1, 1 2E, 5, 9, 10, 11, 15, 19,
22, 24, 24 2E, 28, 32, 34, 34 3/2D-E,
38, 47
Junghars 21 2E, 28, 29, 30, 34, 38, 39
Junior Horde – see Kshi Zhuz
Jushi (Anterior, Ulterior) 5 3E, 6 3E
Juvan-tobe 2 3C*; see Taraz
Juvikat – see Bek-tobe
Juybar-i Kalan Md. 40 3B
Juybari sheykhs 27, 40
Juzjan 9, 12, 13; see Guzgan
Kaahka (in N. Khorasan) 25 3A, 43 2B,
44 4A
Kaahka (in the Pamir) 2 4C*
“Ka#ba of Zoroaster” 6
Kabarna – see Kavardan
Kabul 1 4C, 5, 6, 9 4C, 10, 10 4C, 11
4C, 12 4C, 13 3C, 14 4C, 15 4C, 16 4C,
17 3C, 18 4C, 19 4C, 20 4C, 21 4C, 22,
22 4C, 23 3C, 24 4C, 25, 25 4C, 26, 26
4C, 27 4C, 27 insert, 28 4C, 29 4C, 30
4C, 31 4C, 32 4C, 34, 34 4C, 35 4C, 43
3D, 45 4C, 47 4C
Kafïr-qala (in the Pamir) 2 4C*
Kafïr-qala (in Tokharistan) 2 4C*
Kafirnihan R. (Ramid) 12 3C, 35, 35 3C,
43 2D
Kakuyids (dynasty) 13 2/3A
Kalabad Md. 40 2D
Kalan Minaret 40 2C
Kalinjar 13, 13 4D, 17 4D
Kalka R. 18
Kalmïkovskiy forpost 29 2A
Kaltatay (Özbek tribe) 35 3/4C*
Kama R. 1 1A, 19 1A, 26 1B, 27 1B, 29
1B, 30 1A, 31 1B, 45 1B
Kamashi 43, 43 2C
Kan-i Gil 41 1C
Kanauj 13 4D, 17 4D
Kandak 13 3C
Kangar 7 2/3B-C, 8 2/3B-C, 11; cf.
Kangju
Kangju 4, 4 2/3B-C, 5, 5 3B-C, 6, 6
2/3B-C; cf. Kangar
Kanibadam 43, 43 2D
Kanishka I 5
Kanka 2 3C*
Kanpur 13 4D, 17 4D
Kapisa 2 4C*, 5 4C, 6 4C
Kara-Kalpak AO (ASSR) 46, 46 3B
Kara-Kirgiz AO (Kirgiz ASSR) 46
Karaganda 47 2C; see Qaraghandï
Karakoram Ra. 1 4D
Karizgah (Namazgah, Khoja Ahrar) gates
(of Samarqand) 41 2B*
Karkaralinsk 31 2D, 32 2D, 38 2D, 44
3C, 45 2D, 46 3C
Karts (dynasty) 19 4B-C, 20, 20 4B, 21
bregel5.pmd 103
index
Karukh 43, 43 3B
Kasan 2 3C*, 5, 5 3C, 6 3C, 7 3C, 8, 8
3C, 9, 9 3C, 10 3C, 11 3C, 12 2D, 14
3C, 15 3C, 16, 16 3C, 18 3C, 34 3C
Kasan-say R. 12 2D
Kasan-tepe 2 3C*; see Kasan
Kasba 2 4C*, 12 3B
Kasbi 43, 43 2C; see also Kasba
Kashan 13 2A, 17 2A, 23 2B, 34 4A, 47
4A
Kashghar (Shule) 1, 1 4D, 2 4D*, 5, 5
4D, 6 4D, 7 4D, 8, 8 4D, 9, 9 4D, 10
4D, 11 4D, 13, 13 2D, 14, 14 4D, 15
4D, 17 2D, 18 4D, 19 4D, 20 4D, 21,
21 4D, 22, 22 4D, 23 2D, 24, 24 4D, 25
4D, 26, 26 4D, 27, 27 4D, 27 insert, 28,
28 4D, 29 4D, 30 4D, 31, 31 4D, 32, 32
4D, 34, 34 4D, 38 3D, 39 3C, 43 2E, 44
4C, 45 4D, 46 4C, 47, 47 4D
Kashghar R. 1 4D, 2 4D, 3 4D, 4 4C-D, 5
4C-D, 6 4C-D, 7 4D, 8 4C-D, 9 4D, 10
4D, 11 4D, 13 2D, 14 4D, 15 4D, 16
4D, 17 2D, 18 4D, 19 4D, 20 4D, 21
4D, 22 4D, 23 2D, 24 4D, 25 4D, 26
4D, 27 4D, 28 4D, 29 4D, 30 4D, 31
4D, 32 4D, 34 4C-D, 38 3D, 39 3C, 44
4C, 45 4D, 46 4C, 47 4D
Kashgharia 1, 18, 24, 25, 30, 34 4/3D, 47
Kashi 47 4D; see Kashghar
Kashmir 5, 13 3D, 17 3D, 23 3D, 24, 26
Kat 19 3B, 20, 20 3B, 21, 21 3B, 22 3B,
23 1C, 24 3B, 25 3B, 26 3B, 27 3B, 27
insert, 34 3B, 36a 2C; see also Kath
Kat (new) 33 4B
Kath 5 3B, 6 3B, 7 3B, 8 3B, 9 3B, 10
3B, 11 3B, 12, 12 2A, 13 1C, 14 3B, 15
3B, 16 3B, 17 1C, 18 3B; see also: Kat,
Fil
Katta-Qurghan 31 4C, 32, 32 4C, 35 2B,
43 2C, 44 4B, 45 4C, 46 4B
Kattakurgan – see Katta-Qurghan,
Kattaqurghan
Kattaqurghan 47 4C; see Katta-Qurghan
Kaufman A. P. von 32
Kavardan (Kabarna) 2 3C*
Kawchin 43 2C
Kaynar-su 2 4C*; see Penjikend
Kazak ASSR 46, 46 2B-C
Kazakh SSR (Kazakhstan) 46, 47
Kazakh Upland 1
Kazakhs – see Qazaqs
Kazalinsk 32 3B, 38 2B, 44 3B, 45 3B,
46 3B; see also Qazalï
Kazan’ 1 1A, 27 1A, 28 1A, 29 1A, 30
1A, 31 1A, 34 1A, 44 1B, 45 1A, 47
1A; see also Qazan
Kazanjik 45 4A
Kebek 20
kebeki dinars 20
Kegeyli R. 33 2B
Keldi Muhammad Sultan 26
Keles R. 12 2C
Kelif 1 4C, 11 4C, 12 3B, 14 4C, 15 4C,
16 4C, 18, 18 4C, 19 4C, 20 4C, 21 4C,
22 4C, 24 4C, 25 4C, 26 4C, 27 4C, 28
4C, 29, 29 4C, 30 4C, 31 4C, 32 4C, 34
4C, 35 3B, 44 4B, 45 4C, 46 4B
Kelte-minar minaret (in Khiva) 42a 2B
Kelte-Minara, castle 43
Kend-i Badam 12 2C
Keneges (Özbek tribe) 29, 29 4C, 31, 35,
35 3C*
Kenesarï Sultan 31
Kenizek Khatun, Ms. of (“Gumbez of
Manas”) 43
Kenj-Rustaq 12 4A-B
Kerder 7 3B, 8 3B, 9 3B, 12 1A
Kerey (Qazaq tribe) 38, 38 1/2C-E
Keriya (Yumi, Yutian) 1 4D, 5 4D, 6 4D,
11 4D, 13 2D, 14 4D, 15 4D, 16 4D, 17
2D, 18 4D, 19 4D, 20 4D, 21 4D, 22
4D, 24 4D, 25 4D, 26 4D, 27 4D, 28
4D, 29 4D, 30 4D, 31 4D, 32 4D, 45
4D
Kerki 2 4B-C*, 19 4B, 20 4B, 21 4B, 22
4B, 23 2C, 24 4B, 25 4B, 26 4B, 27 4B,
27 insert, 28 4B, 29 4B, 30 4B, 31 4B,
32 4B, 34 4B, 35 3B, 37 4D, 43 2C, 44
4B, 45 4B, 46 4B, 47 4B; see also
Zemm
Kerkuh 10 4B, 11 4B, 12 3B; see also
Zemm, Kerki
Kerman 13 3B, 17, 17 3B, 22, 23 3B, 25,
27 insert
Kerman, campaign to 16 4B, 19 4B, 25
4B
Kerman, province 13 3B, 17 3B, 23 3B
Kermine 1 4C, 19 4C, 20 4C, 21 4C, 22
4C, 24 4C, 25 4C, 26 4C, 27 4C, 28 4C,
29 4C, 30 4C, 31 4C, 32 4C, 34 4C, 35
2B, 43, 43 2C, 44 4B, 45 4C, 46 4B;
see also Kerminiya
Kerminiya 11 4C, 12 2B, 14 4C, 15 4C,
16 4C, 18 4C; see also Kermine
Kerran 12 3C-D
Kesamir (Özbek tribe) 35 3C*
Kesek (Qïrghïz tribe) 39 3/4A-C
Kesh 6 4C, 7, 7 4C, 8, 8 4C, 9, 9 4C, 10,
10 4C, 11 4C, 12 3C, 13 2C, 14 4C, 15
4C, 16 4C, 17 2C, 18 4C, 19 4C, 20 4C,
21, 21 4C
Kesh gates (of Afrasiyab) 41 1B*
Keshef-rud R. 1 4B, 12 4A, 36a 3B, 36b
3B, 37 4C
Keshk-rud (Qashqa-Darya) R. 12 3B
Ketmen Ra. 1 3D
Khadalik 2 4D*
Khalach (19th cent.) 35, 35 3C*
Khalaj (7th cent.) 8
Khalchayan 2 4C*, 5 4C
Khalifa Husayn Kh. 40 3D
Khalifa Khudaydad Mq. 40 3A
Khalifa Niyazqul Md. (“Chor Minor”) 40
2D
Khalil Sultan b. Miranshah 22
khan 25, 26, 30, 31, 36b, 38
Khan-bagh 33 4A
Khan-yab can. 33 3A
Khanabad-tepe (Nujket) 2 3C*
Khanqa 43, 43 1B; see Khanqah
Khanqah 29, 33, 33 5C
Khanskaya Stavka 44 1A
Kharashket 2 3C*, 6 3C, 7 3C, 8 3C, 12
2C
Khatïrchi 35 2B
Khaylam 12 2D
Khaylam R. 9 3C-D, 10 3D, 11 3D, 12
2D, 14 3C, 15 3D, 16 3C, 18 3C; see
Narïn
Khazar Qaghanate 9 3/1A, 10 3/2A, 11,
11 3/2A
Khazarek-depe 2 4B*
Khazars 8 2/3A
Khitay (Qïtay) (Özbek tribe) 31, 35, 35
1/2A,2B*
Khitay-Qïpchaq (Özbek tribes) 35
Khiva 1, 1 3B, 2 3B*, 9 3B, 10 3B, 12
2A, 14 3B, 15 3B, 16 3B, 18 3B, 19
3B, 20, 20 3B, 21 3B, 22 3B, 23 1C, 24
3B, 25 3B, 26 3B, 27 3B, 27 insert, 28,
28 3B, 29, 29 3B, 30, 30 3B, 31, 31 3B,
32, 32 3B, 33, 33 5B, 34, 34 3B, 35 2A,
36a 2C, 36b, 36b 2C, 37 2C, 38 3B, 42,
43 1B, 44 3A, 45, 45 3B, 46 3A, 47 3B;
see also Khivaq
Khiva, khanate of 30 3B, 31, 31 3B, 32,
32 3B, 33, 36a, 36b, 42, 44, 44 3A, 45,
46
Khivaq 5 3B, 6 3B, 7 3B, 8 3B, 42; see
Khiva
Khiyaban Md. & Mq. 40 3B
Khïzïr-eli (Turkmen tribe) 36a, 36a 2B,
37 2C,3D*
Khodzhend – see Khojend
Khoja (Turkmen tribe) 37 2A,3B-C*
Khoja {Abd al-Khaliq Ms. 43
Khoja {Abdi Birun Ms. 41 3B*
Khoja {Abdi Darun complex 41, 41 2B*
Khoja Ahrar 41 2B
Khoja Ahrar, {Ubaydallah 22, 24, 41 2B
Khoja Ahrar complex 41 2B*
Khoja Amin, Ms. of (in Namangan) 43
Khoja Aspgardan Mz. 40 2B
Khoja Durbad Ms. 43
Khoja Hasan Bulghari Mz. 40 2C
Khoja-Idat-qala 2 4B*
Khoja Ilim Kan Kh. 43, 43 2C
Khoja {Isa Mq. and Ms. 43, 43 2C
Khoja Mashad, complex (Ms. and Md.) 43
Khoja Nakhshran mausoleums 43
Khoja Parsa Md. & Mz. 40 2D
Khoja Rushna}i (Rawshana}i?), Ms. of 43,
43 3C
Khoja Sa{d Mq. 40 2C*
Khoja Turk-i Jandi Mq/Mz 40 3C
Khoja Zayn ad-Din Kh. 40 2B
Khoja-eli 33, 33 3B, 35 1A
Khojanda 6 4C, 7 4C, 8, 8 4C, 9; see
Khojend
Khojas of Eastern Turkestan 28, 32
Khojas of Tashkent 30
Khojash Mahram Md. 42a 2B*
Khojend 1 4C, 2 4C*, 3, 9 4C, 10 4C, 11
4C, 12 2C, 13 2C, 14 4C, 15, 15 4C, 16
4C, 17 2C, 18, 18 4C, 19, 19 4C, 20
5/26/2003, 1:06 PM
103
4C, 21 4C, 23 2C, 24 4C, 25, 25 4C, 26
4C, 27 4C, 27 insert, 28 4C, 29 4C, 30
4C, 31, 31 4C, 32, 32 4C, 34 4C, 35, 35
2C, 43, 43 2D, 44 4B, 45 4C, 46, 46
4B, 47 4C
Khojikent 2 3C*
Khorasan 1, 1 4B, 6 4B, 7 4B, 8, 8 4B, 9,
9 4B, 10, 10 4B, 11, 11 4B, 12, 12 4A,
13, 13 2B, 14, 14 4B, 15, 15 4B, 16, 16
4B, 17, 17 2B, 18, 18 4A-B, 19 4B, 20,
20 4B, 21, 21 4B, 22, 22 4B, 23, 23
2B-C, 24, 24 4B, 25, 25 4B, 26, 26 4B,
27, 27 4B, 27 insert, 28, 28 4B, 29, 29
4B, 31, 31 4B, 32 4A-B, 33, 34, 34 4A-
B, 36a, 36a 3A-B, 36b, 36b 3A-B, 37
Khorezm 1, 1 3B, 3, 4, 5, 5 3B, 6, 6 3B,
7 3B, 8, 8 3B, 9, 9 3B, 10 3B, 11, 11
3B, 12, 12 1/2A, 13, 13 1B-C, 14, 15,
15 3B, 16, 16 3B, 17, 17 1B-C,3B, 18
3B, 19 3B, 20, 20 3B, 21, 21 3B, 22, 23
1C, 24 3B, 25, 25 3B, 26, 26 3B, 27, 27
3B, 27 insert, 28, 28 3B, 29, 29 3B, 30,
30 3B, 31, 31 3B, 32, 32 3B, 33, 34, 34
3B, 35, 36a, 36a 1/2B-C, 36b, 36b
1/2B-C, 42, 43, 47
Khorezmian People’s Soviet Republic 45,
46
Khorezmians 3, 33
khorezmshah 9, 12, 13, 15, 17
Khorezmshah Muhammad, empire of 17
3/1B-C
Khorezmshahs (dynasty) 14, 15, 16
Khorog 44 4B, 46 4B, 47 4C
Khoshut (Oyrat tribe) 22
Khosrow I Anushirvan 7
Khotan (Yutian) 1 4D, 2 4D*, 11 4D, 13
2D, 14 4D, 15 4D, 13 2D, 16 4D, 17
2D, 18 4D, 19 4D, 20 4D, 21 4D, 22
4D, 23 2D, 24 4D, 25 4D, 26 4D, 27
4D, 28 4D, 29 4D, 30 4D, 31 4D, 32
4D, 34 4D, 38 3E, 39 4E, 45 4D; see
also Hotan, Yutian
Khotan R. 1 4D, 2 4D, 3 4D, 10 4D, 11
4D, 14 4D, 15 4D, 16 4D, 17 2D, 18
4D, 19 4D, 20 4D, 21 4D, 22 4D, 23
2D, 24 4D, 25 4D, 26 4D, 27 4D, 28
4D, 29 4D, 30 4D, 31 4D, 32 4D, 34
4D, 38 3E, 39 4E, 45 4D, 47 4D; see
also Hotan R.
Khoyt (Oyrat tribe) 22
Khuday-Nazar Ovliya Ms. 43 2B
Khudayar Khan 32
Khulm 9 4C, 10 4C, 11 4C, 12 4C, 14
4C, 15 4C, 16 4C, 18 4C, 30 4C, 31 4C,
34 4C
khun-tayiji 28
“Khurjum” Md. 42a 2C*
Khurshab R. 12 2D
Khusrawshah 23 2C, 24
Khuttal 8, 12, 12 3C, 13, 13 2C, 14 4C,
15 4C, 16 4C
Khuzar 35 3B, 43 2C
Khuzistan 23 2/3A
Kidara 6
Kidarites (dynasty ?) 6, 6 4C
Kimek Qaghanate 11 2C-E
Kimeks 10 2C, 11, 11 2C-E, 13, 13 1D
Kirey, sultan (khan) 22, 24, 25
Kirgiz ASSR 46, 46 4B-C
Kirgiz SSR 46
Kirgiz Ra. 1 3C
Kishm 12 4C
Kisten Qara Sultan 26
Kitab 2 4C*, 43 2C, 45 4C
Kizil-Arvat 37 3B, 44 3A, 45, 45 4A, 46
3A, 47 4A; see Qïzïl-Arvat, Gïzïlarbat
Köchkünji Muhammad Khan 26, 27
Köhne Kaahka 2 4B*
Köhne Kishman 2 4B*; see Kushmeyhen
Köhne Serakhs 2 4B*
Köhne-Uas 2 3B*, 6 3B
Köhne-Urgench 1 3B, 31 3B, 32 3B, 33,
33 3A, 37 2C, 38 3B, 43, 43 1B, 47 3B;
see also Kunia-Urgench
Kök-chaga 33 4B
Kök-Gumbaz Mq. (in Qarshi) 43
Kök-Gumbaz Mq. (in Shahrisabz) 43
Kök-Gumbaz Mq. (Mq. of {Abd al-Latif, in
Ura-Tübe) 43
Kök-Orda 19, 19 2B-C, 20, 20 2B-C, 21,
22, 38
Kök Tash 41
Kök-Üzäk can. 33 2C
Kokand 35 2D, 38 3C, 44 4B, 45, 45 3C,
46 4B; see also Qoqand, Qoqan
Kokcha R. 1 4C, 2 4C, 6 4C, 7 4C, 8 4C, 9
4C, 10 4C, 11 4C, 12 3/4C, 14 4C, 15
4C, 16 4C, 18 4C, 19 4C, 20 4C, 21 4C,
 104
22 4C, 24 4C, 25 4C, 26 4C, 27 4C, 28
4C, 30 4C, 31 4C, 32 4C, 35 3/4C, 43
3D, 44 4B, 46 4B, 47 4C
Kökche road 33 4C
Kokchetav 31 1C, 32 1C, 38 1C, 44 2C,
45 1C, 46 2C, 47 1C
Kokchuk 33 4B
Kokildora Kh. (in Termez) 43
Koko-nor L. 6, 8
Kokpektï 31 2D, 32 2D, 38 2E, 45 2D, 46
3D
Kokshaal R. 1 3D
Kokshaal Ra. 1 3D, 39 2D
Kökshetau 47 1C; see Kokchetav
Köl-i Malik L. 25
Kolchak, Admiral 45
Kolesov F. 45
Kongur Ra. 1
Kopal 31, 32 3D, 38 2D, 44 3C, 45 3D,
46 3C
Kopet-Dagh Mts. 1, 1 4B, 16, 26, 36a, 36a
2/3B, 36b 2/3B, 37
Koriakovskiy forpost 29 1D
Korla 47 3E
körünüsh-khana (in the ark of Khiva) 42,
42a 2B
Krasnaya Rechka 2 3D*; see Nevaket
Krasnovodsk 32, 32 3A, 38 3A, 44 3A,
45 3A, 46 3A, 47 3A
Krasnovodsk Bay 32
Krorayina 5 3/4E, 6, 6 3E
Kshi Zhuz (Junior Horde) 29, 29 2B, 30,
30 2B, 31, 31 2B, 33, 38, 38 2/1B
Kucha (Guizi, Kusan) 1 3D, 2 3D*, 5, 5
3D, 6 3D, 7 3D, 8, 8 3D, 9, 9 3D, 10,
10 3D, 11 3D, 13, 13 2E, 14 3D, 15 3D,
16 3D, 17 2E, 18 3D, 19 3D, 20 3D, 21
3D, 22 3D, 23 2E, 24 3D, 25 3D, 26
3D, 27 3D, 28 3D, 29 3D, 30 3D, 31
3D, 32 3D, 34 3D, 38 3E, 39 2E, 44
4D, 45 3D, 46 4D, 47 3D
Küchlük 17, 17 2/1D-E, 18
Kuchum Khan 27, 28
kuhandiz 41
Kuhandiz gates (of Bukhara) 40 2C*
Kuhek height 41 1C; see Chopan-Ata
Kuhistan 12, 13 3B, 17 3B, 23 3B, 27, 27
insert
Kuhna Ark (in Khiva) 42a 2B*
Kuhna Pazdi 2 4C*; see Bezda
Kuhsan 43, 43 3B
Kujula Kadphises 5
Kukeldash Md. (in Bukhara) 40 2C
Kukeldash Md. (in Tashkent) 43
Kulab 1 4C, 26 4C, 27, 27 4C, 28 4C, 29
4C, 30 4C, 31 4C, 32 4C, 34 4C, 35 3C,
43 2D, 44 4B, 45 4C, 46 4B
Kulab, principality 29 4C, 31, 32
Kulan – see Lugovoe
Kuldor-tepe 2 4C*; see Maymurg
Kumed 12 3D
Kumijis 12 3C
Kunar R. 12 4D
Kungey Alatau Ra. 1 3D
Kunia-Urgench 35 1A, 44 3A, 45 3B, 46
3A; see also Köhne-Urgench
Kunlun Ra. 1, 1 4D-E
Kuqa 47 3D; see Kucha
Kurdistan 17, 23 2A
Kurds 17
Küren-Dagh Mts. 1 4A, 36a
Kurgan 28, 28 1C, 29 1C, 31 1C, 44 2C,
45 1C, 46 2C, 47 1C
Kurtka 32 3D
Kusan 11 3D, 13 2E, 14 3D, 15 3D, 16
3D, 18 3D, 19 3D, 20 3D, 21 3D, 22
3D, 23 2E, 24 3D, 25 3D, 26 3D, 27
3D, 28 3D, 29 3D, 30 3D, 31 3D; see
Kucha
Kusana (Kushana) 5
Kush-Murun 31 1C, 32 1C, 38 1C, 45 1C,
47 1C
Kush-Rabat, caravanseray 43, 43 3B
Kushaniya 7 4C, 8, 8 4C, 9 4C, 10 4C,
11 4C, 12 2B
Kushans (dynasty) 5, 5 4C, 6
Kushanshahr 6, 6 4B-C
Kushanshahs (dynasty) 6
Kushk R. 12 4A
Kushka 32 4B, 43 3B, 44 4A, 45 4B, 46
4A, 47 4B
Kushmeyhen 12 3A
Kustanay 32 1B, 38 1C, 44 2C, 45 1B, 46
2C
Kuyruk-tobe 2 3C*
Küzeli-ghïr 2 3B*
Kyrgyzstan 47, 47 3C-D
bregel5.pmd 104
index
Kzïl-Orda 46 3B; see also Aq-Masjid,
Perovsk
Lab-i Hawz 40 2C
Lab-i Hawz-i Arbab Mq. 40 2B
Ladakh 24, 26
Lagman 2 4C*; see Halaverd
Lahore 13 3D, 17 3D, 23 3D, 34
Lalazem Ata, complex (Kh. and Ms.) 43,
43 1B
Langar 43, 43 2C
Langar Ata, Ms. of 43
Lashkar-i Bazar 13 3C, 17 3C
Later Han (dynasty) 5
Lawdan can. 33 3B
Leninabad 46 4B; see Khojend
Leningrad 2
Lepsa R. 1 2D
Lepsinsk 38 2E, 44 3D, 45 3D, 46 3D
Lesser Noghay Horde 27, 27 2A
Lesser Yuezhi 4
Li Guangli 5
Liao (dynasty) 15
Little Bolor 7 4C-D, 8, 8 4C-D, 9, 9 4C-
D, 10 4C-D
Lomakin, general 32
Lop Sea 1
Lop-nor L. 1, 1 3E, 2 3E, 3 3E, 4 3E, 5,
5 3E, 6, 6 3E, 7 3E, 8 3E, 9 3E, 10 3E,
11 3E, 13 2E, 14 3E, 15 3E, 16 3E, 17
2E, 18 3E, 19 3E, 20 3E, 21 3E, 22 3E,
23 2E, 24 3E, 25 3E, 26 3E, 27 3E, 28
3E, 29 3E, 30 3E, 31 3E, 32 3E, 34 3E,
47 3E
Loqay (Özbek tribe) 35 3C*
Loulan 2 3E*, 4 3E, 5, 5 3E, 6 3E
Lower Barskhan – see Tortkol-tobe
Lugovoe (Kulan) 2 3C*
Luntai 5, 5 3E, 6 3E, 7 3E, 8 3E
Luristan 21, 23 2A
Macedonia 3, 4
Madar-i Khan Md. 40 2B
Madar-i Khan Ms. (in Qoqand) 43
Madar-i Khan-i Lab-i Rud Mq. 40 2B*
madina 41
Madminiya 9 3B, 10 3B, 11 3B, 12 1A,
14 3B, 15 3B, 16 3B, 18 3B
Madrasa-i Jami{ (in Andizhan) 43
Madrasa-i Kuhna (in Hisar) 43
Madrasa-i Naw (in Hisar) 43
Madrasa-i Varzu 43, 43 3D
Magak-i {Attari Mq. 40 2C*
Magak-i Kurpa Mq. 40 2C*
Magnitogorsk 47 1B
mahalla 40
Mahdum-i A{zam, Mq. of 43
Mahipaz R. 33 1B
Mahmud, Seljuk sultan – see Mahmud
Khan, Qarakhanid
Mahmud b. Sebük-Tegin 11, 13
Mahmud al-Kashghari 14
Mahmud Khan, Chaghatayid 23 1/2D, 24,
24 3C-D, 25
Mahmud Khan, of Golden Horde 22 2A
Mahmud Khan, Qarakhanid (and Seljuk
sultan) 15, 16
Mahmud Khoja 22 1C
Mahmud Yalavach Khorezmi 19
Makhan 20 4B, 21, 21 4B
Makhtum Ms. 43
Makhtum-qala 43, 43 2A
malik 15, 16
Malik Shah 14, 15
Malleson, General 45
Malva 13 4C, 17 4C
Mamluks of Syria 21
al-Ma}mun 10
Manap, clan 39
manap, title 39
Manas 44 4D, 46 4D
Manas Ms. 43 1D
Manas R. 1 3E, 3 3E, 4 3E, 5 3E, 6 3E, 7
3E, 8 3E, 9 3E, 10 3E, 11 3E, 14 3E,
15 3E, 16 3E, 18 3E, 19 3E, 20 3E, 21
3E, 22 3E, 24 3E, 25 3E, 26 3E, 27 3E,
28 3E, 29 3E, 30 3E, 31 3E, 32 3E, 34
3E, 38 2E
Manchu 15, 30, 31
Manchuria 1, 7
Mangïshlaq 47 3A
Mangïshlaq Pen. 1 3A, 14, 14 3A, 15, 15
3A, 16 3A, 21, 22, 28, 29 3A, 30 3A,
31 3A, 32, 32 3A, 34, 34 3A, 36a, 36a
1A, 36b 1A, 37 1/2A-B, 38
Mangïshlaq uezd 46
Manghït 33 3B, 35 1A, 37 2C
Manghït (Özbek tribe) 28 2/3B, 29, 30,
35, 35 1/2A-D*
Manghït-arna can. 33 2/3B
Manghït Ulus (Noghay Horde), Manghïts
(15th-17th cent.) 22, 22 2A-B, 24, 24
2A-B, 25 2A-B, 26, 26 2A-B, 27, 28
Manghïts (dynasty in Bukhara) 30, 30
3/4B-C, 31, 31 4B-C, 32 4B-C, 40, 41
Manglay-Sube 22, 22 3/4D, 23 2D-E, 24,
24 3/4D, 25, 25 3/4D, 26 3/4D, 27 3/4D
Manichaeism 10
Mansur Khan 25, 25 3D-E, 26
Manzikert (Malazgird) 14
Marakanda 3, 4, 41; see Smarakanda
Maralbashi (Maralwexi, Bachu) 31 4D, 32
4D, 45 4D, 47 4D
Marg R. 4 4B, 5 4B; see Murghab
Margelan 1 3C, 30, 30 3C, 31 3C, 32 3C,
35 2D; see also Marghinan
Marghinan 11 3C, 12 2D, 14 3C, 15 3C,
16, 16 3C, 18 3C, 19 3C, 20 3C, 21 3C,
22 3C, 23 2D, 24 3C, 25 3C, 26 3C, 27
3C, 28 3C, 29 3C, 34 3C; see also
Margelan
Margiana 3, 3 4B, 4, 4 4B
Margush R. 3 4B; see Murghab
Marhamat 2 3C*
Marï 43 2B, 47 4B; see Merv
Marvi (in Bukhara) – see Irani
Mashhad 1 4B, 20, 20 4B, 21 4B, 22 4B,
23 2B, 24 4B, 25 4B, 26 4B, 27 4B, 27
insert, 28 4B, 29 4B, 30 4B, 31 4B, 32
4B, 34, 34 4B, 35 4A, 36a 3B, 36b 3B,
37 4C, 43 3B, 44 4A, 45 4B, 46 4A,
47 4B
Mashhad-i Misriyan 2 4A*, 43, 43 2A;
see Dihistan
Mashrïq-sengir 33 2A
Masjid-i Bi-sutun Mq. 40 2B*
Masjid-i Kalan Mq. 40, 40 2C
Maslahat ad-Din, Ms. of (in Khojend) 43
Massagetae 3
Mas{ud b. Mahmud, Ghaznavid 13
Mas{ud Bek b. Yalavach 19
Mathura 5, 13 4D, 17 4D
Matïrid 41 1B
Mavarannahr 1, 1 4B-C, 8, 9, 10, 11, 11
4B-C, 12, 13, 13 2C, 14, 14 4B-C, 15,
15 4B-C, 16, 16 4B-C, 17, 17 2C, 18
4B-C, 19, 19 4B-C, 20, 20 4B-C, 21, 21
4B-C, 22, 22 4B-C, 23, 23 2C, 24, 24
4B-C, 25, 25 4B-C, 26, 26 4B-C, 27, 27
4B-C, 27 insert, 28, 28 3/4B-C, 29, 29
4B-C, 30, 30 4B-C, 31, 31 4B-C, 33,
34, 34 4B-C, 35, 41, 43, 46
M¸} war¸} an-Nahr 1; see Mavarannahr
Maymana 1 4B, 13 2C, 14 4B, 15 4B, 16
4B, 17 2C, 18 4B, 19 4B, 20 4B, 21 4B,
22 4B, 23 2C, 24 4B, 25 4B, 26 4B, 27
4B, 27 insert, 28 4B, 29 4B, 30, 30 4B,
31, 31 4B, 32 4B, 35, 35 4B, 36b 3C,
37 4D, 43 3C, 44 4A, 45 4B, 46 4A, 47
4B; see also Yehudiya
Maymurg 2 4C*, 7 4C, 8, 8 4C
Mazakhin 41 2A-B
Mazanderan 15, 17, 17 2A-B, 18, 22
mazar 40
Mazar gates (of Bukhara) 40 1B
Mazar-i Amir Hamza Ms. (in Chorku) 43
Mazar-i Sharif (in Afghanistan) 1 4C, 31
4C, 32 4C, 35 4C, 36b, 43, 43 3C, 44
4B, 45 4C, 46 4B, 47 4C
Mazar-i Sharif (near Zerafshan) 43, 43 2D
Mazar-i Sharif gates (of Bukhara) 40 2E
Mazar-i Sharif Md. (in Khiva) 42a 2C*
Mazlum-Khan Sulu, Ms. of 43
Meana 43, 43 3B; see Meyhene
Mehtar-i Kafilan Md 40 2B
Mekka 28, 34
Mekran 13 4B, 14, 17, 17 4B, 23 3C
Mela crossing 12 3C
Merkits 17, 17 1E, 18 2D
Meruchak 45 4B
Merv 1 4B, 6, 6 4B, 7 4B, 8, 8 4B, 9, 9
4B, 10, 10 4B, 11 4B, 12 3A, 13, 13
2C, 14, 14 4B, 15, 15 4B, 16, 16 4B,
17, 17 2C, 18, 18 4B, 19 4B, 21, 22 4B,
23 2C, 24, 24 4B, 25, 25 4B, 26 4B, 27,
27 4B, 27 insert, 28 4B, 29 4B, 30, 30
4B, 31, 31 4B, 32, 32 4B, 34, 34 4B, 35
4A, 36a, 36a 3C, 36b, 36b 3C, 40, 41,
43, 44 4A, 45, 45 4B, 46 4A
Merverrud 8 4B, 9 4B, 10 4B, 11 4B, 12
4B, 14 4B, 15 4B, 16 4B, 18 4B, 19 4B,
20 4B, 21 4B
Mesopotamia 4
Meyhene 12 3A; see also Meana
Middle Horde – see Orta Zhuz
5/26/2003, 1:06 PM
Mienakuh 2 4C*
Mika}il b. Seljuk 13
Mikhaylovskiy Bay 44
Minar-i Kalan (in Bukhara) 40
Minfeng 47 4E; see Niya
Ming (Chinese dynasty) 22, 34
Ming (Özbek tribe) 30, 31, 35, 35 2/4B-
D*
Ming-Ürük 2 3C*; see Chach, Binket
Mings, principality and dynasty 29, 29
3/4C, 30, 30 3C, 31, 31 3C
Mir-i {Arab Md. 40, 40 2C
Mir Dustum Kh. 40 2B
Mir Rajab Dodkho, Md. of (in
Kanibadam) 43
Mir-i Ruzadar, Ms. of (in Balkh) 43
Mir Seyid Bahram, Ms. of (in
Kermine) 43
Mir-i Shahid, Ms. of (in Herat) 43
Mir Yar Bek 28 4C
Miran 2 3E*
Miranshah b. Timur 21, 22
mirza 22
Mirza Ghafur Mq. 40 1B*
Miskin Ata, shrine 33 5C
Mithridates II 4
Mithridatkert 4 4B, 5 4B
Miyan-Rudan 12 2D
Miyankal 26, 27
Mizdahqan 7 3B, 8 3B, 9 3B, 10 3B, 11
3B, 12 1A, 14 3B, 15 3B, 16 3B, 18
3B, 43, 43 1B
Mizrab Shah Khorezmi, Ms. of 43, 43 1B
Mnga}-Ris 13 3D, 14 4D, 15 4D, 16 4D,
17 3D
Moghulistan 20, 21, 22, 23 1/2D-E, 24,
24 3C-D, 25, 39
Moghuliya (Chaghatayids) 26 4/3D-E, 27
4/3D-E
Moghuls 20, 21, 22, 24, 26, 39
Möngke 19
Möngke-Temür 19
Mongol Empire 17, 18, 18 4/3B-D
Mongoldor (Qïrghïz tribe) 39 2A-C
Mongolia 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 13, 15, 17, 18,
19, 20, 22, 47 2E
Mongols 7, 17, 17 1E, 18, 19 4E, 20, 20
4A, 21, 22, 33, 34, 35, 36a, 37, 38, 39,
40, 41, 47
Moscow 2, 27, 46, 47
Mosul 13 1/2A, 17 1/2A, 23 1/2A
Mu{ayyid Ay-Aba 16, 16 3B,4A-B
Mubarak Shah 20
mudarris 40
Mugh 2 4C*
Mughals (dynasty) 26, 28, 29; see also
Great Mughals
Mughan Qaghan 7
Mugojar Mts. 1 2B
Muhammad, Khorezmshah 16, 17, 18, 18
2B,3/4B; see also Khorezmshah
Muhammad, empire of
Muhammad, Khorezmshah, Mq. of 43
Muhammad, Qïrghïz 26
Muhammad {Ali Ishan 44
Muhammad {Ali Khan 31
Muhammad Amin, garden of 33 3A
Muhammad Amin Inaq 30, 42
Muhammad Amin Inaq Md. 42a 2C*
Muhammad Amin Khan 32
Muhammad Amin Khan Md. 42, 42a 2B*
Muhammad b. Zayd, Ms. of 43
Muhammad Bashshara, Ms. of 43
Muhammad Hakim Biy (Atalïq) 29
Muhammad Juki 22
Muhammad Mahram complex 42b 2B*
Muhammad Niyaz Divanbegi Md. 42a 2B*
Muhammad Panah (“Matpana”) Bay Md.
42a 2C*
Muhammad Rahim Biy (Atalïq, Khan),
Manghït 29, 30, 31
Muhammad Rahim Khan I, Qongrat 31,
42
Muhammad Rahim Khan II, Qongrat 32
Muhammad Rahim Khan II Md. 42a 2B*
Muhammad Safa karvanbashi’s house 42b
2B*
Muhammad Shah-Bakht (Muhammad Shahi
Bek) 24, 25; see Shïbani Khan
Muhammad Sultan Mirza 41
Muhammad Tapar 15
Muhammad Timur b. Shïbani 26
Muhammad Yar Atalïq Kh./Mq. 40 2B*
Muhtajids (dynasty) 11 4C, 12, 12 3C, 14
Muk-su R. 12 3D
Mulla {Alim-Qul – see {Alim-Qul
Mulla Kalan Kh. (in Ziyaratgah) 43
Mulla Mir, Kh. of 43

Multan 13, 13 3C, 17 3C, 23 3C
Munchak-tepe 2 4C*
Munduz (Qïrghïz tribe) 39 2B,D
Mungush (Qïrghïz tribe) 39, 39 3B-C
Munjan 12 4D
Munk 7 4C, 8 4C, 9 4C, 10 4C, 12 3C
al-Muqanna{, Hashim 10
Murchali (Turkmen tribe) 37, 37 3B*
Murghab R. (in Khorasan) 1, 1 4B, 2 4B,
3 4B, 4 4B, 5 4B, 6 4B, 7 4B, 8 4B, 9
4B, 10 4B, 11 4B, 12 4B, 13 2C, 14 4B,
15 4B, 16 4B, 17 2C, 18 4B, 19 4B, 20
4B, 21 4B, 22 4B, 23 2C, 24 4B, 25 4B,
26 4B, 27 4B, 28 4B, 29 4B, 30 4B, 31
4B, 32, 32 4B, 34 4B, 35 4B, 36a 3C,
36b, 37 4D, 43 3B, 44 4A, 45 4B, 46
4A, 47 4B
Murghab R. (in the Pamir) 1 4C, 6 4C, 7
4C, 8 4C, 9 4C, 10 4C, 11 4C, 12 3D,
13 2D, 14 4C, 15 4C, 16 4C, 17 2D, 18
4C-D, 19 4C-D, 20 4C-D, 21 4C-D, 22
4C, 23 2D, 24 4C, 25 4C, 26 4C, 27
4C-D, 28 4C-D, 29 4C, 30 4C, 31 4C,
32 4C, 34 4C, 39 4B, 43 2E, 44 4B, 45
4C, 46 4B, 47 4C
Musa b. {Abdallah 8
Musa b. Seljuk 13
Musa Türa Md. 42a 2C*
Musafirids (dynasty) 13, 13 2A
Muscovy, the Tsardom of 27, 27 1A-B,
28 1A-C, 34
Mustafa Khan b. Musa 22, 22 2C,3A-B
al-Mu{tasim 10
Muyun-qum Sands 1 3C
Muzaffar ad-Din, amir 32
Muzaffarids (dynasty) 21
Muzakhin can. 41 2B
Nadhr Muhammad Khan 28
Nadir Divanbegi Kh. 40 2C
Nadir Divanbegi Md. 40 2C
Nadir Shah Afshar 29, 29 4A, 30, 36a, 42
Nahr as-Sughd can. – see Siyah-ab
Najm ad-Din Kubra, Ms. (or Kh.) of 43
Nakhsheb 2 4C*, 5 4C, 6 4C, 7 4C, 8, 8
4C, 9, 9 4C, 10 4C, 11 4C, 12 3B, 20;
see also Nesef
Namangan 1 3C, 29 3C, 30, 30 3C, 31
3C, 32 3C, 35 2D, 43, 43 2D, 44 4B, 45
3C, 46 4B, 47 3C
Namazgah, of pre-Mongol Samarqand 41
1B
Namazgah gates (of Bukhara) 40 3C
Namazgah Mq. (in Bukhara) 40, 40 3C
Namazgah Mq. (in Samarqand) 41 2B
Naqad 12 2D
Naqshbandis, Naqshbandiya 24, 27, 28,
40
Narbuta Biy 30, 31
Narbuta Biy, Md. of (in Qoqand) 43
Narïn 39 2C, 44 4C, 45 3D, 46 4C, 47
3D
Narïn R. 1 3C, 2 3C, 19 3C, 20 3D, 21
3D, 22 3D, 24 3C, 25 3D, 26 3D, 27
3D, 28 3D, 29 3D, 30 3D, 31 3C, 32
3C, 34 3D, 35 2D, 38 3D, 39 2B, 43
1E, 45 3C, 46 4C, 47 3D
Narinjan Baba, shrine 33 4C
Narïnskoe 32 3D
an-Nasir 16, 17
Nasr [I] b. Ahmad 11, 12
Nasr II b. Ahmad 12
Nasr b. {Ali, Qarakhanid 11, 13
Nasrabad 12 2D
Nasrallah, amir 31
Nautaka 3 4C
Nava}i [{Ali Shir] 24
Navoi 47 4C; see Kermine
Naw (New) gates (of Bukhara) 40 2C*
Nawbahar gates (of Afrasiyab) 41 1B*
Nawbakhchiyan 41 2A
Nawbakhchiyan can. 41 2A
Nawqad Kureysh 12 3B
Nawruz Ahmad Khan (Baraq Khan) 27
Nayman 41 1A
Nayman (Özbek tribe) 35 1/4A-D*
Nayman (Qazaq tribe) 38, 38 1/2C-E
Nayman (Qïrghïz tribe) 39, 39 3/4A-D
Naymans (Mongol tribe) 15 2E, 16 2E,
17, 17 1E
Near East 35
Nebitdag 47 4A
Negüder 19
Negüderis 19, 19 4B-C; see Qara}unas
Nesa 2 4B*, 6 4B, 7 4B, 8 4B, 9 4B, 10
4B, 11 4B, 13, 13 2B, 14 4B, 15 4B,
16, 16 4B, 17 2B, 18 4B, 19 4B, 20 4B,
21 4B, 22 4B, 23 2B, 24 4B, 25 4B, 26,
bregel5.pmd 105
index
26 4B, 27, 27 4B, 27 insert, 28 4B, 29
4B, 34 4B, 36a 3B, 36b 3B
Nesef 9 4C, 10 4C, 11 4C, 13 2C, 14 4C,
15 4C, 16 4C, 17 2C, 18 4C, 19 4C; see
also Nakhsheb
Nestorian Church 15
Nevaket 2 3D*, 7 3D, 8 3D, 9 3D, 10 3D
Nevida 2 4B*, 12 3B
New Persian language – see Persian
New Qoqandian line 32
Nicholas II 44, 45
Nisaya in Margiana 7 4B, 8 4B
Nishapur 1 4B, 6 4B, 7 4B, 8 4B, 9 4B,
10, 10 4B, 11 4B, 12, 13, 13 2B, 14 4B,
15, 15 4B, 16, 16 4B, 17, 17 2B, 18, 18
4B, 19 4B, 20, 20 4B, 21 4B, 22 4B, 23
2B, 24 4B, 25 4B, 26 4B, 27 4B, 27
insert, 28 4B, 29 4B, 30 4B, 31 4B, 32
4B, 34 4B, 36a 3B, 36b 3B, 37 4B, 44
4A, 45 4B, 46 4A, 47 4B
Niya (Jingjue) 6 4E, 11 4E, 14 4E, 15 4E,
16 4E, 18 4E, 19 4E, 20 4E, 21 4E, 22
4E, 24 4E, 25 4E, 26 4E, 27 4E, 28 4E,
29 4E, 30 4E, 31 4E, 47 4E
Niyazov, Saparmurad (Türkmenbashi) 47
Nizam al-Mulk 15
Noghay – see Manghït Ulus
Noghay, migration of 28 2B
Noghay Horde 22, 27; see Manghït
Noghays 28, 34; see also Manghïts
Nokhurli (Turkmen tribe) 37, 37 3B*
Nokuz 33 3B; see Nukus
Nokuz (Özbek tribe) 35 1/2A*
North Africa 36a
Northern Caucasus 19, 21
Northern Xiongnu 5, 5 3-2C-E, 6
Novaya liniya 31 1B
Novonikolaevsk 44 2D, 45 1D, 46 2D
Novosibirsk 47 1D; see Novonikolaevsk
Nuh b. Asad 10, 11, 41
Nuket 2 3C*, 11 3C, 12 2C, 14 3C, 15
3C, 16 3C, 18 3C
Nukus (Nokuz) 31 3B, 32 3B, 33 3B, 43
1B, 47 3B
Numijket 40
Nur 10 3C, 11, 11 3C, 12 2B, 15 3C, 16
3C, 18, 18 3C, 19 3C, 20 3C, 21 3C, 22
3C, 24 3C, 25 3C, 26 3C, 27 3C, 28 3C,
29 3C, 30 3C, 31 3C, 34 3C; see also
Nur-Ata
Nur-Ata 2 3C*, 32 3C, 35, 35 2B, 45 3C;
see also Nur
Nur Muhammad (Nurum) Sultan 27
Nurallah Bay Md. and palace 42, 42b 1B*
Nurata 43 2C, 47 3C; see Nur-Ata, Nur
Nuratau Mts. 1 3/4C
Nushibi 7, 7 3C, 8 3C
Ob’ R. 28, 44 2D, 46 2D, 47 1D
Obeh 43, 43 3B
Odey-depe 2 4B*
Ögedey 18, 18 3/4B-C, 19, 19 2D, 21
Ögedeyids (dynasty) 20
Oghurcha I. 1 4A, 3 4A, 4 4A, 6 4A, 7
4A, 8 4A, 9 4A, 10 4A, 11 4A, 14 4A,
15 4A, 18 4A, 19 4A, 20 4A, 21 4A, 22
4A, 24 4A, 25 4A, 26 4A, 27 4A, 28
4A, 29 4A, 30 4A, 31 4A, 32 4A, 34
4A, 36a 2A, 36b 2A, 37 3A, 38 3A, 45
4A
Oghurjalï (Turkmen tribe) 36b 2A, 37
2/3A*
Oghurs 6 2B-C
Oghuz 1, 7, 9, 9 2D, 10, 10 3C, 11, 11
2A-B,3A-C, 12 1A-B, 13, 13 1A-C, 14,
14 2B,3B, 15, 16, 16 4A-B, 17 3B, 36a
Oghuz Khan 36a, 37
Oghuz R. 33 2B
Oghuz Yabghu 11 3B, 12 1B, 13 1C, 14
3B
Okhur 2 3D*
Olam (Turkmen tribe) 37 3D*
Old Farab 2 4B*
Old Kitab – see Kitab
Old Merv 2 4B*, 43 2B
Old Niya 2 4E*
Old Termez 2 4C*; see Termez
{Oman 13 4A-B, 17, 17 4B
Omsk 1 1C, 29 1C, 30 1C, 31 1C, 32 1C,
34, 34 1C, 38 1D, 44 2C, 45, 45 1C, 46
2C, 47 1C
On Oq 8 2C
onbegi 36b
oq 7
Oqlï (Turkmen tribe) 36a, 36a 3A
Oral 47 2A; see Ural’sk
Oraz Serdar 45
orda 19
Orda, son of Jochi 19, 19 2D, 20
Orda, ulus of 19, 19 2C, 20, 20 2C, 38;
see also Kök-Orda
Ordos 7, 18
Orenburg 1 1/2B, 29 1/2B, 30 1/2B, 31,
31 1/2B, 32, 32 1/2B, 34, 34 1/2B, 38
1B, 44, 44 2B, 45, 45 1/2B, 46, 46 2B,
47 1/2B
Orenburg Cossacks 45 2B
Orenburgskaya liniya 30 1/2B
Orenburgskoe ukreplenie 31 2B
Ornat (Chaghatay tribe) 20 4C
Orsk 29 2B, 30 2B, 31 2B, 32 2B, 38 1B,
44 2B, 45 2B, 46 2B, 47 2B
Orta Zhuz (Middle Horde) 29, 29 2C, 30,
30 2C, 31, 31 2C-D, 38, 38 2C-D
Osh 1 3C, 10 3C, 11 3C, 12 2D, 13 2D,
14 3C, 15 3C, 16 3C, 17 2D, 18 3C, 19
3C, 20 3C, 21 3C, 22 3C, 23 2D, 24
3C, 25 3C, 26 3C, 27 3C, 27 insert, 28,
28 3C, 29 3C, 30 3C, 31 3C, 32 3C, 34
3C, 35 2D, 38 3D, 39 3B, 43 2D, 44
4C, 45 3C, 46 4C, 47 3C
Oshaqtï (Qazaq tribe) 38 3/2C
Öskemen 47 2D; see Ust’-Kamenogorsk
Otrar 2 3C*, 10, 10 3C, 11 3C, 12 1C, 13
1C, 14 3C, 15 3C, 16, 16 3C, 17, 17
1C, 18, 18 3C, 19 3C, 20, 20 3C, 21, 21
3C, 22 3C, 23 1C, 24 3C, 25 3C, 26 3C,
27 3C, 27 insert, 28 3C
Otrar-tobe 2 3C*; see Otrar
Ottoman Empire 32, 36a
Ottomans (dynasty) 27, 29
Otuz uul 39
Ovliyalï-köshk, castle 43
Oxus R. 1, 3, 3 4B, 4, 4 3/4B, 5; see
Amu-Darya
Oyrats (Qalmaqs) 22, 22 2E, 23 1E, 24,
24 2E, 25 2E, 26 2D-E, 27, 27 2D, 28,
39
Özbek Khan 20, 35
Özbek ulus 22, 24, 35; see also Ulus-i
Özbek
Özbek-Qazaqs 22, 22 1C-D, 24, 24 3C,
25, 38
Özbek-Qazaqs, migrations and campaigns
of 22 3B,3C
Özbeks 1, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 25 2B, 26,
27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 35, 36b, 37, 38,
39, 40, 42, 45, 46
Pahlavan(“Palvan”)-darvaza gates (of Ichan-
qala, Khiva) 42a 2C*
Pahlavan (“Palvan”) Mahmud 42
Pahlavan (“Palvan”) Mahmud Ms. 42, 42a
2B*
Pahlavan (“Palvan”) Qari complex 42b
2C*
Pakhtaabad 43, 43 2D
Pakistan 39, 47 4C-D
Palvan(Pahlavan)-yab (Palvan-arna)
can. 33 5C, 42, 42b 1C
Pamir Mts., Pamirs 1, 1 4C, 4, 5, 9, 24,
32, 39, 47
Pamir R. 12 3D, 34 4C
Pamir-Alay Mts. 1
Panch 8
Panchikand 6 4C, 7 4C, 8, 8 4C; see also
Penjikend
Panchikat 6 4C, 7 4C, 8, 8 4C; see also
Bunjiket
Panj R. 1 4C, 2 4C, 4 4C, 5 4C, 9 4C, 10
4C, 11 4C, 12 3D, 14 4C, 15 4C, 16
4C, 18 4C, 19 4C, 20 4C, 21 4C, 22 4C,
25 4C, 26 4C, 27 4C, 28 4C, 29 4C, 30
4C, 31, 31 4C, 32 4C, 34 4C, 35 3C, 38
3C, 39 4A, 43 2D, 44 4B, 45 4C, 46
4B, 47 4C
Panjab 6, 13, 13 3C-D, 17 3C-D
Panjhir 12 4C
Parak R. 12 2C
Paramaras (dynasty) 13 4C-D
Paraw 43 2A; see Ferava
Paraw-Bibi, Ms. of 43
Paretacena 3 4C
Pargar 12 3C
Parni 4
Paropamisadai 3
Parthia 3, 3 4A-B, 4, 4 4A-B, 5, 5 4A, 6
Parthians 3
Patkhur 2 4C*
Pavlodar 30 1D, 31 1D, 32 1D, 38 1D, 44
2D, 45 1D, 47 1D
Pay-i Kalan (in Bukhara) 40
Paykabak gates (of Samarqand) 41 2B*
Paykend 2 4B*, 6 4B, 7 4B, 8 4B, 9, 9
4B, 10 4B, 11 4B, 12 2/3B
Pechenegs 9 2/3B, 10 2B, 11
5/26/2003, 1:06 PM
105
Penjdeh 32, 32 4B
Penjikend 2, 2 4C*, 8, 9 4C, 12 3C
Penjikent 43 2C; see Penjikend
Peoples Republic of China 47, 47 3D-E
Perm’ 44 1B, 46 1B
Perovsk 32 3C, 44 3B, 45 3C; see also
Aq-Masjid, Kzïl-Orda, Qïzïlorda
Peroz 6
Persian Empire 3
Persian Gulf 13 3A, 17 3A, 23 3A
Persian language 12
Persians 3, 9, 29
Pervan 12 4C, 13 3C, 17 3C, 18, 18 4C,
27 insert
Peshavar 5, 13 3C, 17 3C, 23 3D, 27
insert
Peter the Great 29
Petroaleksandrovsk 44, 44 3A, 45; see
also Turtkul’
Petropavl 47 1C; see Petropavlovsk
Petropavlovsk 30 1C, 31 1C, 32 1C, 38
1C, 44 2C, 45 1C, 46 2C, 47 1C
Petropavlovskaya 29 1C; see
Petropavlovsk
Pharasmanes 3
Phrataphernes 3
Pir Muhammad b. Jahangir 22
Pir Muhammad Khan, Abulkhayrid 27
Pir Yar Vali, Ms. of 43
Pishin 12 4B
Pishkek (Pishpek) 1 3C-D, 31 3C-D, 32
3C-D, 38 3D, 44 4C, 45 3C-D, 46 4C;
see also Bishkek, Frunze
Pitnak 33 5C
“Podsho Pirim” Ms. 43
Polovtsï 18; see Qïpchaqs
Poltoratsk 46 4A; see Ashkhabad
Polytimet R. 3 4C, 4 4C, 5 4C; see
Zerafshan
Porsu 33 3B
Presnogor’kovskaya liniya 29 1C, 30 1C
Provisionary Government (of Russia) 45
Przheval’sk 44 4C, 45 3D, 47 3D
Pskem R. 1 3C, 12 2C
Pudina 43, 43 2C
Pul-i Salar 27
Pul-i Sangin 12 3C, 25
Pulati 43, 43 2C
Purushapura (= Peshavar?) 5
qa}an 19
Qabaqlï 34, 34 3A
Qadïr Khan Yusuf 13
qaghan 7, 10
Qahraman 33 4B
Qajars (tribe and dynasty) 30, 30 4A-B,
31 4A, 32 4A
Qala-i Bolo 2 4C*
Qala-i Dabus 2 4C*, 43, 43 2C; see
Dabusiya
Qala-i Khumb 44 4B, 46 4B
Qala-i Tepe 2 4C*
Qala-i Zal 2 4C*
Qalalï-ghïr 2 3B*, 5 3B
Qalandar-khana (Firuza) gates (of
Samarqand) 41 2B*
Qaldïrghach Biy, Ms. of (in Tashkent) 43
Qalmaqs 22, 29; see Oyrats
Qalmïq Tayishis (dynasty) 28 2A-B
Qalmïqs 28, 29 2A, 30 2A, 31 2A, 36a
Qalmïqs, migration from Volga 30 2/3B-C
Qamar ad-Din 21, 21 3D
Qandahar 13 3C, 17 3C, 20, 23 3C, 25,
27 insert, 29
Qandahar, campaign to 25 4B-C
Qandum-qala 33 3A
Qanga-qala 2 3B*, 5 3B, 6 3B
Qangdï (Qïrghïz tribe) 39, 39 3A-B
Qanglï (11th-13th cent.) 13 1C-D, 14 3B-
C, 15 2/3B, 16, 16 2/3B, 18 2B-C, 39
Qanglï (Özbek tribe) 35, 35 1/2A-B,4C*
Qanglï (Qazaq tribe) 38 2D
Qapaghan Qaghan 9
Qara-Choqa (Yomuts) 36a
Qara-Darya R. (branch of Zerafshan) 41
1B
Qara-Darya R. (tributary of Sïr-Darya) 12
2D, 35 2D, 39 2B
Qara-Khitays (Xi Liao) 15, 15 3C-E, 16,
16 3C-E, 17, 17 1D-E, 18, 19
Qara-Khoja – see Qocho
Qara-köl L. 33 3B
Qara-Öyli (Saqar) (Turkmen tribe) 36a,
36a 2A
Qara-Qoyunlu 21, 22, 22 4A, 23, 24, 36a
Qara-qum at Aral 1 2B
 106
Qara-qum Desert 1, 1 4B, 11, 12 2/3A-B,
13, 26, 33, 33 4/5A-B, 34 4B, 36a, 36a
2B-C, 36b 2B-C, 37 3B-C, 45
Qarabayli R. 33 2B
Qarabulaq 2 4C*
Qaradashlï (Turkmen tribe) 31, 36a, 36a
1/2B, 36b, 36b 1/2B, 37 2C*
Qaraghan 34, 34 3A
Qaraghandï 47 2C; see Karaganda
Qaraghaylï 47 2D
Qarakhanid Qaghanate 11, 13
Qarakhanid Qaghanate, Eastern 14, 15, 16
Qarakhanid Qaghanate, Western 14, 15,
16
Qarakhanids (dynasty) 10, 10 3D, 11, 11
4/3D, 12 2D, 13, 13 2C-E, 14, 14 3/4C-
D, 15, 15 4/3C-D, 16, 16 4C-D, 17, 17
2C-E, 35
Qarakhanids, mausoleums of 43
Qaraköl 1 4B, 25 4B, 26 4B, 27 4B, 28
4B, 29 4B, 30 4B, 31 4B, 32 4B, 34 4B,
35 2B, 43, 43 2C, 45 4B
Qaraköl gates (of Bukhara) 40 4A
Qarakul 47 4B; see Qaraköl
Qaraqalpaqs 27 3B-C, 28 2B,3B-C, 29
3B-C, 30 3B, 31, 33
Qaraqum canal 47 4B
Qarashahr (Chalïsh, Yuanqu) 1 3E, 2 3E*,
5, 7 3E, 8, 8 3E, 9 3E, 10 3E, 13 2E,
14 3E, 15 3E, 16 3E, 17 2E, 18 3E, 19
3E, 20 3E, 21 3E, 22 3E, 23 2E, 24 3E,
25 3E, 26 3E, 27 3E, 28 3E, 29 3E, 30
3E, 31 3E, 32 3E, 34 3E, 38 3E, 44 4D,
46 4D, 47 3E
Qaratal R. 1 3D, 3 3D, 4 3D, 5 3D, 6 3D,
7 3D, 8 3D, 9 3D, 10 3D, 11 2/3D, 14
2/3D, 15 2/3D, 16 2/3D, 18 2/3D, 19
2/3D, 20 2/3D, 21 2/3D, 22 2/3D, 24
2/3D, 25 2/3D, 26 2/3D, 27 2/3D, 28
2/3D, 29 2/3D, 30 2/3D, 31 2/3D, 32
2/3D, 38 2D, 44 3C, 45 2/3D, 46 3C, 47
2/3D
Qaratau Mts. 1 3C
Qaratay, Sultan 31
Qarategin 1 4C, 30 4C, 31, 31 4C, 34
Qarategin, shahs of 29 4C
Qara}unas 19, 19 4B-C, 20, 21; see also
Negüderis
Qari-khana (in Khiva) 42a 2B*
Qarluq (Özbek tribe) 35, 35 3/4C-D*
Qarluq Qaghanate 10 4/3D
Qarluq Yabghu 15 3D, 16 3D, 17 1D
Qarluqs (7th-13th cent.) 8, 8 4C,2D-E, 9,
9 3C,2E, 10, 10 3C-D, 11, 11 3C-D, 12
1D, 13 1D,2C, 14 3D, 15, 15 3D, 16, 16
3D,4C, 18
Qarqan 47 4E; see Cherchen
Qarqaralï 47 2C; see Karkaralinsk
Qarrï-qala 1 4A, 37 3B, 43 2A
Qarshi 1 4C, 20, 20 4C, 21 4C, 22 4C, 24
4C, 25, 25 4C, 26 4C, 27 4C, 27 insert,
28 4C, 29, 29 4C, 30 4C, 31 4C, 32 4C,
34 4C, 35, 35 3B, 43, 43 2C, 44 4B, 45
4C, 46 4B, 47 4C
Qarshi (Qavala) gates (of Bukhara) 40 2D
Qashlïq (Isker) 26 1C, 27 1C
Qashqa-Darya R. 1, 8, 30, 43
Qasim, Aq-Qoyunlu 23 1A
Qasim Sheykh, complex (Kh., Mq.,
dakhma; in Kermine) 43
Qasim Sultan (Khan) b. Janibek 25, 25
2C, 26, 27
Qataghan (Özbek tribe) 29 4C, 35, 35
3/4C*
Qatvan Steppe 15, 15 4C
Qavat-qala 2 3B*
Qayalïq 13 1D, 15 3D, 16 3D, 17 1D, 18,
18 3D, 19, 19 3D, 20 3D
Qaydu 19, 19 3E, 20
Qaydu, ulus of 19 3C-E, 20
Qayin 13 2/3B, 17 2/3B, 23 2/3B, 27
insert
Qazaghan 20, 21
Qazalï 1 3B, 47 3B; see also Kazalinsk
Qazan 19 1A, 20 1A, 21 1A, 22 1A, 24
1A, 25 1A, 26 1A; see also Kazan’
Qazan Khan 20, 21
Qazan Khanate 24 1A, 25 1A, 26 1A, 27
qazaq 22
Qazaq-Darya R. 33 2B
Qazaq Khanate 23 1C-D, 24 3C, 25 2/3C-
D, 26 2B-C, 27, 27 2/3C, 28 2/3B-C, 29
Qazaqs 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 29 3C, 30, 30
2B-D, 31, 32, 32 2A-D, 33, 34, 35, 36a,
38, 39, 44, 45, 46, 47
Qazi Kalan Md. 42a 2B*
Qazvin 13 2A, 15 4A, 16 4A, 17 2A, 18
4A, 19 4A, 20 4A, 21 4A, 22 4A, 23
bregel5.pmd 106
index
2B, 24 4A, 25 4A, 26 4A, 27 4A, 28
4A, 29 4A, 30 4A, 31 4A, 32 4A, 34
4A, 45 4A, 47 4A
Qiemo 5 4E, 7 4E, 8 4E, 9 4E, 10 4E, 47
4E; see Cherchen
Qing Empire 29 2E, 30 4/2D-E, 31 4/3D-
E, 32 4/2D-E
Qïpchaq 33, 33 3B
Qïpchaq (Özbek tribe) 31, 35, 35 1/2A,2/
4B-C*
Qïpchaq (Qazaq tribe) 38, 38 1/2B-D
Qïpchaq (Qïrghiz tribe) 39 2/4A-D
Qïpchaq, khanate of 19; see Jochi, ulus of
Qïpchaq steppe 19, 25; see Dasht-i
Qïpchaq
Qïpchaqs (8th-13th cent.) 1, 9 2D-E, 10
2D, 11, 11 2C, 13, 13 1C, 14, 14 2B-
C,3C, 15 2B-C,3B-C, 16, 16 2B-C,3B-
C, 17, 17 1C-D, 18, 18 2B-D, 29 4C, 38
Qïpchaqs of Ferghana 35, 35 2C-D*, 39
Qïrghïz 25 3C-D, 26, 26 3C-D, 27, 27
3C-D, 28 3/4C-D, 29 3/4C-D, 30 4/3C-
D, 31, 31 4/3D, 32, 32 4/3C-D, 38, 39,
44, 46, 47
Qïrghïz of Yenisey 39
Qïrghïz Qaghanate 9, 10, 10 1/2E
Qïrq (Özbek tribe) 35 2C*
Qirq-qïz-qala 2 3B*
Qitan 7, 9, 13, 15
Qïtay (Özbek tribe) – see Khitay
Qïtay (Qïrghïz tribe) 39 2A
Qïyat 33 5B
Qïyat (Özbek tribe) 35 1/2A*
Qïzïl 2 3D* (2 sites)
Qïzïl-Arvat 1 4A-B, 30 4A-B, 31 4A, 32
4A, 34 4A, 37 3B, 44; see also Kizil-
Arvat, Gïzïlarbat
Qïzïl-Kiya 47 4C
Qïzïl-qum Desert 1, 1 3B, 12 1B, 18, 33,
33 3C, 34, 34 3B-C, 36a 2C, 36b 2C,
37 2D
Qïzïl-su R. 12 2D
Qïzïl-taqïr 33 3B
Qïzïlbash 23, 25, 26, 29, 36a
Qïzïlcha-qala 33, 33 3A
Qïzïlorda 47 3C; see also Kzïl-Orda, Aq-
Masjid, Perovsk
Qlïch-Niyaz Bay 33 4B
Qlïch-Niyaz Bay can. 33 4B
Qocho (Gaochang, Qara-Khoja) 2 3E*, 6
3E, 7 3E, 8, 8 3E, 9, 9 3E, 10, 10 3E,
11 3E, 13 2E, 14 3E, 15 3E, 16 3E, 17
2E, 18 3E, 19 3E, 20 3E, 21 3E, 22 3E,
23 2E, 24 3E, 25 3E, 26 3E, 34 3E
Qomul 2 3E*, 14 3E, 15 3E, 16 3E, 18
3E, 19 3E, 20 3E, 21 3E, 22 3E, 24 3E,
25 3E, 26 3E, 27 3E, 28 3E, 29 3E, 30
3E, 31 3E, 34 3E, 47 3E; see also Hami
Qongrat 1 3B, 31 3B, 32 3B, 33 2A, 35
1A, 37 2C, 38 3B, 43 1B, 44 3A, 45
3B, 46 3A, 47 3B
Qongrat (Özbek tribe) 30, 35, 35 1/2A,3/
4B-C,2D*
Qongrat (Qazaq tribe) 38 2/3C
Qongrats (13th-17th cent.) 19 3B, 20, 20
3B, 22 3B, 28 2/3B
Qongrats (dynasty) 31, 31 3B, 32 3B, 33,
36b, 42, 45
Qoqan 47 3C; see Qoqand
Qoqand 1 3C, 29 3C, 30, 30 3C, 31, 31
3C, 32, 32 3C, 39 3A, 43, 43 2D; see
also Kokand, Qoqan
Qoqand, khanate of 31, 31 3C-D, 32, 33,
34, 39, 46
Qos-tobe 2 3C*
Qosh-darvaza gates (of Dïshan-qala,
Khiva) 42b 1C*
Qosh-Küprük (Qosh-Qupïr) 33 4B, 43
Qosh Madrasa (in Bukhara) 40
Qoshbegi-yab can. 33 3A
Qostanay 47 1B; see Kustanay
Qoy-darvaza gates (of Dïshan-qala,
Khiva) 42b 2C
Qoy-Qrïlghan-qala 2 3B*
Quba 2 3C*, 7 3C, 8 3C, 9 3C, 10 3C, 11
3C, 12 2D, 14 3C, 15 3C, 16 3C
Qubadiyan 7 4C, 8 4C, 9 4C, 10 4C, 11
4C, 12 3C
Qubadiyan, province 8, 12 3C
Qubash road 33 2C
Qubilay 19, 20
Qubilay, ulus of 19 2/3E, 20
Quchan 29 4B, 30 4B, 31 4B, 32 4B, 36a
3B, 36b 3B, 37 4B, 44 4A, 45 4B, 46
4A, 47 4B
Quli 5 3E, 6 3E
Qulja (Ili, Yining) 1 3D, 31 3D, 32, 32
3D, 34 3D, 38 2E, 44 4D, 45 3D, 47, 47
3D
Qulja district 32
Qum 13 2A, 17 2A, 23 2B, 34 4A, 47 4A
Qumtura 2 3D*
Qun 13 4E, 14 2D
Qundurcha R., battle of 21, 21 1A
Qunduz 1 4C, 18 4C, 19 4C, 20, 20 4C,
21 4C, 22 4C, 23 2C, 24 4C, 25, 25 4C,
26 4C, 27, 27 4C, 28, 28 4C, 29 4C, 30
4C, 31 4C, 32 4C, 34 4C, 35 4C, 43
3D, 44 4B, 45 4C, 46 4B
Qunduz, province 29 4C, 35
Qurama (Özbek tribe) 35 2C*
Qurama Ra. 1 3C
Qurghan-tepe 2 4C*
Qurghan-Tübe 29 4C, 30 4C, 31 4C, 32
4C, 35 3C, 45 4C
quriltay 18, 19, 22, 26
Qusdar 13 4C, 17 4C
Qushchu (Qïrghïz tribe) 39 2A-D
Qutadghu bilig 14
Qutayba b. Muslim 8, 9
Qutb ad-Din Muhammad 14, 15
Qutham Ata (Qutham Sheykh), Ms. of 43
Qutham b. al-{Abbas 41
Qutlugh Murad Inaq Md. 42, 42a 2C*
Qutlugh Timur 20
Qutlugh Timur, minaret of (in Köhne-
Urgench) 43
Quva 2 3C*; see Quba
Quvan-Darya R. 1 3B
rabad 40, 41, 42
Rabat-i Malik, caravanseray 43, 43 2C
Rabat-i Pay 43, 43 2B
Rabinjan-tepe 2 4C*; see Arbinjan
Rafanik, garden 42
Rafanik Md. 42b 1A*
Raimskoe 31, 31 3B, 32 3B
Rajasthan 13 4C-D, 17 4C-D
Ramid R. 12 3C; see Kafirnihan
Ramitan 9, 12 2B, 35 2B, 43, 43 2C
Rasht 7 4C, 8 4C, 9 4C, 10 4C, 11 4C,
12 3C, 45 4A
Ratm 2 4C*
Ravak 2 4D*
Ravanak 41 3C
Rayy 6 4A, 8 4A, 9 4A, 10 4A, 11, 11
4A, 13, 13 2A, 14, 14 4A, 15, 15 4A,
16, 16 4A, 17 2A, 18 4A, 19 4A, 22
Razik 12 3A
Regar 43, 43 2D
Registan (of Bukhara) 40, 40 2B
Registan (of Samarqand) 41
Rhagae 3 4A; see Rayy
Rivdad 41 2B
River of Guzganan 12 4B
River of Ilaq 12 2C; see Ahangeran
River of Isfijab 12 1C; see Arïs
River of Soghd 7 4C, 8 4B-C, 9 4B-C, 10
4B-C, 11 4C, 12 2B, 14 4C, 15 4C, 16
4C, 18 4C; see also Ab-i Kuhek,
Zerafshan
Riza-Quli Mirza 29
Roman Empire 5
Romanovskiy, general 32
Roshan 1 4C
Rouran 6, 6 2E, 7
Roxana 3
Rud-i Shahr (Rud-i Zar) can. 40; see
Shahrud
Rudaki 12
Ruhabad Ms. 41 2B*
Russia (Russian Federation) 47 1B-C
Russia (Timur’s campaign to) 21 1/2A
Russian Empire, Russia 28, 29, 29 1A-C,
30, 30 1A-B, 31 1A-D, 32, 32 2A-D,
33, 34, 35, 36b, 37, 39, 41, 44, 45, 46,
47
Russian principalities 19
Russian Soviet Federated Socialist
Republic 46
Russians 18, 27, 28, 29, 31, 33, 38, 40,
41, 42, 44
Rustaq 12 3C
Sacaraucae 4
Sadïr-qurghan 2 3C*; see Shelji
Sadozais (dynasty) 32 4B
Sadr-i Badr-i Maydani Mq. & Mz. 40 2B
sadrs of Bukhara 15, 16; see also
Burhanids
Sadvar 12 2A
Safavids (dynasty) 24, 26, 26 4A, 27, 27
4A-B, 28, 28 4A-B, 29, 29 4A, 36a
Saffarids (dynasty) 12
5/26/2003, 1:06 PM
Safid-Bulend 43, 43 1D
Safid-kuh Mts. 1 4B
Sa{id b. {Uthman 8
Saka 3, 4, 5
Saka Haumavarga 3
Saka principalities 5 4C
Saka Tigrakhauda 3
Sakastan 4, 6; see Sistan
Salar-i Hajj Mz. 40 3/4A
Salghurids (dynasty) 17 3A
Sallakh-khana gates (of Bukhara) 40 3C
Salm b. Ziyad 8
Salor (Turkmen tribe) 29, 36a, 36a 2A-B,
36b, 36b 2/3B-C, 37 3/4C-D*
Saman-Khuda 10
Samanids (dynasty) 10, 10 4B-C, 11, 11
4B-C, 12, 13, 14, 40, 41
Samanids, Ms. of 40 2A
Samara 1 1A, 27 1A, 28 1A, 29 1A, 30
1A, 31 1A, 34, 34 1A, 44 1B, 45 1A,
46 1B, 47 1A
Samarkand – see Samarqand
Samarkandskaya oblast’ 41, 44 4B
Samarqand 1 4C, 2 4C*, 7, 7 4C, 8, 8 4C,
9, 9 4C, 10, 10 4C, 11 4C, 12 2C, 13,
13 2C, 14, 14 4C, 15, 15 4C, 16, 16 4C,
17, 17 2C, 18, 18 4C, 19 4C, 20 4C, 21,
21 4C, 22, 22 4C, 23 2C, 24 4C, 25, 25
4C, 26, 26 4C, 27, 27 4C, 27 insert, 28,
28 4C, 29, 29 4C, 30, 30 4C, 31 4C, 32,
32 4C, 34 4C, 35, 35 2C, 38 3C, 40, 41,
44 4B, 46, 46 4B, 47 4C; see also
Smarakanda
Samarqand gates (of Bukhara) 40 1C
Samarqand oblast’ – see Samarkandskaya
oblast’
San-Tash pass 26
sanashiq 36b
Sanjar, Sultan 15, 16
Sanjar, Sultan, Ms. of 43
Sanjar “Malik” 17
Saqal 9
Saqar 37 3D
Saqar (Turkmen tribe) 36b, 37 3D*; see
also Qara-Öyli
Saqar-yab can. 33 3A
Sar-i Pul 31 4C, 35 4B, 43 3C, 44 4B, 46
4B
Saratov 1 1A, 27 1A, 28 1A, 29 1A, 30
1A, 31 1A, 32 1A, 34 1A, 44 1A, 45
1A, 46 1A, 47 1A
Saray 19 2A, 20, 20 2A, 21 2A
Saray (Özbek tribe) 35, 35 3B,2D*
Saray al-Jedid 20 2A, 21, 21 2A
Saray Mulk Khanum 21
Saraychiq 19 2A, 20 2A, 21 2A, 22 2A,
24 2A, 25 2A, 26 2A, 27, 27 2A, 34 2A
Sarbadars, Sarbadar state 20, 20 4A-B,
21, 21 4A-B
“Sarbadars” of Samarqand 21
Sargam 41 2A
Sarï-Bagïsh (Qïrghïz tribe) 39, 39 2B-C
Sarï-Ishik Otrau Sands 1 3D
Sarï-Uysun (Qazaq tribe) 38 2/3D
Sarïq (Turkmen tribe) 32, 36a, 36a 2A-B,
36b, 36b 2/3C, 37 4C-D*
Sarïqamïsh L. 1 3B, 2 3B, 3 3B, 4 3B, 5
3B, 6 3B, 7 3B, 8 3B, 9 3B, 10 3B, 11
3B, 13 1B, 14 3B, 15 3B, 16 3B, 17 1B,
18 3B, 19 3B, 20 3B, 21 3B, 22 3B, 23
1B, 24 3B, 25 3B, 26 3B, 27 3B, 28 3B,
29 3B, 30 3B, 31 3B, 32 3B, 34 3B,
36a, 36a 2B, 36b 2B, 37 2B, 38 3B, 43
1A, 45 3B
Sarïqol Ra. 1 4C-D, 18
Sarï-su R. 1 2C, 2 2C, 3 2C, 4 2C, 5 2C,
6 2C, 7 2C, 8 2C, 9 2C, 10 2C, 11 2C,
14 2C, 15 2C, 16 2C, 18 2C, 19 2C, 20
2C, 21 2C, 22 2C, 24 2C, 25 2C, 26 2C,
27 2/3C, 28 2C, 29 2C, 30 2C, 31 2C,
32 2C, 34 2C, 38 2C, 44 3B, 45 2C, 46
2B, 47 2C
Sarkhushak 43, 43 3D
Sarmatians 4, 5
Sarts 30, 33, 35, 42, 46
Saruu (Qïrghïz tribe) 39 2A-B
Sasanids (dynasty) 6, 6 4A-B, 7, 7 4A-B,
8
Sawran 12 1C, 14, 14 3C, 15 3C, 16 3C,
18 3C, 20, 22 3C, 24 3C, 25 3C, 26 3C,
27 3C, 28 3C, 29 3C, 30 3C, 31 3C, 34
3C
Sayaq (Qïrghïz tribe) 39 2B-C
Sayed 43, 43 3D
Sayf ad-Din Bakharzi Ms. 40, 40 3E
Sayinkhani (Yaqa) Turkmens 36a, 36a
2A

Sayram 2 3C*, 19 3C, 20 3C, 21 3C, 22,
22 3C, 23 1/2D, 24, 24 3C, 25 3C, 26
3C, 27, 27 3C, 27 insert, 28, 28 3C, 29,
34 3C
Sayyed 2 4C*
Sayyids (of Mazanderan) 20 4A
Scythians 3, 4
Sebük-Tegin 11, 13
Second Türk Qaghanate 9, 9 2E; see
Eastern Türk Qaghanate
Sebzevar 10 4B, 11 4B, 13 2B, 14 4B, 15
4B, 16 4B, 17 2B, 18 4B, 19 4B, 20, 20
4B, 21, 21 4B, 22 4B, 23 2B, 24 4B, 25
4B, 26 4B, 27 4B, 27 insert, 28 4B, 29
4B, 31 4B, 32 4B, 34 4B, 36a 3B, 36b
3B, 44 4A, 45 4B, 46 4A, 47 4B
Seleucids (dynasty) 4
Seleucus I 4
Seljuk 11, 13
Seljuk empire 14, 36a
Seljuks (dynasty) 13, 14, 15, 15 4B, 16,
36a, 37
Semender 9 3A, 10 3A, 11 3A
Semengan 12 4C
Semey 47 2D; see Semipalatinsk
Semipalatinsk 1 2D, 30 2D, 31 2D, 32
2D, 34 2D, 38 1D, 44 3D, 45, 45 2D,
46 3D, 47, 47 2D
Semipalatinsk (Semipalatinskaya) oblast’
44, 44 3C-D, 46
Semipalatnaya 29 1D; see Semipalatinsk
Semirech’e (Yeti-su, Zheti-su) 1 3D, 7, 9,
10, 13, 14 3D, 15, 15 3/2D, 16 3D, 17,
18, 18 3D, 19, 19 3D, 20, 20 3D, 21
3D, 22, 22 3D, 23 1D, 24, 24 3/2D, 25
3/2D, 26, 26 3/2D, 27 3/2D, 28, 28
3/2D, 29 3D, 30 3D, 31, 31 3D, 32, 32
3D, 34 3D, 38, 44
Semirech’e oblast’ (Semirechenskaya
oblast’) 44, 44 4/3C
Semiz (Özbek tribe) 35 3C*
Semnan 22 4A, 23 2B, 24 4A, 25 4A, 26,
26 4A, 27 4A, 28 4A, 29 4A, 30 4A, 34
4A
Sengresan can. 41 2B
Sengresan cemetery 41 1B
Senior Horde – see Ulï Zhuz
Serakhs 1 4B, 7 4B, 8 4B, 9 4B, 10 4B,
11 4B, 12 4A, 13, 13 2B, 14 4B, 15, 15
4B, 16, 16 4B, 17 2B, 18 4B, 19 4B, 20
4B, 21 4B, 22 4B, 23 2C, 24 4B, 25 4B,
26 4B, 27 4B, 27 insert, 28 4B, 29 4B,
30 4B, 31 4B, 32, 32 4B, 34 4B, 35 3A,
36a 3C, 36b 3C, 37 4C, 43 3B, 45 4B,
47 4B
“Serakhs Baba” (Sheykh Abu’l-Fazl), Ms.
of 43
Sergiopol’ 31 2D, 38 2D, 44 3D, 45 2D, 46
3D; see also Ayaguz
Sevgenli can. 33 3B
Seyhun R. 9 3C, 10 3C, 11 3C, 12 2C, 13
1C, 14 3C, 15 3C, 16 3C, 17 1C, 18
3C; see Sïr-Darya
Seyid {Ala ad-Din Ms. 42, 42a 2B*
Seyid Ata Ms. (in Baqïrghan) 43
Seyid Ata Mq. and Kh. (in Khanqah) 43
Seyid Atalïq Md. 43
Seyid Muhammad Mahruy Ms. 42b 1C*
Seyid Shaliker Bay complex 42b 2C*
Shaartuz 43, 43 3D
Shaburgan Ata, Ms. of 43
Shache 5, 5 4D, 6 4D, 7 4D, 8 4D, 9 4D,
10 4D, 47 4D; see Yarkend
shah 24
Shah-i Akhsi Mq. 40 1C
Shah Budaq b. Abulkhayr 24, 26, 27
Shah Fazil, Ms. of 43
Shah Malik Barani 13, 14, 14 3/4B
Shah-i Mashhad Md. 43, 43 3C
Shah Murad, amir 30, 31, 40, 41
Shah-Murad can. 33 4/3A
Shah-nama 12, 13, 41
Shah Qalandar Baba Ms. 42b 2B*
Shah-i Zinda complex 41, 41 1B*
Shahabad 33, 33 4B; see also Shavat
Shahabad can. 33 4B
Shahimardan gates (of Dïshan-qala,
Khiva) 42b 1A
Shahr-i Ghulghula 43, 43 3C
Shahr-i nau 2 4C*, 5 4C
Shahrisabz 1 4C, 22 4C, 23 2C, 24 4C,
25 4C, 26 4C, 27 4C, 27 insert, 28 4C,
29, 29 4C, 30 4C, 31, 31 4C, 32, 32 4C,
34 4C, 35, 35 3C, 38 3C, 43 2C, 47 4C
shahristan 40, 41, 42
Shahristan 2 4C*; see Bunjiket
Shahrud can. 40, 40 2B,D
Shahrukh b. Timur 22, 22 4B-C, 23, 24
bregel5.pmd 107
index
Shahrukhiya 2 3C*, 22 3C, 24 3C, 25 3C,
26 3C, 27 3C, 28 3C, 34 3C
Shahs of Badakhshan (dynasty) 29 4C
Shahsenem 2 3B*
Shahzada Abu’l-Qasim, Ms. of (in
Herat) 43
Shalqar 47 2B; see Chelkar
Shams ad-Din Kulal, Sheykh, Ms. of 43
Shansabanids (dynasty) 16; see Ghurids
Shanshan 5 3E, 6 3E
Shaprashtï (Qazaq tribe) 38 2/3D
Shapur I 6
Shapurgan 6 4C, 7 4C, 8 4C, 9 4C, 10
4C, 11 4C, 12 4B, 13 2C, 14 4C, 15 4C,
16 4C, 17 2C, 18 4C; see also
Shibergan
Shash 1, 11 3C, 12 2C, 13, 13 2C, 14, 14
3C, 15 3C, 16, 16 3C, 17; see also
Chach
Shavat 43; see Shahabad
Shavdar can. 41 3B
Shavdar tümen 41 3/2C
Shavgar 2 3C*, 11, 11 3C, 12 1C, 14 3C,
15 3C, 16 3C
Shay-Zengir-depe 2 4B*
Shaybani – see Shïbani
Shelji 2 3C*, 7 3C, 8 3C, 11 3C, 12 1D,
14 3C, 15 3C, 16 3C, 18 3C
Shelji, province 12 4D
Shemsabad 40 3B-C
Sheng Shicai 47
Sherabad (Shirabad) 43 2C
Sheybek 25; see Shïbani Khan
Sheykh {Abbas Veli 33 4C, 35 2A, 37 2C,
38 3B; see also Beruni
Sheykh Abu Bakr Muhammad, tomb of 43
Sheykh Abu’l-Fazl – see “Serakhs Baba”
Sheykh Jelal gates 40 3B
Sheykh Jelal Kh. 40 3B
Sheykh Jelil Baba, shrine 33 3B
Sheykh Jelil Mts. 33 3B
Sheykh Khavand-i Tahur (“Sheykhantaur”),
Ms. of (in Tashkent) 43
Sheykh Mukhtar Ata Mq. 42a 2B*
Sheykh Mukhtar Vali Ms. (in Astana) 43
Sheykh Rangrez Mz. 40 2D*
“Sheykhantaur” – see Sheykh Khavand-i
Tahur
Shïban, son of Jochi 19, 19 2D, 22, 25
Shïban, ulus of 19 2B, 20 2B, 21 1B-C
Shïbani Khan 23, 23 1C, 24, 25, 25 4B-C,
26, 35, 41
Shïbani Khan, campaigns of 24 3B-C
Shïbani Khan’s dakhma 41, 41 2B*
Shïbanids (clan and dynasty) 24, 26, 27,
28
Shibergan 19 4C, 20 4C, 21 4C, 22 4C,
23 2C, 24 4C, 25 4C, 26 4C, 27 4C, 27
insert, 28 4C, 29 4C, 30 4C, 31 4C, 32
4C, 34 4C, 35 4B, 37 4D, 43 3C, 45
4C, 47 4C; see also Shapurgan
Shihab ad-Din Muhammad 17
Shihezi 47 3E
Shi{ism, Shi{ites 23, 30, 40, 41
Shikh (Turkmen tribe) 37 2A, 3B*
Shikhlar gates (of Dïshan-qala,
Khiva) 42b 2B
Shikinan 12 3D
Shïmkent 47 3C; see Chimkent
Shir-Dar (“Shir-Dor”) Md. 41, 41 2B*
Shir Ghazi Khan Md. 42, 42a 3B*
Shir-Kabir Mq. 43
Shir Muhammad, Chaghatayid 22
Shir Muhammad Juvazkan Mq. & Md. 40
1B
Shirabad R. 12 3C, 31, 35, 35 3C
Shiraz 13 3A, 17 3A, 23 3B
Shirgiran gates (of Bukhara) 40 2A
Shirvan 23 1B
Shor-depe 2 4B*
Shor-depe I-II 2 4B*
Shorchuk 2 3E*
Shughnan 1 4C, 8, 16
Shule 5 4D, 6 4D, 7 4D, 8 4D, 9 4D, 10
4D, 47 4D; see Kashghar
Shulluk-tepe 2 4C*; see Nakhsheb
Shuman, city 9, 9 4C
Shuman, province 8, 12 3C
Shurakhan 33 5C
Shurmin 12 4B
Shuturket 12 2C
Shuturmula 2 4C*
Sialkot 13 3D, 17 3D, 23 3D, 27 insert
Siberia 38, 44
Siberia, Government of 45
Sibir 21 1C, 22 1C, 25 1C, 26 1C, 27 1C
Sibir Khanate 24 1C, 27, 28, 34
Sïghnaq 1 3C, 12 1C, 13 1C, 14 3C, 15
3C, 16, 16 3C, 17, 17 1C, 18 3C, 19
3C, 20, 20 3C, 21 3C, 22, 22 3C, 23
1C, 24 3C, 25, 25 3C, 26 3C, 27 3C, 27
insert, 28 3C, 29 3C, 34 3C
Sikh states 31 4D
Simjurids (dynasty) 12
Simsim 2 3D*
Sind 5, 13, 13 4C, 17 4C
Siob – see Siyah-ab
Siobcha – see Chukur
sipahsalar 12
Sipay-yab can. 33 3A-B
Sir 8 3D, 11; cf. Qïpchaqs
Sïr-Dar’inskaya oblast’ 44 3B-C
Sïr-Darya R. 1, 1 3C, 2 3C, 3, 3 3C, 4, 4
3C, 5, 5 3C, 6 3C, 7, 9, 10, 10 3C, 11,
11 3C, 12 2C, 13, 13 1C, 14, 14 3C, 15,
15 3C, 16, 16 3C, 17, 17 1C, 18, 18 3C,
19 3C, 20, 20 3C, 21 3C, 22, 22 3C, 23
1C, 24, 24 3C, 25, 25 3C, 26 3B, 27, 27
3C, 28, 28 3C, 29, 29 3C, 30 3C, 31, 31
3C, 32, 32 3C, 34, 34 3B-C, 35 2C, 36a
1C, 36b 1C, 37 1D, 38, 38 3C, 39 2A,
43, 43 1D, 44 3B, 45 3C, 46 3B, 47, 47
3C
Sïr-Darya oblast’ – see Sïr-Dar’inskaya
oblast’
Sïrchalï can. 42, 42b 1/2A,1C
Sirvan 43, 43 3B
Sistan 4, 10, 11, 12, 13, 13 3B, 17 3B,
22, 23 3B-C, 27, 27 insert
Sistan, campaign to 21 4B
Siyah-ab (Siob) can. 41, 41 1A,1C
Siyahgird 12 4C
Skobelev 44 4B, 45 3/4B; see also
Fergana
Skobelev, General 32, 32 4C, 44
Small Balkhan Mts. 1 4A
Small Bursuq Sands 1 2B
Smarakanda 3, 3 4C, 4, 4 4C, 5 4C, 6 4C,
8, 41; see Samarqand
Soghd, Soghdiana 1, 3, 3 4B-C, 4, 4 4B-
C, 5, 5 4B-C, 6, 6 4B-C, 7, 7 4B-C, 8,
8 4B-C, 9, 9 4B-C, 10, 10 4B-C, 11, 12
3B-C, 40, 41
Soghdians 3, 7, 9, 10
Sokh 2 4C*, 12 2D
Sokh R. 12 2D, 35 2D
Sokuluk (Jul) 2 3C*
Solto (Qïrghïz tribe) 39, 39 1/2B
Somnath 13
South Russian steppe 18
Southern Russia 21, 18 4A
Soviet Union 35, 36b, 47; see also SSSR
Söyünch Khoja Khan, Ms. of (in
Tashkent) 43
Söyünjük (Söyünch Khoja, Söyünch
Muhammad) Sultan (Khan) 25, 26, 27
Spitamenes (Spitamana) 3, 4
Srinagar 13 3D, 17 3D, 23 3D, 27 insert
SSSR 46; see also Soviet Union
St.Petersburg 2, 32, 44, 45
Stalin 47
Steppe, Governorate-General 44
Steppe of the Ghuzz (Oghuz) 1, 11, 13
Steppe of the Qïpchaqs 1, 13; see Dasht-i
Qïpchaq
Suan (Qazaq tribe) 38 2D-E
Subakh 12 3B
Sübashi 2 3D*
Subhan-Quli Khan 28, 29
Subhan-Quli Khan, Md. of (in Balkh) 43
Subuday Bahadur 17, 18, 18 1A,4A
Sufi (dynasty) 20, 21 3B, 25, 43
Sufi Allahyar, Mq. of 43
Sufiyan-i Sawri Mz. 40 1/2C
Sui (dynasty) 7
Sukhashin 41 1A
Sulayman, caliph 9
Sulayman Mirza 27
Sulayman Sufi 21
Süldüs (Chaghatay tribe) 20, 20 4C
sultan 13, 22, 24, 25, 38
Sultan Ahmad Mirza 24, 24 3B-C, 25
Sultan A{la Khan 32
Sultan {Ali Mirza 24, 24 3/4B-C
Sultan Husayn Bayqara 23 2B-C, 24, 24
4B, 25
Sultan Mahmud Mirza 23 2C, 24, 24 3B-
C,4C
Sultan Mir Haydar, complex (mausoleums
and mosques, in Kasbi) 43
Sultan Murad, Aq-Qoyunlu 23 2/3A-B
Sultan-qala 2 4B*; see also Old Merv
Sultan Sa{adat, mausoleums (in
Termez) 43
Sultan Sa{id Khan 26
5/26/2003, 1:06 PM
107
Sultan Shah 16, 16 4B
Sultan Uveys Baba, complex (Mq. and
Ms.) 33 4C, 43, 43 1B
Sultan Uveys Mts. 43, 33 4C
Sultaniya 20 4A, 21 4A, 22 4A, 24 4A
Suluk 9
Sumitan 43 2C
Sunbadh 10
Suqnaq Tegin 18, 18 3D
Surkh-Kotal 2 4C*
Surkhab R. (left tributary of the Amu-
Darya) 1 4C, 6 4C, 7 4C, 8 4C, 9 4C,
10 4C, 11 4C, 12 4C, 14 4C, 15 4C, 16
4C, 18 4C, 19 4C, 20 4C, 21 4C, 22 4C,
24 4C, 25 4C, 26 4C, 27 4C, 28 4C, 30
4C, 31 4C, 34 4C, 35 3C
Surkhab R. (upper course of the
Wakhsh) 1 4C, 4 4C, 6 4C, 7 4C, 8
4C, 9 4C, 10 4C, 11 4C, 12 3C, 13 2D,
14 4C, 15 4C, 16 4C, 17 2D, 18 4C, 19
4C, 20 4C, 21 4C, 22 4C, 23 2D, 24
4C, 25 4C, 26 4C, 27 4C, 28 4C, 29 4C,
30 4C, 31 4C, 32 4C, 35 3C, 39 3A
Surkhan (Surkhan-Darya) R. 1 4C, 12 3C,
35, 35 3C, 43 2C-D
Susia 3 4B
Sütkend 12 1C
Suu-Murun (Qïrghïz tribe) 39 1/2C
Suyab 2 3D*, 7 3D, 8, 8 3D, 9, 9 3D, 10,
10 3D, 11 3D
Suzak 22 3C, 24 3C, 25 3C, 26 3C, 27
3C, 28 3C, 29 3C, 30 3C, 31 3C, 32 3C,
34 3C, 35 1C, 38 2C, 44 3B, 45 3C, 46
3B, 47 3C
Suzangaran gates (of Samarqand) 41 2B*
Sviatoslav of Kiev 11
Syria 4, 14
Tabari 6, 12
Tabaristan 11, 16
Tabïn (Qazaq tribe) 38 2B
Tabriz 13 1A, 17 1A, 23 1A, 24
Tacheng 47 2D; see Chuguchak
Tagay, branch of the Qïrghïz 39, 39*
Taghachar 17, 18, 18 4B
Taghchi (Özbek tribe) 35 3C*
Tagisken 2 3B*
Tahir b. Husayn 10
Tahir Khan b. Qasim 26
Tahirids (dynasty) 10, 12
Tahiriya, rabat 2 4B*, 12 2B
Tahmasb, Shah 26
Taitsung 8
Tajik ASSR (SSR) 46
Tajikistan 12, 47 4C, 47
Tajiks 25, 31, 33, 35, 37, 40, 41, 46
Takht-i Sangin 2 4C*, 5 4C, 6 4C
Takhta 33 4B, 37 2C, 43, 43 1B
Takhta-qaracha pass 12 3C
Tal-i Barzu (Rivdad?) 41 3C
Tal-i pach gates (of Bukhara) 40 1A
Tal-i Varsnin 41 2C
Talas 7 3C, 8 3C, 9 3C, 10, 10 3C, 11
3C, 12 1D, 13; see also Taraz
Talas (on the upper Talas r.) 43 1D
Talas R. 1 3C, 2 3C, 3 3C, 4 3C, 5 3C, 6
3C, 7 3C, 8 3C, 9 3C, 10 3C, 11 3C 12
1D, 13 1D, 14 3C, 15 3C, 16 3C, 17, 17
1D, 18 3C, 19, 19 3C, 20 3C, 21 3C, 22
3C, 23 1D, 24 3C, 25 3C, 26 3C, 27, 27
3C, 28 3C, 29 3C, 30 3C, 31 3C, 32 3C,
34 3C, 35 1D, 38 3D, 39 1A, 43 1D, 44
3C, 45 3C, 46 3C, 47 3C
Talas Alatau Ra. 1 3C, 39
Talashkan-tepe 2 4C*
Talaykhan-Ata 2 3B*
Taldïqorghan 47 3D
Taleqan (in Guzganan) 12 4B, 18, 18 4B
Taleqan (in Tokharistan) 6 4C, 7 4C, 8
4C, 9 4C, 10 4C, 11 4C, 12 4C, 14 4C,
15 4C, 16, 16 4C, 18 4C, 27, 34 4C
Talibarzu 2 4C*
Talkhatan Baba 43, 43 2B
Tallïq R. 33 1B
Tamerlane 21; see Timur Bek (Amir)
Tamghach Bughra Khan – see Ibrahim b.
Nasr
Tanais R. 3 3C; see Sïr-Darya
Tang (dynasty) 7, 8, 9, 10
Tang Empire 8, 8 3E, 9 3E
Tanguts 18
taq 40
Taq 2 4B*; see Durun, Yazïr
Taq-i sarrafan 40 2C*
Taq-i tilpak-furushan 40 2C*
Taq-i zargaran 40 2C*
Taqla-Makan Desert 1, 1 3/4D-E, 5, 34
4D
 108
Tara 1 1C, 27 1C, 28, 28 1C, 29 1C, 34
1C, 45 1C, 47 1C
Taranchi 32
Taraz 2 3C*, 10, 11, 13 1D, 14, 14 3C,
15 3C, 16 3C, 17 1D, 18 3C, 19 3C; see
also Talas, Awliya-Ata
Tarbagatay Mts. 1 2D
Tarbend 7 3C, 8 3C, 9 3C; see also Otrar
Tardush 7
Tarim basin 1, 4, 8, 9, 10, 13, 22, 26, 47
Tarim R. 1, 1 3D, 2 3D, 3 3D, 4 3D, 5, 5
3D, 6 3D, 7, 7 3D, 8 3D, 9 3D, 10 3E,
11 3D, 13 2D, 14 3D, 15 3E, 16 3D, 17
2D, 18 3D, 19 3D, 20 3D, 21 3D, 22
3D, 23 2E, 24 3D, 25 3D, 26 3D, 27
3D, 28 3D, 29 3D, 30 3D, 31 3D, 32
3D, 34 3D, 38 3E, 39 2E, 45 3D, 47 3D
Tarmashirin 20
Tarmita 5 4C, 6 4C, 7 4C, 8, 8 4C; see
also Termez
Tarnab 22
Tash-darvaza gates (of Ichan-qala,
Khiva) 42a 3C*
Tash-hawli palace 42, 42a 2C*
Tash-Köpri 32 4B
Tash-qala 2 3B*; see Gurganj
Tash-Rabat, caravanseray 43, 43 2E
Tashhawz 1 3B, 31 3B, 32 3B, 33 4B, 35
2A, 37 2C, 44 3A, 45 3B, 46 3A; see
also Dashhowuz
Tashkent 1 3C, 2, 9, 19 3C, 20 3C, 21
3C, 22, 22 3C, 23 2C, 24, 24 3C, 25, 25
3C, 26, 26 3C, 27, 27 3C, 27 insert, 28,
28 3C, 29, 29 3C, 30, 30 3C, 31, 31 3C,
32, 32 3C, 34, 34 3C, 35, 35 2C, 38 3C,
41, 43, 43 1/2D, 44, 44 4B, 45, 45 3C,
46, 46 4B, 47 3C; see also Chach,
Binket
Tashqi Salor 36a
Tashqurghan (in Afghan Turkestan) 35 4C
Tashqurghan (in Eastern Turkestan) 2
4D*, 32 4D, 34, 34 4D, 45 4D, 47 4D
Tatars – see Volga Tatars
Tau-qum Sands 1 3D
Tavakkul Muhammad (Tawke) Khan 28,
29, 38
Tavakkul Sultan (Khan) 27
Tavavis 12 2B
Tavda 47 1C
Tawke – see Tavakkul Muhammad
Tawqara L. 33 2C
Taxkorgan 47 4D; see Tashqurghan (in
Eastern Turkestan)
Tayangu 17
Taybughids (dynasty) 24 1C, 25 1C, 26,
26 1C, 27
Tazabagh gates (of Dïshan-qala,
Khiva) 42b 2A
Taze Khanabad 33 3A
Tbilisi 7; see also Tiflis
Tehran 1 4A, 30 4A, 31 4A, 32 4A, 34
4A, 45 4A, 47 4A
Tejen R. 12 4A, 28, 30 4B; see also
Tezhen
Teke (Turkmen tribe) 31, 32, 36a, 36a
2A, 36b, 36b 2/3B-C, 37, 37 3/4B-D*
Teke-sengir 33 4A
Tekes R. 1 3D, 2 3D, 5 3D, 6 3D, 7 3D, 8
3D, 9 3D, 10 3D, 11 3D, 13 2D, 14
3D, 15 3D, 16 3D, 17 2D, 18 3D, 19
3D, 20 3D, 21 3D, 22 3D, 23 2D-E, 24
3D, 25 3D, 26 3D, 27 3D, 28 3D, 29
3D, 30 3D, 31 3D, 32 3D, 34 3D, 38
2E, 39 1E, 44 4D, 45 3D, 46 4D, 47 3D
Tekesh 16, 16 3B,4A-B, 17
Telpak-Cinar 43
Temir 44 2B, 46 2B
Temür 21; see Timur Bek (Amir)
Tenge 47 3A
Tengiz 47
Tengri-Yar R. 33 2C
Terek R., battle on 21, 21 3A
Terken Khatun 16, 17, 18, 18 3/4B
Termez 1 4C, 4, 8, 8 4C, 9 4C, 10, 10
4C, 11 4C, 12, 12 3C, 13 2C, 14 4C, 15
4C, 16, 16 4C, 17 2C, 18 4C, 19 4C, 20
4C, 21 4C, 22 4C, 23 2C, 24 4C, 25 4C,
26 4C, 27 4C, 27 insert, 28 4C, 29 4C,
30 4C, 34, 34 4C, 35, 35 3C, 43, 43 3C,
44 4B, 45 4C, 46 4B, 47 4C; see also
Tarmita
Teyit (Qïrghïz tribe) 39 3/4A-C
Tezhen R. 1 4B, 32 4B, 34 4B, 35 4A,
36a, 36a 3C, 36b, 36b 3C, 37 4C, 44
4A, 46 4A, 47 4B; see also Tejen
Thanesar 13 3D
Tibet 1 4E, 4, 6, 7 4E, 8, 9, 10, 11 4D-E,
13 2E, 14 4E, 15 4E, 16 4E, 17 2E, 18
bregel5.pmd 108
index
4E, 19 4E, 20 4E, 21 4E, 22 3E, 23 3E,
24 4E, 25 4E, 26 4E, 27 4E, 28 4E, 29
4E, 34 4E
Tibetan Empire 8, 8 4D-E, 9 4D-E, 10, 10
4D-E
Tibetan plateau 1, 8
Tibetans 8, 9, 10
Tiele 6, 6 2C-D, 7, 7 2C,2E, 8 2C,2E, 11
Tien-Shan Mts. 1, 1 3D-E, 4, 8, 10, 22, 26,
27, 34, 38, 39
Tiflis 13 1A, 17 1A, 21, 23 1A
Tigris R. 6, 13 2A, 17 2A, 23 2A
Tilla-Kari Md. 41, 41 2B*
Tilla-tepe 2 4C, 5 4C
Tim 43, 43 2C
Tim of {Abdallah Khan 40, 40 2C*
Timur, empire of 21 4A-C
Timur Bek (Amir) 21, 22, 23, 24, 27, 33,
40, 41
Timur Malik 18, 18 3B
Timur Shah Durrani 30
Timurids (dynasty) 21, 22, 22 4B-C, 23,
23 2B-D, 24, 25, 27, 36a, 41
Tïnïmseyit (Qïrghïz tribe) 39 2C
Tirband-i Turkestan Mts. 1 4B-C
Tiumen’ 27 1C, 28 1C, 29 1C, 30 1C, 34
1C, 44 1C, 45 1C, 46 1C, 47 1C
Tiveji (Turkmen tribe) 36a, 36a 2A
Tobol 47 1B; see Tobol’sk
Tobol R. 1 1C, 3 1C, 4 1C, 5 1C, 6 1C, 7
1C, 8 1C, 9 1C, 10 1C, 11 1C, 15 1C,
16 1C, 18 1C, 19 1C, 20 1C, 21 1C, 22
1C, 24 1C, 25 1C, 26 1C, 27 1C, 28, 28
1C, 29 1C, 30 1C, 31 1C, 34, 34 1C,
38, 38 1C, 44 2B, 45 1C, 46 2B, 47 1C
Tobol’sk 27 1C, 28 1C, 29, 34, 34 1C, 44
1C, 46 1C
Tocharians 3, 4; cf. Yuezhi
Togha-Temür, Ilkhanid 20
Toghluq-Timur, Chaghatayid 20, 21
Toghrïl III 16
Toghrïl Bek Muhammad 13, 14
Toghrul Khan – see Buzar
Togons (Tuyuhun) 6, 7 4E, 8, 8 4E
Tokharistan 1, 5 4C, 6, 6 4C, 7, 7 4C, 8,
8 4C, 9, 9 4C, 10, 10 4C, 11 4C, 12,
13, 16, 16 4C
Tokharistan Lower 12 4C
Tokharistan Upper 12 4C
Tokhtamïsh 21, 21 1A,2B,3A,3C
Tölis 7
Tolstov, Ataman 45 2A
Toluy 18, 18 4B, 19
Tomaras (dynasty) 13 3/4D
Tompak-asar 2 3B*
Tomsk 47 1D
Ton Yabghu-Qaghan 7, 8
Tonyuquq 9
Töölös (Qïrghïz tribe) 39 3B
Topraq-qala 2 3B*, 5 3B
Toq-qala 2 3B*
Toqay-Timur 27, 28
Toqay-Timurids (dynasty) 28; see
Ashtarkhanids
Toqmaq 31 3D, 32 3D, 43 1E
Toqtamïsh – see Tokhtamïsh
Toquz-Oghuz 9, 10, 11
Toquzbulaq 2 4C*
Torbet-e Jam 47 4B; see Turbat-i Jam,
Jam
töre 38
“Töre-Bek Khanïm Ms.” 43
Torghut (Oyrat tribe) 22
Tört Shabbaz complex 42b 2C*
Tortkol-tobe (Lower Barskhan) 2 3C*
Trans-Ili region 32
Transalay Ra. 1 4C
Transcaspian oblast’ (region) – see
Zakaspiyskaya oblast’
Transcaspian railway 45
Transcaucasian Federation 46
Transoxiana, Transoxania 1, 6; see
Mavarannahr
Trapezund 13 1A, 17 1A
Troitsk 1 1B, 30 1B, 31 1B, 32 1B, 34
1B, 38 1B, 44 2B, 45 1B, 46 2B, 47 1B
Troitskaya 29 1B; see Troitsk
Tsaritsïn 1 2A, 27 2A, 28 2A, 29 2A, 30
2A, 31 2A, 32 2A, 34 2A, 44 1A, 45
2A, 46 1A; see also Volgograd
Tselinograd 47 2C; see Akmolinsk
Tsevang-Rabtan Khun-tayiji 29
tudun 7
Tughum Khan 26
Tukhsi 10
Tuman Agha, Md. of (in Herat) 43
Tuman Agha, Md. of (in Kuhsan) 43
Tumar-köl L. 33 2A
Tümen 24
tümen 20
Tumshuq 2 3D*
Tun 27 insert
Tunket 2 3C*, 7 3C, 8 3C, 9 3C, 10 3C,
11 3C, 12 2C, 14 3C
Tup-khana 2 4C*
Tura-masjid 43 2C
Turan plain 1
Turbat-i Jam (Torbet-e Jam) 13 2B, 17
2B; see also Jam
Turfan 1 3E, 2 3E*, 7, 9, 22, 22 3E, 23
2E, 24, 24 3E, 25, 25 3E, 26, 26 3E, 27
3E, 28, 28 3E, 29 3E, 30 3E, 31 3E, 32
3E, 34, 34 3E, 44 4D, 46 4D
Turfan, province (oasis) 7 3E, 10, 27
Turgay 32 2B, 38 1C, 44, 44 2B, 45 2B,
46 2B, 47 2B
Turgay R. 1 2B, 3 2B, 4 2B, 5 2B, 6 2B,
7 2B, 8 2B, 9 2B, 10 2B, 11 2B, 14 2B,
15 2B, 16 2B, 17, 17 1C, 18 2B, 19 2B,
20 2B, 21 2B, 22 2B, 24 2B, 25 2B, 26
2B, 27 2B, 28 2B, 29 2B, 30 2B, 31 2B,
32 2B, 34 2B, 38, 38 2C, 44 2B, 45 2B,
46 2B, 47 2B
Turgay (Turgayskaya) oblast’ 44, 44 2B-C,
46
Türgesh 8, 9
Türgesh-Qaghan 9; see Suluk
Türgesh Qaghanate 8, 8 4/3C-D, 9, 9 3C-
D 4C, 29, 29 4C, 30 4C, 31, 31 4C, 32, 32
Türk (Özbek (?) tribe) 35, 35 3/4C*
Türk Qaghanate, Eastern 7, 8, 8 2E, 9
Türk Qaghanate, First 6, 7, 7 2B-E,3D, 8,
9, 10, 11, 13, 35, 39
Türk Qaghanate, Second 9 2E
Türk Qaghanate, Western 7, 7 2/3B-E, 8,
8 2B-D
Turkestan 1, 1 3C, 22, 25, 25 3C, 26 3C,
27, 27 3C, 28, 28 3C, 29, 29 3C, 30 3C,
31 3C, 32, 32 3C, 34, 34 3C, 35 1C, 38
3C, 43, 44 3B, 45 3C, 46 3B; see also
Yasï
Turkestan, Eastern – see Eastern Turkestan
Turkestan, Governorate-General 32, 41,
44, 45
Turkestan, province 34 3C
Turkestan, Western – see Western
Turkestan
Turkestan Autonomous Socialist
Republic 46
Turkestan Oblast’ 32
Turkestan Ra. 1 4C
Turkey 39
Türkistan 43 1D, 47 3C; see Turkestan
Turkmen SSR 46, 46 3/4A
Türkmenbashi 47 3A; see Krasnovodsk
Türkmenbashi (Niyazov) 47
Turkmenistan 36a, 47, 47 3/4A-B
Turkmens 11, 13, 13 1C,2A, 14, 14
3A,4A-B, 15, 15 3A,3B-C,4A-B, 16 3A-
C,4B, 17 1/2B, 18 3B-C, 19 3/4A, 20
3/4A-B, 21, 21 3/4A-B, 22, 22 3A-B, 23
1B, 24, 24 3A-B, 25 3/4A-B, 26, 26
3/4A-B, 27 3/4A-B, 28, 28 3/4A-B, 29,
29 3/4A-B, 30, 30 3/4A-B, 31, 31 3/4A-
B, 32, 32 4A-B, 33, 36a, 36b, 37, 41,
42, 44, 45, 46
Turks 1, 9, 10, 11, 36a, 38, 41
Türks 7, 8, 9
Turks, Central Asian 24
Turks of Dihistan 8 4A
Turksovnarkom 45
Turpan 47 3E; see Turfan
Tursun-Jan Md. 40 2B*
Turtkul’ 45, 45 3B, 46 3A
Tus 12 4A, 13 2B, 14 4B, 15 4B, 16, 16
4B, 17 2B, 18 4B, 19 4B, 20, 20 4B, 21
4B, 25 4B
Tuti 43 2D
Tuy Khoja Oghlan 21, 21 3A-B
Tuyuhun (Togon) 6, 6 3-4E, 8
Tuz-qïr, height 33 4A
{Ubaydallah Khan, Ashtarkhanid 29
{Ubaydallah Sultan (Khan),
Abulkhayrid 25, 26
Uch (in Eastern Turkestan; Dashicheng) 7
3D, 8 3D, 9 3D, 10 3D, 11 3D, 13, 14
3D, 15 3D, 16 3D, 18 3D, 19 3D, 20
3D, 21 3D, 22 3D, 24 3D, 25 3D, 26
3D, 27 3D, 28 3D; see also Uchturfan
Uch (in Panjab) 17 3C
Üch Awliya Ms. 42a 2C*
Üch-el (Turkmen tribe) 36a
Üch Elig 8, 9
Üch-Uchaq road 33 5C
Ucharal 2 3D*
5/26/2003, 1:06 PM
Uchquduq 47 3A
Uchturfan 1 3D, 30 3D, 31 3D, 32 3D, 34
3D, 45 3D, 47 3D; see also Uch
Ufa 27 1B, 28 1B, 29 1B, 30 1B, 31 1B,
34 1B, 44 1B, 45 1B, 46 1B, 47 1B
Ujjain 13 4D, 17 4D
Ukraine 46
{ulama 17, 27
Ulï Zhuz (Senior Horde) 29, 29 3C, 30,
30 3C-D, 31, 31 3C-D, 38, 38 3/2C-D
Ulkan-Toy-tepe 2 3C*; see Nuket
Ulkun-Darya R. 33 2B
Ulu-tau (Ulu-tagh) Mts. 1 2C, 27
Ulugh Bek b. Shahrukh 22, 22 3D,4B
Ulugh Bek Md. (in Bukhara) 40, 40 2C
Ulugh Bek Md. (in Ghizhduvan) 43
Ulugh Bek Md. (in Samarqand) 41, 41
2B*
Ulugh Bek observatory 41, 41 1C*
ulus 19
Ulus-i Özbek 20, 21 2A-C; see also
Özbek ulus
Ulutavskiy 31 2C, 32 2C
{Umar Khan, Ming 31
{Umar Sheykh b. Timur 21 3D, 22, 24
{Umar Sheykh Mirza b. Abu Sa{id 23 2C-
D, 24, 24 4C, 25
Umayyad Caliphate 8, 8 4A-B, 9 4A-B
Umayyads (dynasty) 9
Ura-Tübe 1 4C, 25 4C, 26 4C, 27 4C, 28
4C, 34 4C, 35, 35 2C, 38 3C, 43, 43
2D, 45 4C, 47 4C
Ura-Tübe, principality 29 4C, 30 4C
Ural Cossacks 45 2A; see also Yaik
Cossacks
Ural Mts. 1 1B
Ural R. 1 2A, 3 1A, 30 1B, 31, 31 2A, 32
2A, 34 2A, 38, 38 1A, 44 2A, 45 2A,
46 2A, 47 2A; see also Yayïq
Ural’sk 1 2A, 27, 30 2A, 31 2A, 32 2A,
38 1A, 44 1B, 45, 45 2A, 46 1B, 47 2A
Ural’sk (Ural’skaya) oblast’ 44, 44 2A-B,
46
Ural’skoe ukreplenie 31 2B; see Irgiz
Urda (in Qoqand) 43
Urgench 19 3B, 20, 20 3B, 21, 21 3B, 22,
22 3B, 23 1C, 24 3B, 25, 25 3B, 26, 26
3B, 27 3B, 27 Insert, 28 3B, 34 3B, 36a
2B
Urgench (“New Urgench”) 1 3B, 28 3B,
29 3B, 30 3B, 31 3B, 32 3B, 33, 33 4C,
34, 34 3B, 35 2A, 36b 2C, 37 2C, 42,
43 1B, 44 3A, 45 3B, 46 3A, 47 3B
Urumchi 1 3E, 29 3E, 30 3E, 31 3E, 32,
32 3E, 44 4D, 46 4D, 47 3E
Urumqi 47 3E; see Urumchi
Urus Khan 20, 21, 21 2A-B,3B, 22, 25
Ush-quduq 2 3B*
Usinskaya liniya 30 1B
Ust’-Kamenogorsk 30 2D, 31 2D, 32 2D,
38 1E, 44 3D, 45 2D, 46 3D, 47 2D
Ust’-Kamenogorskaya 29 1D; see Ust’-
Kamenogorsk
Üst-Yurt Plateau 1, 1 3B, 14, 15, 23 1B,
24 3A-B, 26, 27 3A-B, 28 3A-B, 29 3A-
B, 30 3A-B, 31 3A-B, 32 3A-B, 33, 33
2A, 34 3A-B, 36a, 36a 1B, 36b 1B, 37
2B-C, 38
Usta Rukhi Mq. & Mz. 40 2B
Ustï-qala 2 4B*
Ustrushana 6 4C, 7 4C, 8, 10 4C, 11, 12
2C
usul-i jadid 44
{Uthman, Qarakhanid 17
{Uthman Seyid Baba Ms. 43, 43 1B
Uyghur (Özbek tribe) 35 1/2A*
Uyghur Idiquts 11 3E, 13 2E, 14 3E, 15,
15 3E, 16 3E, 17, 17 2E
Uyghur Qaghanate 9, 9 2E, 10, 10 2E, 11,
39
Uyghuristan 22, 22 3E, 24 3E
Uyghurs (8th-14th cent.) 9, 10, 10 2E,3D-
E, 11 3E, 15 3E
Uyghurs of Xinjiang 47
Uzbek SSR 46
Uzbek-kentï 41 1A
Uzbekistan 35, 47, 47 3B-C
Uzbeks – see Özbeks
Uzboy R. 1, 1 3B, 3 4B, 4, 4 4B, 5 3A, 6
4B, 7 4B, 8 4B, 10 3B, 11 3A, 13 1B,
14 3A-B, 15 3A, 17 1B, 18 3A, 19 3A,
20 4A-B, 21 4A, 23 2B, 24 4B, 25 4B-
C, 26 4A-B, 27 3A, 28 3A, 29 3A, 30
3A, 31 3B, 32 3B, 34 3A, 36a, 36a 2B,
36b 2B, 37 2B, 38 3B, 45 3B, 46 3A
Uzboy, road to 33 4A

Uzgen 1 3C, 43, 43 2E; see Uzgend (in
Ferghana)
Uzgend (in Ferghana) 9 3C, 10 3C, 11
3C, 12 2D, 13 2D, 14, 14 3C, 15, 15
3C, 16, 16 3C, 17, 17 2D, 18 3C, 19
3C, 20 3C, 21 3C, 22 3C, 23 2D, 24
3C, 25 3C, 26 3C, 27 3C, 27 insert, 28
3C, 29 3C, 31 3C, 32 3C, 34 3C, 35 2D
Uzgend (near lower Sïr-Darya) 12 1C, 22
3C
Uzun Hasan 23 2B, 24
Vabkent 43, 43 2C
Vadi as-Sughd R. 41 1C; see Zerafshan
Vakhshuvar 43, 43 2C
Vali Muhammad Sultan 27
Valida-i Khan-i Shahid Mq. & Md. 40 2B
Valvalij 12 4C
Vanch-qala 2 4C*
Varaghser 12 2C
Varahran V (Bahram Gur) 6
Varakhsha 6 4B, 7 4B, 8 4B, 9 4B, 12
2B; see also Jar-tepe
Vardana 2 4B*, 7 4B, 8 4B, 9 4B, 10 4B
Varshez 2 4C*
Varsnin 41 2C
Vashgird 7 4C, 8 4C, 12 3C
Vayengan Baba Ms. 43, 43 1B
Vays Khan 22
Vekil-Bazar 43, 43 2B
Verkhneyaitskaya 29 1B
Vernïy 38 3D, 44 4C, 45 3D, 46 4C; see
also Alma-Ata
Vernoe 32 3D; see also Vernïy
Vezir 22 3B, 23 1C, 24 3B, 25 3B, 26, 26
3B, 27 3B, 34 3B, 36a 2B, 43
Vezir (new) 33 4B
Viatkin V.L. 41
Vilayat-i Turan 31; see Khanate of
Bukhara
Vima Takto 5
Vima II Kadphises 5
Volga R. 1 2A, 3 1A, 7, 11, 13, 14, 19,
22, 26, 27, 27 1A, 28, 28 1A, 29 1A, 30
2A, 31 1A, 34, 34 1A, 36a, 38 1A, 44
1A, 45 1A, 46 1A, 47 1A; see also Itil
Volga Tatars 34, 44
Volgograd 47 2A; see Tsaritsïn
Vrang 2 4C*
Wakhan 1 4C, 7 4C, 8, 8 4C, 9, 9 4C, 10,
10 4C, 12 3D, 13 2D, 14 4C, 15 4C, 16
4C, 17 2D, 39
Wakhan corridor 39
Wakhan-Darya R. 1 4C, 3 4C, 4 4C, 5
4C, 6 4C, 7 4C, 8 4C, 9 4C, 10 4C, 11
4C, 12 3D, 13 2D, 14 4C, 15 4C, 16
4C, 17 2C-D, 18 4C, 19 4C, 20 4C, 21
4C, 22 4C, 23 2D, 24 4C, 25 4C, 26
4C, 27 4C, 28 4C, 29 4C-D, 31 4C, 32
4C-D, 34 4C-D, 39 4B
Wakhsh, province 12 3C, 16
Wakhsh R. 1 4C, 2 4C, 3 4C, 4 4C, 5 4C,
6 4C, 7 4C, 8 4C, 9 4C, 10 4C, 11 4C,
12 3C, 13 2C, 14 4C, 15 4C, 16 4C, 17
2C, 18 4C, 19 4C, 20 4C, 21 4C, 22 4C,
23 2C, 24 4C, 25, 25 4C, 26 4C, 27 4C,
28 4C, 30 4C, 34 4C, 35 3C, 38 3C, 43
2D, 44 4B, 45 4C, 46 4B
Wang Mang 5
Waq (Qazaq tribe) 38 1/2C-E
Wayhind 13 3C
bregel5.pmd 109
index
Wehrot R. 5 4B, 6 4B, 7 4B, 8 4B, 9 4C;
see Amu-Darya
Weili 5 3E, 6 3E
Western Han (dynasty) 5
Western Liao – see Qara-Khitay
“Western Regions” 5; see Eastern
Turkestan
Western Siberia 1 1B-C, 19, 22, 24, 26,
27, 28, 34, 34 1B-C
Western Türk Qaghanate – see Türk
Qaghanate, Western
Western Turkestan 1, 2, 7, 9, 14, 19, 25,
29, 32, 35, 46, 47
Western Wei (dynasty) 7
Wushi 47 3D; see Uchturfan
Wusun 4, 5, 5 3D
Xenippa 3 4C
Xi Liao – see Qara-Khitay
Xianbi 5, 5 2E, 6, 7
Xinjiang 47
Xinjiang-Uygur Autonomous Region 47
3D-E
Xiongnu 4, 5, 7
Xiongnu Northern 5
Xiongnu Southern 5
yabghu 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15
Yabghu of Tokharistan 8 4C, 9
Yabghu-Qaghan 7
Yadigar Muhammad 24
Yadigar Sultan 24
Yadigarids (dynasty) 24; see {Arabshahids
Yaghma 10, 10 3D, 11 3D, 12 2D
Yaghmur Khan 16, 16 4B
Yahya b. Asad 10
Yaik (Yayïq) Cossacks 27 1/2A-B, 28
2/3A-B, 29 2A; see also Ural Cossacks
Yaikskaya (Ural’skaya) liniya 30 2A
Yaitskiy gorodok 27, 28 2A, 28 1A, 34
1A
Yakhshart R. 6 3C, 7 3C, 8 3C; see Sïr-
Darya
Yamchun 2 4C*
Yamïshevo 29 1D, 34 2D
Yamïshevskoe L. 29, 29 1D
Yancai (Aorsi) 5, 5 2A-B
Yang Zengxin 47
Yangi 19 3C, 20 3C, 21 3C, 22 3C, 23
1D, 24 3C, 34 3C; see Taraz
Yangi-Arïq 33 5C
Yangi Hisar 26 4D, 27 4D, 28 4D, 29 4D,
31 4D, 32 4D, 34 4D, 44 4C, 45 4D, 46
4C
Yangi Vardanzi 2 4B*; see Vardana
Yangikent 11, 11 3B, 13, 13 1C, 14 3B,
15 3B, 16 3B, 17 1C, 18 3B
Yanï-Darya R. 1 3B, 30 3B, 31 3B, 32
3B, 45 2B
Yanï-Qurghan (Yanïqurghan) 32 3C, 45
3C, 47 3C
Yanqi 7 3E, 8 3E, 9 3E, 10 3E, 47 3E;
see Qarashahr
Yaqa (Sayinkhani) Turkmens 36a, 36a 2A
Ya{qub b. Layth 10
Ya{qub Bek 32
Yar Ahmad “Najm-i Thani” 25
Yar Bek 28
Yar-Khoto 2 3E*
Yarkend (Shache) 1 4D, 2 4D*, 5, 5 4D,
6 4D, 7 4D, 8 4D, 9 4D, 10 4D, 11 4D,
14 4D, 15 4D, 16 4D, 17 2D, 18 4D, 19
4D, 20 4D, 21 4D, 22 4D, 23 2D, 24,
24 4D, 25 4D, 26, 26 4D, 27, 27 4D,
28, 28 4D, 29 4D, 30, 30 4D, 31 4D, 32
4D, 34, 34 4D, 38 3D, 39 3D, 43 2E, 44
4C, 45 4D, 46 4C, 47 4D
Yarkend R. 1 4D, 2 4D, 3 4D, 4 4D, 5
4D, 6 4D, 7 4D, 8 4D, 9 4D, 10 4D, 11
4D, 13 2D, 14 4D, 15 4D, 16 4D, 17
2D, 18 4D, 19 4D, 20 4D, 21 4D, 22
4D, 23 2D, 24 4D, 25 4D, 26 4D, 27
4D, 28 4D, 29 4D, 30 4D, 31 4D, 38
3D, 39 3D, 44 4C, 45 4D, 46 4C, 47 4D
Yarmïsh can. 33 4B
Yartï-gumbez 43 3B
Yasa}uri 20 4B-C
Yasavulbashi-yab can. 33 3A
Yasï 18 3C, 19 3C, 20 3C, 21 3C, 22 3C,
23 1C, 24 3C, 25 3C, 26, 26 3C; see
also Turkestan
Yassï-depe 2 4B*
Yavan 2 4C*, 5 4C, 6 4C
Yaxartes R. 4, 4 3C; see Sïr-Darya
Yayïq R. 4 1/2A, 5 1/2A, 6 1/2A, 7 1A, 8
1A, 9 1A, 10 1A, 11 1A, 14 1A, 15 1A,
16 1A, 18 1A, 19 1A, 20 1A, 21 1A, 22
1A, 24 1A, 25 1A, 26, 26 1A, 27, 27
2A, 28, 28 2A, 29 2A, 34, 34 2A; see
also Ural R.
Yayïq Cossacks – see Yaik
(Yayïq) Cossacks
Yaz-depe 2 4B*
Yazdigird II 6
Yazïr 14 4B, 15 4B, 16 4B, 17 2B, 18 4B
Yazïr (Turkmen tribe) 16, 36a
Yehudiya 9 4B, 10 4B, 11 4B, 12 4B; see
also Maymana
Yellow R. 7
Yelü Dashi 15
Yemreli (Turkmen tribe) 31, 36a, 36a
2/3A, 36b, 36b 2/3B, 37 2C*
Yengisar 47 4D; see Yangi Hisar
Yenisey [R.] basin 10, 26, 39
Yer-Qurghan 2 4C*; see Nakhsheb
Yeti-su 1 3D, 13 1D, 14 3D, 15 3/2D, 16
3D, 17 1D, 18 3/2D, 19 3D, 20 3/2D,
21 3D, 22 3D, 23 1D, 24 3/2D, 25
3/2D, 26 3/2D, 27 3/2D, 28 3/2D, 29
3/2D, 30 3/2D, 31 3C-D; see also Zheti-
su, Semirech’e
Yetishar 32 4/3D-E
Yezd 13 3B, 17 3B, 23 3B
Yïlanlï – see Hilali
Yinchü-ögüz R. 7 3C, 8 3C, 9 3C; see Sïr-
Darya
Yining 47 3D; see Qulja
Yiwu 5 3E, 6 3E, 7 3E, 8 3E, 9 3E, 10
3E; see Hami
Yolotan 32, 37 4C
Yomut (Turkmen tribe) 29, 30, 31, 36a,
36a 2A, 37, 42, 44, 45
Yomut Bayram-Shalï (Turkmen tribe) 36b,
36b 2A-B, 37 2/4A-B*
Yomut Qara-Choqa (Turkmen tribe) 36b,
36b 1/2A, 37 2B-C*
Yotkan 2 4D*
Young Bukharans 45
Young Khivans 45
Yuan (dynasty) 19, 19 2/3E, 20
Yuanqu 5 3E, 6 3E; see Qarashahr
Yuepan 6, 6 2/3D
Yuezhi 4, 5
Yumi 5 4D, 6 4D; see Keriya
5/26/2003, 1:06 PM
109
Yunus Khan 24
Yunus Khan’s Ms. (in Tashkent) 43
Yunus Khoja 30, 30 3C
Yusuf Balasaghuni 14
Yusuf Hamadani, Ms. of 43
Yusuf Sufi 21
Yusuf Yasavulbashi Md. 42a 2C*
Yutian 5, 6 4D, 7 4D, 8 4D, 9 4D, 10 4D;
see Hotan
Yutian 47 4D; see Keriya
Yüz (Özbek tribe) 29, 29 4C, 31, 35, 35
2/3C-D*
Zabulistan 13 3C, 17 3C
Zadrakarta 3 4A
Zakaspiyskaya oblast’ (Transcaspian
Region) 44 2/4A, 45, 46
Zamakhshar 12 2A
Zamin 12 2C, 35 2C
Zamindavar 13 3B-C
Zands (dynasty) 30 4A
Zar-tepe 2 4C*
Zariaspa 3 4C, 4, 4 4C; see Bactra
Zaydi Imams (dynasty) 12
Zaykash can. 42b 2B
Zayn ad-Din Baba, Ms. of 43
Zaysan, Zaysansk 32 2D, 44 3D, 45 2D,
46 3D
Zaysan L. 1 2D, 3 2D, 4 2D, 5 2D, 6 2D,
7 2D, 8 2D, 9 2D, 10 2D, 11 2D, 13
1E, 14 2D, 15 2D, 16 2D, 17 1E, 18
2D, 19 2D, 20 2D, 21 2D, 22 2D, 23
1E, 24 2D, 25 2D, 27 2D, 28 2D, 29
2D, 30 2D, 31 2D, 32 2D, 34 2D, 38
2E, 44 3D, 45 2D, 46 3D, 47 2D
Zemm 9 4B, 10 4B, 11 4B, 12 3B, 13 2C,
14 4B, 15 4B, 16 4B, 17 2C, 18 4B; see
also Kerkuh, Kerki
Zengi Ata 43
Zengi Ata, complex (mausoleums, Mq.,
Md.) 43
Zerafshan District 41
Zerafshan R. 1, 1 4C, 8, 16, 18, 26,
30 4C, 31, 32, 32 4B, 34 4C, 35 3C,
36b 2C, 37 3D, 38 3C, 40, 41, 41 1C,
43 2D, 44 4B, 45 4C, 46 4B, 47 4C;
see also Polytimet, River of Soghd,
Ab-i Kuhek
Zerafshan Ra. 1 4C
Zerenj 13 3B, 17 3B, 23 3C, 27 insert
Zhalair (Qazaq tribe) 38, 38 2/3C-D
Zhalpaq-asar 2 3B*
Zhambïl (Jambul) 39 1A, 43 1D, 47 3C;
see also Awliya-Ata
Zhediger (Qïrghïz tribe) 39 2B
Zheti-su 1 3D, 30 3/2D, 31 3C-D, 32 3D,
34 3D; see also Yeti-su, Semirech’e
Zhetigen (Qïrghïz tribe) 39 2B
Zhetiru (Qazaq tribal group) 38, 38 1/2A-
C
Zhezqazghan 47 2C
Zhoo-Kesek (Qïrghïz tribe) 39 3A
zhuz 29, 30, 38
Zirabulaq heights 32
Zïrian 47 2D
Ziyad b. Salih 9
Ziyaratgah 43 2B
Ziyarids (dynasty) 11 4A, 13 2B, 14 4A
Zmukhshir (Zamakhshar) 2 3B*; see
Izmukhshir
Zoroastrians 10
Zuhra-i Tahir 2 4B*; see Nevida
Zu’l-Kifl 43, 43 3C
Zuo Zong-tang 32, 47