Introduction

Figure 1. Stationary batteries on a rack (courtesy of Power Battery)

This article looks at the sizing of batteries for stationary applications (i.e. they don't move). Batteries are
used in many applications such as AC and DC uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems, solar power
systems, telecommunications, emergency lighting, etc. Whatever the application, batteries are seen as a
mature, proven technology for storing electrical energy. In addition to storage, batteries are also used as a
means for providing voltage support for weak power systems (e.g. at the end of small, long transmission
lines).

Why do the calculation?

Sizing a stationary battery is important to ensure that the loads being supplied or the power system being
supported are adequately catered for by the battery for the period of time (i.e. autonomy) for which it is
designed. Improper battery sizing can lead to poor autonomy times, permanent damage to battery cells
from over-discharge, low load voltages, etc.

When to do the calculation?

The calculation can typically be started when the following information is known:

 Battery loads that need to be supported

 Nominal battery voltage

 Autonomy time(s)
IEEE Definitions
IEEE Std. 485-1997 provides some definitions related to the battery sizing terminology:

battery duty cycle: The loads a battery is expected to supply for specified time periods.

cell size: The rated capacity of a lead-acid cell or the number of positive plates in a cell.

equalizing charge: A prolonged charge, at a rate higher than the normal float voltage, to correct any
inequalities of voltage and specific gravity that may have developed between the cells during service.
full float operation: Operation of a dc system with the battery, battery charger, and load all
connected in parallel and with the battery charger supplying the normal dc load plus any charging
current required by the battery. (The battery will deliver current only when the load exceeds the
charger output.)

period: An interval of time in the battery duty cycle during which the load is assumed to be constant
for purposes of cell sizing calculations.

rated capacity (lead-acid): The capacity assigned to a cell by its manufacturer for a given discharge
rate, at a specified electrolyte temperature and specific gravity, to a given end-of-discharge voltage.

valve-regulated lead-acid (VRLA) cell: A lead-acid cell that is sealed with the exception of a valve
that opens to the atmosphere when the internal gas pressure in the cell exceeds atmospheric pressure
by a preselected amount. VRLA cells provide a means for recombination of internally generated oxygen
and the suppression of hydrogen gas evolution to limit water consumption.

vented battery: A battery in which the products of electrolysis and evaporation are allowed to escape
freely to the atmosphere. These batteries are commonly referred to as “flooded.”

Battery Characteristics and Types

Battery Components
Battery technology has not changed much in the last 100 years. The standard construction method
involves flooding lead plates in sulfuric acid. The chemical reaction between the positively charged lead
plate and the negatively charged acid allows the battery to store and “give” electricity. The thickness
of the lead plate is closely related to the lifespan of the battery because of a factor called “Positive Grid
Corrosion”. The positive lead plate gradually wears away over time. Thicker plates are used in deep
cycle batteries. This usually translates to a longer battery life. Although plate thickness is not the only
factor related to longer lifespan, it is the most critical variable.

Battery Lifespan
Most of the loss incurred in charging and discharging batteries is due to internal resistance, which is
eventually wasted as heat. Efficiency ratios are relatively high considering that most lead acid batteries
are 85 to 95 percent efficient at storing the energy they receive. Deep cycle batteries used in
renewable energy applications are designed to provide many years of reliable performance with proper
care and maintenance. Proper maintenance and usage play a major role in battery lifespan. Toiling
over your battery bank daily with complex gadgets and a gallon of distilled water, however, is not
necessary. The most common causes of premature battery failure include loss of electrolyte due to
heat or overcharging, undercharging, excessive vibration, freezing or extremely high temperatures,
and using tap water among other factors

Battery Charging Stages

There are three basic stages in charging a battery: bulk, absorption, and float. These terms signify
different voltage and current variables involved in each stage of charging.

 Bulk Charge: In the first stage of the process, current is sent to the batteries at the maximum safe
rate, batteries will accept it until voltage is brought up to nearly 80-90 percent full charge level.
There are limits on the amount of current the battery and/or wiring can take.

 Absorption Charge: In the second stage, voltage peaks and stabilizes and current begins to taper
off as internal resistance rises. The charge controller puts out maximum voltage at this stage.

 Float Charge: This can also be referred to as trickle charging or a maintenance charge. In this
stage, voltage is reduced to lower levels in order to reduce gassing and prolong battery life. The
 main purpose of this stage is basically to maintain the battery’s charge in a controlled manner. In
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) the charger sends small, short charging cycles or “pulses” when it
senses small drops in voltage.
Depth of Discharge (DOD)
The Depth of Discharge (DOD) is used to describe how deeply the battery is discharged. If the battery
is 100% fully charged, it means the DOD of this battery is 0%. If the battery has delivered 30% of its
energy, here are 70% energy reserved, the DOD of this battery is 30%. And if a battery is 100%
empty, the DOD of this battery is 100%. DOD always can be treated as how much energy that the
battery delivered.

Determining battery state of charge

There are a few ways to determine the state of charge on a battery, each with their own level of
accuracy. As there is no direct method to measure a battery’s state of charge, there are numerous
ways to go about it. One way to gauge a battery is by measuring its static voltage and comparing it to
a standardized chart. This is the least accurate method, but it only involves an inexpensive digital
meter. Another method of gauging the battery involves measuring the density or specific gravity of the
sulfuric acid electrolyte. This is the most accurate test, yet it is only applicable to the flooded types.
This method involves measuring the cell’s electrolyte density with a battery hydrometer. Electrolyte
density is lower when the battery is discharged and higher as the cells are charged. The battery’s
chemical reactions affect the density of the electrolyte at a constant rate that is predictable enough to
get a good indication of the cell’s state of charge. Using an amp-hour meter one can also obtain an
accurate indication of the battery’s state of charge. Amp-hour meters keep track of all power moving
in and out of the battery by time, and the state of charge is determined by comparing flow rates.

Amp-Hour rating & Capacity

All deep cycle batteries are classified and rated in amp-hours. Amp-hours is the term used to describe
a standardized rate of discharge measuring current relative to time. It is calculated by multiplying
amps and hours. The generally accepted rating time period for most manufacturers is 20 hours. This
means that the battery will provide the rated amperage for about 20 hours until it is down to 10.5
volts or completely dead. Some battery manufacturers will use 100 hours as the standard to make
them look better, yet it can be useful in long-term backup calculations.

Renewable Applications
There are three main types of batteries that are commonly used in renewable energy systems, each
with their own advantages and disadvantages. Flooded or “wet” batteries are the most cost efficient
and the most widely used batteries in photovoltaic applications. They require regular maintenance and
need to be used in a vented location, and are extremely well suited for renewable energy applications.
Sealed batteries come in two varieties, the gel cell and Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) type. The gel cell
uses a silica additive in its electrolyte solution that causes it to stiffen or gel, eliminating some of the
issues with venting and spillage. The Absorbed Glass Mat construction method suspends the electrolyte
in close proximity with the plate’s active material. These batteries are sealed, requiring virtually no
maintenance. They are more suitable for remote applications where regular maintenance is difficult, or
enclosed locations where venting is an issue.

 a) Flooded Lead Acid (FLA)

Flooded lead acid batteries are the most commonly used batteries, and have the longest track record
in solar electric systems. They usually have the longest life and the lowest cost per amp-hour of any of
the other choices. The downside is that they do require regular maintenance in the form of watering,
equalizing charges and keeping the terminals clean. These cells are often referred to as “wet” cells,
and they come in two varieties: the serviceable, and the maintenance-free type (which means they are
designed to die as soon as the warranty runs out). The serviceable wet cells come with removable
caps, and are the smarter choice, as they allow you to check their status with a hydrometer.

 b) Gelled Electrolyte Sealed Lead Acid (GEL)

Gel sealed batteries use silica to stiffen or “gel” the electrolyte solution, greatly reducing the gasses,
and volatility of the cell. Since all matter expands and contracts with heat, batteries are not truly
sealed, but are "valve regulated". This means that a tiny valve maintains slight positive pressure. AGM
batteries are slowly phasing out gel technology, but there still are many applications for the gel cells.
The recharge voltage for charging Gel cells are usually lower than the other styles of lead acid
batteries, and should be charged at a slower rate. When they are charged too fast, gas pockets will
form on the plates and force the gelled electrolyte away from the plate, decreasing the capacity until
the gas finds its way to the top of the battery and recombines with the electrolyte.

 c) Sealed Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM)

Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) is a class of valve-regulated lead acid battery (VLRA) in which the
electrolyte is held in glass mats as opposed to freely flooding the plates. This is achieved by weaving
very thin glass fibers into a mat to increase surface area enough to hold sufficient electrolyte for the
lifetime of the cell. The advantages to using the AGM batteries are many, yet these batteries are
typically twice the cost of their flooded-cell counterpart. On the plus side, these cells can hold roughly
1.5 times the amp hour capacity of a similar size flooded battery due to their higher power density.
Another factor that improves their efficiency is the higher lead purity used in AGM cells. Because of
their sandwich construction, each plate no longer has to support its own weight. Their low internal
resistance allows them to be charged and discharged much faster than other types. AGM cells function
well in colder temperatures and are highly resistant to vibration. There are many advantages to using
the AGM cells over their flooded counterpart that are beyond the scope of this article.

Maintenance & Monitoring

Proper maintenance and monitoring will greatly extend the life of your batteries. Flooded batteries
need to be checked regularly to make sure electrolyte levels are full. The chemical reaction releases
gases, as water molecules are split into hydrogen and oxygen. This, in turn, consumes water and
creates the need to replace it regularly. Only distilled water should ever be used in batteries, and you
should never add any kind of acid solution. The connections from battery to battery and to the
charging and load circuits should always be kept clean and free of corrosion. Corrosion is created upon
charging, when a slight acid mist forms as the electrolyte bubbles. Corrosion buildup will create a good
deal of electrical resistance, eventually contributing to a shortened battery life and malfunctions. A
good way to keep up on the terminals is to regularly clean them with a baking soda solution

Future Trends
Companies world-wide are quickly adjusting to the increased global market for solar systems by
developing batteries that are better suited for photovoltaic systems. At some distant point in the
future, it is likely that lead-acid batteries will become extinct, as newer technologies in lithium ion and
Nickel metal hydride continue to evolve. Because lead-acid batteries are under the hood of virtually
every car, advancements in lead-acid technology, however are still being made. New developments in
lead-acid technology usually originate in the auto industry. Efficiency ratings are constantly going up,
as new sensors and improved materials are helping batteries achieve longer lifespan.

Calculation Methodology
The calculation is based on a mixture of normal industry practice and technical standards IEEE Std 485
(1997, R2003) "Recommended Practice for Sizing Lead-Acid Batteries for Stationary Applications"
and IEEE Std 1115 (2000, R2005) "Recommended Practice for Sizing Nickel-Cadmium Batteries for
 Stationary Applications". The calculation is based on the ampere-hour method for sizing battery
capacity (rather than sizing by positive plates).

The focus of this calculation is on standard lead-acid or nickel-cadmium (NiCd) batteries, so please
consult specific supplier information for other types of batteries (e.g. lithium-ion, nickel-metal hydride,
etc). Note also that the design of the battery charger is beyond the scope of this calculation.

There are five main steps in this calculation:

1) Collect the loads that the battery needs to support

2) Construct a load profile and calculate the design energy (VAh)

3) Select the battery type and determine the characteristics of the cell

4) Select the number of battery cells to be connected in series

5) Calculate the required Ampere-hour (Ah) capacity of the battery

Step 1: Collect the battery loads
The first step is to determine the loads that the battery will be supporting. This is largely specific to the
application of the battery, for example an AC UPS System or a Solar Power System.

Step 2: Construct the Load Profile

Refer to the Load Profile Calculation for details on how to construct a load profile and calculate the design
energy, , in VAh.

The autonomy time is often specified by the Client (i.e. in their standards). Alternatively, IEEE 446, "IEEE
Recommended Practice for Emergency and Standby Power Systems for Industrial and Commercial
Applications" has some guidance (particularly Table 3-2) for autonomy times. Note that IEEE 485 and IEEE
1115 refer to the load profile as the "duty cycle".

Step 3: Select Battery Type

The next step is to select the battery type (e.g. sealed lead-acid, nickel-cadmium, etc). The selection
process is not covered in detail here, but the following factors should be taken into account (as suggested by
IEEE):

 Physical characteristics, e.g. dimensions, weight, container material, intercell connections,

terminals

 application design life and expected life of cell

 Frequency and depth of discharge

 Ambient temperature

 Charging characteristics

 Maintenance requirements

 Ventilation requirements

 Cell orientation requirements (sealed lead-acid and NiCd)

 Seismic factors (shock and vibration)

Next, find the characteristics of the battery cells, typically from supplier data sheets. The characteristics that
should be collected include:
  Battery cell capacities (Ah)

 Cell temperature

 Electrolyte density at full charge (for lead-acid batteries)

 Cell float voltage

 Cell end-of-discharge voltage (EODV).

Battery manufacturers will often quote battery Ah capacities based on a number of different EODVs. For
lead-acid batteries, the selection of an EODV is largely based on an EODV that prevents damage of the cell
through over-discharge (from over-expansion of the cell plates). Typically, 1.75V to 1.8V per cell is used
when discharging over longer than 1 hour. For short discharge durations (i.e. <15 minutes), lower EODVs of
around 1.67V per cell may be used without damaging the cell.

Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd) don't suffer from damaged cells due to over-discharge. Typical EODVs for Ni-Cd
batteries are 1.0V to 1.14V per cell.

Step 4: Number of Cells in Series

The most common number of cells for a specific voltage rating is shown below:

Rated Voltage Lead-Acid Ni-Cd

12V 6 9-10

24V 12 18-20

48V 24 36-40

125V 60 92-100

250V 120 184-200

However, the number of cells in a battery can also be calculated to more accurately match the tolerances of
the load. The number of battery cells required to be connected in series must fall between the two following
limits:

(1)

(2)

where is the maximum number of battery cells

is the minimum number of battery cells

is the nominal battery voltage (Vdc)

is the maximum load voltage tolerance (%)

is the minimum load voltage tolerance (%)

is the cell charging voltage (Vdc)

is the cell end of discharge voltage (Vdc)

The limits are based on the minimum and maximum voltage tolerances of the load. As a maximum, the
battery at float voltage (or boost voltage if applicable) needs to be within the maximum voltage range of the
load. Likewise as a minimum, the battery at its end of discharge voltage must be within the minimum
voltage range of the load. The cell charging voltage depends on the type of charge cycle that is being used,
e.g. float, boost, equalising, etc, and the maximum value should be chosen.

Select the number of cells in between these two limits (more or less arbitrary, though somewhere in the
middle of the min/max values would be most appropriate).

Step 5: Determine Battery Capacity

The minimum battery capacity required to accommodate the design load over the specified autonomy time
can be calculated as follows:

where is the minimum battery capacity (Ah)

is the design energy over the autonomy time (VAh)

is the nominal battery voltage (Vdc)

is a battery ageing factor (%)

is a temperature correction factor (%)

is a capacity rating factor (%)

is the maximum depth of discharge (%)

Table 1. Temperature correction factors for vented lead-acid cells (from IEEE 485)

Select a battery Ah capacity that exceeds the minimum capacity calculated above. The battery discharge
rate (C rating) should also be specified, approximately the duration of discharge (e.g. for 8 hours of
discharge, use the C8 rate). The selected battery specification is therefore the Ah capacity and the discharge
rate (e.g. 500Ah C10).

An explanation of the different factors:

 Ageing factor captures the decrease in battery performance due to age.

The performance of a lead-acid battery is relatively stable but drops markedly at latter stages of

life. The "knee point" of its life vs performance curve is approximately when the battery can deliver

80% of its rated capacity. After this point, the battery has reached the end of its useful life and

should be replaced. Therefore, to ensure that battery can meet capacity throughout its useful life,

an ageing factor of 1.25 should be applied (i.e. 1 / 0.8). There are some exceptions, check with the

manufacturer.

For Ni-Cd batteries, the principles are similar to lead-acid cells. Please consult the battery

manufacturer for suitable ageing factors, but generally, applying a factor of 1.25 is standard. For

applications with high temperatures and/or frequent deep discharges, a higher factor of 1.43 may

be used. For more shallower discharges, a lower factor of 1.11 can be used.

 Temperature correction factor is an allowance to capture the ambient installation

temperature. The capacity for battery cells are typicall quoted for a standard operating

temperature of 25C and where this differs with the installation temperature, a correction factor

must be applied. IEEE 485 gives guidance for vented lead-acid cells (see figure right), however

for sealed lead-acid and Ni-Cd cells, please consult manufacturer recommendations. Note that

high temperatures lower battery life irrespective of capacity and the correction factor is for

capacity sizing only, i.e. you CANNOT increase battery life by increasing capacity.

 Capacity rating factor accounts for voltage depressions during battery discharge. Lead-acid

batteries experience a voltage dip during the early stages of discharge followed by some

recovery. Ni-Cds may have lower voltages on discharge due to prolonged float charging

(constant voltage). Both of these effects should be accounted for by the capacity rating factor -

please see the manufacturer's recommendations. For Ni-Cd cells, IEEE 1115 Annex C suggests

that for float charging applications, Kt = rated capacity in Ah / discharge current in Amps (for

specified discharge time and EODV).

Worked Example
Figure 2. Load profile for this example

Step 1 and 2: Collect Battery Loads and Construct Load Profile

The loads and load profile from the simple example in the Energy Load Profile Calculation will be used (see
the figure right). The design energy demand calculated for this system is Ed = 3,242.8 VAh.

Step 3: Select Battery Type

Vented lead acid batteries have been selected for this example.

Step 4: Number of Cells in Series

Suppose that the nominal battery voltage is Vdc = 120Vdc, the cell charging voltage is Vc = 2.25Vdc/cell, the
end-of-discharge voltage is Veod = 1.8Vdc/cell, and the minimum and maximum load voltage tolerances
are Vl,min = 10% and Vl,max = 20% respectively.

The maximum number of cells in series is:

cells

The minimum number of cells in series is:

cells

The selected number of cells in series is 62 cells.

Step 5: Determine Battery Capacity

Given a depth of discharge kdod = 80%, battery ageing factor ka = 25%, temperature correction factor for
vented cells at 30 deg C of kt = 0.956 and a capacity rating factor of kc = 10%, the minimum battery

capacity is: Ah