PROCESSING OF CASSAVA LEAVES FOR HUMAN CONSUMPTION Mpoko Bokanga International Institute of Tropical Agriculture PMB 5320 Tbadan Nigeria Abstract In almost all countries of the cassava belt in Africa, from Senegal to Mozambique, cassava leaves are consumed. In much of East Africa, all of Central Africa and parts of West Africa (e.g. Sierra Leone, Liberia), cassava leaves are a major component of the The cyanagenie potential of cassava leaves is 5 to 20 times greater than that of roots. However the risk of intoxication associated with the consumption of cassava leaves is greatly reduced because of the ability of the leaves to rapidly loose cyanogens during processing. The enzyme linamarase which is present in high concentration in cassava leaves is responsible for the removal of cyanogens. Linamarase activity in the leaves is over 200 times greater than in the roots. The removal of cyanogens from cassava roots could be further enhanced if there were greater linamarase activity in cassava roots. Key words: Manihot esculenta, cyanogenic glucosides, linamarin, cyanogen removal, protein, micronutrients, nutrition. Cassava leaves as food In the cassava growing areas of Africa, from Mozambique to Senegal, cassava leaves are incorporated in the diet to varying degree. While in countries such as Zaire, Congo, Tanzania, Sierra Leone and Guinea, the leaves constitute a major component of the dict, in other countries they are less preferred and are only consumed in times of food shortage. Usually, young tender leaves are selected, pounded and boiled for 15 to 30 minutes; various ingredients are then added to taste. In Zaire where cassava leaf consumption seems to be the highest, daily consumption of 500 g of leaves per person have been reported (Lancaster and Brooks, 1983). In Brazil, a campaign has recently been Jaunched to promote the incorporation of cassava leaf meal in the diet, particularly for children (Cereda, personal communication). The nutritive value of cassava leaves has been reviewed by Lancaster and Brooks (1983). The data presented by these authors indicated that the proximate composition of cassava leaves compared favorably well with the composition of other foods such as soybean grain, maize grain and amaranth leaves (Table 1). However, cassava leaves contain more vitamins and minerals, particularly calcium, iron, vitamin A, riboflavin, thiamin, niacin and vitamin C (Table 2). It could be argued that harvesting the leaves may have a detrimental effect on root yield. This is not the case, however, if the rate of harvesting does not exceed a certain level. Research conducted in Zaire, where cassava leaf consumption may be the highest in the world, has shown that harvesting cassava leaves once every two months does not have any negative effect on root yield (Table 3). Harvesting leaves once a month gave the highest leaf yield but a reduced root yield. However, this rate of harvesting was the most profitable for the farmer because, in Zaire, cassava leaves have a greater market value than roots (Lutaladio and Ezumah, 1981).Table 1. Proximate composition (%) of cassava leaf, spinach leaf, soybean and yellow maize grain Moisture Crude Fat Total Crude Ash protein carbohydrates fiber Cassava leaf 72.0 7.0 1.0 14.0 4.0 2.0 Amaranth leaf 84.0 4.6 0.2 70 1.8 2.9 Soybean 11.0 34.0 18.0 29.0 4T 5.0 Maize (yellow) 10.0 10.0 4.8 72.0 2.0 1.2 Source: West et al., 1988. Table 2. Mineral and vitamin content (per 100 g) of cassava leaf, spinach leaf, soybean and yellow maize grain Ca Fe —-Vit.A_ Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin Vit.C (mg) (mg) (ug) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) Cassava leaf 3007.6 3,000 0.25 0.60 24 310 Amaranth leaf 410 8.9 2,300 0.05 0.42 1.2 50 Soybean 1856.1 28 «(0.71 0.25 2.0 0 Maize (yellow) 130 4.9 125 (0.32 0.12 7 4 Source: West et al., 1988. Table 3. Effect of frequency of leaf harvest on yield (ton ha-!) of cassava leaf and root ina local cultivar, Kangu, and an improved variety, 02864. Frequency of Fresh leaf yield Fresh root yield (12 MAP)() leaf harvesting Kangu 02864 Kangu 02864 No leaf harvest 0.0 0.0 14.5 30.2 Every 2 months 6.3 17.6 14.0 35.8 Once a month 22.7 24.5 11.0 25.2 Frequently 5.7 6.9 4.9 15.4 ‘Source: Lutaladio and Ezumah, 1981. () MAP = months after planting Whereas cassava roots are well recognized as deficient in protein (average 1% on fresh weight basis), the leaves contain 7 to 10% protein. A survey of 151 cassava genotypes showed that the protein content of cassava leaves on dry weight basis varied from 20 to 32 % with a mean of about 26 % (Mahungu and Yamaguchi, unpublished data) It has been shown that a farmer can harvest 7 to, 20 tons of cassava leaves perleaf harvest enables a harvest of 490 to 1400 kg of crude protein per hectare (Table 4). If the same calculations are done with rice, yam and even soybean, the protein yield does not exceed 400 kg/ha. Cassava, which is often considered as a low protein crop, can therefore be considered to be a high protein yielder if the right plant part is considered. Nutritive value There are few but conflicting reports on the quality of cassava leaf protein. According to Gomez et al. (1985), cassava leaf protein is low in sulfur amino acids. However, in the food composition table of foods commonly eaten in East Africa (West et al., 1988), cassava leaves are reported to have a well-balanced amino acid composition with an essential amino acid profile better than the standard FAO/WHO (1973) reference pattern (Table 5). Reports on the nutritional quality of cassava leaf protein are scanty. Luyken et al., cited by Lancaster and Brooks (1983) indicate that the protein digestibility is 30% in younger leaves and 67% in older leaves, but that the net protein utilization was below 40%. The presence of tannins in cassava leaves are thought to be a contributing factor to the low net protein utilization, while oxalic acid and phytic acid may be preventing the complete absorption of some minerals such as calcium. Clearly, more studies on the bioavailability of cassava leaf protein, vitamins and minerals are needed. Cassava leaf processing and cyanogen removal Cassava leaves contain very high levels of cyanogenic glucosides, usually 5 to 20 times more that the amount present in the edible parts of the roots (on fresh weight basis). Although such a high cyanogenic potential raises fear of exposure to cyanide intoxication, such fear is not justified. Table 4. Yield of crude protein per hectare per year of several crops Commodity Protein content Crop yield Crude protein yield (%) (ton har!) (kg har!) Rice. 7 2-3 140 - 210 Yam 2-3 5-10 100 - 300 Beans 20-25 0.6- 2.0 120 - S00 Cassava leaves ff 7 -20 492 - 1400 Along with high levels of cyanogenic glucosides, cassava leaves also contain large amounts of the enzyme linamarase, a B-glucosidase which is capable of breaking down linamarin and lotaustralin. This breakdown does not occur in the live plant because the enzyme and the cyanogenic glucosides are stored in separate compartments and, therefore, do not come into contact with each other. When the leaves are pounded, the mechanical disruption of plant tissues allows the enzyme to make contact with linamarin and lotaustralin. These two compounds are rapidly broken down to cyanohydrins. The near-neutral pH of cassava leaves accelerate the breakdown of cyanohydrins to hydrogen cyanide (HCN). At ambient temperature, hydrogen cyanide is a gas with a boiling point of 25.7 degrees Celsius. Therefore it has a natural tendency to dissipate in the air. Boiling pounded leaves speeds up the removal of hydrogen cyanide from the pounded cassava leaves through rapid evaporation, In our experiments, we used fresh cassava leaves from four different varieties ennai tm purmamanin catantinl fen, OM 240 1902 4 mc UCN aautealent ko-l (frachweight basis) and reduced this level to between 4.0 and 11.1 mg HCN equivalent by pounding the fresh leaves for 15 minutes and boiling the pounded leaves in twice weight of water for 15 minutes. Pounding alone reduce the cyanogenic potential by 63 73 percent (down to 298.7 - 447.9 mg HCN equivalent kg™!). Cyanogenic represented 10 to 29 percent of the total cyanogens present before pounding. indicates that a rapid breakdown of cyanogenic glucosides took place during p: After cooking (15 minute boiling), cyanogenic glucosides were reduced to less percent of the initial level. No cyanohydrins or hydrogen cyanide were detected. Table 5. Essential amino acid (g per 100g protein) in cassaya leaves and in s<' foods Cassava Egg Maize Soybean FAO/WH( leaves reference Isoleucine 5.3 5.6 3.8 45 4.2 Leucine 9.3 8.3 12.8 19 4.8 Lysine 6.8 6.3 2.7 6.5 5.5 Methionine + Cysteine 72 6.9 6.6 6.6 42 Phenylalanine + Tyr. 67 6.9 44 5.2 5.6 Threonine 4.3 4.0 3.9 3.2 4.0 Tryptophan 65 5.4 71 44 14 Valine. 5.9 6.1 4.3 7.3 4.2 Essential A.A. as % of Total 475 48.6 41.2 40.2 Source: West et al., 1988. FAO/WHO, 1973. This finding is in agreement with the fact that, despite the high cyanogenic 7 of fresh cassava leaves, there is virtually no association of cyanide intoxication with :. consumption of cassava leaf meals. The rapid removal of cyanogens from cassava Je: can be attributed to the presence in the leaves of a high level of linamarase activi extensive mechanical damage imparted to the leaves during pounding thereby 2 the contact between linamarase and linamarin and promoting linamarin hydrolysis, and the heat applied during boiling which accelerates the evaporation of hydrogen cy and cyanohydrin produced by linamarin hydrolysis. In the preparation of a cassava dish, the ground cassava leaves are usually suspended in cold water in a pot which then placed over a heat source. The temperature will rise and go through the tenipe of maximum linamarase activity, reported to be 55°C (Mkpong et al;, 1990; Yeo 1989), before reaching inhibitory temperatures. During this time, the remaining 30% « intact cyanogenic glucosides will eventually be hydrolyzed. Tissue disintegration and linamarase activity have also been found responsible for # removal of cyanogens from cassava roots in the preparation of gari (Vasconcelos et al 1991). There are opposing views as to whether the linamarase activity in the parenchyma is sufficient to achieve complete hydrolysis of endogenous cy. glucosides during processing(Mkpong et al., 1989; Vasconcelos et al., 1991). Re cyanogens levels of up to 80 mg HCN equivalent kg"! have been recorded in samples in Nigeria (Omueti, personal communication). What is certain is that linamarase activity in the leaves is by far greater than the activity found in the parenchyma of the same plant. Yeoh (1989) compared the activity of purified liefrom cassava leaf, root peel and root parenchyma. The leaf enzyme was 45 times more active than the parenchymal enzyme. Mkpong et al. (1990) reported a difference of 17 to 25 times. Using crude extracts from leaves and root parenchymal tissues from three cassava varieties, this author observed the leaf enzyme had an activity 160 to 280 times greater than the root enzyme (Bokanga, unpublished data). The high linamarase activity found in cassava leaves and the non-association of cassava leaf meals and cyanide intoxication suggest that increasing the linamarase activity in cassava root parenchymal tissues is a viable option in the improvement of the safety of cassava root based food products. Conclusion Cassava leaves constitute a significant component in the diet of millions of people in cassava growing areas, The potential of this food to contribute protein in diets that would otherwise be protein-deficient deserves more attention. It is particularly surprising to note that, in spite of the wide use of cassava leaves as food, they are not mentioned in the Annual Production Yearbook of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Production and consumption statistics for this food are required. Current knowledge indicates that cassava leaves may be for cassava consumers a good source of protein, minerals and vitamins, that the common mode of preparation of cassava leaf dishes in Africa yield foods with little or no risk of cyanide intoxication, ‘What remains to be established is the nutrient retention and bioavailability in processed cassava leaves and the efficiency of cyanogen removal by other types of processing. More research on nutritional aspects of cassava leaves is needed. References FAO/WHO, 1973. Energy and protein requirements: Report of a joint FAO/WHO ad hoc expert committee. WHO Technical Reports Series, 522: 1-118. Gomez, G., Valdivieso, M. and Noma, A-T., 1985. The influence of cultivar and plant age on the chemical composition of field-grown cassava leaves and roots. Quality of Plant Foods and Human Nutrition, 35: 109-119, Lancaster, P.A, and Brooks, J.E., 1983. Cassava leaves as human food. Economic Botany, 37(3): 331-348. Lutaladio, N.B. and Ezumah, H.C., 1981. Cassava leaf harvesting in Zaire. In: Tropical root crops: Research Strategies for the 1980s, (Terry, E.R., Oduro, K.A. and Caveness, F., eds.). IDRC, Ottawa, Canada, pp. 134-136. Mkpong, O.E., Chism, G. and Sayre, R.T., 1989. Isolation of cassava linamarase: evidence that endogenous levels are insufficient for effective hydrolysis of linamarin. Report on the founding workshop for the Cassava Biotechnology Network, CIAT Working Document No. 52, Cali, Colombia, p. 25. Mkpong, O.E., Yan, H., Chism, G. and Sayre, R.T., 1990. Purification, characterization, and localization of linamarase in cassava. Plant Physiology, 93: 176-181. Vasconcelos, A.T., Twiddy, D.R., Westby, A. and Reilly, P.J.A., 1990. Detoxification of cassava during gari preparation. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 25: 198-203. West, C.E., Pepping, F. and Temalilwa, C.R., 1988. The composition of foods commonly eaten in East Africa. Wageningen Agricultural University, The Netherlands. Yeoh, H.H., 1989. Kinetic properties of B-glucosidase from cassava. Phytochemistry, 28(3): 721-724.