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R REC P.526 8 200304 Propagation - by - Diffraction PDF
R REC P.526 8 200304 Propagation - by - Diffraction PDF
526-8 1
Propagation by diffraction
(Question ITU-R 202/3)
(1978-1982-1992-1994-1995-1997-1999-2001-2003)
Annex 1
1 Introduction
Although diffraction is produced only by the surface of the ground or other obstacles, account must
be taken of the mean atmospheric refraction on the transmission path to evaluate the geometrical
parameters situated in the vertical plane of the path (angle of diffraction, radius of curvature, height
of obstacle). For this purpose, the path profile has to be traced with the appropriate equivalent Earth
radius (Recommendation ITU-R P.834). If no other information is available, an equivalent Earth
radius of 8 500 km may be taken as a basis.
[(ε – 1) ]
–1/ 3 –1/ 4
2π ae 2
KH = + (60 λ σ) 2 for horizontal polarization (4)
λ
and
[ε ]
1/ 2
2
KV = K H + (60 λ σ) 2 for vertical polarization (5)
[ ]
–1/ 4
K H = 0.36 (ae f ) –1 / 3 (ε – 1) 2 + (18 000 σ / f ) 2 (4a)
[ ]
1/ 2
2 2
KV = K H ε + (18 000 σ / f ) (5a)
Rec. ITU-R P.526-8 3
where:
ae : effective radius of the Earth (km)
ε: effective relative permittivity
σ: effective conductivity (S/m)
f: frequency (MHz).
Typical values of K are shown in Fig. 1.
FIGURE 1
Calculation of K
10
1
ε=
80
5
σ=
Normalized factor for surface admittance, K
Vertical
2
10–1
5 ε=
30
ε= σ=
15 10 –
σ= 2
10
2 ε= –3
3
σ=
10 –
4
–2
10
5 Horizontal ε=
3
σ=
ε= 10 –
4
15
ε= σ=
2 30 10 –
σ= 3
10 –
2
–3
10
10 kHz 5 100 kHz 5 1 MHz 5 10 MHz 5 100 MHz 5 1 GHz 5 10 GHz
Frequency
0526-01
4 Rec. ITU-R P.526-8
If K is less than 0.001, the electrical characteristics of the Earth are not important. For values of K
greater than 0.001, the appropriate formulae given below should be used.
E
20 log = F ( X ) + G (Y1 ) + G (Y2 ) dB (6)
E0
where X is the normalized length of the path between the antennas at normalized heights Y1 and Y2
E
(and where 20 log is generally negative).
E0
In self-consistent units:
1/ 3
π
X = β d (7)
λ a2
e
1/ 3
π2
Y = 2β h (8)
λ2 a
e
β is a parameter allowing for the type of ground and for polarization. It is related to K by the
following semi-empirical formula:
2 4
1 + 1 .6 K + 0.75 K
β = (9)
2 4
1 + 4 .5 K + 1.35 K
For horizontal polarization at all frequencies, and for vertical polarization above 20 MHz over land
or 300 MHz over sea, β may be taken as equal to 1.
For vertical polarization below 20 MHz over land or 300 MHz over sea, β must be calculated as a
function of K. However, it is then possible to disregard ε and write:
σ
K 2 ≈ 6.89 (9a)
k 2 /3 f 5 /3
where σ is expressed in S/m, f (MHz) and k is the multiplying factor of the Earth’s radius.
Rec. ITU-R P.526-8 5
For Y < 2 the value of G(Y ) is a function of the value of K computed in § 3.1.1:
Under the same approximation condition (the first term of the residue series is dominant), the
calculation may also be made using the following formula:
E
20 log = F(d ) + H(h1) + H(h2 ) dB (12)
E0
where:
The function F (influence of the distance) and H (height-gain) are given by the nomograms in
Figs. 2, 3, 4 and 5.
These nomograms (Figs. 2 to 5) give directly the received level relative to free space, for k = 1 and
k = 4/3, and for frequencies greater than approximately 30 MHz. k is the effective Earth radius
factor, defined in Recommendation ITU-R P.310. However, the received level for other values of k
may be calculated by using the frequency scale for k = 1, but replacing the frequency in question by
a hypothetical frequency equal to f / k2 for Figs. 2 and 4 and f / k , for Figs. 3 and 5.
Very close to the ground the field strength is practically independent of the height. This
phenomenon is particularly important for vertical polarization over the sea. For this reason Fig. 5
includes a heavy black vertical line AB. If the straight line should intersect this heavy line AB, the
real height should be replaced by a larger value, so that the straight line just touches the top of the
limit line at A.
NOTE 1 – Attenuation relative to free space is given by the negative of the values given by equation (12). If
equation (12) gives a value above the free-space field, the method is invalid.
6 Rec. ITU-R P.526-8
FIGURE 2
Diffraction by a spherical earth – effect of distance
GHz 10 8 20
9 9
15
8 – 10
10 1
7
6
10 GHz
5 9
8 15 1.5 – 15
4 7
6 15
20 2
3 – 20
5
4 – 25
2 30 3
3 – 30
1.5
40 4 – 35 10
2
GHz 1 50 5 – 40
600
1 GHz 80 8
Distance (km)
500 900 – 60
90 9
800 5
100 10
400 700 – 70
600
300 – 80
500
150 15 – 90
400
200 – 100
0
200 20
300
150
200
300 30
MHz 100
90 – 150 –5
150
80
400 40
70
60
100 MHz 500 50
– 200 – 10
50 90
80 600 60
40 70
700 70
60 – 250
800 80 – 15
30
50 900 90
1 000 100 – 300
40
20 – 20
30 – 350
FIGURE 3
Diffraction by a spherical earth – height-gain
Height of antenna
Frequency for above ground (m)
k=1 k = 4/3
2 000
15
15 1 500
GHz 10
9 10 GHz 1 000
8
Height-gain (dB)
9 H(h) 900
7 8 800
180
6 7 700
160
6 600
5 140
5 120 500
4
4 100 400
3 90
3 80 300
70
2 60
2 50 200
1.5
40
1.5 150
30
GHz 1
900 1 GHz 100
800 900 20 90
700 800 80
600 700 70
10
500 600 60
500 50
400
400 40
0
300
300 30
200
200 – 10 20
150
150 15
MHz 100
90 100 MHz – 20 10
80 90 9
70 80 8
60 70 7
50 60 6
50 – 30 5
40
40 4
30
30 3
FIGURE 4
Diffraction by a spherical earth – effect of distance
GHz 10 8 20
9 9
15
8 – 10
10 1
7
6
10 GHz
5 9 1.5
8 15 – 15
4 7 15
6
20 2
3 – 20
5
4 – 25
2 30 3
3 – 30
1.5 10
40 4 – 35
2
GHz 1 50 5 – 40
– 50
Frequency for k = 1
700 70 7
5
Distance (km)
600
1 GHz 80 8
500 900 – 60
90 9
800
100 10
400 700 – 70
600
300 – 80
500
150 15 – 90 0
400
200 – 100
200 20
300
150
200 300 30 –5
– 150
MHz 100
90 150 400 40
80
70 500 50 – 10
– 200
60 100 MHz
90 600 60
50 80 700 70
– 250
70 800 80 – 15
40 60 900 90
1 000 100 – 300
50 – 20
30 – 350
40
30
FIGURE 5
Diffraction by a spherical earth – height-gain
Height of antenna
Frequency for above ground (m)
k=1 k = 4/3 2 000
15
15 1 500
GHz 10
9 10 GHz Height-gain (dB) 1 000
8 9 900
H(h) 800
7 8
180 700
6 7
160 600
6
5 140
5 500
4 120
4 100 400
3 90
3 80 300
70
2 60
2 200
50
1.5
40 150
1.5
30
GHz 1
900 1 GHz 100
800 900 20 90
700 800 80
600 700 70
10 60
500 600
500 50
400
400 40
0
300
300 30
200
– 10 20
200
150 15
150
MHz 100 – 20 10
A 9
90 100 MHz
8
80 90
7
70 80
6
70
60 5
– 30
60
50 4
50
40 3
40
30
30 B
Many propagation paths encounter one obstacle or several separate obstacles and it is useful to
estimate the losses caused by such obstacles. To make such calculations it is necessary to idealize
the form of the obstacles, either assuming a knife-edge of negligible thickness or a thick smooth
obstacle with a well-defined radius of curvature at the top. Real obstacles have, of course, more
complex forms, so that the indications provided in this Recommendation should be regarded only as
an approximation.
In those cases where the direct path between the terminals is much shorter than the diffraction path,
it is necessary to calculate the additional transmission loss due to the longer path.
The data given below apply when the wavelength is fairly small in relation to the size of the
obstacles, i.e., mainly to VHF and shorter waves ( f > 30 MHz).
In this extremely idealized case (Figs. 6a) and 6b)), all the geometrical parameters are combined
together in a single dimensionless parameter normally denoted by ν which may assume a variety of
equivalent forms according to the geometrical parameters selected:
2 1 1
ν = h + (13)
λ d1 d 2
2
ν = θ (14)
1 1
λ +
d1 d 2
2hθ
ν = (ν has the sign of h y θ) (15)
λ
2d
ν = ⋅ α1 α 2 (ν has the sign of α1 and α 2 ) (16)
λ
where:
h: height of the top of the obstacle above the straight line joining the two ends of
the path. If the height is below this line, h is negative
d1 and d2 : distances of the two ends of the path from the top of the obstacle
d: length of the path
θ: angle of diffraction (rad); its sign is the same as that of h. The angle θ is
assumed to be less than about 0.2 rad, or roughly 12°
α1 and α2 : angles between the top of the obstacle and one end as seen from the other end.
α1 and α2 are of the sign of h in the above equations.
NOTE 1 – In equations (13) to (16) inclusive h, d, d1, d2 and λ should be in self-consistent units.
Rec. ITU-R P.526-8 11
FIGURE 6
Geometrical elements
θ>0
d1 h>0 d2
α1 α2
a)
α1 α2
h<0
d1 d2
θ<0
b)
d1 d2
h
R
α1 α2
c)
0526-06
12 Rec. ITU-R P.526-8
Figure 7 gives, as a function of ν, the loss (dB) caused by the presence of the obstacle. For ν greater
than – 0.7 an approximate value can be obtained from the expression:
FIGURE 7
Knife-edge diffraction loss
–2
8
J(ν) (dB)
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
ν
0526-07
diffraction loss as a function of location. It consists of adding the amplitudes of the individual
contributions for an estimate of the minimum diffraction loss and a power addition to obtain an
estimate of the average diffraction loss. The model has been tested against accurate calculations
using the uniform theory of diffraction (UTD) and high-precision measurements.
Step 1: Calculate the geometrical parameter ν for each of the three knife-edges (top, left side and
right side) using any of equations (13) to (16).
Step 2: Calculate the loss factor j(ν) = 10 J(ν)/20 associated with each edge from equation (17).
Step 3: Calculate minimum diffraction loss Jmin from:
1 1 1
Jmin (ν) = – 20 log + + dB (18)
j1 (ν) j2 (ν ) j3 (ν)
or, alternatively,
Step 4: Calculate average diffraction loss Jav from:
1 1 1
Jaν (ν) = – 10 log + + dB (19)
2
j1 (ν) j22 (ν) j32 (ν)
where:
a) J(ν) is the Fresnel-Kirchoff loss due to an equivalent knife-edge placed with its peak at the
vertex point. The dimensionless parameter ν may be evaluated from any of equations (13)
to (16) inclusive. For example, in practical units equation (13) may be written:
1/ 2
2(d + d 2 )
ν = 0.0316 h 1 (21)
λ d1 d 2
where h and λ are in metres, and d1 and d2 are in kilometres.
J(ν) may be obtained from Fig. 7 or from equation (17). Note that for an obstruction to line-
of-sight propagation, ν is positive and equation (17) is valid.
b) T(m,n) is the additional attenuation due to the curvature of the obstacle:
T(m,n) = k mb (22a)
where:
and
1/ 3
d + d2 π R
m = R 1 λ (23)
d1 d 2
2/3
π R
n = h R (24)
λ
and R, d1, d2, h and λ are in self-consistent units.
T(m,n) can also be derived from Fig. 8.
Note that as R tends to zero, m, and hence T(m,n), also tend to zero. Thus equation (20) reduces to
knife-edge diffraction for a cylinder of zero radius.
It should be noted that the cylinder model is intended for typical terrain obstructions. It is not
suitable for trans-horizon paths over water, or over very flat terrain, when the method of § 3 should
be used.
FIGURE 8
The value of T(m,n) (dB) as a function of m and n
40
35 0.25
30
T(m,n) (dB)
25
0.0
20
15
10
0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 4
m
0526-08
Rec. ITU-R P.526-8 15
FIGURE 9
Method for double isolated edges
h'2
h'1
a b c
0526-09
If one edge is predominant (see Fig. 10), the first diffraction path is defined by the distances a and
b + c and the height h1. The second diffraction path is defined by the distances b and c and the
height h2′ .
FIGURE 10
Figure showing the main and the second obstacle
h'2
h1 h2
Tx Rx
a b c
0526-10
16 Rec. ITU-R P.526-8
The method consists of applying single knife-edge diffraction theory successively to the two
obstacles. First, the higher h/r ratio determines the main obstacle, M, where h is the edge height
from the direct path TxRx as shown in Fig. 10, and r is the first Fresnel ellipsoid radius given by
equation (2). Then h2′ , the height of the secondary obstacle from the sub-path MR, is used to
calculate the loss caused by this secondary obstacle. A correction term Tc (dB) must be subtracted,
in order to take into account the separation between the two edges as well as their height. Tc (dB)
may be estimated by the following formula:
2 q 2 p
Tc = 12 – 20 log10 (27)
a p
1 – π
with:
1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2
2 ( a + b + c) 2 (a + b + c) b( a + b + c )
p= h1 q= h2 tan α = (28)
λ (b + c)a λ ( a + b)c ac
h1 and h2 are the edge heights from the direct path transmitter-receiver.
L = L1 + L2 – Tc (29)
The same method may be applied to the case of rounded obstacles using § 4.3.
In cases where the diffracting obstacle may be clearly identified as a flat-roofed building a single
knife-edge approximation is not sufficient. It is necessary to calculate the phasor sum of two
components: one undergoing a double knife-edge diffraction and the other subject to an additional
reflection from the roof surface. It has been shown that, where the reflectivity of the roof surface
and any difference in height between the roof surface and the side walls are not accurately known,
then a double knife-edge model produces a good prediction of the diffracted field strength, ignoring
the reflected component.
The following method is recommended for the diffraction loss over irregular terrain which forms
one or more obstacles to line-of-sight propagation. The calculation takes Earth curvature into
account via the concept of an effective Earth radius (see Recommendation ITU-R P.452, § 4.3).
This method is suitable in cases where a single general procedure is required for terrestrial paths
over land or sea and for both line-of-sight and transhorizon.
A profile of the radio path should be available consisting of a set of samples of ground height above
sea level ordered at intervals along the path, the first and last being the heights of the transmitter
and receiver above sea level, and a corresponding set of horizontal distances from the transmitter.
Each height and distance pair are referred to as a profile point and given an index, with indices
incrementing from one end of the path to the other. Although it is not essential to the method, in the
following description it is assumed that indices increment from the transmitter to the receiver. It is
preferable but not essential for the profile samples to be equally spaced horizontally.
Rec. ITU-R P.526-8 17
The method is based on a procedure which is used from 1 to 3 times depending on the path profile.
The procedure consists of finding the point within a given section of the profile with the highest
value of the geometrical parameter ν as described in § 4.1. The section of the profile to be
considered is defined from point index a to point index b (a < b). If a + 1 = b there is no
intermediate point and the diffraction loss for the section of the path being considered is zero.
Otherwise the construction is applied by evaluating νn (a < n < b) and selecting the point with the
highest value of ν. The value of ν for the n-th profile point is given by:
ν n = h 2d ab /λd an d nb (30)
where:
h = hn + [dan dnb / 2 re] – [(ha dnb + hb dan) / dab] (30a)
ha, hb, hn : vertical heights as shown in Fig. 11
dan, dnb, dab : horizontal distances as shown in Fig. 11
re : effective Earth radius
λ: wavelength
and all h, d, re and λ are in self-consistent units.
The diffraction loss is then given as the knife-edge loss J(ν) according to equation (17) for
ν > −0.78, and is otherwise zero.
Note that equation (30) is derived directly from equation (13). The geometry of equation (30a) is
illustrated in Fig. 11. The second term in equation (30a) is a good approximation to the additional
height at point n due to Earth curvature.
FIGURE 11
Geometry for a single edge
Point n
Point b
Point a hb
hn
ha Sea level
Earth “bulge” re
dan dnb
dab
0526-11
18 Rec. ITU-R P.526-8
The above procedure is first applied to the entire profile from transmitter to receiver. The point with
the highest value of ν is termed the principal edge, p, and the corresponding loss is J(νp ).
The excess diffraction loss for the path is then given by:
where:
C : empirical correction
and
Note that the above procedure, for transhorizon paths, is based on the Deygout method limited to a
maximum of 3 edges. For line-of-sight paths it differs from the Deygout construction in that
two secondary edges are still used in cases where the principal edge results in a non-zero
diffraction loss.
Where this method is used to predict diffraction loss for different values of effective Earth radius
over the same path profile, it is recommended that the principal edge, and if they exist the auxiliary
edges on either side, are first found for median effective Earth radius. These edges should then be
used when calculating diffraction losses for other values of effective Earth radius, without repeating
the procedure for locating these points. This avoids the possibility, which may occur in a few cases,
of a discontinuity in predicted diffraction loss as a function of effective Earth radius due to different
edges being selected.
The method described below can be used to predict the diffraction loss due to a finitely conducting
wedge. Suitable applications are for diffraction around the corner of a building or over the ridge of a
roof, or where terrain can be characterized by a wedge-shaped hill. The method requires the
conductivity and relative dielectric constant of the obstructing wedge, and assumes that no
transmission occurs through the wedge material.
The method is based on the Uniform Theory of Diffraction (UTD). It takes account of diffraction in
both the shadow and line-of-sight region, and a method is provided for a smooth transition between
these regions.
FIGURE 12
Geometry for application of UTD wedge diffraction
nπ
Φ2
s1 s2
Φ1
Source Field
point
0 0 face n face nπ
0526-12
The UTD formulation for the electric field at the field point, specializing to two dimensions, is:
where:
eUTD : electric field at the field point
e0 : relative source amplitude
s1 : distance from source point to diffracting edge
s2 : distance from diffracting edge to field point
k: wave number 2π/λ
⊥
D :
diffraction coefficient depending on the polarization (parallel or perpendicular
to the plane of incidence) of the incident field on the edge
and s1, s2 and λ are in self-consistent units.
The diffraction coefficient for a finitely conducting wedge is given as:
π + (Φ 2 − Φ1 ) +
cot ⋅ F (kLa (Φ 2 − Φ1 ))
2n
π − (Φ 2 − Φ1 ) −
+ cot ⋅ F (kLa (Φ 2 − Φ1 ))
⊥
− exp(− jπ/4 ) 2n
D = (35)
2n 2 π k ⊥
π − ( Φ 2 + Φ1 )
⋅ F (kLa (Φ 2 + Φ1 ))
−
+ R0 ⋅ cot
2 n
⊥
π + ( Φ 2 + Φ1 ) +
+ Rn ⋅ cot ⋅ F (kLa (Φ 2 + Φ1 ))
2 n
20 Rec. ITU-R P.526-8
where:
Φ1 : incidence angle, measured from incidence face (0 face)
Φ2 : diffraction angle, measured from incidence face (0 face)
n: external wedge angle as a multiple of π radians (actual angle = nπ (rad))
j= −1
and where F(x) is a Fresnel integral:
∞
2
F( x) = 2 j x ⋅ exp( jx) ⋅ ∫ exp(– jt ) dt (36)
x
∞ x
2 π 2
∫ exp(– jt ) dt = 8
(1 – j) – ∫ exp(– jt ) dt (37)
x 0
where:
1 − j x 11
x
n
2
− exp(− jx) ∑ (an + jbn ) 4
4 n=0
if x < 4
A( x) = (39)
4 11 4
n
− exp( − j x ) ∑ n
x n =0
( c + j d n )
x
otherwise
s 2 ⋅ s1
L = (40)
s 2 + s1
2nπ N ± − β
a ± (β) = 2 cos 2
(41)
2
where:
β = Φ 2 ± Φ1 (42)
Rec. ITU-R P.526-8 21
In equation (41), N ± are the integers which most nearly satisfy the equation.
β ± π
N± = (43)
2nπ
⊥ ⊥
R0 , Rn are the reflection coefficients for either perpendicular or parallel polarization given by:
⊥ sin (Φ ) − η − cos(Φ ) 2
R = (44)
2
sin (Φ ) + η − cos(Φ )
|| b ⋅ sin (Φ ) − η − cos(Φ ) 2
R = (45)
b ⋅ sin (Φ ) + η − cos(Φ ) 2
where:
η = ε r − j × 18 × 10 9 σ / f
f: frequency (Hz).
Note that if necessary the two faces of the wedge may have different electrical properties.
At shadow and reflection boundaries one of the cotangent functions in equation (35) becomes
singular.
⊥
However D remains finite, and can be readily evaluated. The term containing the singular
cotangent function is given for small ε as:
π ± β
cot
2 n
±
⋅ F (kLa (β)) ≅ n ⋅ [ ]
2π kL ⋅ sign(ε) − 2kLε ⋅ exp( jπ/4) ⋅ exp( jπ/4) (46)
ε = π + β − 2π nN + for β = Φ 2 + Φ1 (47)
ε = π − β + 2π nN − for β = Φ 2 − Φ1 (48)
The resulting diffraction coefficient will be continuous at shadow and reflection boundaries,
provided that the same reflection coefficient is used when calculating reflected rays.
22 Rec. ITU-R P.526-8
The field eLD due to the diffracted ray, plus the line-of-sight ray for (Φ 2 − Φ1 ) < π, is given by:
exp(− jks)
eUTD + for Φ 2 < Φ1 + π
e LD = s (49)
eUTD for Φ 2 ≥ Φ1 + π
where:
s: straight-line distance between the source and field points.
Note that at (Φ 2 − Φ1 ) = π the 2nd cotangent term in equation (35) will become singular, and that
the alternative approximation given by equation (46) must be used.
The field strength at the field point (dB) relative to the field which would exist at the field point in
the absence of the wedge-shaped obstruction (i.e., dB relative to free space) is given by setting e0 to
unity in equation (34) and calculating:
s ⋅ eUTD
EUTD = 20 log
(50)
exp( − j ks )
where:
s: straight-line distance between the source and field points.
Note that, for n = 2 and zero reflection coefficients, this should give the same results as the knife
edge diffraction loss curve shown in Fig. 7.
A MathCAD version of the UTD formulation is available from the Radiocommunication Bureau.