Richard Lewis Communications Cross Culture The Lewis Model Richard D. Lewis linear- active reactive © Pichard D. Lewis 1990 Revised Eaton 2000 RICHARD LEWIS For more information about Richard Lewis Communications oe WUT CATIO products and services, please Vek www.eroeseulture.com“The Lowis mode! Contents The Lewis model Giagram) Introduction What is culture? ‘The blueprint ‘The categories The Categorization of Cultures Linear-active, multi-active and reactive categories The Cultural Categories Action mode and information gathering mode Chief characteristics of the three categories What is Culture? Cultural horizons Inter-category comparisons Group or National Collective Programming ‘Values and Basie concepts Cultural Black Holes Appearance and Reality Time Space Communication patterns at meetings Listening habits Leadership style Language of management Time Space The Lewis mode! (Giagram with annotations) Becoming a standard List of companies 10 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 ‘Sits sot te pr wae rnold ‘Site omsrwso suposed o by aay oF race nary orm. tout ne por consent oe pana Contents‘The Lewis model for cutural analysis, The Lewis model ‘WHAT IS CULTURE? © Richard D. Lowis 1990 evi 1999 Revised Ealtion oe national or group Examples: Examples: Japan China Germany Interaction Modes Commuricaton Ustening Lescership Language of pattems rai yes rmanageent ay Presenting QD cee KO vesaainn © ©~ Manners ‘Taboos Body language Humour RICHARD LEWIS COMMUNICATIONS‘The Lewis model Introduction What is Culture? Cultural behaviour is not something willy-nilly, accidental or whimsical. (On the contrary, itis the end product of millennia of collected wisdom, filtered and passed down through hundreds of generations and translated into hardened, undiscussable core beliefs, values, notions and persistent action patterns. As such, a culture cannot be depicted satisfactorily at random or evaluated according to impressions or recent observations. It is a largely finite, predictable and enduring phenomenon — the essential key to survival for a nation or cultural group. The blueprint ‘The purpose of a model for cultural behaviour is to formalize the study, beginning with an analysis of the genetic and environmental background and writing a blueprint for the subsequent historical development. This involves a conscious routing along the signposting of the culture ‘maturation, starting with base values, taboos and cultural black holes and accompanying their bearing on typical communication pattems, listening habits, leadership style, concepts of status, self image, space and time, as well as behaviour in meeting others, gathering information, negotiating, ‘motivating, and seeking and creating empathy. The categories ‘The 250-300 cultures in the world are the repositories of rich diversity, yet, ike genetic species), they are more homogeneous than one would expect. ‘Three distinct categories emerge —linear-active, multi-active and reactive. ‘Though some countries such as the Philippines, Poland and Indonesia exhibit hybrid features, major cultural groups such as Anglo-Saxons, Germanies, Latins, Slavs, Arabs, Indians and Far East Asians slot easily and firmly into the tripartite classification, ‘The Lewis Model is a cross-century tool which defines and simplifies the blueprint for cultural analysis. Page 1 of 20Page 2 of 20 The Lewis mode! The Categorization of Cultures ‘There are over 200 recognized countries or nation-states in the world; the number of cultures considerably greater, on account of strong regional variations. For instance, marked differences in values and behaviour are observable in the north and south of such countries as Italy, France and Germany, while other states are formed of groups with clearly different historical backgrounds (the United Kingdom with her Celtic ‘and Saxon components, Fiji with her Polynesians and Indians, Russia with numerous sub-cultures such as Tatar, Finnic, Chechen ete.) In a world of rapidly globalizing business, Internet electronic proximity and_politico- economic association (EU, NAFTA, ASEAN ete.) the ability to imteract successfully with foreign partners in the spheres of commercial activity, diplomatic intercourse and scientific interchange is seen as increasingly essential and desirable. Cross-cultural training followed by international experience goes a long way towards facilitating better relationships and_—_reducing ‘misunderstanding. Ideally, the trainee acquires deepening insights into the target (partner's) culture and adopts a cultural stance towards the pariner/colleague, designed (through adaptation) to fit in suitably with the attitudes of the other, ‘The question then arises as to how many adaptations or stances are required for e.g, international business. It is hardly likely that even the most informed and adaptable executive could envisage assuming 200 different personalities! Even handling the 15 different national types on EU committees and working groups has proved a daunting task for European delegates, not to ‘mention the chair-persons. Such chameleon-like behaviour is out of the question and unattainable, but the question of adaptation remains nevertheless important. The reticent, factual Finn must grope towards @ modus ‘operandi with the loquacious, emotional Italian. Americans will turn over many more billions in trade if they lear to communicate effectively with Japanese and Chinese. Assuming @ suitable cultural stance would be quickly simplified if there were fewer cultural types to familiarize oneself with, Can we boil down 200-250 sets of behaviour t0 50 or 20 or 10 or half a dozen? Cross-culturalists have grappled ‘with this problem over several decades, Some have looked at geographical divisions (north, south, east and west) but what is "eastern" culture? And is it really unified? People can be classified according (0 their religion (Muslim, Christian, Hindu ete.) or race (Caucasian, Oriental, African, Polynesian, Indian, Eskimo, ‘Arab) but such nomenclatures contain many inconsistencies — Christian Norwegians and Lebanese, Caucasian Scots and Georgians, ‘Muslim Moroccans and Indonesians, ete. Other classification attempts such as. professional, corporate, or regional have too many sub- categories to be useful Generational culture is important, but ever- changing. Political classification (left, right, centrist) has many (changeable) hues, 100. ‘Writers such as Hofstede have sought dimensions to consider. His 4-D model looked at power distance, collectivism v. individualism, femininity ¥. masculinity and uncertainty avoidance. Later he added long-term ¥. short-term orientation, Edward Hall classified groups as_monochronic or polychronic, high or low context and past- or future-oriented, Trompenaars’ dimensions came ‘out as universalist v. particularist, individualist v. collectivist, specific v, diffuse, achievement oriented v. ascription and neutral v. emotional or affective. The German sociologist Témnies dwelt fon gemeinschaft v. gesellschaft cultures. Kluckholn saw 5 dimensions ~ attitude 10 problems ~ time, Nature, nature of man, form of activity and relation to one’s cultural compatriots, ‘Samuel Huntington drew fault lines between civilisations — West European, Islam, Hindu, Orthodox, Japanese, Sinic and African.“The Lewis model ‘The need for « convincing categorization is obvious. It enables us: (@ to predict a culture’s behaviour Gi) 10 clarify why people did what they did ii) t0 avoid giving offence Gv) to search for some kind of unity (v) to standardize policies (vi) to perceive neatness and Ordnung Linear-active, multi-active and reactive categories ‘My own research and experience led me to believe that cultures can be classified in 3 groups: linear active, multi-active and reactive, My extensive exposure to Asians inclined me to think that European and American cross-culturalists. had failed to categorize them succinctly. Japanese are rot polychronic (like Italians) but neither are they ‘monochronic (like Germans). While Koreans are clearly particularist, the Chinese are much less s0, ‘but neither are they universalist. Japan is high context but Indonesians and Vietnamese border on low context, Short-term and long-term orientation varies enormously between Korea and the Philippines on the one hand and Japan and China fon the other, ‘Most Asians (with the notable exception of the Indians and Pakistanis) classify as reactive inasmuch as they will veer towards Tinear or multi= activity within the framework of their reaction to their interlocutor. Thus Japanese stress. their ‘qualities of punctuality, factuality and planning Page 3 of 20, when dealing with Germans, but adopt a more flexible, people-riented approach when confronted ‘with mult-active Spaniards or Latin Americans, ‘The linear, multi-active and reactive categorisation cuts across racial, religious, Philosophical and class divides, Protestant Scandinavians, Catholic Swiss, black and white Americans, Semitic Israelis and rich and poor ‘Australians are all linear as a whole. Multi-actives ‘can be Latins, Slavs and AVricans. Chinese, Koreans and Vietnamese are classical Confucian reactves, but quiet Finns have many reactive characteristics and Swedes and British often react thoughtfully and unhurtiedly to proposals from more aggressive culture. The diagram below summarises the essential characteristics of each group and indicates different degrees of difficulty typically ‘encountered when they interact with each other, As far as information-gathering is concemed, I have replaced the terms "high context" and "low context” by the more explicit “dialogue-oriented” and “data-oriented” and added a third group “listening culture” to describe reactive Asians, who embrace information technology but are also the world’s most effective networkers. For a full description and division of linear-active, multi-active and reactive cultures, see When Cultures Collide (Richard D. Lewis, published by Nicholas Brealey 1996) pages 36-51). & tng intrever: respect- Cultural categories rented stoners task-oriented people-orionted highly organises loquacious planners intoretatorsPage 4 of 20 The Lewis model The Cultural Categories Action mode & information gathering mode Cultures can be classified in action mode in 3 distinct categories: linear-active, multi-active and reactive. The corresponding classifications in information gathering mode are data-oriented, ialogue-oriented and listeners. linear- active Cultural eategoresThe Lewis model Chief character Linear-active Talks half the time Doss one thing at a time Plans ahead step by step Polite but direct Partly conceals feelings Confronts with logic Dislikes losing face Rarely interrupts Job-oriented Sticks to facts Truth before diplomacy Controls environment Values & follows rules Gains status by achievements ‘Speech is for information Works fixed hours Values privacy Is data-oriented ‘Talks at medium speed ‘Thinks betty, then speaks ‘Completes action chains Resuits-oriented Sticks to agenda Compromises to achieve deal Borrows and gives rarely Minimizes power distance Respects officialdom Separates social and professional lives Deal based on products, facts and figures ‘Written word important Contracts are binding Quick responses to writen communication ‘Short-term prof is desirable Likes short pauses between speech tums Restrained body language Rationalism and science dominate thinking more than religion Multi-active ‘Talks most of the time Does several things at once Plans grand outtine only Emotional Displays feelings Confronts emotionally Has good excuses Often interrupts People-oriented Feelings before facts Flexible truth Manipulates environment Often disregards rules Gains status by connections & charisma ‘Speech Is for opinions Likes flexible hours Is gregarious, inquisitive Is dialogue-orlented Talks fast Speech leads thought (thinks aloud) Completes human transactions. Relationship-oriented Roams back and forth ‘Tries to win argument Borrows and gives freely Maximises power distance ‘Seeks favours, pulls strings Mixes social and professional lives Deals based on liking the client ‘Spoken word important Contracts are ideal documents in an ideal world Responses to letters slow due to preference for spoken messages Increasing the status of the organization is important COveriapping speech is acceptable Unrestrained body language Religion retains strong influence Page 5 of 20 tics of the three categories Reactive Listens most of the time Reacts to partner's action Looks at general principles Polite, indirect Conceals feelings Never confronts Must not lose face Doesn't interrupt Very people-oriented Statements are promises Diplomacy over truth Lives in harmony with environment Interprets rules flexibly Gains status by birthright & ‘education ‘Speech is to promote harmony Work, leisure & life are intertwined Respecttul, kes sharing Likes networking Talks siowly Contemplates, then speaks brietly Harmonizes by doing things at appropriate times Harmony-oriented ‘Often asks for "repeats" CCompromises for future relations Borrows rarely, gives ritually Observes fixed power distance Uses connections Connects social and professional lives Deal based on harmony and appropriacy Face-to-face contact important Contracts are statements of intent and renegotiable Responses slow due to need for lateral clearances Long-term profit and increased ‘market share are important Likes long pauses between ‘speech turns Subtle body language Ethies and philosophies (og. Confucianism) dominate thinkingPage 6 of 20 Cultural horizons Inter-category comparisons Each national culture has its peculiarities and idiosynerasies (Chinese concept of face, Mexican national honour, French sense of intellectual superiority, the American Dream, ete.). No two national cultures have identical world views. ‘There are, nevertheless, underlying. similarities between members belonging to various linear- ‘active societies, and it is the same with multi- actives and reactives. When members of different cultural categories begin to interact with each other however, there are more differences than similarities. Commonalities exist between all types (e.g. love Of the young) but tend to be thin on the ground between linear-actives and multi-actives. Reactives fit better with the other wo (because they react). The following diagrams intercategory relationships. The Lewis model ‘ey marae Lunes sethe Horizon Linear-active and Multactive comparisons ozuoy eager‘The Lewis model Page 7 of 20 Cultural horizons Inter-category comparisons Linear-actve and Reactive comparisons Muit-active and Reactive comparisonsPage 8 of 20 Cultural horizons Just as each cultural category has an area of ‘compatibility with the other two, each national ‘culture has an area of compatibility with any other. The commonalities vary in each case and may be numerous (e.g. USA and Canada) or very few (Nordic and Arab). if \\ USAFrance General Horizon ssh HORIZON. ozo ox ‘usa HORIZON ‘Sear ate) USA/France Horizon linear-active/mult-actve) ‘The Lewis model‘The Lewis model Cultural horizons Country comparisons a(n 4 a A \E cee 5 Lrddepan Horizon (Inear-actvareactve) 5 2 g & 5 i = 5 hhalyiCrina Horizon (mult-activelreactive) Page 9 of 20,Page 10 of 20 ‘The Lewis model Group or national collective programming Values and core beliefs (Our national societal programming is so pervasive evita that we have little hope of changing our core beliefs after the age of 12 or 13. Devt Italy ae racers al a a) aceon sactminy Japan Values and core beliefs clive Germany Values and core belets Counce toraatnd Inher‘The Lewis mode! Page t1 of 20 Group or national collective programming Cultural Black Holes Among the core beliefs held by each culture, there exist, alongside the positive values, not only firm taboos, but what can be described as cultural black holes, which have an important bearing on the society's way of thinking and behaviour A cultural black hole (CBH) is an undiscussable core belief of such intense gravity that it transcends or distorts any other beliefs, values or set of principles that enter its vicinity and absorbs, indeed swallows up, its "victim’ Australia Cultural Black Hole CBHs permeate the globe. Some are of religious origin, some politically or state-induced, others date back to the earliest histories of man. Lingering cultural black holes are the American Dream, the Australian Tall Poppy Syndrome, the polarisation of British society, the French belief in their intellectual superiority, the Japanese obsession with the concept of "face", Mexican sensitivity about national honour, the enduring hatred between Greeks and Turks, the inherent Russian suspicion of foreigners, Swedish preoccupation with consensus of opinion and the idea that Sweden is perfect, the Finnish obsessive talent for slience and self-effacement, the Chinese belief that only they are at the centre of things, the Jewish mesmerisation with the Holocaust, and so fon, No culture is without one or more CBHSs. Japan Cuttural Black Hole Appearance and Reality Because of our own unswerving beliefs, including four cultural black holes, we do not see other ccultures as they really are. Not only are we taken. in by the surface behaviour of another society, but we tend to evaluate that behaviour according 10 ‘our own standards (we see it through our own "cultural spectacles"), ‘This Model helps you, through the analysis of horizons and categorical comparison, to distinguish between appearance and reality in cultural behaviour. Cutural Black HolePage 12 of 20 The Lewis model Communication patterns at meetings and negotiations Meetings give individuals a chance to communicate ~to use their speech skills to good effect. Speech is certainly a personal weapon, but different cultures use it in diverse ways. \ tong [ “ don’t rock the boat ” uk ‘Communication Pattem WORD | general tendency to make quick sales ar business coals wnatvey yous bs Korea ‘Communication Pattem‘The Lewis model Listening habits Captive audiences generally appear to listen, but in fact they listen ( different degrees and in different ways, There are good listeners and bad listeners. Others, such as the Americans, listen carefully or indifferently, depending on the nature of the addres. expecting air relating listening toother for projects Information looking ahing "F109 they know already France Listening Habits ‘we tke calm Towkey ‘humorous speakers wo are we listen now ccuturally ‘aware but debate ee we are not Americans ro thetorc Keep t simple Canada Listening Habits Page 19 of 20Pago 14 of 20 Leadership Different cultures have diverse concepts of leadership. Leaders can be born, elected, ot trained and groomed. Others seize power or have leadership thrust upon them. Leadership can be autocratic or democratic, collective or individual, meritoeratie or unearned, desired or imposed ‘The Lewis model ideas ideas ideas ringi-sho consensus Japan Leadership Sivie Australia Leadership Siva ‘one of the mates,“The Lewis model Language of management Among the tasks of managers are the necessities of instructing, motivating and leading their subordinates. They may often lead by example, but as far as motivation and the issuance of directives are concerned, they will be heavily dependent on language. Different languages are used in different ways and with a variety of effects. Hyperbolic American and understated British English clearly inform and inspire listening staff with separate allure and driving force. ‘Managers of all. nationalities know how to speak to their compatriots to best cffect, for there are built-in characteristics in their language which facilitate the ‘conveyance of ideas to their own kind. They are in fact only vaguely aware of their dependence on these linguistic traits which make their job easier. g objectives 2 Aspe alBi|c ‘Speed in execution Pumping up employee usa = Language of Management UK Language of Management Page 15 of 20Page 16 of 20, Time Both the linear-aetive Northerner and the multi-active Latin think that they ‘manage time in the best way possible. In some Eastern cultures, however, the adaptation of humans is viewed neither as linear nor event-personality related, but as cyclic. This applies to most Asians, who, instead of tackling problems immediately in sequential fashion, circle around them for a few days (weeks ete.) before committing themselves. After a suitable period of reflection, A, D and F may indeed seem worthy of pursuing. B, C and E may bbe quietly dropped. Contemplation of the whole scene has indicated, however, that task G (not envisaged at all earlier on) might be the most significant of all. ‘The Lewis model Linear-active Concept of Time Multi-active / React Concept of TimePage 18 of 20, ‘The Lewis model The Lewis Model: WHT put into practice CULTURE? 1. Analyse how different cultures are programmed (including your own) 2, Distinguish between ‘appearance and reality 3. See how cultures {fall into 3 distinet ‘categories. Consider personal ‘cultural orientation Interaction Modes 4 See how eutures pater oo auece Laraiege ot Aimcon difereny ag Q inspeciesnanons ERE — APN ©©- Manners Taboos Body language ‘Humour ON 5. Identify commonalities, exploit synergies to achieve empathy