142, REVIEW OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY 16.24 This teeta image ose ‘Shoo ave ofa tefrence re. The ie mer stare teak Teco evens inthe eights “The vile resorts tang with the tine indeed by the ack, Thse ‘ecu ate se on ore, ‘wh inert the ect. Tefen Fame an ven fn one ines ie Sevaieetapo rome en se ann ‘Sto tet phe mals ome wine oy 2 en ‘aut cere ee cal tw par) at say Sid pos ns ninco ie Hee oa rence rame dow onto ecan p - 0 Bx+ Ay! 42> a? lighiite ita =0 > ax + ay ae = a finelite ifAe°<0 + af > a ay + Ae ‘These distinctions arise only because of the miaus sgn inthe metre equation: since ‘heres 0 minus sign in the coresponding Pythagorean theorem for ordinary space, ther is only one kindof distance. Since observers in all IRF agree onthe sign of As all wll gre on how to classy the interval between a given pat of event ‘These lssications are important because events with «spacelike ineralcannot be caualy connected, because the order time of uch event i fame-dependent ce ‘box 26). This means that no particle, message, or other causal effect can travel ater ‘han the sped of light in an IRF. ‘Spacetime Diagrams. A spacetime diagram isa convenient way to display the el tionship between events in spucetme, A spacetime diagram sa two or possibly three mensional graph with a vetical me axis and horizontal spatial ais or axe. (Al ‘sare conventionally given the same scale) An even in spacetime i represented by point onthe diagram. We think ofa particle's ajectory trough spacetime as Being & connected sequence of evetscalled the ptl's wordline, whichis represented in © spucetime diagram by a connected sequence of points, aline (maybe curve hat ‘shows its spatial poston asa function of time # along the vertical ais). An object's seed at any given instant isthe inverse slope ofthe curve representing its wordline oa the diagram, evaluated at hansen. Problems P2.1-P2- wll give you practice erat. ing and reading such diagrams, ‘Any ligt emited by a given event E will expand (a ime passe) ito aspherical surface centered on te event. The projection ofthis sphere on the xy plane is circle whose radio expands wih time. If we dew this on a spacetime dingran the expanding ing ook ike cone (ee igure 23), We call his the even ight cone. The lght cone is important because the wordline of any article traveling through E must le within this light cone because no pace can ave fster than igh), and all event that can be caused by £ must ie within his cone. ‘Note that bcanse the mec of spacetime is diferent than the Pythagorean theo- em of ordinary space, the aprarent separation of pots ona spacetime diagram docs ‘ot give us any indication of he spaceime interval between them. For example, the spacetime interval between events and Lin igre 2.3 is 0! ein 11623 A spose diagram hat Sows he tip cone reve E Nate ‘hateven ies td event ght cones scaly ote, beens Lan cold be eae by Parle erie at pas through ‘vet Emus iets ih cone2. REVIEW OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY. Proper Time. We can calclate the proper tine AT measured between two even ‘Aan B by a clock tavling along a given wordline connecting those events usin ‘method analogous to how we would calculate the path ength along curve in orinsry space. (I) We fst imagine dividing the wordline into infinitesimal segments (2) We the the metric equation to calle what an imazinary neta lok would measure ‘shi ravrsing each segment. Ifthe seme is small enh tobe reasonably straight. the me registred bythe actual lock shouldbe essentially the same. (3) We ther sum overall segments. The result (see BOX is that are [iad = [Mime a Length Contraction. A moving objec’ length Lin given IRF is defined to be the distance between two events located atthe object's ends that are simultaneous in the fame. Because observers in different IRFs dsezee abot which pir of eveats ae simultaneous, they wil disagree about the objects length Ian object's length along « ven direction is Zy i its own IRE, length inan IRF where itis observed to move ‘vith spood in that direction is (Ge Bax 28) ir es) “The Einstein Velocity Transformation. One can we the Lorentz transformation equations o prove (ax you wil show in bax 29) that ia particle's velocity in a given IRF is 8 = [2,05 velocity componets in another IRF in standard orientation with respect tothe fi (ee figure 22) are gol F 26 Be. (psi, replacing with ~B yes the inverse transformation) Note that hiss ota simple linear trnsormation (ule the Loreatztrnsformato). For Further Reference, A great many books provide exceleintrodbetions to speci reltivty in more depth and at amore leisurely pace than the whiting tour presented in this chpte In pica, each ofthe following books offers @ mach more exten ‘ive treatment of special relativity tht is especialy compatible with the conceptual ‘approach taken in this Book: ‘Taylor and Wheeler, Spacetime Physics, 2nd eiton, Freeman, 1992 Moore, Six ideas That Shaped Physics: Unt R, 2nd edition, MeGraw-Hil, 700% THE DETALS 9 In this bx, our goal isto prove that arg fame Sis ie if and only it roves ata constant veloity relative to an established IRF 5 assuming that both ‘frames can assign coordinates to evens in a common region of spcetime), We wil saz with jroo forthe i cause: that i, we will arse that moves at a ‘constant velocity and prove that itis inetial Imagine that thee i free object that in Sp observed tbe at rex Since Sis inertial Wy hypoess, Newton’ fs law implies tha such an object will emai _atrestreative to Ss time pases. Nw consider observing tis object in fame 5. “Fst ate that al observers agree about whether an objet sors not fees ifthe ‘object isuncharged and not magnetic, everyone wil ned that it cannot partici- ‘ate in long-range electromagnet interactions, andi tis ot ouching anything, ‘everyone will agree that it cannot partcpae in any other kinds of interactions “Therefor, the observer in 5° wil agree with the observer in S thatthe objec in ‘questions re. However, the observer in also observe he ree objec to move ‘aa consant velocity, because $ moves ata constant velocity relative to S by by- ‘pothesis and because the objets a est in the 5 frame, te observer i$" must, ‘Seeiras novog withthe same velocity as S. Therefore, thi fre objets observed ‘wmoveats constant velocity in S. Since the argument doe: not depend on where ‘the objet is located in either frame (slong as iis somevhere inthe region of spacetime that can be observed in both frames), it follows that a re object moves ‘wih a costant velocity everywhere in 5. Therefore Sis inertial at east a the ‘commonly observed region of spacetime). FD. Exerelse 21, Inthe space below, prove the “only if clase; that x assme ‘hat net and show tit t most move ts constant velocity elative oS. Start by considering fee object at etn 5"20 2, REVIEW OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY ‘The ime uit inthe GR unit system i the meter tis isthe only change rom SL unis, Th ST meer of distance (by internation agreement is dened wo be the isance that ight travels in 1/299792.458) 5 Therefore, the GR meter of time is equivalent to im = (apphrass)*= 333500511075 = 34a rom hiss ton, yuan show ofr lex gu “y= 988m ttn) en time 2308 em aay 1s =29800%n ate {nin 1993 kn asa 1h LO 0k as 1 #2390510 an 1ys946t 108m as sero inene 137 Gy «130% 108m aay ‘We can convert any quantity in St units ito GR units by mukipying by as many factors ofthe conversion ctr €= 1 = (299792458 x 10'm/ 1s) as are required tocdiminae alunite of seconds from the quantity. 1 _ ne alter) ~ 12650 10-"%e Gone 50 1 hg (energy) = 898755179 x 1085 298) 1 (omentum) = 298792458 kes 290) 602 10-"F = 1782 x 10% kg enewy) BA). 1 (omentum) = 5342 10" kgs 296) ‘TheeV as aunt for mass, momentum, and energy has a much more comealent sae than he klogram when deslng with subatomic particles, stoms, and mec, Here are some constant in GR nis tat wil be useful tows ae 8-109 10 ar =1/(817<10% m= 1/9) 00) (6=7426 10 mk = 1477 molar mass) 2100) ‘Beecise 22:1. Inthe space blow, verily the las two equations In this tox, we will derive dhe Lorenz eansformation (LT) equations from the Principle of relativity, neuding the requirement thatthe speed of ligt should be measured tobe 1 in any IRF. The lee is fll of differen ways derive the [UT have chosen a method (oom Alan Macdonald, private commuication) tht thins both concepullystmigheforward and exposes the moe important con- ‘cepual issues. We will assume IRF and Sn standard orientation, as shown in figure 22. Distances perpendicular to the line of relative motlon. Ou fs task is oar gue that al observers mast saree onthe ales of dances measured perpenicu- lac the line of the frames’ rebtive motion (the x axis hee), Here ia argument by contradiction from Taylor and Wheeler, Spacerine Physics 2nd edition Free- ran, 1992p. 6). Assume, forthe sake cf argument, that an observer in ove IRF does observe the distance between two objets tobe different (say, sale) a the wo-timen- sional atin transformation anda Lorentz transformation. Consider he § and 5° O in fame S, bet ‘As! > Oeste interval between the event is pacelie), then itis possible to find frame 8 moving wah speed i] lal Lo 0 owed Lo 0 0 allel “This is ence, simple, an linear transformation law. (Contrast the complicated and nonlinear tansformation fr ordinary velocity components given by equation 2.6) ‘We define a four-vetor to be any four-component quantity whose components transform ecorting tothe LT when we change IRF. Because fourvector components transfor exact ike te components of ds, if any one observer finds an arbitrary fourrvecior A tobe parle to some four-dsplacement ds, then al observers wil. This means that simple fourdisplacement ds ean serve asa universal indiator for the ‘Section o Ain spacetime inthe same way that he simple spatial displacement rep resented by a poiting hand in ordinary 3-spece can serve as a meaningful direction indieatr for oer vectors fre, velocity et) in 3space Tn printing fourvector ae dented by symbol set in talle bold sans-serif type. In handwriting, one can use a sug ine under the ymbot—eg., A (hiss the ‘Mandar copy editor's mak indicating hat character shouldbe bol). The Scalar Product ane Maga pi ati, he sen pad A+B of two arbitrary four-vectors A and B is defined to be « ABE-AP+AE ABs 85 eo andthe squared magnitude ofan arbitrary fousvector Ais defined to be REAA RAPER HAY AF es) ‘These quanies are intresting and important because ther values ee frame- independent (se BOX 3), jst 5 the squared spacsime interval between the evens st the to ends fs ifintsimal four displacement dsvds= dé =a + de + ay + de 06) is frame- independent. The squared magnitude ofan objec’ fourveocty is SW +0) + 0 (y= on no mater how fa he ccs moving tough pce Ge 32). i ipo ‘tant result that we will use often in what follows. » a FourVelocity and Ordinary Velocity. We saw in box 27 that an intestinal inter. ‘al of proper time dr along an object's Werdlines inked tothe coordinate ime d for ‘hat same interval ns given IRF by dea dvine cc) where vis the objets ordinary speed inthe same IRF, We can we thisto express an object’ fourveocty components i given IRF in txms ofits speed in ht IRE 89) Terie ow 3, wc cae we know ncn cate yd ‘viding all components of equation 3.9 by u' ” ae fs). fur oJ fure | 610) led lw ‘According to equation 39, the fourselocty ofan objet at rest 1 0 =| | when ew 0 ‘When an objets spect vis > mi) othe calculation, and then check that or answer is consistent with tis assump tion. Since m= £3 ~pj. this approximation implies hat P= Ey m= Ey $0 Pex Ey 4) 1 you substitute this into equation 342, write out the sclar product in 3.41, and seve fr, you wil ind that qte(Om, +e) Since m, = 938 MeV and my = 135 MeV, you can show tat E, photons with = 6.4 10" eV. This i the GZK cut for proton energies protons ith energies greater than this wil be able o lose energy to collisions with CMB Photons when tavelig betwen ples, (Note hatte eaemely large vale us titles our approximation that E, 3> m,) Exercise 32.5.1, Verify equation 3.44 andthe tated vale for E, (OF course, since the CMB spectrum is that of blackbody, there are some (CMB photons hat have sgnfcanly higher energies than the average, and one can see from equation 3.44 that higher energy photon inthe CMB will ease problems for even loverenergy cosmic-ray protons. A more refined calculation that takes scout ofthe spread of photon energies suggrt that the exo shuld become ‘ignifcant at a proton energy of about 6x 10" eV. An article frm te HiRes cos mi ay observatory team published in 2008 in Physical Review Letters (100 (10), 101101 elas indeed to cbseve such acta in coum ay energies. ‘The problem with ths result sas follows. One ean show tha the mean free ‘pat or protons with such energies in intergalactic space is on the onerof eas of millions of ight yeas. So if this caleulton is correct (athe HiRes daa sugges), the protons with higher enerpes that we observe mus hve come fom the handel of galaxies within this distance from the earth. The diffe stat it shard to imagine astrophysical processes that could generate sich energetic protons al, much es processes that could be taking place inthe ater staid group of ou al _slaxies without our knowing abot them from othe forms of radiation, Moreover, the unjectores of observed cosmic ay protons with sich energies do not seem to point to any particular nearby galaxy: Bu the GZK calculation clearly implis that ‘ese protons must come from local sources. This problem is known asthe GZK paradox. A number of experiments are caret in progres o ty to resolve this parent paradox. Solving may bring o light some new and interesting ysis! BOX 3.5 (continued) Example: The GZK CosmicRay Energy Cutoff, THEDETALS =a v 3, FOURVECTORS HOMEWORK PROBLEMS 7 Inag hat he fnon soe Heakigo- 08) dex wale 6 ct vig ge Saas Vel tone st st Whe Se a ee eno poe ne Nt a SEC daa Ot on (Te ion apes Tea Sein te whe ean bt ‘Scr ve gin ewe insert fae) MicMinawrsoareea temo can e Gata a ncn ot es ti atipdtteer aa ovee-T ooo Safeco et eb Whur a tase = io nei nets pnd epee an cr nace sh rd ‘Use the esl ofthe previous pr 1 find expressions fru and in terms of Lins: Hyperbolic igonometri fanetions satis the f- lowing iene: coex-sinb?x= 1, dlsinba)/dr=coths, Termine the outgoing nea’ ener. (Hin: Treat the rerio ait were a photon.) PRS An election and # positon (ani-lecton), each with mas m appach each oer along the Ib frame's {ais th equal speeds & They collide and anita to for two photons with gual energies E that mov in ‘opposite directions along the x ax ‘Show that fourmomeatur is conserved inthe ab frame as loag as E = mV T=0" ‘by, Use the Einstein velocity transformation to find the positons speed inthe electron’ frame in tims of , {nd use the Lorentz transformation to find the pho- ton eerie in tha frame in terms of mando, Then show that foursmomentum is conserved inthe els- two's rae if ee conserved the Ia frame it: Remember bat ~0?= (1 +0)= 0) PRG A spacoraft (with full el tanks) of mass M is at est inthe solar system, preparing to disembark on a rand mission to Alpha Centaur. Is engines work by ombinng matter and antimatter apd directing the ard mina rays tat esl out the spacecraft’ reat, The en- ins fire fra rie ime, bringing the shi’ speed to = (095 with respect to the slar system. ‘a, What isthe mass mu the ship after the engines have fired, expesed as fraction of M? (Hin: Treat the ‘gummy exhaust as sngle gant photon) by Ifthe hip is supposed to got Alpha Centauri, decel- crate to res, do some research there and then ern, ‘nha wil the sips total in mass Fave fo be i the ship's empty mass is my when it reaches earth? (Express your rest sa multiple of) 17 A photon’ energy is related to its wavelength A by the expression E = AA. in GR unis) where 1240 Vine, Imagine tat photon has a wavelength of ain he frame ofthe source. An observers moving with speed 2 say fom the sure. Use a Lorentz transformation of the photo's four ‘momentum to find the photons energy and wave- Tengt i the frame of the cbserver. Express your an- ser as fraction of Ay by, Show that equation 321 yields the sme result PB Use conservation of fourmomentim t show hat tnelectror positon peircan never coli and annilate to form a sngle photon, no mater how the original par tiles are moving. Show ha itis possible, tough, fo the ‘lector positon pr todocay opie of photons. (Hints: 's poston ivan ani-lectron: thas the same mas as an ‘ecto. First argue that we can always ind a enter of ‘mas frame where the electron and positron are moving Toward each oberon the axis with equal speeds) PRO Use the method dissed in bor 3 to determine the minimum energy & moving ecion striking another tlecron a est must have if is tobe able to create an ‘lecron positon pai ring the cllision in ation to the original evo electron). P20 Use the method discussed in box 3.5 to determine the minimom energy a photon must have fit isto be able to create an clecton positon pit after colliding with (and being absorbed by) an electron a ret. (Nose that there re thee particle, two electeoas and one posizon, after the interaction) 4. INDEX NOTATION oe ‘is REREAD ReiovetSpchlbeuiy | | Ablray Crna SRE ero ee Ss ESM certo area = rons Oe Cain Tet ae ar TAS Crt The Ses ne Tena I Te sac Baer ea So The Sve Soon alshen Ore! Cage ei ooeneee es Deeg Gavin Vans | | Tsai Sein dos arom cette Wes ee Tarra OO Con nea Geng Govier | [Bron d en “The Ely Unive a iisat wn Ke epatveBocuy Obits 2 Feu inn