Postharvest Biology and Technology 103 (2015) 45–54

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Postharvest Biology and Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/postharvbio

Effects of postharvest ripening on the nutraceutical and

physicochemical properties of mango (Mangifera indica L. cv Keitt)
Ingrid P. Ibarra-Garza, Perla A. Ramos-Parra, Carmen Hernández-Brenes,
Daniel A. Jacobo-Velázquez *
Department of Biotechnology and Food Engineering, School of Engineering and Sciences, Tecnologico de Monterrey-Campus Monterrey, E. Garza Sada 2501
Sur, C.P. 64849, Monterrey, N.L., Mexico

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: Nutraceutical quality of fruits can be influenced by the stage of ripening. The present project objective
Received 2 June 2014 was to evaluate physicochemical changes of mango cv. Keitt that included total soluble solids (TSS),
Received in revised form 20 February 2015 titratable acidity (TA), firmness and color, concentration of total phenolics (TPC), ascorbic acid (AA),
Accepted 28 February 2015
antioxidant capacity (ORAC value), carotenoids, and total dietary fiber (TDF) at 6 postharvest ripening-
stages (RS1–6). Results indicated a decrease in firmness from 62 to 0.69 N, while TSS increased from 9 to
Keywords: 17% and TA decreased. Mango TPC increased by 54% at RS2 and at RS3 returned to the original levels. It
Mangifera indica L
was found that AA increased by 133% at RS2 and at RS6 showed the lowest value. A correlation between
Postharvest ripening
Antioxidants
TPC and ORAC value (R2 = 0.88) was found. Regarding carotenoids content, there were no significant
Dietary fiber differences from RS1 to RS4, but at RS6 carotenoids increased 49% in contrast with RS1. Furthermore, TDF
Physicochemical changes increased at RS2 and remained with slightly differences from RS2 to RS5. At RS6, TDF diminished 13% as
compared to RS1. Results permitted the visualization of optimum ripening-stages (RS2 and RS6) that
contained the highest concentration of specific bio-active compounds in order to produce high-quality
products and improve health-benefits.
ã 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction the parent plant (Prasanna et al., 2007). Some biochemical

Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is one of the most important
tropical fruits and is grown in 90 countries around the world. It
ranked fifth place in total production of fruit crops worldwide and
its production is estimated to be over 38.9 million of tons per year
(FAO, 2011). Mexico is the sixth main producer of this fruit, and its
annual production is estimated in 1.09 million tons (FAO, 2011).
Furthermore, Mexico produces different mango cultivars, Keitt
being one of the most popular (SAGARPA, 2012).
Mango quality is influenced by the stage of ripeness, among
other factors. During ripening, physiological, biochemical and
molecular changes occur that directly affect its quality traits
(Osorio and Fernie, 2013). Moreover, mango is a climacteric fruit,
which can continue the ripening process even when detached from
* Corresponding author at: Tecnologico de Monterrey-Campus Monterrey. E.
Garza Sada 2501 Sur, Centro de Biotecnologia-FEMSA 303-A C.P. 64849, Monterrey,
N.L., Mexico. Tel.: +52 818 358 14 00x4820; fax: +52 818 328 4136.
E-mail address: djacobov@itesm.mx (D.A. Jacobo-Velázquez).
changes during postharvest ripening of mango include biosynthe-
sis of carotenoids (Mercadante and Rodriguez-Amaya, 1998),
increased activity of cell wall degrading enzymes (Ali et al.,
1995), changes in cell wall (Muda et al., 1995), changes in
phenolic content (Palafox-Carlos et al., 2012), decline in ascorbic
acid content (Hernández et al., 2006), changes in color (Ornelas-
Paz et al., 2007), and increase in total soluble solids (Padda et al.,
2011). Likewise, changes in physicochemical properties (firmness,
total soluble solids, and flesh color) of Keitt mango at
different ripening stages have been previously reported (Padda
et al., 2011).
Since production of high-quality food not only depends on
processing technologies, but also on the proper selection of raw
fruit, the present study on the post-harvest ripening of mango,
contributes to prior reports by providing decisive parameters to
obtain better quality mango products and to promote consumption
of mango with better health benefits. The aim of this study was to
evaluate the effects at 6 ripening stages on the concentrations of
bioactive molecules and on other physicochemical properties
associated with quality of mango fruit cv. Keitt.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.postharvbio.2015.02.014
0925-5214/ ã 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
46 I.P. Ibarra-Garza et al. / Postharvest Biology and Technology 103 (2015) 45–54
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Chemicals
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), potas-
sium hydroxide (KOH), sodium chloride (NaCl), isopropyl alcohol
(HPLC grade), phosphoric acid (H3PO4), ethanol and acetone were
obtained from Desarrollo de Especialidades Quimicas (San Nicolas
de los Garza, N.L., Mexico). All-trans-lutein and all-trans cryptox-
anthin standards were obtained from Indofine Chemical Company,
Inc. (Hillsborough, N.J., USA). Methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) and
methanol (MeOH), both HPLC grade, were obtained from Fisher
Scientific Int. (Winnipeg, MB., Canada). Petroleum ether and
diethyl ether were obtained from CTR Scientific (Monterrey, N.L.,
Mexico). All other chemicals were obtained from Sigma–Aldrich
(St. Louis, MO., USA).
2.2. Plant material and ripening conditions
Unripe mangoes (cv. Keitt) were obtained from plantations in El
Rosario, Sinaloa, Mexico, and collected in August 2012. Approxi-
mately 75 kg of mango were hand-harvested and selected by size,
shape and color of skin. A day after harvest, the fruit were
transported to the FEMSA-Biotechnology Center of Tecnologico de
Monterrey, Campus Monterrey (Monterrey, N.L., Mexico). Mangoes
were placed in different boxes and ripened at room temperature.
Four mangoes were collected every 2 d until full ripeness (10 d).
Each sampling time is further referred to as ripening stage (RS), and
labeled 1 through 6.
Mangoes collected at each RS were first analyzed for firmness,
then manually peeled and homogenized in a blender (Osterizer
Blender, Sunbeam Mexicana SA de CV, Edo. de Mexico, Mexico) to
obtain the pulp. The mango pulp was stored at
20  C and used for
other physicochemical analyses which were conducted promptly.
2.3. Physicochemical analyses
For the determination of firmness, a fruit pressure tester (FT
327, McCormik, Facchini, Alfonsine, Italy), equipped with an 8 mm
diameter cylindrical tip was used. Each mango was measured in its
inner tissue from both cheeks at four different locations, two at the
ends and another couple at the center. Firmness values at each RS
were obtained from four different mangoes and reported as N. The
same samples used in the firmness evaluation were pureed and
pressed through a cheesecloth to extract juice. Filtered juice was
analyzed directly in a refractometer (Master-a, Atago, Japan) to
obtain the total soluble solids (%). Titratable acidity was deter-
mined by AOAC 942.15 method (1997). Mango juice (5 mL) was
diluted with ultrapure water (45 mL) and titrated against 0.1 N
NaOH until pH 8.2 was achieved. Analyses were performed by
triplicate and results were expressed as citric acid equivalents
because it is the main organic acid present in mango pulp
(Medlicott and Thompson, 1985).
Mango pulp color was evaluated with a Konica MinoltaTM CM
600 d series (Osaka, Japan), using L*, a*, b* scale (CIELAB system)
with a standard illuminant D65 and 10 viewing angle. Instru-
mental color was expressed as chroma [(a*2 + b*2)0.5] and hue angle
[arctan (b*/a*)  180/3.14]. Color measurements were obtained in
triplicate. Determination of moisture content was determined
with the method reported by Padda et al. (2011) Mango (5 g) was
placed in a metal dish and dried 48 h at 60  C.
2.4. Determinations of total phenolic content (TPC), total ascorbic acid
(AA), and oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) values
Mango pulp (3 g) from each ripening stage was homogenized
with 80% methanol aqueous solution (3 mL) using a homogenizer
(Power Gen 125, Fisher Scientific, Pittsburg, USA) and then
centrifuged at 12,175  g for 15 min at 4  C. Three consecutives
extractions were performed and adjusted to a final volume of
10 mL. Supernatants were collected for TPC and ORAC value
determinations. TPC were estimated using the Folin-Ciocalteu
method modified by Singleton and Rossi (1965). Results were
obtained from five replicates and were expressed as gallic acid
equivalents (GAE) on a dry weight basis per kilogram of mango.
Ascorbic acid analyses were determined using the method
reported by Okamura (1980), adapted to 96-well microplate
format (Gillespie and Ainsworth, 2007). Results were obtained by
five replicates and expressed as ascorbic acid equivalents (AAE) on
a dry weight basis per kilogram. The antioxidant activity (ORAC
value) was determined by the method of Wu et al. (2004) for
hydrophilic ORAC with a slight modification described by
Villarreal-Lozoya et al. (2007). Fluorescein was used as fluorophore
and AAPH as free-radical generator. Results were obtained from
five replicates and were expressed as mmol of trolox equivalents
(TE) on a dry weight basis, mmol kg
1.
2.5. Identification and quantification of individual carotenoids by high
performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-diode array detector
(DAD)
2.5.1. Carotenoids extraction and saponification
Carotenoids extractions and saponifications were conducted as
described by Jacobo-Velázquez and Hernández-Brenes (2012).
Extractions of carotenoids from the different ripening stages were
conducted under dark conditions and at room temperature. BHT
(0.1%) was added to all solvents used for extractions. Mango pulp
(2 g) with trans-b-apo-80 -carotenal was added as an internal
standard and homogenized with acetone (10 mL) using a
homogenizer (Power Gen 125, Fisher Scientific, Pittsburg, USA)
at 353 rps for 33 s. Thereafter, solid material was removed by
vacuum filtration using Whatman No.1 filter paper (New Jersey,
USA) and acetone extraction was recovered. This procedure was
repeated two more times to ensure total carotenoids extraction.
The acetone extracts were pooled and concentrated using a rotary
evaporator (Rotavapor R-215, Buchi, Flawil, Switzerland) operating
at 37  C, 1.6 rps and 30 kPa, until acetone was completely
evaporated (15 min).
The concentrated extracts were saponified with 1 mL of 9 M
KOH solution prepared with an equal volume of water-ethanol and
ascorbic acid (0.25 g) was added. Saponification reaction was
performed in a closed system under N2 for 12 h at room
temperature. Thereafter, the carotenoids from the saponified
extracts were recovered by performing a solvent extraction with
30 mL of equal volumes of petroleum ether and diethyl ether. After
carefully mixing the aqueous and ether phase for 1 min, separation
of phases was observed and the aqueous phase was discarded
(lower phase). Afterwards, the alkali was neutralized with water
(10 mL) and phenolphthalein was used as indicator. If an emulsion
was formed, a 30% NaCl solution (3 mL) was added to eliminate
emulsion between the ether and aqueous fractions.
The extracts were concentrated to dryness in a rotary
evaporator operating at 37  C, 1.6 rps and 70 kPa for 10 min. Finally,
the concentrated extract was re-suspended in isopropanol (1 mL).
Previous to HPLC analysis, the solutions were filtered through
polytetrafluoroethylene membranes with a pore size of 0.45 mm
(MillexTM, Millipore, Billerica, MA, USA).
The chromatographic separation of carotenoids was performed
with an HPLC system (Agilent Tecnologies 1260 Series, Santa Clara
CA. USA), equipped with a diode array detector (DAD) and a
4.6 mm  150 mm, 5 mm, C30 reverse-phase column (YMC carot-
enoid, Milford, Massachustes, USA). Elution conditions included
two mobile phases: phase A was methanol/water (96:4 v/v) and
 I.P. Ibarra-Garza et al. / Postharvest Biology and Technology 103 (2015) 45–54
phase B was MTBE. Gradient elution consisted in 0/95, 10/90,
40/55, 45/25, 50/0, 55/0, 57/95, 75/95 (min/%phase A) at a flow rate
of 0.0125 cm3 s
1. Chromatographs were recorded at 450 nm.
2.5.2. Identification of carotenoids by interpretation of UV–visible
spectra
Mango carotenoid identifications were performed by three
different methods: (a) by comparing the UV–visible spectra
characteristics of each chromatographic peak with previous
reports (Mercadante et al., 1997; Lee et al., 2001; Pott et al.,
2003; Chen et al., 2004; Ornelas-Paz et al., 2007; Ellingson et al.,
2010; Waters, 2010; Jacobo-Velázquez and Hernández-Brenes,
2012); (b) by comparison with the retention time and UV–visible
spectra characteristics of commercial standards; and (c) by order of
elution reported in previous work using similar chromatographic
conditions (Lee et al., 2001; Pott et al., 2003; Chen et al., 2004;
Ornelas-Paz et al., 2007; De Rosso and Mercadante, 2007; Waters,
2010; Jacobo-Velázquez and Hernández-Brenes, 2012).
2.5.3. Carotenoid quantification
For carotenoid quantifications, standard curves of all-trans-
b-carotene, trans-b-apo-80 -carotenal, all-trans-b-cryptoxanthin
and all-trans lutein were prepared. Stock solutions of all-trans-
b-carotene, all-trans-b-cryptoxanthin and trans-b-apo-80 -carote-
nal were dissolved in hexane and all-trans lutein in ethanol.
Solution concentrations were determined spectrophotometrically.
The concentration of carotenoids was calculated from Beer–
Lambert law using extinction coefficient previously reported in
literature; e1% 1 cm = 2470 at 450 nm for all-trans-b-carotene, e1%
1 cm = 2250 at 447 nm for trans-b-apo-80 -carotenal, e 1%
1 cm = 2250 at 445 nm for lutein (Jacobo-Velázquez and Hernán-
dez-Brenes, 2012) and e1% 1 cm = 2460 at 451 nm for all-trans-
b-cryptoxanthin (Hart and Scott, 1995). Then, standard curves
were re-suspended in isopropanol (1 mL) and 25 mL were injected
to the HPLC system.
2.6. Dietary fiber analyses
Total, soluble and insoluble dietary fibers were determined by
AOAC 991.43 and AOAC 985.29 methods using the total dietary
fiber assay kit from Megazyme (K-TDFR) (Wicklow, Ireland) (AOAC,
1997). Analyses were performed in duplicate and results were
expressed as mass of dietary fiber on a dry weight basis gram per
kilogram.
2.7. Statistical analysis
Data represent the mean value of repetitions and their standard
error. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted using JMP
statistical version 5.0 (SAS Institute Inc., USA) and means
separation was performed using LSD test (p < 0.05).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Changes in firmness, total soluble solids (TSS), moisture, titratable
acidity (TA), and pH values during ripening of mango cv. Keitt
Firmness values of Keitt mangoes ranged from 62.6 to 0.6 N
decreasing constantly during postharvest storage (Table 1). A high
decrease in firmness was observed between RS1 and RS2 (39%
loss), whereas from RS2 to RS5 firmness remained fairly constant.
However, firmness values from RS5 to RS6 resulted in the highest
decline between sampling points (27 N), which at last stage (RS6),
resulted in the loss of 99.2% of the firmness recorded at the
47
beginning of the study (Table 1). A similar behavior has been
reported for other mango varieties such as Harumanis (Ali et al.,
2004), Ataulfo (Palafox-Carlos et al., 2012) and Alphonso (Yashoda
et al., 2005). Fruit softening can be attributed to different factors
such as changes in cell wall, dissolution of middle lamella,
degradation of polysaccharides and enzymatic reactions catalyzed
by glycanases, glycosidades and esterases (Prasanna et al., 2007).
Changes in TSS and TA observed during ripening of mangoes cv.
Keitt are also shown in Table 1. As expected, TSS increased during
fruit ripening with values that ranged from 9% (RS1) to 17% (RS6).
The increase in TSS could be attributed to the conversion of starch
to glucose and fructose, which are used as substrates during fruit
respiration (Eskin et al., 2013). While TSS increased, the titratable
acids decreased from 0.90% to 0.65%. Also, acidity loss resulted in
slight increases in pH values during postharvest ripening (Table 1).
Results are consistent with prior work performed by Padda et al.
(2011), also with Keitt mango cultivar; however in their
study mangoes reached a lower titratable acidity level (0.2%)
after 12 d of postharvest storage. Differences in results can be
attributed to biological variability of the mango material used in
both studies but similar trends were observed. Declines in
titratable acidity during storage have been attributed to the
utilization of acids as substrates for respiration as well as to their
conversion to sugars by gluconeogenesis (Eskin et al., 2013).
Changes in moisture content during ripening of mangoes cv. Keitt
are shown in Table 1. The highest content of moisture (85%)
resulted at RS2, and the lowest content of moisture corresponded
to RS3 and RS5. A specific trend in moisture changes was not
observed, and thus the differences can be attributed to biological
variability of the mango material.
The acceptability of mango by consumers has been associated
with different physiochemical parameters of the fruit. For instance,
the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD, 1993) has a booklet on mango standards that includes
photographs illustrating flesh color from immature, partially
mature, mature and over-ripe mature. Comparing the information
from the OECD and the results obtained in the present study,
RS1 would result in inferior flavor and aroma and RS6 may have a
reduced shelf-life and cannot be catalogued as a high quality fruit.
Likewise, according to OECD mangoes from RS2 to RS5 would be
considered commercially mature. Regarding the potential uses of
mango as raw material for processing at the different ripening
stages, mangoes from RS4 to RS5 would be ideal for the production
of chips (Appiah et al., 2001). Likewise, mangoes with 11–14% of
TSS would be suitable for juice processing (Grassin and Coutel,
2009), which correspond to mangoes from RS3 to RS4.
3.2. Changes in instrumental color values during ripening of mango cv.
Keitt
Visual changes in color can be observed in Fig. 1, where mango
mesocarp changed from a light yellow to a dark yellow-orange
color. Results from instrumental color evaluation are shown in
Fig. 2. Mesocarp color exhibited a decline in L* value, which started
at 60.37 and was maintained with significant differences from RS2
to RS5 (Fig. 2A). However, at RS6 the lowest L* value (L* = 41) was
registered, which was visually perceived as the darkest mango
color. Likewise, CIE b* values were located initially in the yellow
scale and presented a decrease through postharvest storage
(Fig. 2B), showing the lowest value at RS6 (b* = 28). Regarding
CIE a* values, only slight changes with no clear trends were
observed during ripening (Fig. 2C). Hue angles also did not present
much variation between ripening stages (Fig. 2D); and Chroma
values decreased from 38 to 29 through ripening stages possibly
reflecting the loss of lightness and slight variations in hue tones of
the mango pulp (Fig. 2E). Since CIE a* slightly changed, analysis of
48 I.P. Ibarra-Garza et al. / Postharvest Biology and Technology 103 (2015) 45–54

Table 1
Firmness, pH value, titratable acidity (TA), total soluble solids (TSS), and moisture of Keitt mango at different ripening stages.

Ripening stage Firmness (N) pH TA (%) TSS (%) Moisture (%)

1 62.6  4.8 a 3.8  0.0
2 38.6  4.7 bc 3.9  0.0
3 36.7  4.1 bc 4.0  0.0
4 40.5  4.9 b 3.8  0.0
5 27.7  2.5 c 3.7  0.0
6 0.6  0.2 d 3.9  0.0
b 0.90  0.02
a 0.64  0.00
b 0.77  0.02
b 0.89  0.01
c 0.99  0.01
b 0.65  0.01
b 9.0  0.0 e 81.8  0.1 b
d 10.1  0.1 d 85.1  0.0 a
c 12.3  0.3 c 78.9  0.0 d
b 12.7  0.1 c 82.0  0.0 b
a 16.0  0.0 b 79.2  0.0 d
d 17.0  0.0 a 80.6  0.0 c

Data represents the mean of four replicates ( their standard error). Different letters within the same column indicates statistical difference by the LSD test (p < 0.05) between
ripening stages.

CIE b* or Chroma value could be more representative to observed
changes in color through ripening processing. As observed in the
present study, a previous report also showed that the increase in
the yellow-orange intensity of mango mesocarp is accompanied
with a decrease in L* value, which is associated with an increase in
carotenoid content of the fruit (Ornelas-Paz et al., 2008).
3.3. Change in total phenolics content (TPC), ascorbic acid, and
antioxidant capacity (ORAC value) during ripening
Variations in TPC of Keitt mangoes at different ripening stages
are shown in Fig. 3A. At RS1, the TPC was 3967 mg kg
1 and it
increased by 54% at RS2. At RS3, TPC returned to the original levels
(RS1) and only slight changes were observed during the following
ripening stages (Fig. 3A). A similar increase in TPC, after 4 d of
postharvest storage, has also been reported for mango cv. Tommy
Atkins (Kim et al., 2009). However, there are reports indicating no
changes or even decreases in TPC during ripening of Ataulfo mango
(Robles-Sánchez et al., 2009; Robles-Sánchez et al., 2009).
Climacteric fruits, such as mango are characterized by ethylene
biosynthesis and an increase in respiration rate during the ripening
process (White, 2002), which is called climacteric peak, where
there is a sudden rise in respiration rate and after this point, the
respiration rate decreases to the basal point (Prasanna et al., 2007).
According to previous reports by Mitcham and McDonald (1992),
Keitt mango recorded its climacteric peak during a ripening stage
with similar firmness values to those observed between RS1 and
RS2 in the present work. Thus, the increase in TPC could be
attributed to the increase in ripening and the associated
respiratory processes. It has been proposed that respiratory
processes generate free radicals at the end of the electron
transport chain (Jacobo-Velázquez et al., 2011; Masibo and He,
2008). To avoid oxidation, synthesis of TPC can increase in order to
improve the antioxidant defense mechanism of the plant tissue
(Palafox-Carlos, 2012; Jacobo-Velázquez et al., 2011, 2015).
Total ascorbic acid content at different ripening stages is shown
in Fig. 3B. At RS1 ascorbic acid content was 1271 mg kg
1. Then, at
RS2 the ascorbic acid content increased by 133%, in reference to
initial levels, and at RS3 the content decreased significantly to
2136 mg kg
1 but continued higher than the initial content.
Thereafter, at RS4 ascorbic acid content increased by 13% as
compared to RS3 and remained constant from RS4 to RS5. Finally,
at RS6 the ascorbic acid content decreased by 54% as compared to
RS5, showing the lowest value among all ripening stages. This
trend is consistent with previous reports for the same variety
(Hernández et al., 2006; Gomez and Lajolo, 2008), as well as for
Carabao (Morga et al., 1979) and Kent (Islas-Osuna et al., 2010). In
most of these studies, mango presented a loss of ascorbic acid up to
50% after ripening process.
It has been found that ethylene produced during fruit ripening
can increase ascorbic acid content to aid ripening (Nnyepi et al.,
2005); which can explain the increase of ascorbic acid observed
from RS1 to RS2. Likewise, the accumulation of ascorbic acid
observed in RS2 could have different uses in the fruit. For instance,
it can be used to neutralize free radicals, for the biosynthesis of
plant hormones (ethylene and gibberellic acid), and can serve as
substrate for oxalate and tartrate biosynthesis. Likewise, ascorbic
acid is oxidized by violaxanthin de-epoxidase in the xanthophyll
cycle (Davey et al., 2000). Thus, decreases of ascorbic acid
concentration observed from RS3 to RS6 could be attributed to
its different functions during fruit ripening.
Changes in ORAC values during ripening of Keitt mango (Fig. 3C)
showed a similar behavior as that observed for TPC values (Fig. 3A).
RS1 showed an antioxidant capacity of 19.6 mmol kg
1, which
increased by 135% at RS2. Then, at RS3 ORAC values decreased by
54% in contrast with RS2. Thereafter, at RS4 the ORAC values
increased to 23.2 mmol kg
1 and remained almost constant during
the following ripening stages. Since the ORAC value was obtained
from a methanol extract containing mainly polar compounds such
as phenolic compounds and ascorbic acid, a correlation analysis
was performed to determine their contribution to the antioxidant
capacity of Keitt mango (Jacobo-Velázquez and Cisneros-Zevallos,
2009). A positive high correlation between TPC and ORAC value
was observed (R2 = 0.88), whereas the correlation between

Fig. 1. Keitt mango at six ripening stages (RS). Ripening stages were obtained by storing mangoes at room temperature during 10 d. Each ripening stage correspond to
mangoes collected every 2 d.
 I.P. Ibarra-Garza et al. / Postharvest Biology and Technology 103 (2015) 45–54 49

Fig. 2. Changes in CIE color values of Keitt mango during ripening. (A) Lightness, (B) b* value, (C) a* value, (D) Hue angle, (E) Chroma value. Values represent the mean of
3 replications and their standard error bars. Different letters indicates statistical difference by the LSD test (p < 0.05).

ascorbic acid and ORAC was low (R2 = 0.30), indicating that the
antioxidant activity of mangoes can be mainly attributed to the
phenolic compounds.
3.4. Carotenoid analysis
A typical HPLC chromatogram of carotenoids present in mango
cv. Keitt is shown in Fig. 4, and the tentative identification of each
chromatographic peak is presented in Table 2. According to
tentative identifications, the main carotenoids present were all
trans-b carotene, cis-lutein, zeinoxanthin, all trans violaxanthin, all
trans-a-carotene, all-trans-b-cryptoxanthin, 13 or 15-cis-a-caro-
tene, 9-cis-b carotene, cis-zea carotene, and 13-cis-b carotene. A
previous study on the identification of carotenoids from Keitt
cultivar identified three mango carotenoids that also included all
trans-b carotene as majoritarian, but observed all-trans violaxan-
thin, and 9-cis violaxanthin (Mercadante et al., 1997). Similar
carotenoid profiles to the ones presented here for cv Keitt, have
50 I.P. Ibarra-Garza et al. / Postharvest Biology and Technology 103 (2015) 45–54

Fig. 3. (A) Total phenolics content, (B) ascorbic acid content, and (C) oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) of Keitt mango at different ripening stages. Results are
expressed on a dry weight basis Data represents the mean of five replications and their standard error bar. Different letters indicates statistical difference by the LSD test
(p < 0.05).

been reported for other varieties such as Ataulfo, Manila, Criollo, 9-cis-violaxanthin (Ornelas-Paz et al., 2007; De Rosso and
Paraíso, Haden, Kent, Tommy Atkins where the predominant Mercadante, 2007). Differences in carotenoid profiles obtained
carotenoids were all-trans-b carotene, all-trans-violaxanthin and herein and those previously reported could be attributed to factors

Fig. 4. Typical HPLC–DAD mango carotenoid chromatograms (shown at 450 nm) obtained at the first ripening stage of Keitt mango. Tentative identification of
chromatographic peaks was performed as indicated in Table 2.
 I.P. Ibarra-Garza et al. / Postharvest Biology and Technology 103 (2015) 45–54 51

Table 2
Tentative identification of carotenoids in Keitt mango by HPLC–DAD.

Peak number (retention time in min)a lmaxb Tentative identification Method identificationc
1 (16) 414, 437, 467 all trans-violaxanthin A,C
2 (18.34) 453 NI
3 (19.37) 447 NI
4 (21.84) 413, 438, 467 all trans-lutein A,B,C
5 (22.87) 414, 438,469 cis-lutein A,C
6 (25.44) (270), 464 trans-b-apo-80 -carotenal B
7 (29.74) 473 NI
8 (30.75) 470 NI
9 (32.33) 414, 440, 470 Zeinoxanthin A,C
10 (33.93) 421, 445, 472 all trans-b cryptoxanthin A,B,C
11 (34.49) 419, 445, 472 13-cis-a carotene or 15-cis-a carotene A,C
12 (36.37) 415, 441, 469 trans-a-carotene A,C
13 (36.62) 413, 438, 465 di-cis-b carotene A,C
14 (39.77) 427, 451, 478 all trans-b carotene A,B,C
15 (40.26) 416, 439, 469 9-cis-b carotene A,C
16 (43.01) 415, 440, 469 13-cis-b carotene A,C
17 (43.46) 416, 441, 469 Possible carotene NI
18 (44.36) 413, 437, 470 Possible carotene NI
19 (45.24) 417, 441, 469 Possible carotene NI
20 (45.91) 420, 445, 468 Possible carotene NI
21 (46.38) 418, 441, 469 Possible carotene NI
22 (46.84) 339, 422, 448 cis-zea carotene A,C
23 (47.13) 417, 441, 470 Possible carotene NI

NI = Not identified.
a
Number of peak assigned according to the order of elution from the C30 stationary phase (Fig. 5).
b
Wavelengths of maximum absorption in the UV–visible spectra of each peak, values in parentheses indicates shoulder in the peak.
c
Method applied for the identification of the peak: (A) identification by comparing UV–visible spectra and wavelengths of maximum absorption reported. (B) By
comparison with the retention time and UV–visible spectra characteristics as compared with commercial standards; (C) identification by order of chromatographic elution
reported.

such as ripening stage, variety, geographic and climatic effects,
processing and storage conditions (Mercadante and Rodríguez-
Amaya, 1998).
3.5. Changes in carotenoid contents during ripening of mango cv. Keitt
Carotenoid concentrations at the different RS of mango cv. Keitt
are presented in Table 3. From RS1 to RS4, total carotenoid contents
were non-significantly different. Then, at RS5 total carotenoid
concentrations decreased by 52% in contrast with RS4, and two
days later, at RS6 the highest carotenoid contents were observed
among all ripening stages (67.1 mg kg
1).
In order to observe potential metabolic trends, carotenoid peaks
were also grouped as sums of total carotenes and total xantophylls.
Changes in total carotene contents followed a similar pattern to
that observed for total carotenoids, where no differences were

Table 3
Carotenoids quantification in Keitt mango by HPLC–DAD.

Peak number Tentative identification Ripening stages (mg kg
1)

1 2 3 4 5 6

1 all trans-violaxanthin 3.3  0.1 a 3.8  0.2 a 3.1  0.3 a ND ND ND

4 all trans-lutein 3.0  0.1 a 3.0  0.1 a 2.7  0.2 a ND ND ND
5 cis-lutein 7.2  0.6 ab 5.8  0.2 bc 5.4  0.3 c 6.1  0.5 abc ND 7.3  0.1 a
9 Zeinoxanthin 3.3  0.1 ab 3.1  0.1 ab 2.8  0.1 b 3.4  0.4 ab ND 3.5  0.0 a
10 all trans-b cryptoxanthin 1.2  0.0 b 0.9  0.0 b 0.9  0.0 b 1.0  0.0 b 0.6  0.0 c 1.7  0.1 a
11 13-cis-a carotene or 15-cis-a carotene 1.3  0.0 b 1.3  0.1 b 1.4  0.0 b 1.7  0.0 a 0.6  0.0 c 1.4  0.0 b
12 trans-a-carotene 2.3  0.1 ab 1.9  0.1 b 2.1  0.1 b 2.2  0.0 b 0.8  0.0 c 2.7  0.0 a
13 di-cis-b carotene 0.9  0.1 ab 0.7  0.0 b 0.9  0.1 ab 1.0  0.0 a ND ND
14 all trans-b carotene 15.2  0.5 bc 16.6  0.6 bc 16.1  0.3 bc 18.3  0.4 b 13.8  0.1 c 41.4  2.6 a
15 9 cis-b carotene 1.1  0.0 a 0.7  0.0 b 1.1  0.0 a 0.6  0.0 b ND 1.0  0.1 a
16 13 cis-b carotene 0.3  0.0 b 0.4  0.0 b ND 0.7  0.0 a 0.3  0.0 b 0.6  0.0 a
17 Possible carotene 0.3  0.0 b 0.6  0.1 a 0.4  0.0 ab ND ND 0.3  0.0 ab
18 Possible carotene 0.8  0.0 abc 0.5  0.2 bc 1.0  0.0 ab 1.1  0.0 a 0.4  0.0 c 1.1  0.0 a
19 Possible carotene 1.2  0.0 ab 1.1  0.0 b 1.2  0.0 ab 1.4  0.0 ab 0.6  0.0 c 1.5  0.1 a
20 Possible carotene 0.8  0.0 ab 1.0  0.0 a 0.8  0.1 ab 1.0  0.0 a 0.6  0.0 b 1.1  0.1 a
21 Possible carotene 1.2  0.0 a 1.2  0.0 a 1.1  0.1 a 1.2  0.0 a 0.7  0.0 b 1.4  0.0 a
22 cis-zea carotene 0.4  0.0 b 0.6  0.0 ab 0.8  0.1 a 0.5  0.0 ab 0.4  0.0 b 0.6  0.1 ab
23 Possible carotene 0.4  0.0 bc 0.5  0.0 ab 0.5  0.0 ab 0.4  0.0 bc 0.3  0.0 c 0.6  0.1 a
Total carotenoids 44.8  1.0 b 44.7  1.4 b 42.6  2.5 b 41.1  0.8 b 19.5  1.4 c 67.1  3.7 a
Total carotenes 26.6  1.2 b 27.8  1.1 b 28.2  1.0 b 30.6  0.3 b 18.9  1.4 c 54.4  3.9 a
Total xantophylls 18.2  0.2 a 16.8  0.3 ab 14.4  1.5 bc 10.5  1.1 d 0.6  0.0 e 12.6  0.2 cd
RAE 1.5  0.0 bc 1.6  0.0 b 1.6  0.0 b 1.8  0.0 b 1.2  0.0 c 3.7  0.2 a

Xanthophylls were quantified by all-trans lutein standard curve and carotenes were quantified by all-trans b carotene standard curve.
ND = not detected.
Data represents the mean of three replicates ( their standard error) and results were expressed on a dry weight basis. Different letters within the same row indicates
statistical difference by the LSD test (p < 0.05) between ripening stages.
RAE = retinol activity equivalents.
52 I.P. Ibarra-Garza et al. / Postharvest Biology and Technology 103 (2015) 45–54
observed from RS1 to RS4, at RS5 total carotene contents
diminished, and at RS6, the highest concentrations were observed
(Table 3). As previously mentioned, all trans-b-carotene were the
main carotenoid in mango. At RS1, all trans-b-carotene corre-
sponded to 33% of total carotenoids (15.2 mg kg
1) and during
ripening increased to achieve the 61% of total carotenoids
(41.4 mg kg
1) at RS6.
The sum of xanthophylls showed a decrease in concentration
from RS1 to RS5; the highest concentration (18.2 mg kg
1) was
observed at RS1, while at RS5 xanthophylls almost disappeared.
However, at RS6 xanthophylls were detected again at levels of
12.6 mg kg
1, with cis-lutein being the major xanthophyll present.
A decrease in cis-lutein content was observed from RS1 to RS3
(7.2–5.4 mg kg
1). At RS4, a slight increase in cis-lutein content was
registered; but at RS5 cis-lutein was not detected. However, at RS6,
cis-lutein concentration increased to 7.3 mg kg
1 reaching similar
levels to the ones initially present at RS1.
Some carotenoids are provitamin A in humans, therefore in this
study the following carotenoids were considered in the calcu-
lations of vitamin A equivalents: all trans-b carotene, all trans-
a-carotene, all-trans-b-cryptoxanthin, 13 or 15-cis-a-carotene and
9-cis-b carotene. Vitamin A value was expressed as retinol activity
equivalents (RAE) (Table 3). Very slight differences in RAE were
observed between RS1 and RS4. As observed for total carotenoid
contents, RS5 resulted with the lowest vitamin A content.
However, at RS6 vitamin A increased up to 3.7 mg kg
1, which
represented an increment of 139% in contrast with RS1 (1.5 mg
kg
1).
Development of yellow coloration during ripening of mangoes
has been associated with the accumulation of carotenoids in the
mesocarp tissue, and carotenogenesis. Carotene accumulation
have been reported by several authors and in different mango
cultivars, such as Tommy Atkins (Vásquez-Caicedo et al., 2006),
Manila and Ataulfo (Ornelas-Paz et al., 2008) and Thai (Vásquez-
Caicedo et al., 2005).
Xantophylls are used as precursors for the production of
abscisic acid (ABA) (Taylor et al., 2005), which is a plant hormone
involved in different functions during fruit ripening, such as cell
wall metabolism and fruit softening, sugar, acid and ethylene
metabolisms (Setha, 2012). Therefore, results suggest that the
decline in xantophylls levels observed during fruit ripening is due
to their utilization for ABA production. Furthermore, plants are
able to synthesize carotenoids de novo and as ripening process
continue, some carotenoids can increase from zero to high
concentrations in a few days (Yahia and Ornelas-Paz, 2009).
Increases in cis-lutein observed during storage appear to be
associated to lutein biosynthesis, since parallel increases were
observed for zeinoxanthin and cryptoxanthin contents, which have
been reported as precursors (Kim and DellaPenna, 2006).
3.6. Changes in dietary fiber during ripening of mango cv. Keitt
Variations in total dietary fiber, including total soluble and
insoluble concentrations, observed in mango pulp at different
ripening stages are shown in Fig. 5. At RS1 mango registered a total
dietary fiber (TDF) content of 78.9 g kg
1 where 43% represented
soluble dietary fiber (SDF) and 56% was insoluble dietary fiber
(IDF). Significantly higher concentrations of both fiber types (SDF
and IDF) were then observed in the following four ripening stages
(RS2–RS5). However, at the last stage (RS6), a significant decrease
of 13% of TDF was observed in reference to initial levels (RS1) and a
decrease by 31% in reference to the prior stage (RS5). Concen-
trations of both SDF and IDF also declined significantly from RS5 to
RS6 (36% and 40%, respectively).
Contributions of SDF and IDF to the total dietary fiber
concentrations were almost equal through the different ripening
Fig. 5. Soluble, insoluble and total dietary fiber content in Keitt mango from
ripening stages 1 to 6. Results were expressed on a dry weight basis. Data represent
the mean of two replication and bars indicates their standard error. Different letters
indicates statistical difference (p < 0.05) by the LSD test.
stages presented in this study, with small variations in which the
level of SDF was slightly higher. The first and last ripening stages
presented SDF/IDF ratios of 0.76 and 0.83, respectively. Moreover,
RS2, RS3, RS4 and RS5 registered higher ratios (0.88–0.96).
Mahattanatawee et al. (2006) reported on the difference between
TDF contents at green (100 g kg
1) and ripe (80 g kg
1) stages of
mango cv. Keitt, and also indicated lower levels at the beginning
and at the end of postharvest storage. Compared to other mango
varieties, TDF contents of Keitt mango reported here were lower
than values reported for mango cv. Pickle (200 g kg
1); however, at
some ripening stages, values were higher than those reported for
Panchadara Kalasa mango (80 g kg
1) (Ramulu and Rao, 2003).
These two varieties presented SDF/IDF ratios of 1.1 and 1.6,
respectively, which appears similar or higher than values reported
herein for Keitt mango.
The losses in total dietary fiber were also consistent with declines
in firmness (Table 1), discussed previously. Biochemical changes in
fiber have been attributed to structural changes, polysaccharides
degradation and enzymatic activity (Tharanathan et al., 2006).
Dietary fiber components are grouped as water-soluble fibers
(pectins, gums and b-glucan) and water insoluble fibers (cellulose,
hemicellulose and lignin). In different studies it have been reported
that pectic fractions diminish through the ripening stages in
Alphonso (Yashoda et al., 2005), Tommy Atkins (Mitcham and
McDonald, 1992) and Keitt (Yashoda et al., 2005). In those reports,
water-soluble and alkali-soluble pectin decreased during ripening
stages. Additionally, it has been found that hemicellulose also
decrease during ripening (Mitcham and McDonald, 1992), whereas
cellulose remains almost the same with a slight increment (Yashoda
et al., 2005; Mitcham and McDonald, 1992).
4. Conclusion
In the present study, the levels of nutraceuticals (vitamin C,
phenolic compounds, dietary fiber, carotenoids) as well as other
physicochemical characteristics (total soluble solids, titratable
acidity, and firmness) were characterized at different ripening
stages of Keitt mango. The scientific information presented herein
is of importance for the mango industry and for consumers, since it
provides knowledge to guide their selection towards an appropri-
ate ripening stage that will deliver the highest concentration of a
specific bioactive molecule. For instance, RS2 presented the
highest values of phenolic compounds, ascorbic acid and antioxi-
dant capacity, whereas the highest levels of total dietary fiber were
observed from RS2 to RS5. Furthermore, the main carotenoid
 I.P. Ibarra-Garza et al. / Postharvest Biology and Technology 103 (2015) 45–54
identified was all trans-b carotene, and its highest levels were
detected at last ripening stage. Likewise, RS6 showed the lowest
values in ascorbic acid and total dietary fiber. Identifying changes
through the ripening process will benefit the production of high-
quality mango products. For instance, for the consumption of raw
mango, RS1 would result in inferior flavor and aroma and RS6 may
have a reduced shelf-life and cannot be catalogued as a quality
fruit. Likewise, mangoes from RS2 to RS5 would be considered in
their commercial maturity. On the other hand, mangoes from
RS4 to RS5 would be ideal for the production of chips. Likewise,
mangoes with 11–14% of TSS would be suitable for juice
processing; which correspond to mangoes from RS3 to RS4.
Acknowledgments
This research was funded by Tecnológico de Monterrey
Micronutrient (CAT198) and Proeza Research Chairs, and by the
Mexican National Council for Research and Technology (CONACyT)
Master of Science scholarship no. 344189 to author I. P. I. G. We also
are grateful to Mr. Felipe Prado from Citrofrut S.A de C.V. from
Proeza Group, Sinaloa, Mexico for providing the mango cv Keitt
material used in this study.
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