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University ALUMNI Aberystwyth
1987 2001
The story thus far
Cunliffe (2001) : theory of [Proto-] Celtic
orginating as the lingua franca of Atlantic Europe
compatible with, but does not require,
Renfrew’s (1987) theory of Indo-European
expanding with farming from Anatolia
[Alternative theories of the Indo-European homeland and
expansion will be returned to shortly.]
¶Reconciling the theories. . .
¶A conceptual/cognitive problem:
“Since we know Indo-European [=? the Indo-Europeans] came
to western Europe from the east, how could Celtic [=? the Celts]
possibly have come from the west?”
¶What is this problem?! [possibly an important stumbling bock]
Why is it inherently more likely that Italo-Celtic (or Late PIE)
lost its *p (with whatever other defining innovations) in central
Europe, thus first becoming Celtic there, rather than expanding
into the territory of p-less non-Indo-European languages
[Iberian and Palaeo-Basque] to the west and becoming Celtic in
the process?
Speculations on possible bases for the conceptual hang-up
¶IE expansion like the Big Bang with only continuous outward
momentum from a point of origin
¶similarly, as a family tree, with branches growing only outward
literally, geographically
¶thinking of languages (IE and Celtic) only as proxies for
group identities (Indo-Europeans and Celts) and imaginging
anachronistically that THE CELTS had existed in a larval state inside
the Indo-Europeans from the beginning, before the weakening of *p
had occurred, or any of the other sound changes defining Celtic – so
Celts before Celtic
¶supposing that prehistoric speakers of Indo-European languages
as chronic landlubbers incapable of sailing around the European
peninsula, but only walking, riding, or rolling across it (except for
somehow reaching Britain and Ireland)[tied into kurgan theory of IE]
 Cunliffe’s Celtic as lingua franca theory and the theory of Celtic
emerging through substratum influence (Iberian and/or Palaeo-
Basque) are so compatible that they are best dealt with as a
single theory. The key sound change, which has often been used
to define the emergence of Celtic from PIE, is the weakening of
IE *p. The likelihood that this sound shift occurred as a result of
contact with p-less Iberian has been proposed independently
by McCone (1996, 43), Ballester (2004, 114–117; 2012, 10–11),
Schrijver (2011), and Koch (2011, 171; 2013a, 264–5).
Ballester, X. 2004a ‘Hablas indoeuropeas y anindoeuropeas en la Hispania prerromana’, Real Academia de
Cultura Valenciana, sección de estudios ibéricos. Estudios de lenguas y epigrafía antiguas – ELEA 6, 107–38.
Ballester, X. 2012b Falas Indo-Europeias e Anindo-Europeias na Hispânia Pré-Romana. Lisboa, Apenas Livros.
Koch, J. T. 2011 Tartessian 2: The Inscription of Mesas do Castelinho, ro and the Verbal Complex, Preliminaries
to Historical Phonology. Aberystwyth: University of Wales Centre for Advanced Welsh and Celtic Studies.
McCone, K. R. 1996 Towards a Relative Chronology of Ancient and Medieval Celtic Sound Change. Maynooth
Studies in Celtic Linguistics I. Department of Old and Middle Irish, St Patrick’s College, Maynooth.
Schrijver, P. 2011 ‘Pruners and Trainers of the Celtic Family Tree: the Rise and Development of Celtic in the
Light of Language Contact’ (handout), XIVth International Congress of Celtic Studies, Maynooth.
For McCone Palaeo-Basque/Aquitanian, which was
also very probably p-less (Michelena 1977, 261;
Trask 1997, 126; Egurtzegi 2013, 146), was also a
likely factor.

Michelena, L. 1977 Fonética histórica vasca, 2nd edn. (first

published 1961). Donostia–San Sebastián.
Trask, R. L. 1997. The History of Basque. London, Routledge.
Egurtzegi, A. K. 2013 ‘4. Phonetics and Phonology’, Basque and
Proto-Basque: Language-Internal and Typological Approaches
to Linguistic Reconstruction, Minority Language Studies vol 5,
ed. M. Martínez-Areta, 119–72. Frankfurt, Peter Lang.
This theory can be extended beyond the fate of IE *p. The stop consonants in a
Late PIE of the western ‘Centum’ variety were as follows (McCone 1996, 43):
I p t k kw
[b] d g gw
bh dh gh gwh

At the next stage, it is possible that Proto-Italo-Celtic developed the following

system proposed by Schrijver (2012):
Schrijver, P. 2012 ‘The Origin of Celtic: How, When, Where?’ The Anders Ahlqvist
Lecture 12/6/2012 (handout), Helsinki.

II p t k kw
[b] d g gw realized phonetically as lenis [β δ γ] in Proto-Celtic
β δ γ γw

Whether or not Pre-Celtic shared these Proto-Italic developments, specifically

Celtic innovations occurred afterwards. First, *gw shifted its articulation to merge
with the rare inherited *b, as the henceforth more common *b. After that, *b *d *g
and the reflexes of *bh *dh *gh of Stage I merged as *b *d *g.
PC merged the reflexes of PIE */b d g/ (now including the output of */b/ <
*/gw/) and those of */bh dh gh/ as */b d g/. Another PC development was the
weakening and, in most phonetic environments, eventual loss of */p/. The
following, much reduced, PC system resulted.

III _ t k kw
b d g gw

Michelena’s ‘sistema fonológico principal del vasco antiguo’ is as follows

(1977, 374; cf. Trask 1997, 124–36).

fortes: _ t c ć k N L R
lenes: b d s ś g n l r

The key point presently is that an adult who spoke Palaeo-Basque as his
first language would find Centum PIE and Proto-Italo-Celtic relatively
difficult to pronounce. The sound system to which he was conditioned
lacked p, kw, gw, bh, dh, gh, and gwh (or Proto-Italo-Celtic p, kw, gw, β, δ, γ,
γw). But, as far as the stop consonants were concerned, PC presented less
difficulty. Only the labio-velars (kw and gw[ or γw]) had no counterpart.
If a speaker of Palaeo-Basque learned Centum PIE or Proto-Italo-
Celtic, but failed to acquire the sound system, the result would
resemble Proto-Celtic, at least for this part of the consonant system.
We know less about Iberian phonology, as the language has
not survived, but the evidence suggests that, as well as being
specifically p-less, its sound system in general was more similar to
that of Palaeo-Basque than to that of either Centum PIE or Proto-
Italo-Celtic (cf. Trask 1997, 381–3).1 Therefore, there is explanatory
potential in the idea that speakers of the indigenous non-Indo-
European languages of south-west Europe contributed to the
transformation of PIE (or Italo-Celtic) into Celtic.
1 The idea that Iberian and Basque are closely related is not widely accepted, but
continues to be developed by some researchers (e.g. Ferrer i Jané 2009). In the light of
their geographical proximity and apparently similar sound systems, it has been difficult
to disprove the possibility conclusively (cf. Trask 1997, 378–88).
Ferrer i Jané, J. 2009 ‘El sistema de numerales ibérico: avances en su conocimiento’,
Acta Palaeohispanica X / Palaeohispanica 9, 451–79.
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Historical homelands of the
Indo-European languages
 efforts to combine archaeology & linguistics (doomed?)
theories of the Indo-European homeland and expansion
6500–5000 BP (1), 9000/10,000 BP (2) to 20,000+ BP (4)
1. ‘the traditional steppe homeland (“Kurgan”) model’ (Gimbutas; Mallory; Anthony)
Gimbutas, M. 1970 ‘Proto-Indo-European Culture: The Kurgan Culture During the 5th to the 3rd millennia BC’, Indo-
European and Indo-Europeans, ed. G. Cardona, H. M. Koenigswald & A. Senn, 155–98. Philadelphia, University of
Pennsylvania Press.
Mallory, J. P. 1989 In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth. London, Thames and Hudson.
Anthony, D. 2007 The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the
Modern World, Princeton, Princeton University Press.
2. ‘the farming/language dispersal model’ (Renfrew; Cunliffe; Heggarty)
Heggarty P. 2014 ‘Prehistory by Bayesian Phylogenetics? The State of the Art on Indo-European Origins’, Antiquity 88,
566–577.
Renfrew, A. C. 1999 ‘Time Depth, Convergence Theory, and Innovation in Proto-Indo-European: “Old Europe” as a PIE
Linguistic Area’, Journal of Indo-European Studies 27, 257–93.

3. Gamkrelidze & Ivanov – northern Mesopotamia

Gamkrelidze, T, V. & V, V. Ivanov 1995 Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical
Analysis of a Proto-Language and a Proto-Culture. Berlin, Mouton de Gruyter.

4. Palaeolithic Continuity Paradigm (PCP) (Alinei, Otte, Ballester, Benozzo)

Otte, M. 2012 ‘Les Indo-européens sont arrivés en Europe avec Cro-Magnon’, Aires linguistiques, aires culturelles—
Études de concordances en Europe occidentales : zones Manches et Atlantique, ed. D. Le Brise, 13–34. Brest, Centre
de Recherche Bretonne et Celtique.
 T
he Sanscrit language,
whatever be its antiquity, is of
a wonderful structure; more
perfect than the Greek,
more copious than the Latin, and
more ­exquisitely refined than
­e ither, yet bearing to both of them a strong-
er affinity, both in the roots of verbs and the
forms of grammar, than could possibly have
been produced by accident; so strong indeed,
that no philologer could examine them all
three, without believing them to have sprung
from some common source, which, perhaps,
no longer exists; there is a similar reason,
though not quite so forcible, for suppos-
Sir William ‘Orientalist’ Jones ing that both the Gothic and the Celtic,
1746–1794 though blended with a very different idiom,
had the same origin with the Sanscrit; and the
1786: the discovery of Indo-European old Persian might be added to the same family.
‘...some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists...’
The essence of the Indo-European theory (in which the
analogy of Rome, Latin, and the Romance ­languages is strong) entails,
for every systematically related family of languages, (1) a single ­dialectally
undifferentiated common ­ancestor, (2) as the property of a culturally unified
community, who (3) once occupied a geographically compact homeland.
But that could be Wrong.
Not unlike the tres linguae sacrae reflecting the perfect pre-Babel language —
in the light of modern linguistic science, Hebrew is out and Sanskrit is in.

Not everyone will agree on this, but . . . a general proposal: The main purpose for
seeking to combine historical linguistics and prehistoric archaeology is to understand more
fully and meaningfully, as we can understand the historical past, the people and events
of the real world in times and places for which we lack written records. Finding the
Indo-European homeland is not an essential part of this mission statement.
 family-tree
models and their
shortcomings

Welsh

August Schleicher (1821 – 1868)

August worked out an IE family tree.
 Mallory [ 23 ]

More IE
family trees:
structures of
nodes and Tocharian Anatolian

splits
Celtic Italic

Albanian Germanic

Greek
Hamp, E. P. (with D. Q. Armenian
Adams) 2013 The
Expansion of the Indo-
European Languages:
An Indo-Europeanist’s
Evolving View, Sino- Iranian
Platonic Papers Baltic
Indic
Slavic
239, Philadelphia,
Department of East
Asian Languages Ringe, D., T. Warnow & A. Taylor 2002 ‘Indo-
and Civilizations, European
1.4. A simplified version and
of the IE tree after RingeComputational
et al. 2002, indicating the closeCladistics’,
association between Italic and Celtic

University of Transactions of the Philological Society 100/1,

Pennsylvania. 59–129.
alternatives to the Heggarty, P., W. Maguire, & A. M. S. McMahon
2010 ‘Splits or Waves? Trees or Webs? How
family-tree model 1: Divergence Measures and Network Analysis
can Unravel Language Histories’, Philosophical
Heggarty et al. 2010 Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological
Sciences 365: 3829–43. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0099
The gist for present puposes:
• The splits of the family-tree model are a more accurate
representation of a historical situation in which a linguistic
community is divided by migration with subsequent loss of contact.
• Wave models, with cross-cutting isoglosses, are better
repesentations for the continuum that results when a language
gradually expands to fill a territory with ongoing contact and
sustained mutual intelligibility.
• The long history of the Indo-European languages involved both
processes.
 more Ancient Celtic evidence, this brings us closer to Indo-European, but unsettles

alternatives to the family-tree model

4.2. Robb’s (1993) model 2:over timeRobb 1993
of linguistic diversity

population density
low high

low
low linguistic diversity high linguistic diversity

agriculture
dialect
continuums
Robb, J. 1993 ‘A
Social Prehistory tribal dialects
of European large-scale c. 10,000–
Languages’, Antiquity political 5000 BC
regional trade
67, 747–60. integration languages
c. 3000 BC

pidgins and
creoles
c. 1000 BC

high
low linguistic diversity
alternatives
[ 106 ] to the family-tree model 3: Garrett 2006
iv. the Flow and Ebb of the Europe an Bronze Age ]]

Ἕλληνες

Garrett, A. 1999 ‘A new model of Indo-European Garrett, A. 2006 ‘Convergence in the Formation of Indo-
4.1. Garrett’s (2006) interpretationEuropean
of the emergence of the Mycenaean
Subgroups: Greek and Chronology’,
Phylogeny
subgrouping and dispersal’, Proceedings of the
and the dialects of the classical period from Indo-European
Twenty-Fifth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Phylogenetic Methods and the Prehistory of Languages, ed.
Linguistics Society, February 12–15, 1999, ed. P. Forster & C. Renfrew, McDonald Institute Monographs,
S. S. Chang, L. Liaw, J. Ruppenhofer, 146–56. 139–151. Cambridge, McDonald Institute for Archaeological
3. Mycenaean’s phonology
Berkeley, Berkeley Linguistics Society. and morphology
Research. show few of the innovations shared
by the classical-period Greek dialects; it thus remains essentially ‘Nuclear
Indo-European’ in its development (i.e. post-laryngeal Indo-European after the
 [ 108 ] iv. the Flow and Ebb of the European Bronze Age
alternatives to the family-tree model 4:
]]

Garrett 2006 applied to Celtic

4.3. Garrett’s (2006) model extended to Celtic, mutatis mutandis

 People of {
LIPPOS H

î î
î

î
%
% KONIMBRIGA

î
40N 40N 40N

îî î
î
150 km

the stelae

î
î
î

î
î
î
î
H COLLIPO

î
8W 4W
H

î
î

î
î
56 Almoroquí
Almoroqui

— the South- LAEPIA

î î

î
î
SCALLABIS

î î

î
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B
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H LACIPEA Cabeza

western (a.k.a.
del Buey
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îîî
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îî

îî
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Tartessian)

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î
î

îî

î
H

îîî
î
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î
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î
Almaraz Alcácer do IULIPA
Sal/Abul UAMA
?beuibon

inscriptions in
SALACIA/
SALACIA
SALACIA
H%KALLIPOUS
CANTIPO

B
î
Castelo de

î
Moura 54 Capote

B Bî B
the context HEPORA?

B
B

B B

î
B B

î
TUROBRIGA

î
B B

î
HIPORCA IPTUCI H

î
HIPSCA
of the stelae, % Río Tinto
IPONUBA
H HIPPO NOVA

î
îî
ILIPA
53 Alcalá H MAGNA H

î
Niebla
IPAGRuM
IPAGRUM

î
ILIPULA H IPOCOBULCOLA
B B

B
del Río IPOCOBVLCOLA
H ORIPPOH
statue-menhirs, LIPPOSH 51 Puente Genil
H VENTIPPO HHOSTIPPO

î
î
% 52 Villa-
B
B
B
AESURIS %
IPSES ONOBA manrique BASILIPPO ILIPULA
MINOR H
H KUNETES

î
% Huelva
DIPPOS H
and rock art of
î

î
LACCOBRIGA
SERIPPO H
Sacrum
Lagos Mezquitilla

î
Promontorium
MAINAKE

î
î
Chorreras
ACINIPPO H MALAKA
Doña Malaga % %% % % % %

î
later European
Blanca Cerro del Villar % SEXI
SEXI
B

MBA Alentejo stelae (c. 1800–1300 BC.)

GADIR %
% SAEPOH MAENUBA
Almuñécar
Almuñécar
the -briga line Cádiz C I L B ILACIPPO
CENI H Toscanos
H place-names with IP(P)O % Alcorrín

prehistory
SW (Tartessian) inscriptions (c. 750–400 BC)
LBA warrior stelae (c. 1250–750 BC) HBAESIPPO
î

% pre-colonial Phoenician trading posts (c. 950–800 BC)

% Phoenician colonies (c. 800–500 BC) FRETUM TARTESSIUM
leader, helmsman’. This same Indo-European root *kwel- ‘turn’ also gives Old Irish
cul ‘chariot’ and the word for ‘wheel’ in several languages, including English. So,
the Celticity of the SW inscriptions
could Tartessian koo(l)ioś, &c., mean essentially ‘charioteer’ or ‘chariot warrior’, thus
translating into words one of the recurrent images of the Late Bronze Age warrior
stelae of the south-western Peninsula? If we read the initial preposition either as
ak osioś
ro or ao, it would entail the characteristically Celtic
“A syntagm
original *pro or h2epo. like naŕk
o loss of Indo-European
et i (Untermann 1997,
e pi in

J.56.1) seems undoubtedly to be a funerary formula from

___________________________________________________________
an Indo-European J.56.1 language with a thematic nominative
singular
Madroñera, anthroponym
Cáceres, Spain followed
[Museo Arqueológico Provincial, Cáceres]by a third person singular
(Correia no. 77) 160 x 65cm
verb, also with thematic inflexion.” (Villar 2004, 264)

[?Cf. κεῖται Πάτροκλος

‘[here] lies Patroklos’
(Iliad 23.210)]

Villar, F. 2004 ‘The Celtic Language of the Iberian Peninsula’, Studies in Baltic and
 i 0 eKRanSoi ( l ) o 8 a        Syntactic analysis
Indo-European Linguistics in Honoro of William R. Schmalstieg, eds. P. Baldi & P. U.
  ak o(l)ioś naŕkeet ii
   Dini, 243–74.
    Amsterdam,
      John      
Benjamins.
N nom.sg. V 3sg.
‘Akolios now lies/rests [here].’ [Rodríguez Ramos: akoolion: . . .
Onomastics of the SW corpus widely acknowledged to be
significantly Celtic. Of the 72 most readable inscriptions (1752
graphemic signs), the sequences of signs that I have provisionally
identified as names all have Indo-European or Palaeohispanic
parallels, usually both. Most often these forms have specifically
Celtic affinities, including case endings that are consistent with a
classification as Celtic. This onomastic subset comprises 590 signs
or 33.7% of the corpus.

Variations of the epigraphic formula – uarbaan tee-ro-baare baa-

naŕkeentii |u̯ araman de-ro-bāre ma-narkenti| – comprise 33.2% of
the 72 inscriptions examined statistically= 581 signs of the total
of 1752 or 50.3% of the matrix language, i.e. excluding the names –
hard to explain away as non-IE (cf. Villar above). Cf. teee-baarentii.
the archaeological background of the SW inscriptions 1:
overlap and continuity with the LBA warrior stelae

Gomes
Aires 1
(left),
S. Portugal

and

Cabeza del
Buey IV,
SW Spain
 distributions of {
LIPPOS H

overlapping

î î
î

î
%
% KONIMBRIGA

î
40N 40N 40N

îî î
î
150 km

î
î
î

î
î
î
î
H
the SW inscribed

î
COLLIPO
8W 4W
H

î
î

î
î
56 Almoroquí
Almoroqui
LAEPIA

î î
stones and the

î
î
SCALLABIS

î î

î
îîî
B
Alcáçova

î
de Santorém %

î
H LACIPEA Cabeza
del Buey

LBA ‘warrior’
KONISTURGIS

îîî
57 Medellín 55 Siruela

î î
î
î

îî

îî
î î
î
î

îî î
î î
î
îî
îîî
H Lisbon %
OLISIPO KONIOI
stelae

î
î

îî

î
H

îîî
î
%

î
î
Quinta do

î
Almaraz Alcácer do IULIPA
Sal/Abul UAMA
SALACIA/
SALACIA
SALACIA?beuibon
H%KALLIPOUS
CANTIPO

B
î
Castelo de

î
Moura 54 Capote

B Bî B
HEPORA?

B
B

B B

î
B B

î
TUROBRIGA

î
B B

î
Note also HIPORCA IPTUCI H

î
% Río Tinto HIPSCA
IPONUBA
H HIPPO NOVA

î
îî
ILIPA
53 Alcalá H MAGNA H

î
Niebla
IPAGRuM
IPAGRUM

EBA/MBA

î
ILIPULA H IPOCOBULCOLA
B B

B
del Río IPOCOBVLCOLA
H ORIPPOH 51 Puente Genil
H VENTIPPO HHOSTIPPO
LIPPOSH

î
î
% 52 Villa-
B
B
B IPSES
AESURIS %
ONOBA manrique BASILIPPO ILIPULA
MINOR H
H KUNETES

î
alentejanas.
% Huelva
DIPPOS H
î

î
LACCOBRIGA
Sacrum
Lagos SERIPPO H Mezquitilla

î
Promontorium
MAINAKE

î
î
Chorreras
ACINIPPO H MALAKA
Doña Malaga % %% % % % %

î
Blanca Cerro del Villar % SEXI
SEXI
B

MBA Alentejo stelae (c. 1800–1300 BC.)

GADIR %
%
H
SAEPO
MAENUBA
Almuñécar
Almuñécar
the -briga line Cádiz C I L B ILACIPPO
CENI H Toscanos
H place-names with IP(P)O % Alcorrín
SW (Tartessian) inscriptions (c. 750–400 BC)
LBA warrior stelae (c. 1250–750 BC) HBAESIPPO
î

% pre-colonial Phoenician trading posts (c. 950–800 BC)

% Phoenician colonies (c. 800–500 BC) FRETUM TARTESSIUM
Alentejo stelae and the tumuli of the Monte da Atalaia necropolis (near
Aldeia de Palheiros, Ourique), all south Portugal
Ruiz-Gálvez Priego, M. 1998 La Europa atlántica en la Edad del Bronce: Un viaje a las raíces de la
Europa occidental. Barcelona, Crítica.
chronology of objects depicted
on the EBA/MBA Alentejo
stelae, LBA ‘warrior’ stelae,
and SW stelae with writing

Brandherm, D. 2013b.
‘Mediterranes, Atlantisches
und Kontinentales in der
bronze- und ältereisenzeitlichen
Stelenkunst der Iberischen
Halbinsel’, Petasos: Festschift
für Hans Lohmann zugeeignet
von sein Schülern, Freunden
und Kollegen su seinem
65. Geburtstag, ed. G.
Kalaitzoglou & G. Lüdorf,
131–48. Mittelmeerstudien 2,
Paderborn, Fink & Schöningh.
1. EBA/MBA 1800–1300 BC > 2. LBA 1300–900/800 BC > 3. EIA

nativism as a response to the Orientalization (Phoenicians and Tartessians)

 4.7. Bronze Age rock-art chariots: a & b from Backa, Brastad, Bohuslän, western Sweden; c warrior stela with added
Tartessian inscription, Cabeza del Buey IV, Badajoz, upper Guadiana region, Spain

a c

b
 Kernosovka, Novomoskovsk district,
Dnepropetrovsk, Ukraine (h=1.75m)

Assento, Santa Vitoria,

Beja, Portugal

Telegin, D. Y. & J. P. Mallory 1994 The Anthropomorphic Stelae of the Ukraine: The Early Iconography of
the Indo-Europeans, Journal of Indo-European Studies Monograph 11. Washington, D.C., Institute for
the Study of Man.
Almagro Basch, M. 1966 La estelas decoradas del suroeste peninsular, Bibliotheca Praehistoria
Hispana VIII. Madrid, Imprenta Fareso.
 Alentejo stelae
from near Beja,
south Portugal

Chobruchi, Tiraspol district,

Moldova 2.58m
 Mefodiyevka, Nikolayev district,
west of the lower Bug, Ukraine

a progression (?) —
1. 3rd millennium BC: NW Pontic
stelae reused over rectangular
pit graves, often cists, in kurgan
(Kemi-Oba Culture)
2. mid 2nd millennium BC:
Alentejo stelae reused on cists
under circular paved flat “barrows”
3. earlier 1st millennium BC:
stelae with writing in Alentejo
Kemi-Oba cist burial region reused in cists under
circular paved flat “barrows”
 Note coastal
distribution.

Anthony, D. 2007 The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian
Steppes Shaped the Modern World, Princeton, Princeton University Press.
Telegin, D. Y. & J. P. Mallory 1994 The Anthropomorphic Stelae of the Ukraine: The Early Iconography
of the Indo-Europeans, Journal of Indo-European Studies Monograph 11. Washington, D.C.,
Institute for the Study of Man.
Mallory, J. P., & D. Q. Adams (eds.) 1997 Encylopedia of Indo-European Culture. Chicago & London,
Fitzroy Dearborn.
 140 Richard Harrison and Volker Heyd

To develop the theory,

a possible missing link
in the context of the
Beaker phenomenon
in west-central Europe,
mid to later 3rd
millennium BC:
e.g. Le Petit-Chasseur,
Switzerland

Harrison, R. J. & V. Heyd 2007 ‘The

Transformation of Europe in the Third
Millennium BC: the Example of ‘Le
Petit-Chasseur I + III’ (Sion, Valais,
Switzerland)’, Prähistorische Zeitschrift,
Band S, 129–214. Fig. 7. Proposed sequence of construction and remodelling of the founding tomb M VI at Le Petit-Chasseur I
(after Bocksberger 1976a, fig. 22 on p. 189)

architecture on the south side of the monument. This into the subsoil for more upright stones, perhaps stelae.
 Southern province
The main groupings and
Western province burial rites of the Bell
Eastern province Beaker Network c. 2400 BC
[drawing by Liz James, Wessex
Archaeology]

Single grave tradition Fitzpatrick, A. P. 2013 ‘The

Arrival of the Bell Beaker Set
in Britain and Ireland’, Celtic
from the West 2: Rethinking
the Bronze Age and the
Arrival of Indo-European in
Atlantic Europe, Celtic Studies
Publications 16, ed. John T.
Koch & Barry Cunliffe, 41–70.
Continental collective grave tradition
Oxford, Oxbow Books.

0 500 km

2.1. The main groupings and burial rites of the Bell Beaker Network c. 2400 BC [drawing by Liz James, Wessex Archaeology]
Map of south-western
Europe and the
distribution of the
‘macro-villages’ of
the Iberian Peninsula
of the early third
millennium BC;
the components of
the ‘proto-Beaker
Package’ originating
from central Portugal
2700/2600 BC
[now 2800 BC] are
indicated in the upper
right panel

[merges with
‘Yamnaya package’ in
central Europe]

Harrison, R. J. & V. Heyd 2007 ‘The Transformation of Europe in the Third Millennium BC: the
Example of ‘Le Petit-Chasseur I + III’ (Sion, Valais, Switzerland)’, Prähistorische Zeitschrift,
Band S, 129–214.
The Harrison & Heyd model for the continent-wide social
transformation of Europe in the 3rd millennium BC
identifies three interacting cultural packages
1. Middle Eastern urban package reaching the eastern Aegean
2500/2600 BC from the Uruk civilization in Mesopotamia, including the
Mediterranean triad: vines, wheat, olives
2. Yamnaya package entering central Europe from the Pontic-
Caspian steppes by migration 2950–2500 BC: single ‘kurgan’ burials
with anthropomorphic stelae, specific types of copper weapons,
domesticated horses, wheeled vehicles, élite metalworkers, &c.
3. Beaker Package: ‘proto-package’ by 2800/2700 BC in the Lisbon area:
Beakers (= intoxicating beverage), archery equipment, copper daggers
Harrison, R. J. & V. Heyd 2007 ‘The Transformation of Europe in the Third Millennium BC: the Example
of ‘Le Petit-Chasseur I + III’ (Sion, Valais, Switzerland)’, Prähistorische Zeitschrift, Band S, 129–214.
Cf. Heyd, V. 2011 ‘Yamnaya Groups and Tumuli West of the Black Sea’, Ancestral Landscapes, TMO
[Travaux de la Maison de l’Orient] 58, 535–55. Lyon.
Conclusions
• Any attempt to locate a reconstructed language in prehistory must
be tentative.
• However, when the archaeological culture of a literate society has
clear prehistoric antecedents, the odds improve.
• The earliest written language of western Europe occurs in the SW
inscriptions, where Celtic is found in the context of surviving or
revived complex burial rites of the region’s EBA/MBA.
• Within the Harrison & Heyd threefold model for the 3rd millennium,
the necropolises with SW inscriptions look back to a past that is
Yamnaya, not Mediterranean or Beaker.
• These Bronze Age antecedents show detailed resemblances with
stela motifs and the use of stelae in complex burials in the north
Pontic region (especially Kemi-Oba Culture) in the Copper Age.
• This is somewhat surprising: Celticity of SW inscriptions had
been seen as incompatible with ‘kurgan’ theory of IE homeland
and supporting the Anatolian of Palaeolithic models.
• Tentative hypothesis: in the cross currents of Europe’s Copper
and Bronze Ages, PIE was adopted by speakers of non-IE
languages in the west, resulting in Proto-Celtic.
• Copper and Bronze Age rock art, statue-menhirs, and stelae
represent objects and themes that recur in epic and myth –
thus a potentially fruitful area for renewed investigation of the
prehistory of Indo-European-speaking groups.
• The rock art, &c., from the western Iberian Peninsula tends not
to be recognized as Indo-European, even though it shows close
similarities with rock art, &c., from Scandinavia and the Pontic
region that are generally recognized as Indo-European.
• Further detailed comparative work is desirable (i.e. typologies
and dates).
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