1 INTRODUCTION 4.1 ENERGY CONVERSION ‘he distinctive feature of our civilization today, one that makes it different from all others, is the wide use of mechanical power. At one time, the primary source of power for the work of peace or war was chiefly man’s Imiscles, Later, animals were trained to help and afterwards the wind and the running stream were harnessed. But, the great step was taken in this direction when man learned the art of energy conversion from one form to another. The machine which does this job of energy conversion is called an engine. 1.1.1. Definition of ‘Engine’ ‘Au engine is a device which transforms one form of energy into another form. Howovor, while transforming energy from one form to another, the ficiency of conversion plays an important role. Normally, most of the ‘engines convert thermal energy into mechanical work and therefore they are called “heat engines 1.1.2. Definition of ‘Heat Engine’ Heat engine is a device which transforms the chemical energy of a fuel into thermal energy and utilizes this thermal energy to perform useful work: Thus, thermal energy is converted to mechanical energy in a heat engine. Heat engines can be broadly classified into two categories: (i) Internal Combustion Engines (IC Engines) i) External Combustion Engines (EC Engines) 1.1.3 Classification and Some Basic Details of Heat Engi Engines whether Internal Combustion or External Combust types, viz.Sqpoped say 11 worse wonsnquaD oy Jo Azepumog Busou sapinpso anys Ogu poy yottoduios yworpUILs v sy odo ou Sunn aapiny pyvpoxdIoo4 SON Wo jresnaoe pogstay pu pouyeut st NOK AOL FOPUM O78 J rau of, “oswooquez> om Jo THO}}O am) % Pati sf yo Say jojreds sopay|so opBuIs w Jo WoRDes s squuedwioy au8u3 -odduoo Jo spoxpuny, are ouonT, “SouryreUT soo sya 20 amg oynb soo] soufua uoRSnqui0o TeusDyHL Hunywoordsoa ‘sno awaoadioos © a prnyy Sup|sOM ayy SY posn sf YON ENS aM on patoydto s og wonstquO> of 2 NP PERE ; me sea pre uo outiua onsiq IE st omua wrens suo urvoys @ ut ‘ofa soujfug uonsnquiog jeusoyy pure uorsnquiod JewHoa ee uug vonsnquu09 | b "HL Uy uot st soutfua yeaq yo uoHReDyISSED ParTeOP / sndyno yous Saaneio4 Jo soma Bupwo0sd oy sowod puv saanourodo] “yexoute ponds mops ‘sdyys ‘sy90q Jason & pare soarionion0} “ae snoys ‘sd ieInlet valve (IV) Spark plug Exhaust valve (EV) Inlet manifold Exhaust manifold aS ra Air Products Cylinder Piston Gudgeon pin Connecting rod Cylinder block Crankshaft Crankpin ‘Glaus Crank ‘Sump Fig. 1.2 Cross-section of a Spark-Ignition Engine into the cylinder providing a gas-tight space with the piston rings and the lubricant. It forms the first link in transmitting the gas forces to the output shaft. Combustion Chamber : The space enclosed in the upper part of the cylinder, by the eylinder head and the piston top during the combustion Process, is called the combustion chamber. The combustion of fuel and the consequent release of thermal energy results in the building up of pressure in this part of the cylinder Inlet Manifold : ‘The pipe which connects the intake system to the inlet valve of the engine and through which air or air-fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder is called the inlet manifold Exhaust Manifold : The pipe which connects the exhaust system to the exhaust valve of the engine and through which the products of combustion escape into the atmosphere is called the exhaust manifold. Inlet and Exhaust Valves : Valves are commonly mushroom shaped poppet type. They are provided either on the cylinder head or on the of the cylinder for regulating the charge coming into the eylinder (inlet valve) and for discharging the products of combustion (exhaust valve) from the cylinder. Spark Plug : It is a component to initiate the combustion process in Spark-Ignition (SI) engines and is usually located on the cylinder head. Connecting Rod + It interconnects the piston and the crankshaft and transmits the gas forces from the piston to the crankshaft. The two ends of the connecting rod are called as small end and the big end (Pig. 1.3). Small ‘end is connected to the piston by gudgeon pin and the big end is connected to the crankshaft by crankpin.the piston. iia : ‘These are made as integral parts of the camshaft and are designed Mauch a way to open the valves at the correct timing and to keep them for thie necessary duration. Fly Wheel ; The net torque imparted to the crankshaft during one com- Teycle of operation of the engine fluctuates causing a change in the ‘velocity of the shaft. In order to achieve a uniform torque an in- “értia, mass in the fort of a wheel is attached to the output shaft: and this shoe is called the flywheel. i 1.2.2. Nomenclature Cylinder Bore (2) : The uominalinnoe diameter of the working cylinder 19 called the eylinder bore and is designated by the letter d and is usually expressed in millimeter (mm) Piston Area (A) : The area of a circle of diameter equal to the cylinder ‘hore is called the piston area and is designated by the letter A and is usually ‘expressed in square centimeter (em), Stroke (1) : The nominal distance through which a working piston moves Between two successive reversals of its direction of motion is called. the stroke and is designated by the letter L and is expressed usually in millime- ter (mm) Stroke to Bore Ratio : 1/:ratiois an important parameter in clasifying the size of the engine it is called ther speeds because of larger square e bore and shorter stroke. 1e can operate at Dead Centre : The position of the working piston and the moving parts Which are mechanically connected to it, at the moment when the direction ‘6f the piston motion is reversed at either end of the stroke is called the dead centre, There are two dead centres in the engine as indicated in Fig.1.3.mc Toc BDC FAS oe Of Small end Pitson at Pitson at top dead centre bottom dead centre f y ayy i ! \ -— Big end, Compression ratio = 6 Fig, L3 Top and Bottom Dead Centres They are: () Top Dead Centre (i) Bottom Dead Centre @) Top Dead Centre (TDC) : It is the dead centre when the piston is farthest from the crankshaft. Tt is designated as TDC for vertical engines and Inner Dead Centre (IDC) for horizontal engines (i) Bottom Dead Centre (BDC) : It is the dead centre when the piston is nearest to the crankshaft. It is designated as BDC for vertical engines and Outer Dead Centre (ODC) for horizontal engines Displacement or Swept Volume (V,) : ‘The nominsl volume swept by the working piston when travelling from one dead centre to the other is called the displacement volume. It is expressed in terms of cubic centimeter (ce) and given by . Y=Axb = Fey (14) Cubic Capacity or Engine Capacity : The displacement volune of a cylinder multiplied by number of cylinders in an engine will give the eubie capacity or the engine eapacity. For example, if there are Ie cylinders in an engine, then Cubic capacity = V, x K Clearance Volume (Vc) : The nominal volume of the combustion cham- ber above the piston when it is at the top dead centre is the clearance volume, It is designated as Vo and expressed in cubie centimeter (ce) Compression Ratio (r) It is the ratio of the total eylinder volume when the piston is at the bottom dead centre, Vr, to the clearance volume, Vefs designated by the letter 7 Vo+Ve Ve (12) 3. THE WORKING PRINCIPLE OF ENGINES an ensine fs to work succesfully then it has to follow a eyee of operations veaquential manner. ‘The sequence is quite rigid and cannot be changed. ieee following sections the working principle of both SI and CI engines Pdowerved, Even though both engines have much in common there are ‘certain fundamental differences. ete credit of inventing the spark-ignition engine goes to Nicolaus A. “Otto (1876) whereas compression-ignition engine was invented by Rudolf Diesel (1802). Therefore, they are often referred to as Otto engine and Diesel engine. 1.3.1. Four-Stroke Spark-Ignition Engine Ina four-stroke engine, the cycle of operations is completed in four strokes of the piston or two revolutions of the crankshaft. During the four strokes, there are five events to be completed, viz., suction, compression, combus- tion, expansion and exhaust. Each stroke consists of 180° of crankshaft rotation and hence a four-stroke cycle is completed through 720° of crank rotation. The eycle of operation for an ideal four-stroke ST engine consists ‘of the following four strokes : (i) suction or intake stroke; (ii) compression stroke; (ii) expansion or power stroke and (iv) exhaust stroke. ‘The details of various processes of a four-stroke spark-ignition engine “with overhead valves are shown in Fig.1-4 (ard). When the engine completes all the five events under ideal cycle mode, the p-V diagram will be as shown in Fig.1.5. =~ Mee mee US Ws (a) Intake (6) Compression (c) Expansion _() Exhaust Fig. 1.4 Working Principle of a Four-Stroke ST Engine(@) Suction oF Intake Stroke : Suction stroke 01 (Fig.1.5) starts when the piston is at the top dead centre and about to move downwards ithe inlet valve is open at this time and the exhaust valve is closed FigL.4(a). Due to the suction created by the motion of the piston towards the bottom dead centre, the charge consisting of fuelait min. ture is drawn into the cylinder. When the piston reaches the botton, ‘dead centre the suction stroke ends and the inlet valve closes 8) Compression Stroke : The charge taken into the cylinder during the suction stroke is compressed by the return stroke of the piston 1.2. (Fig.1.5). During this stroke both inlet and exhaust valves are in Glosed position, Fig.1.4(b). The mixture which fills the entire cylin. det volume is now compressed into the clearance volume, At the end (of the compression stroke the mixture is ignited with the help of spark plug located on the cylinder head, tha hen the piston is at the top ing process can be approximated as During the burning process the erted into heat energy producing a temperature rise of about 2000 °C (process 23), Fig. 1.8. The pres- sure at the end of the combustion process is considerably increased due to the heat release from the fuel. (Gi) Expansion or Power Stroke : "The high pressure of the burt gases forces the piston towards the BDC, (stroke 34) Fig.1.5, Both the valves are in closed position, Fig.1-4(c). Of the four-strokes only luring this stroke power is produced. Both pressure and temperature decrease during expansion, 3 P 2 0. 4 15 Th oy Fig. 15 Ideal p-V Diagram of a Four-Stroke SI Bugine ¥) Exhaust Stroke: At the end of the expansion stroke the exhaust valve hens and the inlet valve remains closed, Fig.1.4(d). ‘The presure falls to atmospheric level a part ofthe burnt gases escape. ‘The piston Starts moving from the bottom dead centre to top dead centre (stroke 5*0), Fig.1.5 and sweeps the burnt gases out from the cylinder almost st atmospheric pressure, The exhaust valve closes when the pistonches TDC. at the end of the exhaust stroke and some residual cc trapped in the clearance volume remain in the cylinder. residual gases mix with the ffesh charge coming in during the ing evele, forming its working fluid. Each cylinder of a four- Megine completes the above four operations in two engine rev- ons, one revolution of the crankshaft occurs during the suetion sat gompression strokes and the second revolution during the power nd exhaust strokes. Thus for i stroke CI engine is similar to the four- es at a much higher compression ratio. The ile for ed, Due to the high compression ratio employed, the temperature and of the compression stroke is sufficiently high to self ignite the injected into the combustion chamber. In CI engines, @ high ¢ fuel pump and an injector are provided to inject the fuel into the tion chamber. The carburettor and iguition system necessary in the gine are not required in the Cl engine. {deal sequence of operations for the four-stroke CI engine as shown. 11.6 is as follows: wow vow nw oW i 3 \ Po i T (@) Compression (€) Expansion —_(4) Exhaust Fig, 1.6 Cycle of Operation of a C1 Engine(i) Suction Stroke : Air alone is inducted during the suction stroke. During this stroke intake valve is open and exhaust valve is closed, Fig.1.6(a).. (i) Compression Stroke: Air inducted during the suction stroke is com- pressed into the clearance volume. Both valves remain closed during, this stroke, Fig.1.6(b). (iii) Expansion Stroke : Fuel injection starts nearly at the end of the compression stroke. ‘The rate of injection is such that HR spite ofthe piston movement. on its oe ERT ae ‘Alter the injection of fuel is complete the products of combustion expand, Both the valves remain closed during the expansion stroke, Fig. 1.6(c). (iv) Exhaust Stroke : The piston travelling from BDC to TDC pushes out the products of combustion. The exhaust valve is open and the intake valve is closed during this stroke, Fig.1.6(d). ‘The ideal »-V diagram is shown in Fig.1.7, Fig. 1.7 Ideal p-V Diagram for a Four-Stroke CI Engine Due to higher pressures in the cycle of operations the CI engine has to be more sturdy than a SI engine for the same output, This results in eae: the SI engine. However, it has ‘a 5n_account of the high compression ratio (of about 18 as against out 8 in SI engines) used. ata oe 1.3.3 Comparison of SI and CI Engines In four-stroke engines, there is one power stroke for every two revolutions of the crankshaft. There are two non-produetive strokes of exhaust and suction which are necessary for flushing the products of combustion from the cylinder and filling it with the fresh charge, If this purpose could beoth SI and Cl engines have much in common, itis worthwhile to based on important parameters like basic cycle of operation, m1, compression ratio etc. The detailed comparison is given in of the piston then there will be a power stroke for each on of the crankshaft. In such an arrangement, theoretically: the put of the engine can be doubled for the same speed compared to troko engine. Based on this concept, Dugald Clark (1878) invented he main difference between two-stroke and four-strol Hin the method of filling the fresh charge and removing the burnt vm the cylinder. In the four-stroke engine these operations are med by the engine piston during the suction and exhaust strokes re- y. In a two-stroke engine, the filling process is accomplished by ge compressed in crankease or by a blower. The induction of the «charge moves out the product of combustion through exhaust ‘Therefore, no piston strokes are required for these two operations. cs are sufficient to complete the cycle, one for compressing the arge and the other for expansion or power stroke. ‘ignition, expansion takes place in the usual way. fing the expansion stroke the charge in the crankcase is compressed. he end of the expansion stroke, the piston uncovers the exhaust ports the cylinder pressure drops to atmospheric pressure as the combustion ts leave the cylinder, Further movement of the piston uncovers the exhaust ports. This serves the double purpose of scavenging the upper Of the cylinder of the combustion products and preventing the fresh from flowing directly to the exhaust ports he same objective can be achieved without piston deflector by proper 1g of the transfer port. During the upward motion of the piston fromTable 1.1 Comparison of ST and CI Engines SI Engine CI Bg “| Basie eycle Works on Otto cycle or con- Works on Diesel cycle or con stant volume heat addition stant pressure heat additiny ovele cycle Fuel Gasoline, a highly volatile Diesel oil, non-volatile ful fuel. Seltignition tempera Selignition temperature ig ture is high, ‘comparatively low. peerouetion of “A gxscous mixture of fuekair uel is injected directly into fuel is introduced during the suc- the combustion chamber at tion stroke. A carburettor high pressure at the end of and an ignition system are the compression stroke, 4 necessary. Modern engines fuel pump and injeciot are hhave gisoline injection. necesuarye Yond control Throttle controls the quan- The quantity of fuel i rg. tity of fuehair mixture intro- ulated, Air quantity is met duced, controlled. Ignition Requires an ignition system SelE-gnition occurs due to With spark plug in the com- high temperature of air be, Dustion chamber. Primary cause of the high compres. voltage is provided by either sion, Ignition system’ and battery ora magneto. spark phig are not necessary Compression 6 t0 10. Upper limit is fixed _16 to 20. Upper limit is lim. ratio by antiknack quality of the ited by weight increase of the fue engine, Speed Due to light weight and also Due to heavy weight and also due to homogeneous combus- due to heterogeneous ‘com. tom, they are high speed en- bustion, they are low speed ines engines Guarmal effi: Because of the lower CR, Because of highs CR, the ciency the maximum value of ther- maximum value of thermal mal efficiency that can be ob- efficiency that can be ob- tained is lower. tained is higher, Weight Lighter due to lower peak Heavier due to higher peak Dressures, Dressures, ee eeUP J) ie oie are L8 Crankcase Scavenged Two-Stroke Engine ex ports close first and then the exhaust ports close when ‘the charge begins anc the cyele is repeated. ene! sin A ive ‘mechanically simpler. Almost all two-stroke engines al valves but only ports (some have an exhaust valve). ©), This makes the two-stroke engine more compact than Tourstroke engine. In actual practice power output is not ed but increase! by only abont 30% because of el effective expansion stroke and heating caused by increased number of power strokes which ‘the maximum speed. aati charge consists of fuel and air. During scavenging, as ‘and exhaust ports are open simultaneously for some time, there th the ity, vi thee|3 a R ge ES ae a ze 2 Se Fig. 1.9 Ideal Indicator Diagram of a Two-Stroke SI Engine capacity to operate-with the same efficiency at all speeds. At part throttle ‘operating condition, the amount of fresh mixture entering the cylinder is not enough to clear all the exhaust. gases and a part of it remains in the cylinder to contaminate the charge. This results in irregular operation of the engine. does > ES aE Bc. ‘There as the intake charge in disol engine is only air. y. Many of on this cycle. A disadvantage common engines, gasoline as well as diesel, is the greater cooling and lubricating oil requirements due to one power stroke in each revolution of the crankshaft. Consumption of lubricating oil is high in two-stroke engines due to higher temperature. A detailed comparison of two-stroke and four-stroke engines is given in Table 1.2 1.4 ACTUAL ENGINES Actual engines differ from the ideal engines because of various constraints in their operation. The indicator diagram also differs considerably from the ideal indicator diagrams. Actual indicator diagrams of a two-stroke and a four-stroke SI engines are shown in Figs.1.10(a) and 1.10(b) respectively. ‘The various processes are indicated in the respective figures. 1.5 CLASSIFICATION OF IC ENGINES Internal combustion engines are usually classified on the basis of the ther modynamie cycle of operation, type of fuel used, method of charging 1412 Comparison of Four and Two-Stroke Cycle Engines ‘Two-Stroke Engine ‘The thermodynamic cycle is com- edyniyokes of the pis- pleted in two strokes of the piston or Mr, revolutions of tho in one revolution of the crankshaft. Thus, one power stroke ‘Thus one power stroke is obtained in rerery two revolutions of each revolution ofthe crankshaft sehr abowe, turning moment Because of the above, turing moment res hence a heavier is more uniformn and henee a lighter fywheel cam be used. ‘ofone power stroke for Because of one power stroke for every crower produced for revolution, power products for same tf engine is ls, ox for the siz of engine is tie, or forthe same Theengine is heavier ond power the engine is lighter.and.moxe ‘compact. “of ono power stroke in (wo Becausn of one power stroke in one tener cooling and lubrica- revolution greater cooling and lubri- cation requirements. Higher rate of swoar and tear “two-stroke engines have no valves bit ‘only ports (some two-stroke engines fre fitted with conventional exhaust ‘valve or reed valve). Because of Hight weight and simplicity complicated valve mecha- due to the absence of valve actuating initial cost of the engines, mechanism, initial cost of the engine Volumettic efficlency is low due to Tesser time Tor induction ‘Thermal efficiency is lower: part lond ‘ffciency is poor. important, Used where low cost, compactness and buses, erucks, tractors, light weight_are important. viz.. i ‘engines, aeroplanes, power mopeds, scooters, motorcycles, hand ete. sprayers ete041 Ssoton and scavenging 0-1 Suction 1-2 Compression 12 Compression 23 Heatadaition 23 Heat addition 3-4 Expansion | 3-4 Expansion | ? £0 Exhaust > 40 Exhaust @ ) Fig. 1.10 Actual Indicator Diagrams of a Two-Stroke and Four-Stroke SI Engine cylinder, type of ignition, type of cooling and the cylinder arrangement etc Details are given in Fig. 1.11 1.5.1 Cycle of Operation According to the cycle of operation, IC engines are basically classified into tivo categories (3) Constant volume heat addition cycle engine or Otto cycle engine, It is also called a Spark-Ignition engine, SI engine or Gasoline engine (ii) Constant-pressure heat addition cycle engine or Diesel cycle engine. It is also called a compression-ignition engine, CI engine or Diese! engine 1.5.2. Type of Fuel Used Based on the type of fuel used engines are classified as (@) Engines using volatile liquid fuels like gasoline, _aleohol, kerosene, benzene ete. ‘The fuel is generally mixed with air to form a homogeneous charge in a carbutettor outside the cylinder and drawn into the eylinder in its suction stroke. The charge is ignited near the end of the compression stroke by an externally applied spark and therefore these engines are called spark-ignition engines, (ii) Engines using gaseous fuels like natural gas, Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG), blast furnace gas and biogas,IC Engines Fear Ei Polis ray coe fa = ion ae alee | aiaat Gas Engine ultifuel Chamber te ea foe ae des | Reciprocating Reciprocating Rolary (Multicylinder) (Single cylinder) (Wankel) = Opposed Single Twin Cylinder Rotor Rotor (2/4/6) (2/4/68) Fig, 1.11 Classification of Internal Combustion Enginescyan des if mixed with air and the mixture is introduced into the Senay using the suction process. Working of this ype of oncea, Stnllar 0 that of the engines using volatile liquid fuels (8l gas engine), (G8) Engine using solid fuels lke charcoal, powdered coal et Solid fuels ate generally converted into gaseous fuels nvrside the en. Shel a Separate gas producer and the engine works asa gas engin Gv) Engines using viscous (low volatility at normal atmospheric temper. atures) liquid fuels like heavy and light diesel oils. he fuel is generally introduced into the eylinder in the form of. minute droplets by a fuel () Engines using two fuels (dual-fuel engines) ough a gs valve in the cylinder head and the other fuat (a viscous Uauid fuel) is injectod into the combustion space near the ct of the Compression stroke (dual-fuel engines). 1.5.3 Method of Charging According to the mothod of charging, the engines ate classified as f) Naturally aspirated engines : Admission of air or fuel-air mixture at sgh near atmospheric pressure, (ii) Supercharged Engines : Admission of air or fuekait mixture under Pressure, ie., above atmospheric pressure, 1.5.4 Type of Ignition Spark enti engines require an external source of energy for the inition {a Bark nnd theroby the combustion proces. A high vltage speck he (i) battery ignition system (ii) magneto ignition system ne etive their name based on whether a battery or & magneto i tw as the primary source of energy for producing the pack rat cue of OI engines these is no need for an exterval means to rt, nition. Because of high compression rato colores ite remand “mperarine atthe end ofthe eommpresion proces he enough rea aerate the fuel when injected. However, the fuel shonld betes gery fe particles. For this purpose a fuel injection syciem fe normally used.very essential for the satisfactory running of an engine. ‘There are of cooling systems in use and accordingly, the engines is classified engine (ii) water-cooled engine n method of classifying reciprocating engines is by the eylin- ‘The cylinder arrangement is only applicable to multi- . Two terms used in connection with eylinder arrangements first. der Row : An arrangement of eylinders in which the centre-Hine ‘crankshaft journals is perpendicular to the plane containing the relines of the engine cylinders ylinder Bank : An arrangement of eylinders in which the centre- 1¢ of the crankshaft journals is parallel to the plane containing the ntrelines of the engine cylinders. umber of cylinder arrangements popular with designers are described. The details of various cylinder arrangements are shown in Fig.1.12. Engine : The in-line engine is an engine with one cylinder bank, | cylinders are arranged linearly, and transimit power to a single haft. This type is quite common with automobile engines. Four and line engines are popular in automotive applications. In this engine there are two banks of cylinders (i.e., two inclined at an angle to each other and with one crankshaft, is configuration Cylinder Engine: This engine has two eylincer banks located plane on opposite sides of the crankshaft. It can be visualized ine’ arrangements 180 degrees apart. It is inherently a well < and has the advantages of a single crankshaft. This design in small aircrafts Piston Engine : When a single cylinder houses two pistons, h driving a separate crankshaft, itis called an opposed piston ‘movement of the pistons is synchronized by coupling the two Opposed piston arrangement, like opposed cylinder arrange- inherently well balanced, Further, it has the advantage of requiring head. By its inherent features, this engine usually functions on of two-stroke engines. I Engine : Radial engine is one where more than two cylinders in are equally spaced around the crankshaft. ‘The radial arrangementTesting U-eylinder Vaype Xaype Racial Haype A Gans) Opposed cylinder Opposed piston y & Delta ype Fig. 1.12 Engine Classification by Cylinder Arrangements of eylinders is most commonly used in conventional air-cooled aircraft en- gines where 3, 5, 7 or 9 cylinders may be used in one bank and two to four banks of eylinders may be used. The odd number of eylinders is employed from the point of view of balancing. Pistonis of all the cylinders are coupled to the same crankshaft. ‘X! Type Engine : This design is a varintion of “V" type. It has four banks of cylinders attached to a single crankshaft. ‘H! Type Engine : The ‘H’ type is essentially two ‘Opposed cylinder’ type utilizing two separate but interconnected crankshaft. ‘U? Type Engine : The ‘U’ type is a variation of opposed piston ar- rangement, Delta Type Engine : ‘The delta type is essentially a combination of three opposed piston engine with three crankshaft interlinked to one another. In general, automobile engines and general purpose engines utilize the ‘in-line’ and “V" type configuration or arrangement. The ‘racial’ engine wasTable 1.3 Application of Engines is Steam Engines engines si imo, Aircraft Marine Industrial power Stirling Engines Experimental Space Vehicles Automotive, Steam Turbines Power, Large Railways, Marine Power,Marine Power, Aircraft, Close Cycle Gas Power, Matine Industrial, ‘Turbine Marine ge, Small aircrafts continue to use either the ‘opposed cylinder’ type ine’ or *V" type engines. The ‘opposed piston’ type engine is widely n large diesel installations. The ‘H’ and ‘X’ types do not presently ide application, except in some diesel installations. A variation of the pe is referred to as the ‘pancake’ engine. APPLICATION OF IC ENGINES st important application of IC engines is in transport on Iand, sea, ir. Other applications include industrial power plants and as prime rs for electric generators. Table 1.3 gives, in a nutshell, the applica- both IC and EC engines. ‘Two-Stroke Gasoline Engines gasoline engines developing a maximum brake power of about iF 5500 rpm. High powered motor cycles have generally 250 cc two- Ke gasoline engines developing a maximum brake power of about 10 KW nid outboard motor boats. However, ue to the los of fuelair charge in1.6.2 Two-Stroke Diesel Engines od RP 0 commonly two. a aT lop scavenued rai tx with exit vale (oe Piss SO as spay The brake power oa single essa ean be upto STOO LW, Sent 12 eliner 800 mm bore nal I580 mm stoke, twostroe dies eee develops 20000 KW at 120 spn. This ped allows te engin to bedi conpled to the propeller ship withow the necessity af gn dacs 1.6.3 Four-Stroke Gasoline Engines ‘The most important application of small four-stroke gasoline engines is in A typical automobile is powered by a four-stroke four eylinder igine developing an output in the range of 30-60 kW at a speed of about 4500 rpm. American automobile engines are much bigger and have 6 or 8 cylinder engines with a power output upto 185 kW. However, the oil crisis and air pollution from automobile engines have reversed this trend towards smaller capacity ears. Four-stroke gasoline engines were also used for buses and trucks, They: were generally 4000 cc, 6 cylinder engines with maximum brake power of about 90 kW. However, in this application gasoline engines have been prac- tically replaced by diesel engines. ‘The four-stroke gasoline engines have also been used in big motor cycles with side cars. Another application of four-stroke gasoline engine is in small pumping sets and mobile electric generating sets, Sinall aircraft generally use radial four-stroke gasoline engines. Engines 18 inaximum power output from 400 kW to 4000 kW have been used havi {m aircraft. An example is the Bristol Contours 57, 18 eylinder two row, sleeve valve, air-cooled radial engine developing, a maximum brake power of about 2100 kW. ‘The four-stroke diesel engine is one of the most efficient and versatile prime movers. It is manufactured in sizes from 50 mm to more than 1000 mm of cylinder diamoter and with engine speeds ranging from 100 to 4500 rpm while delivering outputs from 1 to 35000 kW. ‘Small diesel engines are used in pump sets, construction machinery, ait ‘compressors, drilling rigs and many miscellaneous applications. Tractors for agricultural application use about 30 kW diesel engines whereas jeeps, buses ‘and trucks use 40 to 100 KW diesel engines. Generally, the diesel engines with higher outputs than about 100 kW are supercharged. Barth moving ‘machines use supercharged diesel engines in the output range of 200. to 400 kW. Locomotive applications require outputs of 600 to 4000 kW. Ma. tine applications, from fishing vessels to ocean going ships use diesel engines from 100 to 35000 kW, Diesel engines are used both for mobile and station- ary electric generating plants of varying capacities. Compared to gasolineel engines are more efficient and therefore manufacturers have jesel engines in personal transportation. ove MY “nts odours he ailed thermodynamic analysis of the engine cycle is done, it to have a general picture of the energy flow or energy balance xn so that one becomes familiar with the various performance rs. Figure 1.13 shows the energy flow through the reciprocating Fig.1.14 shows its block diagram as an open system. Cc (1) Energy in fuel yufee |__ Indicated energy or Cd network, ip [(1)-(2)] ne b-3 \ 1 energy, bp 1 (0-@)-@y)! Fuel in System boundary to the first law of thermodynamics, energy can neither be destroyed. It can only be converted from one form to another.‘Therefore, there must be an energy balance of input and output to a system, In the reciprocating internal combustion engine the fuel is fed into the combustion chamber where it burns in air converting chemical energy of the fuel into heat. The liberated heat energy cannot he totally utilized for driving the piston as there are losses through the engine exhaust, to the iene oe iee nee ae ee ae a te aa ‘The energy represented by the gas forces on the piston passes through the connecting rod to the erankshaf cansmission there ‘etc. Tn addition, mms ete. The sum of all these losses, expresss ower is termed as frietional power, «The remaining energy is the useful mechanical energy and is termed as the brake power, bp . In energy balance, generally, frictional power is not shown separately because ultimately this energy is accounted in exhaust, cooling water, radiation, etc. 1.8 ENGINE PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS ‘The engine performance is indicated by the term efficiency, n. Five impor- ‘tant engine efficiencies and other related engine performance parameters ave given below: (i) Indicated thermal efficiency (ren) (ii) Brake thermal efficiency. (ree) {iil) Mechanical efficiency Gm (iv) Volumetric efficiency (ne) {v) Relative efficiency or Efficiency ratio (neat) Ree a caiveteeooure (on) (vii) Mean piston speed (>) (vii) Specie power ontput (B) (ix) _ Specific fuel consumption (sfo) (@) _Inlet-valve Mach Index @ () Ruclair or air-fuel ratio (£/Aor A/F) (xi) Calorifc value of the fuel (cv) Figure 1.15 shows the diagrammatic representation of energy distribu- tion in an IC engine. 1.8.1. Indicated Thermal Efficiency (rj) Indicated thermal efficiency is the ratio of energy in the indicated power, ip, to the input fuel energy in appropriate units, ip [kJ /s} inn = Sreray im fuel per eccond [7A] as) ip s sip HE ohne 4 mass of fuel/s x calorific value of fuel i)i, rw & a "aE He a, = Bs ne as | “= Eneray losses in friction, : =f ee = ip (kW) Fig. 1.15 Bnergy Distribution efficiency is the ratio of energy in the brake power, bp, to energy in appropriate units. EE ‘Mh = Nass of fuel/s x calorific value of fuel G8) ical Efficiency (1) efficiency is defined as the ratio of brake power (delivered power) power (power provided to the piston). »__ ee u ib the a fp = 9 an ‘be defined as the ratio of the brake thermal efficiency to the ficiency. vo Efficiency (1j,) {¢ - / e one of the very important parameters which decides the performance js. Four-stroke engines have distinct suction stroke and he Perret tere tee uiltetion : the power output ofthe engine. Hence, an engine must be able ‘mich at as posible‘Volumetric efficiency is defined as the volume flow rate of air into the intake system divided by the rate at which the volume i displaced by the system, te = ene (1.8) where p, is the inlet density An alternative equivalent definition for volumetric efficiency is a te 1.9) Ne ra (9) 11 is to be noted that irrespective of the engine whether SI, Cl or gas cngin, volumetric rate of ISAs hat tobe taken into account anit taken as the atmospheric air density, then 1 represents the performance of the entire inlet system. If it is taken as the air in the inlet manifold, then 1, represents the pumping performance of the inlet port and valve only. ‘The normal range of volumetric efficiency at full throttle for SI engines {s between 80 to 85% where as for Cl engines itis between 85 to 90%. Gas ‘engines have much lower volumetric efficiency since gaseous fuel displaces air and therefore the breathing capacity of the engine is reduced. 1.8.5 Relative Efficiency or Efficiency Ratio (y,.)) Relative efficiency or efficiency ratio is the ratio of thermal efficiency of an ‘Actual cycle to that of the ideal eycle. The effcieney ratio is a very useful ‘criterion which indicates the degree of development of the engine. ‘Actual thermal effcieney ret = Acta ene 1 real Air-standard efficiency G10) 1.8.6 Mean Effective Pressure (p;.) Mean effective pressure is the average pressure inside the cylinders of an internal combustion engine based on the calculated or measured power out. Dut, It increases as manifold pressure increases. For any particular engine, operating at a given speed and power output, there will be a specific in, dicated mean = em ‘imep, and a corresponding brake mean effective pressure, ‘They are derived from the indicated and brake bower respectively. For derivation see Chapter 17, Indicated power con be shown to be va LAnK. : em e000 aay ‘then, the indicated mean effective pressure can be written as£60000 % iv =: ame. 1 Ree LAnK Mae the brake mean effective pressure is given by , 6000 x bp Pm = Tank (113) indicated power (kW) indicated mean effective pressure (N/m?) length of the stroke (m) ‘area of the piston (m?) speed in revolutions per minute (rpm) Number of power strokes 7 N/2 for A-stroke and I for 2-stroke engines |= number of cylinders way of specifying the indicated mean effective presi Pim is owledge of engine indicator diagram (p-V diagram). In this ., may be defined as pels of the fnctcaton Clare Pim = Tength of the indicator diagram of the indicator diagram is given by the difference between the stroke and V is the rotational speed of the crankshaft in rpm. ted that 3 is often a more appropriate parameter than crank ood for correlating engine behaviour as a function of speed. nce to gas flow into the engine or stresses duc to the inertia of parts limit the maximum value of Sp to within 8 to 15 m/s. Aue nes operate at the higher end and large marine diesel engines et end of this range of piston speeds. Power Output (P.) ver output of an engine is defined as the power output per unit ‘and is a measure of the engine designer's success in using the ston area regardless of cylinder size. ‘The specific power ean be ‘proportional to the product of the mean effective pressure and bp A (ud) = constant x pim x3 (1-15)oxy we “Su9} adud woronpurazos paw sauna sNoDeUs YE OU ny Oxon SHAN oxy “up agate aD wo a ‘1m out 0p mo pare a oR 149 o¥BUIS YI Ho porompuod nad axe swoMIOdx9 yo sone By ng ou Tronenqntioo aofdo 205 348 (nono Asn" SUTENTOD WH om = 2 posn Ajresou08 st ones =hio = 4 smpamep anes ion = gp DpmMp wpm = “9 omya 30 46 0 Joe 09 fj am Jo SoeOE erp og = 22 (2) py ee ner, “sushto aga Jo Sono} YP ap pue 4% Aa ee rod Sson oe oi av te pu” wt aoy-09 Moy aaqes yom) = (a/v) oneu tena-ira © ‘ ‘ore Sutuodo sages aera feuion = wrvusd = 4y oN og aoqtems ye xapuy yup 24f8A-29IUT OTT BE one yoIUT oT BONN AyoOPA wR =n oxo. arp nye oer (2) open yooIN 24TeA 19TH) e1_ TL Tt or 60 80 Lo 90 $0 +0 Taal anE Pa “uonenbo Bursoyoyo42 £9 wage Area reoot 9g) q pon oo fyp0}os se ump a 1¥_‘wonzodo wonnpre any faxmp Suiza sony suyuods show aoeyd se o8zEy> oxy y Soa mo Ronan HOES Ne st09 ony ogwoods poreoqpin pu uorydurnstoo fang aytoods oywagy smog ‘uma afm sod aondamauoo jong ~ 2 (2/8) wordumsuey jong 2yD0d56°8°T uyfina no pwoy iwun9K arour a9} ‘azour 9q. v9 ‘yndino oyjoods sony w ont ea ‘dawg pus juouaoeidsyp uoysed ones TUoA “PotLs99U09 ar x9PU! PEN He qoaiot an ane synsad uotssuduios paxy pe Su ts poads anf pue 320% 09 ofqujteat 20205 j Jomod ogpods omp toes oq uED sy 7041 Ssoton and scavenging 0-1 Suction 1-2 Compression 12 Compression 23 Heatadaition 23 Heat addition 3-4 Expansion | 3-4 Expansion | ? £0 Exhaust > 40 Exhaust @ ) Fig. 1.10 Actual Indicator Diagrams of a Two-Stroke and Four-Stroke SI Engine cylinder, type of ignition, type of cooling and the cylinder arrangement etc Details are given in Fig. 1.11 1.5.1 Cycle of Operation According to the cycle of operation, IC engines are basically classified into tivo categories (3) Constant volume heat addition cycle engine or Otto cycle engine, It is also called a Spark-Ignition engine, SI engine or Gasoline engine (ii) Constant-pressure heat addition cycle engine or Diesel cycle engine. It is also called a compression-ignition engine, CI engine or Diese! engine 1.5.2. Type of Fuel Used Based on the type of fuel used engines are classified as (@) Engines using volatile liquid fuels like gasoline, _aleohol, kerosene, benzene ete. ‘The fuel is generally mixed with air to form a homogeneous charge in a carbutettor outside the cylinder and drawn into the eylinder in its suction stroke. The charge is ignited near the end of the compression stroke by an externally applied spark and therefore these engines are called spark-ignition engines, (ii) Engines using gaseous fuels like natural gas, Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG), blast furnace gas and biogas,IC Engines Fear Ei Polis ray coe fa = ion ae alee | aiaat Gas Engine ultifuel Chamber te ea foe ae des | Reciprocating Reciprocating Rolary (Multicylinder) (Single cylinder) (Wankel) = Opposed Single Twin Cylinder Rotor Rotor (2/4/6) (2/4/68) Fig, 1.11 Classification of Internal Combustion Enginescyan des if mixed with air and the mixture is introduced into the Senay using the suction process. Working of this ype of oncea, Stnllar 0 that of the engines using volatile liquid fuels (8l gas engine), (G8) Engine using solid fuels lke charcoal, powdered coal et Solid fuels ate generally converted into gaseous fuels nvrside the en. Shel a Separate gas producer and the engine works asa gas engin Gv) Engines using viscous (low volatility at normal atmospheric temper. atures) liquid fuels like heavy and light diesel oils. he fuel is generally introduced into the eylinder in the form of. minute droplets by a fuel () Engines using two fuels (dual-fuel engines) ough a gs valve in the cylinder head and the other fuat (a viscous Uauid fuel) is injectod into the combustion space near the ct of the Compression stroke (dual-fuel engines). 1.5.3 Method of Charging According to the mothod of charging, the engines ate classified as f) Naturally aspirated engines : Admission of air or fuel-air mixture at sgh near atmospheric pressure, (ii) Supercharged Engines : Admission of air or fuekait mixture under Pressure, ie., above atmospheric pressure, 1.5.4 Type of Ignition Spark enti engines require an external source of energy for the inition {a Bark nnd theroby the combustion proces. A high vltage speck he (i) battery ignition system (ii) magneto ignition system ne etive their name based on whether a battery or & magneto i tw as the primary source of energy for producing the pack rat cue of OI engines these is no need for an exterval means to rt, nition. Because of high compression rato colores ite remand “mperarine atthe end ofthe eommpresion proces he enough rea aerate the fuel when injected. However, the fuel shonld betes gery fe particles. For this purpose a fuel injection syciem fe normally used.£60000 % iv =: ame. 1 Ree LAnK Mae the brake mean effective pressure is given by , 6000 x bp Pm = Tank (113) indicated power (kW) indicated mean effective pressure (N/m?) length of the stroke (m) ‘area of the piston (m?) speed in revolutions per minute (rpm) Number of power strokes 7 N/2 for A-stroke and I for 2-stroke engines |= number of cylinders way of specifying the indicated mean effective presi Pim is owledge of engine indicator diagram (p-V diagram). In this ., may be defined as pels of the fnctcaton Clare Pim = Tength of the indicator diagram of the indicator diagram is given by the difference between the stroke and V is the rotational speed of the crankshaft in rpm. ted that 3 is often a more appropriate parameter than crank ood for correlating engine behaviour as a function of speed. nce to gas flow into the engine or stresses duc to the inertia of parts limit the maximum value of Sp to within 8 to 15 m/s. Aue nes operate at the higher end and large marine diesel engines et end of this range of piston speeds. Power Output (P.) ver output of an engine is defined as the power output per unit ‘and is a measure of the engine designer's success in using the ston area regardless of cylinder size. ‘The specific power ean be ‘proportional to the product of the mean effective pressure and bp A (ud) = constant x pim x3 (1-15)oxy we “Su9} adud woronpurazos paw sauna sNoDeUs YE OU ny Oxon SHAN oxy “up agate aD wo a ‘1m out 0p mo pare a oR 149 o¥BUIS YI Ho porompuod nad axe swoMIOdx9 yo sone By ng ou Tronenqntioo aofdo 205 348 (nono Asn" SUTENTOD WH om = 2 posn Ajresou08 st ones =hio = 4 smpamep anes ion = gp DpmMp wpm = “9 omya 30 46 0 Joe 09 fj am Jo SoeOE erp og = 22 (2) py ee ner, “sushto aga Jo Sono} YP ap pue 4% Aa ee rod Sson oe oi av te pu” wt aoy-09 Moy aaqes yom) = (a/v) oneu tena-ira © ‘ ‘ore Sutuodo sages aera feuion = wrvusd = 4y oN og aoqtems ye xapuy yup 24f8A-29IUT OTT BE one yoIUT oT BONN AyoOPA wR =n oxo. arp nye oer (2) open yooIN 24TeA 19TH) e1_ TL Tt or 60 80 Lo 90 $0 +0 Taal anE Pa “uonenbo Bursoyoyo42 £9 wage Area reoot 9g) q pon oo fyp0}os se ump a 1¥_‘wonzodo wonnpre any faxmp Suiza sony suyuods show aoeyd se o8zEy> oxy y Soa mo Ronan HOES Ne st09 ony ogwoods poreoqpin pu uorydurnstoo fang aytoods oywagy smog ‘uma afm sod aondamauoo jong ~ 2 (2/8) wordumsuey jong 2yD0d56°8°T uyfina no pwoy iwun9K arour a9} ‘azour 9q. v9 ‘yndino oyjoods sony w ont ea ‘dawg pus juouaoeidsyp uoysed ones TUoA “PotLs99U09 ar x9PU! PEN He qoaiot an ane synsad uotssuduios paxy pe Su ts poads anf pue 320% 09 ofqujteat 20205 j Jomod ogpods omp toes oq uED sy 7‘excess ar) is called a lean mixture. The ratio of actual fuel-air ratio to stoichiometric fuel-air ratio is called equivalence ratio and is denoted by ¢, Actual fuel-air ratio ‘Sroichiometric fuelair ratio ae) Accordingly, @ = 1 means stoichiometric (chemically correct) mixture, @ <1 means lean mixture and @ > 1 means rich mixture. 1.8.12. Calorific Value (CV) Calorific value of a fuel is the thermal energy released per unit quantity of ‘the fuel when the fuel is burned completely and the products of combustion ‘are cooled back tothe initial temperature of the combustible mixture, Other terms used for the calorific value are heat ing value and heat of combustion. When the products of combustion are cooled to 25 °C practically all, the water vapour resulting from the combustion process is condensed. The heating, value so obtained is called the higher calorific value or gross calorific value of the fuel. The lower or net calorific value is the heat released when ‘water vapour in the products of combustion is not condensed and rem in the vapour form. 1.9 DESIGN AND PERFORMANCE DATA Engine ratings usually indicate the highest power at which manufacturers ‘expect their products to give satisfactory economy, reliability, and durabil- ity under service conditions. Maximum torque, and the speed at whi is achieved, is also usually given. Since both of these quantities depend on displaced volume, for comparative analysis between engines of different di placements in a given engine category normalized performance parameters fare more useful ‘Typical design and performance data for SI and CI engines used in different applications are summarized in Table 14. The four-stroke eycle dominates except in the smallest and largest engines. The larger engines are turbocharged or supercharged, The maximum rated engine speed decreases as engine size inereases, maintaining the maximum mean piston speed in the range of about 8 to 15 m/s. The maximum brake mean effective pressure for turbocharged and supercharged engines is higher than for naturally aspirated engines. Because the maximum fuel-air ratio for SI engines is higher than for Cl engines, their naturally aspirated maximum bmep levels, fare higher. As the engine size increases, brake specific fuel consumption decreases and fuel conversion efficiency increases due to the reduced heat losses and friction. For the large CI cagines, brake thermal efficiencies of about 40% and indicated thermal efficiencies of about 50% can be obtained in modern engines,O81 = OSS AI-6 OOF-OLL.OE-VT I-¥0 zI-01 z somSua 0817] 061 = BI-9 SRL OORT-S@F_ ss T-TT = FO-STO 8-9 zy aaqouov07y 01% rk 6-9 000r-001@- 8O-ET = STO-TO 0z-9t v syonaL, 0s@ = S%—-G_~—-GL-F —ODS—000F_-«GO-ST —-T0-S20°0 0B -9T r sivo roSuosseg sour8ua uoyyUS}-uojssardurog, 008 = G'O-9'T_ FO1-F"6 OO—O009 FequreYp zd ,uIp 46°0 6x v souSuo [oxuyAy, 00 Se-€Z_ ZI-B'9 006-00E = FI-TT = SF'0-Zz'0 zI-8 w/e souSuo sv8 08307] 008 = SZ-F'9-L-S9 ODDS-DO9E ~—-L0-ZT_—-ET'.0-60'°0 6-2 r spongy, one Zh O42 OOS9-0OGF_- GO-TT = T'0-20'0.—OT-8 b sia Jofuasseg ose = Z-G_OT—F_ OOSL—OOSP_ § GU-ZT = S800-G0'0—OI-9 w/e (sojedosojour “3'2) emg souySue uoyj;ust-yredg a a : ey (mse) (upw/aes) oer (wn) oner (eons) doug —_pasdg 2104 apsStirling engine has staged a come back in practical appearance. In tico, the heat exchanger efficiency cannot be 100%. Hence the Stirling fficiency will be less than Carnot efficiency and can be written as R(Ty~ Ti) loner RIylog.r + (1— )C.(T—T) (Ga n= where ¢ is the heat exchanger effectiveness. 3.4 THE ERICSSON CYCLE ‘The Ericsson cycle consists of two isothermal and two constant processes. The heat addition and rejection take place at constant pr as well as isothermal processes. Since the process 23 and 3-4 are p to each other on the T-s diagram, the net effect is that the heat need) added only at constant temperature Ts = T; and rejected at the con temperature T; = 7 ‘The cycle is shown on p-V and T-s diagrams in Fig.3.4(a) and 3. respectively. ‘The advantage of the Briesson eyele over the Cumot Stirling cycles is its smaller pressure ratio for a given ratio of maximum rinimum specific volume with higher mean effective pressure. eat adition tr from the source nh os r, 1 4 . v ‘Heat added from / esti heat rejected to otal © the regenerator o Fig, 3.4. Briesson Cycle The Ericsson cycle does not find practical application in piston engi but is approached by a gas turbine employing a large number of stages heat exchangers, insulators and reheaters. 3.5 THE OTTO CYCLE The main drawback of the Carnot cycle .s its impracticability due to bl pressure and high volume ratios employed with comparatively los«, Nicolaus Otto (1876), proposed a constant-volume heat forms the basis for the working of today ctively. Fig. 3.5 Otto Cycle is working on full throttle, the processes 0-1 and ‘diagram represents suction and exhaust processes and dl. The process 1-2 represents isentropic compression piston moves from bottom dead centre to top dead: Process 2-3 heat is supplied reversibly at constant corresponds to spark-ignition and combustion in the processes 3-4 and 4—1 represent isentropic expansion heat rejection respectively Qs—On 3.14) Ge (3.14) nt volume processes 23 and 41, the heat supplied ‘ean be written as mC,(Ts - 72) (3.19) Pon = mor, nT) (3.16) (fy ~ 7) ~m(14—T) (ig mT = Ts) (a7)ee Wess ee eo z-& (3.1) oes n> Ge) (as) But the volume ratios Vj/Vp and V4/V are equal to the compression ra. tio, r. Therefore, and wo ue a “ae r (8.20) therefore, : : -2 21) From Eq3.21, it can be easily shown that 4 T% - zt (3.22) Nowe = (3.23) = (3.24) = (3.25) ‘Note thn: aaa gS ‘Sea te ratioof spect ests, 7. AB‘ is assum stat any working ft, the effcieney is increased by increasing the compressio (FA) (0.4) Now MW _M : % Ww on es = Bin (sinceV; = Vs) Therefore, Wot asi Ro (3.51) where #4 is the expansion ratio. Now, m= Benem(E)™ = Tiryt (352) ting for Ta, Ta, Ty and Ty into Eq.3.45 and simplifying tyr = 7 ee 53) ’ wales) (el 1t can be seen from the above equation that a value of rp > 1 results in tn increased efcioney fora given value ofr. and 9. Thus the oficeney of Dual cycle lies between that ofthe Otto eye andthe Diesel eyele havi same compression ratio. With re = 1, it becomes an Otto cycle, and with ny = 1, t becomes ieee! eyeWork Output at work output of the cycle is given by paVa— pee _ paVa —mVi pala) + as pi | (et Bi) avs _ ps = — Bota) , Bata Fall ae avi) hh BABE Fey =a) range? 8 art) rer ary} +] BE apagh ar ryt 04 BM rg +P Me —Y—(rorE—] (BBA) 2 1n Effective Pressure effective pressure is given by Work output W Ve Borer re — 1) +My = 1) ~ (ror — PA Farge? M re =I) +r Mr — DD G-#)o-9 ~(epr - D1 py Mere = +9 ry N= rpg =D) (855) @-DF-1 ant variable factors which are used as the basis for comparison of ‘are compression ratio, peak pressure, heat addition, heat rejection net work. In order to compare the performance of the Otto, Diesel combustion cycles some of the variable factors must be fixed. ‘ection, a comparison of these three cycles is made for the same Pression ratio, same heat addition, constant maximum pressure and ature, same heat rejection and net work output. ‘This analysis will i eyele is more efficient for a given set of operating conditions.3.8.1 Same Compression Ratio and Heat Addition ‘The Otto cycle 1-2-3141, the Diesel eycle 1+2-+3'—d’—1 and the Dual cycle 142—2"3"4"1 are shown in p-V and T-s diagrams in Fig.3.9(a) and 3.9(b) respectively for the same compression ratio and heat input. From the T-s diagram, it can be soon that Area 5236 = Area 5256 Area 52236" as this area represents the heat input which is the same for alll cyeles. 3 Constam pressure, 3 . 5 an 3 eee y pl 2 Tr : Ke i Isetropic process eae 5 666 v s (a) © Fig. 3.9 Same Compression Ratio and Heat Addition All the cycles start from the same initial state joint 1 and the air is compressed from state 1 to 2 as the compression ratio is same. It is seen from the T-s diagram for the same heat input, the heat rejection in Otto eyele (area 5146) is minimum and heat rejection in Diesel eycle (514'6") is maximum. Consequently Otto eycle has the highest work output and efficiency. Diesel eycle has the least officiency and Dual eycle having the eticency between the tvo. Foeiieoifresin ato snNew’ a. PH ‘more obsorvation can be made i., Otto cycle allows the working medium to expand more whereas Diesel cycle is least in this respect. The reason is heat is added before expansion in the case of former (Otto cycle) and the last portion of heat supplied to the fluid has a relatively short expansion in case of the latter (Diesel cycle). 3.8.2 Same Compression Ratio and Heat Rejection The p-V and Ts diagrams are shown in Figs.3.10(a) and 3.10(b). Now, Qe Qs where Qs is the heat supplied in the Otto cycle and is equal to the area under the curve 2*3 on the Ts diagram [Fig.3.10(b)], The efficiency of Now = 1Diesel cycle is given by NDscoct .Q%: is heat supplied in the Diesel eycle and is equal to the area under 2-+3 on the T-s diagram (Fig.3.10(b)]. @) Fig. 3.10 Same Compression Ratio and Heat Rejection the T-s diagram in Fig.3.10 it is clear that Qs > Q% ie., heat in the Otto cycle is more than that of th Diesel eycle. Hence, it font that, the efficiency of the Otto cycle is greater than the efficiency Diesel cycle for a given compression ratio and heat rejection. Also, ‘Same Peak Pressure, Peak Temperature and Heat Rejection B.11(a) and 3.11(b) show the Otto cycle 1423-4 and Diesel le 1+2'—3—4 on p-V and T-s coordinates, where the peak pressure perature and the amount of heat sejected are the same efficiency of the Otto cycle 1+2--3—+4 is given by Qn Nowe = 1-98 e Qs Qs in the area under the curve 23 in Fig.3.11(b). iieney of the Diesel eyele, 1203 is Qn o% Ms is the area under the curve 2’+3 in Fig.3.11(b). Uk is evielent from Fig.3.11 that Q% > Qs . Thorofore, the Diesel cycle Kiency is greater than the Otto cycle efficiency when both engines are "ies = 1am OW w ayEUL Heo 9G “yndUE ywoN poe amssoxd HANNE yoy omp ae oundy a anduy 7eaqy puv ounssarge mmuapcepy omres cIp St ©) ) aA oto 98 snd Ao ate pre onNENE induj 1a} pue aunssaag uNUNXeYy aUES y'g'E Mc TIN, Nee, | SRR co 00f0x eo pe oamgezocarn mp 204 ‘ost mommerjoam pu fentuoy aures poyoofos qwaH + 2UOP SHON ponddns 30H auop HON. andyng %H0NA pur ounsso4d WIMP wy STS TONY srw amasoad UMETPeUT OUTWS 3Nf} 10} 9 yong ay, “worsted nt ste5 “TUAL CYCLES AND THEIR ANALYSIS al cycles for IC engines differ from the fuelair cycles and air- eyeles in many respects. The actual cycle efficiency is much lower standard efficiency duc to various losses occurring in the actual sation. The major losses are due to: tion of specific heats with temperature elation of the combustion products 8 exchange process M Gstimate of these losses can be made from previous experience and simple tests on the engines and these estimates can be used in evalu- - performance of an engine. COMPARISON OF AIR-STANDARD AND ACTUAL LES cycles for internal combustion engines differ from air-standard ‘many respects. These differences are mainly due to: The working substance being a mixture of air and fuel vapour or finely atomized liquid fuel in air combined with the products of combustion from the previous cycle.— ‘gnssaad OWL “OGLE Ye ay ows moo Te ING {OC We Sy "usb fo 0s nn MUUREE SF auIMOR oy UORA4 AA90 you {IE ans sqwod 241) 411 S| CoRsnquI69 Jo a oat aM 30 eotionbast09 ox, “or9"y sso] ary, 1 2m B 0 [HEH ax—qZ, “woRSNqMOD Jo p woomye .OP 01 Og Moqe Ny APNE af omy could sone aunjoa ut aSirEGD yp © 12A0 BT 3 9[9K9 TON|DU TO LY BOTANY sso pod | souaroge | dow | oto. | uonrest ra ON (coney peor) 9 = 4205 ssa, ops snore, 209 eowemasop2ed OPA T $8 eOMMPY “Da 38 perordaiy wonsnqmog 56 Shy 410 29701 = dow aj04o eon, aneg osaoueapy uous] 09 anp sso7 somo 9°9 “FT Sun emumndo woy soaxdoqq on 0 or o_o T T zztan 9q yous aBeys aye w YINS ‘ang pure ayours asneqpxe ou SUL aUIqIOD 5 go oxy Smo} paw oy wey axorm sos UF 0 Aawssaoant att) 328 omy ire ot sanyo 0} aunts Ww9] ¥ ASML OY AnUSSOOaKE soneyny-arer snore, roy soseD ysnerp Jo uoRysodMOD OLB ayo Sg ones ae1on4 i zo 200. too E uunyon, ot hg z i Retr he t a py alg 3 GETO=b “yse=0 g $ Fob a8 eoro-l yi=6 5 Ue0=U ,0-8 zee0 =U pox aon, ‘sBrou [ary Jo YOG Moge st oUF yongaw uy aswoyor ARO, aunjammoMpI03s ym paseo amp jo 4556 4noqe AHO agvojax SHOU 1:31 WY UNOS Se ‘pw 00 07 Ajfunnzed sunq 10 wang y0™ sop TOR oUIOS “2 Tapowe uy any sse0x0 70 a2xod © pure sopuy|s9 amp Jo aed 20 od st-sswun qeownozo9y} aq 0} ouH Jo pottod woABH e Sump ouru9 sonst posieg my S607 ine pew sso" oH ‘S607 ouULT, 8°9 “SIF 9949 ae-fong, aH wet (20q) amssarg A Sid prop tong Spe Bumuado anya yomeysr Ga NRE te ae ey OYE som apoA> sre-jary aw OSaR Jay OA1yeIadO0 220]04 «OL OF OF aqua ysnEEP sy me fons torstdxo ow 30 axed 9 941 J0 pus OM a10y0q asnf sso] ni) na yo URE oT ane STpeaTEH oad rapiyso ysty ysuyese 10m op 04 sey HOI a 2y3 90 pomado st ayes ysneyxa ony JT “pasoqduia ont Bampuodap 2¥q 1 jmoqe a1 oyonas snETPO Jo pao ayy ye amssoud NMoGMo7a 4sn¥H? Ho wal] aWIOS “Su Simooo 40 ywyVE! sow om O7 RAK13 proxoq poswaxouy axe aude psods YB O49 JO 8 yen tmumpeeur om lub, sm Jo aflpymape oye} 0} sopI0 UW CTA Boaz 2um JO por, +8 10) padeyop st Smtsop aaqea axyeyar ayy ‘exojarerp ‘oursiua poads jour yoed 0} spay Yprysa eurxrur ony ‘ousy] “Aoneroyyo oueuMyoA ut ere ot eres 704 2pm oi m Apes ‘oki ot if 043 HoyAA “oaqes pure yzod oyoqUE OM umexp sf ARzwyp SOI OMA ‘axONNS ATE OT Wo spuaDsOP HoH soursag, ayong-anoy jo weiSeiq] Sura 2areA OFS eyano aaqea, sos0) eI nay © Jo Sumado onpea oyu we Ac “sq ‘aodo pmnoys oapea an aga 0} st pout 0 splojraeur ysnvipo pu axequT O17 Jo wHtsop 94), “Sonor 24 Suyonpox aaypuny paw Aysuap s3y Buysnaroap Aqaxamp ‘Ben jo amyeroduray om 4 MOLEIYSp ax0qe + jaydsoune Supmosmns at Jo 9fe pus wuBMOHYA 07 anp soxKo] fo Jwo39" Uy -AOUBIOMD 2p>k> jo souasaxd aq 10} apeu mio om ofa Treg Uy umoys sy SIU, “2ULBUa [asamp w Jo 9I>4> ORION pues SANIDNA ID 40 S31DA9 YIV-TaNd GN 7) 8 98 ¥9)- = Aouorouge reuoya 25819, [omy ote owe (str+e+a> oer oer 09 oe eT eo v0 so og oF oe oe ov or oer oer 9g so 2yp49 prupueysaty | peor stent | peor Tm ‘axa Peo WY 8 = 4299 ons ouyos¥sy w ur soss07 woKIST, 2'9 2198 -qnduy ARrau Jony jo aBeyuaauad se 4 ‘uy wag] ore maxim yaosi09 Aqwonuioyo v SuIsN [3g Ses “OEE HOE ‘sqIe% Japuyfo ar pure uoysid 949 woaaxIOq UoXOL 04 oN ox8 NoOWDIv4 ONIGaNY O4 3nd Ss! satin haiti costa op pure “eurtuo Aromysas ou Aqunsn axe sonra asnerpo pue oyeiUY exp Yog aprstoo [eaTuSYPeR puy oqUEUAP Wo spuodop saAqRA. sn 1 “348104 poxtsop w 09 AysMOMMEMMENSM payt] aq JOUIRED anfeA ay, ‘sonqea oc} yo Summ oy) UY souonguy me sey sanqea ax FuNENyVE Ut wio[qord ywarmeTPoU e Jo doUDSoId se8 Jo syoayo oqurendp ax [UO 48 ato some pouinq ayy sso10) uoYsId arp ‘ays ysNEID ayy BuLMG udyno ur Una yesoso uy ut syns pu ‘oyors asmerpo ogy SuLMp stonposd pour am O42 soswaIDAP 4nq ‘ayouIs zamod oy Sump “wo ste 2198 sod sopuyso Jad oBawyp ox pu “trex OM Jo ayoudg oy woM 1090013 Sttooeq wD S>880] aSOy.], NONDET PMY 04 anp poxo4I oq Lou MOH OY sou D1 O8Tsso] unopmoyg pena _, wpa OF anyon genoyc9 fo uomsod Guruodo wnusydo a4 vemos 1S _j2unapo yaods unuusydo 943 fq qunous 64 yDUs, “2ubUD 9pof yo wt {0 wounuiofed ayy uo wudapo yends fo Aff ay; senaeq 9'g uoqanf unopmoyg yenvyr> ayy (1) dusnoyof ayy wsdra Myfoug 6°5 00 up soOUaLDghp uD 52 go ayy uoyy somo} Yom suonsant) many, ‘souuo Ig 10} OsTE ang SOUT 1p) 40} AuO YOU oj podojanap ouv s[apoyy “suiBiue ue op i ot omessnad od rosouq ayonng-omy, 209 7283 amssang Pa. amapeambsy sq fosg jason remy IT'S HA 50 S90] 9} 4208 949 ‘OCL Ye St Buy ae 9 Wee es eG 0} anp sf appo yemype ur oqaNy S80 Ot (iomsue areydoudde ysous o43 250049) suonsant) 2! (20g) aunssaug “figua jaungoa 24) Bu suopoof snousoa fo paffa ayy ssnosyp puv fioustoyfa ansjounyon ssoo0ud abuoyora 806 op amp ssoy ayy Mafoua s >yoKo are-jan, wassoy woryonaf Gusqqns pun Gurdund sence Aifa