r SINGAPORE STANDARD CP16 : 1991 (ICS 13.260;29.020) CODE OF PRACTICE FOR Earthing SJROGER PRESTON (VIETNAM) CO,, LTD 5 Nguyen Gia Thiew Street (UNIT 1034) District 3, HCMC, Vietnam : TEL: 84-8-9306597 FAX: 84-8.9306598. Conran E-mail: admin - jrp@ jepvietnam.com.vn Singapore Productivity and Standards Board 1 Science Park Drive Singapore 118221 ROG: ISBN 9971-67-402-5 rn etalCP 16: 1991 ‘This Singapore Standard having been approved by the Electrical Industry Practice Committee was endorsed by the Standards Council on 3 January 1991 First published, 1981 First revision, 1991 First reprint, 1993. Second reprint, 1998. ‘The Electrical Industry Practice Committee appointed by the Standard Council consists of the following members: Name Organisation Chairman; Mr Ng Nam Wah Standards Council Secretary Mr Phua Kim Chua Singapore Insitute of Standards and Industrial Research Members: Dr David Chia Cheng Song Association of Consulting Engineers, Singapore Mr Foo Kong Deen Singapore Electrical Trades Association Mr Ho Fui Chan Housing and Development Board Dr Look Kai Sang National University of Singapore Mr Low Sing Lu Port of Singapore Authority Mr Lye Hoeng Fai Institution of Engineers, Singapore Mr Samuel Ong Singapore Electrical Contractors Association Mr Tan Sing Ong ‘Jurong Town Corporation Mr Dominic Tay Public Works Department Mr Tay Swee Mow ‘Singapore Tolecom ‘Assoc Prof Teo Cheng Yu Nanyang Technological Institute Mr Wan Fook Sing Singapore Contractors Association Limited Mr Wong Woh Sung Singapore Mass Rapid Transit Ltd Mr Yeo Yek Seng Public Utities Board The Technical Committee, appointed by the Electrical Industry Practice Committee and responsible for tho preparation of this Code, consists of representatives from the folowing organisations: Name Organisation Chairman: Mr Teo Heng Lam Public Utltios Board Secretary: Mr Tony Chee Singapore Institute of Standards and Industrial Research Members: Mr Chew Wing Kee Housing and Development Board Mr Choong Kok Ming Jurong Town Corporation Mr Chua Seng Guan Singapore Institute of Standards and Industrial Research Mr Larry Chua Institution of Engineers, Singapore Mr Kou Kin Yong Public Works Department Mr Lee Chuan Seng Association of Consulting Engineers, Singapore Mr Leong Chun Loong Singapore Electrical Trades Association Dr Lock Kai Sang National University of Singapore Mr Tan Boon Koe Public Utities Board Mr Teo Chor Kok Public Uiiities Board Ms Toh Soon Thiam Singapore Manufacturers’ AssociationCP 16: 1901 CONTENTS Page Foreword : : : : : : : : 7 1 Introduction ~ : - - Sc : - 8 2. Definitions. = : 2 : : : : 8 CODE OF PRACTICE Section One. Design considerations 3 General 3.1 System earthing : : : : : : 1" 3.2 Equipment earthing — - : : : : : : 1" 3.3 Soll resistivity : : - . . : : " 4. Earth-electrodes 4.1, Effect of shape on electrode resistance - : : 2 42 — Common types of earthelectrode - - oe - 8 Selection of metals for earth-electrodes ~ : oa : 19 44 Current loading of earth-electrodes —- : : 19 4.5 Voltage gradient around earth-electrodes : : : : 20 46 Size of electrode Inspection chamber - s : : 20 5. Power stations and substations 5.1 Requirements for power stations and substations : : - 20 52 General earthing arrangements at substations : : - 22. 5.3 General earthing arrangements at power stations ois) 5.4 Power station and substation electrodes - ae) 5.5 Earthing conductors for power stations and substations = 7 _ 27 5.6 _ Earthing of non-electrical metalwork in power stations and substations - 33CP 46: 1997 5.7 Miscellaneous matters in power stations and substations E Overhead power lines 61 Earthing of overhead powerlines-Generl 5 = 62 Earthing of high-voltage lines (overhead) ee - 63 Earthing of low-voltage lines (overhead) - eae 7. Protective eatt 19 of low-voltage systems 74 Protective earthing of low-voltage systems General =~ 72 ternative methods of protection 7 - - 8 Consumers’ premises. 8.1 Exchange of information a 9 - . 82 —_Earthing for installations in buildings generally 83 Earthing in industrial premises - = = se 8.4 Earthing for mines, tunneling works and quarries. == 85. Earthing of telecommunication circuits and equipment = 86 Earthing of computer instalations. = = 87 _Earthing of network pillars, street lighting columns, trafic bollards, ete 9. Lightning protection 9.1 Protection of structures - : . : . 9.2. Protection of transmission systems = oS - Section Two. Temporary safety earthing of high-voltage apparatus or mains 10. General 10.1 Temporary safety earthing-General - = 10.2 Precautions relating to apparatus 5 9-0 10.3 Precautions relating to overhead lines - : : : 34 34 35 35 39 4 4a 45 51 56 87 58 58 59 60 60CP 16: 1991 Section Three. Inspection and testing 11, Measurement of earth-electrode resistance - : 2 : 61 12, Earth-resistivity measurement - - oe : : : e 13. Measurement of impedance of protective conductors - - : 63 14, Measurement of earth-loop impedance ~~ : oF 15. Testing of current-operated earth-leakage circuit-breakers : : 65 Section Four. Maintenance 16. Maintenance of earth-electrodes at power stations and substations - 66, 17. Maintenance of earth-olectrodes at consumers’ premises : : 66 APPENDIX ‘Theoretical principles relating to the calculation of the resistance of earth-electrodes 67 TABLES 1, Values of k for insulated protective conductors not incorporated in cables land not bunched with cables or for bare protective conductors in contact with cate covering fe alas eee ey 2, Values of k for protective conductor as a core in a cable or bunched with aslo a ee nae nee eee eco 3. Values of k for protective conductor as a sheath or amour of cable - 30 4. Values of k for bate conductors where there is no risk of darnage to any neighbouring material by the temperature indicated = - == = 5. Minimum cross-sectional area of protective conductors in relation to the area of associated phase conductors. - = = = =H 6. Minimum cross-sectional areas of buried earthing conductors. - = 2 7. Maximum earth fault oop impedance (Z,) for socket outet citcuts == 86 8, Maximum earth fault impedance (2) for circults supplying fixed equipment 38 FIGURES 1. Vatlton of resistance of pate electrodes with area fr uniform so resistivity of 100 om m Sse - 18CP 16: 1991 2. Effect of length of pipe electrode on calculated resistance for soll resistivity of 100 ohm m (assumed uniform) = == 3 Caleutated curve of resistance of 13 mm diameter driven rod electrodes 4, Effect of length of strip or conductor electrodes on calculated resistance for soil resistivty of 100 ohm m (assumed uniform) = 5. Citcult diagram of a current balance eartheakage circuit breaker 6 Circulating current protection for portable tools = = 7. Supply to transportable electrical equipment from an alternator vehicle 8 Measurement of earth-electrode resistance = - + 9. Measurement of earth resistivity - 6 18 16 7 a 62CP 16: 1991 SINGAPORE STANDARD CODE OF PRACTICE ON EARTHING FOREWORD ‘This Code of Practice, a revision of Singapore Standard CP 16 : 1980 which was based mainly con the British Standard Code of Practice on arthing, CP 1013: 1965, was prepared by the Technical Committee for the Code of Practice on Earthing, under the direction of the Electrical Industry Practice Committee. This Code was revised to harmonise the requirements of Earthing of electrical equipment of buildings with the Singapore Standard Code of Practice for Wiring of Electrical Equipment of Buildings, CP 5 : 1988. An additional coverage on the requirements for Earthing of Computer Installations is incorporated in this revised Code. In revising this Code, reference is made to Singapore Standard OP 5 : 1988 - Wiring of Electrical Equipment of Buildings NOTE: 1. Singapore Standards are subject to periodical review to keep abreast of technological changes and new technical developments. The revisions of Singapore Standards are announced through the issue either of amendment slips or of revised editions. 2 Compliance with a Singapore Standard does not exempt users from legal obligations,CP 16: 1991 1. SCOPE This Code gives guidance on the methods which may be adopted to earth an electrical system {or the purpose of limiting the potential (with respect tothe general mass of the earth) of current-carrying, Conductors forming part ofthe system, and non-current-carrying metalwork associated with equipment, apparatus, and appliances connected to the system. The former abject is normally essential to the security of the system, and this aspect is generally known as "system earthing’. The latter aims at ensuring the safety of human life, of animals and of property, and this aspect is sometimes known as “equipment earthing’ The term “earthing” is used in this regard whether or not reliance is placed on the earth itself as low impedance retum path for fault currents. Trains, ships and aircraft are not covered by this Code. Materials, appliances and components should comply with the relevant Singapore Standards, Briish Standards, International Electrotechnical Commission Publications or other equivalent national standards not inferior to any of these. The Code is not meant to meet every circumstance. It is not intended to take the place of @ detailed specification or to instruct untrained persons. For special and complex installations, the advice of professional electrical engineers and concurrence of the Public Utities Board will be necessary. 2, DEFINITIONS For the purpose of this Code, the following definitions shall apply: Bond, to. To connect together electrically to or more conductors (whether or not normally use for conducting electricity) Basic Insulation. See insulation, basic. Dead. The term applied to a conductor or circuit which is at or about earth potential and disconnected from any live system, Distributing Main (Distributor). The portion of any main which is used or intended to be used for the purpose of giving origin to service lines for the purpose of general supply. Double Insulation. See insulation, double. Earth (a) The conductive mass of the earth, whose electric potential at any point is conventionally taken as zero, of of any conductor in direct electrical connection therewith. (©) Acconnection, whether accidental or intentional, between a conductor and the earth. (6) (Verb) To connect any conductor with the general mass of the earth, Earthed Circuit. A circuit with one or more points of which are intentionally connected to earth, Earth Current. A fault current flowing to earth,CP 16 : 1991 Earth-electrode. A conductor or group of conductors in intimate contact with, and providing an electrical connection to earth, Earth-leakage Circult-breaker (ELCB). A current operated circuit breaker intended to operate should the residual current exceed a certain given value under specified conditions. In other codes, this device is also known as a residual current circuit breaker (RCCB). Earthed-pole. That pole or line of an earthed circuit which is connected to earth. Earthing Resistor. A resistor through which a system is earthed and which serves to limit the current flowing in the event of an earth faut. Earth Terminal (Earthing Terminal). A terminal provided on the frame of a machine or piece of apparatus for the purpose of making a connection to earth. Earthed System. A system in which the neutral or one conductor is deliberately connected to earth directly or through an impedance. Earthing-conductor. A protective conductor connecting a main earthing terminal of an installation to an earth electrade or to other means of earthing, Earthing Reactor. A reactor connected between the midpoint or the neutral point of a system and ‘earth for the purpose of limiting the current flowing to earth in the case of a fault between line and earth, Earth-wire. A conductor connected to earth and usually situated in proximity to the associated line conductors. Fault, Any defect in plant, apparatus or conductor, which impairs normal operation. Fault Current. A current flowing from one conductor to earth, or to another conductor, owing to a defect in the insulation, Feeder. A line which supplies a point ofa distribution network without being tapped at any Point. termediate Insulation, Basic. Insulation applied to live parts to provide basic protection against electric shock OTE, Basi inulton does not necessary include insulation used exlsivay fr functional purposes Insuiation, Double. Insulation comprising both basic insulation and supplementary insulation. Leakage. The passage of elocrcity ina path, other than that desired, due to imperfect insulation Leakage Current. A fauit current of relativoly small value, a5 distinguished from that due to a short circuit Live (Or Alive). An object is said to be "live" when a difference of potential exists between it and easth. Main Earthing Terminal. The terminal or bar provided for the connection of protective conductors, including equipotential bonding conductors, and conductors for functional earthing if any, to the means of earthing, Middle Wire, That conductor of a three-wire system which is intermediate in voltage between the other two.CP 16: 1997 Minimum Fusing Current (Of A Fuse). The minimum current at which the fuse element in a fuse will melt Network. An aggregation of conductors intended for the distribution of electrical energy. Neutral Point (Neutral) (@) Of a system. That point which has the same potential as the point of junction of a group of equal resistances, connected at their free ends to the appropriate main terminals or fines, of the system, (0) Of a symmetrical system. ‘The point with respect to which the potential of the conductors is symmetrical. It is usually connected to earth, NOTE, In this Codo the tor “neutial” Is used in relation to a singlezhase eystom, derived from a throe.p systom fo dencte that conductor which is connected wth owt at one OF More points Pilot (Pilot Wire). An auxlary line intended for measurements, signals, protection or telecommunication, in an electrical network Potential (Electrical), At a point. The potential difference between that point and earth. Potential Gradient, At a point, The potential difference per unit length measured in the direct which itis a maximum. When an electric force is due to a potential difference it is equal to the potential gradient. Practical unit : volt per unit length. Protective conductor. A conductor used for some measures of protection against electric shook and intended for connecting together any of the following parts: (@) exposed conductive parts; (b) extraneous conductive parts; (2) the main earthing terminal; (6) earth electrode(s); (@) the earthed point of the source, or an artificial neutral NOTE. An oaith continuity conductor (0.6.6) i also a protective candvetor Protective System. A system consisting of apparatus and connections responsive to a disturbance (over-voltage, current surge, fault to earth, etc) protecting an electrical installation against the harmful effects which may result therefrom, by Isolating the faulty section, Resistance Area (For An Earth-electrode Only). The surface area of ground (around an earth electrode) on which significant voltage gradient may exist Service Line. Any electric line through which energy may be supplied by the Public Utilities Board to ‘a consumer either from any distributor or directly from the premises of the Public Utilities Board. ‘Supplementary Insulation. Independent insulation applied in addition to basic insulation in otder to provide protection against electric shook in the event of a failure of basic insulation. 10CP 16: 1997 ° Voltage, Extra-low. A voltage normally not exceeding 50V a.c. or 120V d.c, whether between conductors or to Earth Voltage, Low. A voltage normally exceeding extraiow voltage but not exceeding 1000V a.c. or 1500V dic. between conductors, or 600V a.c. of S00V d.c. between conductors and Earth, Voltage, High. A voltage normally exceeding low voltage. Voltage, Gradient. See Potential gradient. SECTION ONE DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS GENERAL 3.1 System Earthing. The requirement that one point of every system shall, unless otherwise allowed, be earthed, is designed primarily to preserve the security of the system by ensuring that the Potential on each conductor Is restricted to such a value as is consistent with the level of insulation applied. From the point of view of safety it is equally important that earthing should ensure efficient and {fast operation of protective gear in the case of earth faults. ‘The limitation of earthing to one point on each system is designed to prevent the passage of current through the earth under normal conditions, and thus to avoid the accompanying risks of electrolysis and interference with communication circuits. The system earth-resistance must be such that when any fauit occurs against which earthing is designed to give protection, the protective gear wil operate to make the faulty mains or plant harmless. In most cases such operation involves isolation of the fauity mains or plant, e.g. by circuit-breakers oF fuses. Inthe case of underground systems there is no difficulty whatever, but, for example, in the case of overhead-iine systems protected by fuses or cicuit-breakers fitted with overcurrent protection only. there may be difficulty n arranging thatthe value of the system earth-resistance is such that a conductor falling and making good contact with the ground shall result in operation of the protective equipment. Earthing may not give protection against fauits which are not essentially earth faults. For example, if a phase conductor on an overhead spur line breaks, and the part remote from the supply falls to the ground, itis unlikely that any protective gear relying on earthing, other than current balance ‘protection at the substation will operate, since the earth-fault current circuit include the impedance of the load which would be high relative to the rest of the circu. 3.2 Equipment Earthing. Earthing of all metalwork of electrical equipment, other than parts which are normally live or current-carrying, is specified, in general, in Singapore Standard CP 5. The object is to ensure effective and rapid operation of the protective gear in the event of earth fault current which might otherwise be undetected and cause fire; and to protect against danger to life through shock due to installation metalwork being maintained at a dangerous potential relative to earth, 3.3 Soil Resistivity 3.2.1 The resistance to earth of an electrode of given dimensions is dependent on the electrical resistivity of the sol in which itis installed. It follows, therefore, that an important consideration in deciding which of the altemative methods of protection is to be adopted for a particular system or location is the soil resistivity in the area concerned. "CP 16: 1901 The type of soil largely determines its resistivity. Earth conductivity is, however, essentially electroiytic in nature, and is affected therefore by the moisture content of the soil and by the chemical ‘composition and concentration of salts dissolved in the contained water. Grain size and distribution, and closeness of packing are also contributory factors since they control the manner in which the moisture is held in the soll. Many of these factors vary locally and some seasonally. it should also be noted that sol temperature has some effect on soil resistivity. While the fundamental nature and properties of a soil in a given area cannot be changed, use ‘can be made of purely local conditions in choosing suitable olectrade sites and of methods of preparing the site selected, to secure the optimum resistivity. These measures may be summarized as in Subslauses 3.9.2 to 3.3.4. 3.3.2 Where there is any option, a site should be chosen in one of the following types of soil in the order of preference indicated: (@) _ wet marshy ground (however, see Subclause 3.3.3); (©) clay, loamy sol, arable lend, clayey sot of sand; layey soll or loam mixed with small quantities (©) clay and loam mixed with varying proportions of sand, gravel and stone: (@) damp and wet sand, Dry sand, gravel chalk, limestone, granite and any very stony ground should be avoided, also all locations where virgin rock is very close fo the surtace. 3.3.3 A site which is not naturally well-drained should be chosen. A water-logged situation is not, however, essential, unless the soll be sand or gravet, as in general no advantage results from an increase in moisture content above about 15 to 20 per cent. Care should be taken to avoid a site kept moist by water flowing over it as the beneficial selts may entirely be removed from the soit in such situations. 3.3.4 Plate electrodes should be situated in soll which has a fine texture and which is packed by Watering and ramming as tightly as possible, Where practicable the soil should be sifted, and all Lumps. should be broken up and stones removed in the immediate vicinty of the electrode. 4, EARTH-ELECTRODES 4. Effect Of Shape On Electrode Resistance. With all electrodes other than extended systems, the greater part of the fall in potential occurs in the soil within the fist two metres of the electrode surface, since itis here that the current density is highest. To obtain a low overall resistance, the current density should be as low as possible in the medium adjacent to the electrode, which should be so designed as to cause the current density to decrease rapidly with distance from the electrode. This requirement is met by making the dimensions in one direction large compared with those In the other ‘wo, thus a pipe, rod or strip has a much lower resistance than a plate of equal surface area, The resistance is not, however, inversely proportional to the surface area of the electrode. The theoretical principles relating to the calculation of resistance of earth-electrodes are dealt with in the Appendix. 12CP 16: 1991 4.2 — Common Types Of Earth-clectrode 42.1 Plates. As shown in the Appendix, the approximate resistance to earth of a plate can be calculated from: alt NR where: 2 Is the resistivity of the soll (assumed uniform) in ohm m; ‘Als the total area of the two sides of the plate in m? This gives Curve 1 of Figure 1, the area concerned being the total af the two sides. This curve may be used as stated in the Appendix for piates buried horizontally at normal depths. Experimental data on the resistance in this case Is lacking, but Figure 1 may be used for guidance, 0 ay | w (| |__| meal Booth z* TTS SRO 8 eG j | oe - eae . - Pl Length of even eletrade, m Figure 3. Calculated curve of resistance of 13 mm diameter driven rod electrodes 16cP 16: 1991 4.23 Strip or conductor electrodes. These have special advantage where high-resistivty sot! underlies shallow surface layets of low resistivity. They are frequently in the form of untinned copper strip of not less than 25 mm x 1.6 mm in section, but may be of bare copper conductor as used for overhead lines. The resistance is given by: where: is the resistivity in ohm m (assumed uniform); Lis length in m; wis the width (in the case of strip) or twice the diameter (in the case of circular conductors) in mm; tis the depth in m, Care should be taken in positioning these electrodes especially to avoid damage by excavation ‘works. Figure 4 shows the variation of calculated earth resistance strip or conductor electrodes with length for a soil resistivity of 100 ohm m. Effect of conductor size and depth aver the range normally used is very small It several strip electrodes are required for connection in parallel in order to reduce the resistance they may be installed in parallel lines, or they may radiate from a point. In the former case, the resistance of two strips at a separation of 2.5 m is less than 65 per cent of the individual resistance of either of them. Under no citcumstances should aluminium strip be used as an earth-electrode. 7 ETT TT Calculated Resistance 2 30100 180200 250 300 Length of electroae, m Figure 4. Effect of length of strip or conductor electrodes on calculated resistance {or soil resistivity of 100 ohm m (assumed uniform) 7CP 16: 1991 4.2.4 Water pipes. The uso of water pipes as the sole earth electrode for wiring installations in low-rise (@ storeys and below) domestic premises and shophowses has been common in, the past Though generally very effective, so long as the consumers’ pipes and water rains to which they are connected are all metal and all joints are of metal-to-metal construction, the use of water pipes for this purpose cannot now be considered to be good practice because of the growing use of non-conducting material for pipes. Asbestos cement and plastics are used both for water mains and consumers’ pipes {and non-conducting joints are often used for jointing metal water mains. Even where the service pipe 1s of conducting material, the path to earth for leaking electic currents may be interrupted by repairs and alterations outside the premises, with consequent danger by shock to the workmen and to persons. on the premises. ‘Therefore, a water pipe should not be used as the only means of earthing. An independent ‘means of earthing should be installed in accordance with the relevant provisions of Singapore Standard CP 5. Cross-bonding of the water service with the exposed metal-work of the electrical installation and the gas service (jf any) is however permissible and indeed necessary in some circumstances (see Subclauses 82.11 and 8.3), subject to the provision of earthing factities which are Independent of the water service. For existing installations in which a water pipe is used as the sole earth electrode for low-impedance earthing, an indepenent means of earthing should be provided at the first practicable ‘opportunity. in the meantime, the resistance to ean af the water pipe should be measured regularly to ascertain if the earthing remains effective; arrangements should be made for the consumer (or other person responsible forthe electrical installation) to be advised of any change in the water system which ‘might affect his earthing, preferably in advanco of the work being carried out ‘The earth resistance of a metalic water pipe principally depends on the length of the pipe and the resistivity of the sol; for typical urban water systems, values range from 0.2 to 1 ohm per 10. ohm m soil resistivity 4.2.8 Cable sheaths. Although cable sheaths in an extensive underground cable system normally provide a low impedance to earth, they should not be rolied upon as the main earthing system, After the main earthing system of an installation has been tested and found 10 be satisfactory, the cable sheath may be bonded to the earthing terminal 426 Structural steelworks and reinforcement piles. The resistance to earth of steel frames or reinforced concrete buildings will vary considerably according to the type of soil and its moisture content land the design of the stanchion bases. Where large civil works are involved, it may be possible to ensure an effective earth electrode by making use of sheet pling, At power stations and large ‘substations this can be done by making use of the reinforcement in concrete piles. The earth strap can be bonded to a minimum of four ples apd the piles between the bonds should be bonded together. Each set of four piles and the piles between tho bonds shyauld be bonded together. Each set of four plles can then be connected to the main earthing bar of the substation. Although the main steel structures may provide a good earth intial, it should not be relied on as the main earth but only as an additional earth, since the steelwork may not be in direct contact with earth and the earth under large structures may dry out in time, The weakness of this method is that normally the bonding between the copper earthing leads and the steelworks is not reliable since the ferrous portions of the connections tend to corrode away due to galvanic action. 18P16: 1991 4.3 Selection Of Metals For Earth-electrodes. Although electrode material does not affect initial earth resistance, cate should be taken to select a material which is resistant to corrosion in the type of soil in which it wil be used. Tests in a wide variety of solls have shown that copper, whether tinned or not, is entirely satisfactory (subject to the precautions given in the next paragraph) - the average loss in weight of specimens 150 mm x 25 mm x 8 mm buried for 12 years ini no case exceeded 0.2 per cent per year. Corresponding average losses for unprotected ferrous specirens (e.g cast iron, wrought iron Cr mild steel) used in the tests were as high as 2.2 per cent per year. (Consterable, and apparently permanent, protection appears to be given to mild stee! by galvanizing, the test showing galvanized mild steel to be litle inferior to copper with an average loss not greater than 0.5 per cent per year. Only in a few cases were there any indication in all these tests that corrosion was accelerating and in these cases the indications were not very significant. The possibility of damage to cables and other underground services and structural metalwork. in the vicinity of earth-electrodes due to electrolytic action between dissimilar materials should not be ‘overlooked when selecting a suitable location to sink earth-electrodes, or choosing the material for earth-electrodes. 4.4 Current Loading Of Earth-olectrodes. An earth-electrode should be designed to have a loading capacity adequate for the system of which it forms a part i. it should be capable of dissipating ‘without failure the energy in the earth path at the point at which it is installed under any condition of ‘operation on the system. Failure is fundamentally due to exclusive temperature rise at the surface of the electrode and is thus a function of current density and duration as well as electrical and thermal properties of the sol In general, soils have a negative temperature coofficient of resistance so that sustained current loading results in an intial decrease in electrode resistance and a consequent rise in the earth fault curtent for a given applied voltage. As soll moisture is driven away from the sol/-clectrode interface, however, the resistance increases and wil ultimately become infinite if the temperature rise is surfcient. This occurs in the region of 100+C and results in complete fallure of the electrode. Three concitions of operation requite consideration, viz long-duration loading, as with normal system operation, short-time overloading, as under fault conditions in directly earthed systems, and long-time over-oading, as under fault conditions in systems protected by arc-suppression cols. The little experimental work which has been done on this subject has been confined to model tests with spherical electrodes in clay or loam of low resistivity and has led to the following tentative conclusions: (2) _Long:duration toading due to normal unbalance ofthe system wil not cause failure of earth-electrodes provided that the current density at the electrode surface does not exceed 38.75 A/m. Limitation to values below this would generally be Imposed by the necessity to secure a low-resistance earth (b) Time to fallure on short-time overioad is inversely proportional to the specific loading, which is given by Fo where {is the curront density atthe electrode surface and the resistivity of the soll. For the solls investigated, the maximum permissible current density is given by: [2 a where : t is the duration of the earth fault in seos 19cP 16: 1991 {iis the current density in kA/m? 2118 the resistivity of the scil in ohm m, Experience indicates that this value may be adopted for plate electrodes. 48 Voltage Gradiort Around Earth-olectrodes. Under fauit conditions, the earth-eloctrode is raised to a potential with respect to the general mass of the earth which can be calculated from the prospective fault current and the earth resistance of the electrode. This results in tho existence of ‘voltages in the sol around the electrode which may be injurious to telephone and pilot cablos, whose Cotes are substantially at earth potential, owing to the voltage to which the sheaths of such cables are raised; the voltage gradient atthe surface of the ground may also constitute a danger to life, specially where animals are concerned. ‘Tho former risk arises mainly in connection with large electrode systems, as at power stations and substations, and is dealt with in deta in Subciause 5.4.5. Danger to animals occurs principally with pole-mounted substations on low-voltage systems. In rural areas, itis by no means uncommon for the earth-path resistance to be such that faults are not cleared within a short period, and in such cases animals, which frequently ‘congregate near a pole, are liable to recelve a dangerous shock. The same trouble sometimes occurs at farms, where earth-electrodes are provided for individual appliances, An effective remedy is to earth the neutral conductor at some point on the system inaccessible to animals, rather than earthing the neutral at the transformer tse’. Alternatively, in the case of wood-pole lines, pipe oF rod electrodes may be buried with their tops below the surface of the soil and connection made to them by means of insulated leads. ‘The maximum votage gradient over a span of 2 m, adjacent to a 25 mm diamoter pipe electrode is, ‘reduced from 85 per cent of the total electrode potential when the top ofthe electrode is at ground level to 20 per cent and 5 por cent when itis buried 0.8 m and 1 m respectively Earth-electrodes other than those used for the earthing of the fence itself should not be installed in proximity 10 a metal fence, to avoid the possibilty of the fence becoming live, and thus dangerous at points remote from the substation, or alternatively giving rise to danger within the resistance area ot the electrode by introducing a good connection with the general mass of the earth 4.6 — Size Of Electrode Inspection Chamber. The point at which the earthing conductor is connected to the earthing electrode must be housed in an inspection chamber, complete with cover of robust construction, of intemal dimensions not smaller thar, 150 mm x 150 mm, to facilitate the disconnection of the connector for the purpose of inspection and testing. 5. POWER STATIONS AND SUBSTATIONS. 5.1 Requirements For Power Stations And Substations. In general, earthing provision will be required at power stations and substations for the following (@) The neutral points of each separate system which has to be earthed at the station; the various systems concerned wil be of different voltage. (©) Apparatus framoworks and other non-current-carrying metalwork associated with each system, e.g. transformer tanks and the sheaths of power cable, ()__Extraneous metalwork not associated with the power systems, @g. boundary fences, sheaths of communication cables, etc 20CP46: 1991 From the point of view of safety to personnel, the aim Is to ensure that in both normal or ‘abnormal conditions, no dangerous voltages can appear on the equipment to which a man has legitimate access. In this respect, “earthed! Is essentially a relative term. Particularly with the high earth fault currents possible on h.v. systems having directly earthed neutrals, itis not practicable to ensure that, during fault conditions, all metal parts nominally earthed are atthe true earth potential. The aim must, therefore, be to ensure that there is an effective connection of very low impedance and adequate current-carrying capacity between the parts with which anyone may be in simultaneous contact. At the same time, itis desirable to arrange that as far as possible, large fault currents do not flow between such points. From the point of view of the possible damage to apparatus, itis desirable in fault conditions tohave the east practicable voltage appearing between the earthed parts of station equipment generally and the main body of earth, so that insulation breakdown or burning does not occur on apparatus earthed outside the station (e.g. apparatus connected to pilot or telephone cables, cable sheaths, etc). For similar reasons, the votage drop between earthed points in the station should also be kept to a minimum. In addition, the effectiveness of any surge protection provided depends in part on the adequacy of the connection of the protective devices to earth. In this case the high instantaneous Currents, often containing high-frequency components, require that the earth connection shail not only be of low resistance but of low reactance, ie. as short and as free from changes of direction as practicable, ‘The resistance to the general mass of the earth of an earth-electrode, which is common to two electrically separate power systems, constitates a coupling between these systems when an earth fault ‘occurs in either. Similarly, if non-current-carrying metalwork ls connected to the same earth-electrode as the neutral point of the supply, an earth fault will raise the potential of such metalwork by the product Of the resistance of this electrade” and the fault current which it cartes. To maintain complete separation between systems at different voltages, therefore, separate earth-slectrodes should, on these grounds, be used for the neutral point of each supply system to be earthed at the site and for the extraneous metalwork at each station or substation. If such a method is adoptea, however, each system at a given site must be insulated from the others and from extraneous. ‘metalwork to withstand the maximum voltage which can be developed across any oarth-electrode at that site. Generally speaking, this will be the voltage with respect to the general mass of the earth to which the metalwork or neutral of the highest voltage system may be raised elther by penetration of a iightning surge to an earthed neutral, or by a flash-over due to lightning or other causes from conductors of the highest-voltage system to the earthed metalwork associated with that system. Insulation of such an order is rarely practicable and a compromise has to be sought. The question of using a common earth or separate earths for the systems of different voltages at a transforming point affects: (@) the probability of breakdown occurring in a transformer between the higher and lower voltage sides due to lightning or other surges; and {b) the safety of the community (and its property) served by any low-voltage system ‘emanating from that point against a rise of potential of the neutral due to a breakdown of insulation on the high-voltage side (e.g. transformer bushing). The former risk is reduced by use of a common earth and the latter only arises if the earth-electrode resistances are not low enough. In general, where the earth-clectrode resistance attainable is of the order of 1 ohm or less as Is usual in the case of power stations, large outdoor ‘substations, and substations serving a cable network, there fs some advantage in using a common earth. * ore and elsewhor in this context, the resistance concesned fs that of the electrode with anyother metalwork in contact th ‘he earth to wich it may be intentionally or inadvertently connected 2cP 16: 1991 ‘The disturbances transmitted from one electrical system to the other under fault conditions are not excessive ithe resistances of eath-electrodes are small compared with the total impedances which limit earth-faut currents. In high voltage systems at voltage of 65 KV and below, if earth fault currents are not suitably limited by the normal impedance ofthe circuit, is customary to achiove this imitation by the insertion of resistors between the system neutral and the earth-electrode”. Such resistors are not normally necessary for this purpose” on systems ofthe higher voltagos (100 KV and upwards) where tho systom at the next stage of transformation can usually withstand, under fault conditions, a temporary excess voltage of the order of the product of the highor-voltage faul-currerk and the earth-olectrode resistance, athough when the transformation ratio is large, the electrode resistance must bo kopt iow. In ural situations where overhead lines are used, it may, in certain circumstances, be inadvisable to use a common earth. The requirements are, therefore, best considered separately in relation to substations where low voltage is confined to auxiliary supplies within the substation itself, to substations which give an external low-voltage supply and to power stations. In what follows, no attempt has been made to dea! with neutral earthing switchgear since the subject Is 60 broad that itis not possible to lay down any general rules which can be applied in practice. A wide range of switchgear is available for this purpose and it is necessary to exercise care in selecting the most appropriate type according to the envisaged operating conditions, 5.2 General Earthing Arrangements At Substations 5.2.1 Substations giving no external low-voltage supply. It Is usual to use a common earth-electrode for all system earths and the equipment earth. This gives the highest degree of security at the site in question and the disturbances propagated elsewhere in the systems in consequence of the ‘common coupling are not in general excessive. The neutral of any low-voltage system used for internal supplies, e.g. station lighting, power and auxiliary circults may safely be connected to the main station earth since, on the occurrence of a fault to earth on any high-voltage system, the potential of the low-voltage neutral will be raised with respect to the general mass of earth but not with respect to any exposed metalwork connected to the common earth-electrode, 5.2.2 Substations giving an external low-voltage suppiy (excluding pole-mounted transformers). Here two possibilities exist for the earthing of the low-voltage system and its associated equipment: (2) They may be earthed by a separate earth clectrade outside the resistance area of the main station earth. In this case, frameworks, etc., directly associated with the low-voltage system must be suitably insulated from the metalwork, including the transformer tanks associated with the high-voltage system, which will be bonded to the main station earth. The earth-clectrode resistance ofthe high-voltage system must then be sufficiently low to avoid as far as possible he risk that a flashover from the highs voltage system to earthed metalwork may raise the potential of the transformer tank, etc, and cause consequent breakdown of the insulation ofthe low-voltage system within the resistance area of the substation. [Nowtal recitors may however be necessary for oer reason @., 1 ensure stability of system Itis essential thatthe connection betwaen neutral and any such resistor be adequately insulated from earth 22cP 16: 1991 (0) Alteratively, the tow-voltage system neutrai may be connected to the station earth, except in substations supplying a protective multiple earthing system, The electrode resistance must then be suffcien’y low to avoid as far as possible the risk that an earth fault on the high-voltage system may cause a voltage rise of the neutral of the low-voltage system and consequent damage on that system outside the resistance area ofthe station. Method (a) is generally not applicable to indoor substations, oF those substaiions to which all connections are by metal-sheathed cable, since a sulficiently low earth-resistance is available to avoid anger. Where method (a) is used it must not be possible for a man to touch simultaneously motalwork bonded to separate earthing systems. The lead sheaths of low-voltage cables from a suibstation fed by high-voltage overhead lines should be insulated within the resistance area of the substation earth-electrode unless it can be shown that there is no risk of a dangerous rise of potential. 5.2.3 Pole-mounted transformers. A number of eath-electrodes are usualy sunk in the vicinity of tho poles to provide earthing for the transformer LV. neutral, transformer frame, as well as any metal structure oF reinforcement forming the platform supporting the transformer. Its desirable to attain an overall earth ohmic resistance in the region of 1 ohm, The transformer frame and any other metal structure or reinforcement forming the platform may bbe bonded to the protective conductor connecting the transformer LV. neutal to the earth electrodes. itis preferable that means of access to the protective conductor be provided at the base of the pole so that any metallic ladder or metal-reinforced wooden ladder may be bonded to earth with ease. However the protective conductor should not be exposed to the touch of unsuspecting bystanders, ‘The danger from voltage gradients around electrodes associated with pole mounted transformers ‘and some possible remedial measures are dealt with in Subciause 4.5. 5.2.4 Tertiary windings of transformers. The tertiary winding of a power transformer should be ‘connected to the transformer tank by a connection of sulficient cross-sectional area to carry the primary short circuit current, 5.3 General Earthing Arrangements At Power Stations 5.3.1 Neutral earthing of transformer-connected generators. The methods generally used are as follows: (@) Eating through the primary winding of a voltage transformer, (0) Earthing through a resistor. ‘nmethod (a), the Impedance of the voltage transformer limits the current due to an earth fault con one phase to a negligible value and minimise the direct danger of serious damage to the stator. If desired, the generator can remain in service unti operational conditions permit the withdrawal. This, however, imposes a higher voltage to earth on the unearthed phases and, unless this Is taken into account in the machine design, the permissible period of such operation is usually very short. The secondary winding is connected to a relay which can be arranged to trip, or to give an alarm only, as desired The practice of shunting the primary winding with a fuse isnot recommended since in the event of a stator fault, the fuse will blow and the solid earth connection to the star point of the stator winding will be replaced by a very high impedance earth connection, just at the very time when a stable earth is most required to prevent the possibilty of over voltages increasing the fault damage. Similarly, the shunting of the primary winding by a surge diverter has its attendant risks due 9 difficulties which may arise from the possible maloperation of the surge diverter. 23cP e+ 1991 In method (b), each individual generator neutral point is earthed through a resistor. This method necessitates Immediate and automatic disconnection of the generator and ferruption of its field on the occurrence of an earth fault on the stator winding or its associated transformer connections and windings. 5.3.2 Neutral earthing of busbar connected generators. Two general systems exist: individual earthing and neutral bar earthing. General practice is to follow the recommendations of the ‘manufacturers. The earthing resistor is generally designed to carry fullload current for 30 seconds; i ‘may be of elther liquid oF metallic type but the later is more usual 5.3.3 Earthing of power station auxiliary systems. There are in common use three methods of earthing the neutral point in power station auxiliary system: (@) Solid earthing: (©) __Earthing through a voltage transformer (or voltage relay) with a surge diverter (but not ‘a fuse) shunting the primary winding (or the relay); Re tance earthing Methods (a) and (c) involve the automatic disconnection of the individual fauity circuit With method (b), an alarm can be arranged to operate from the secondary of the voltage transformer and the scheme enable all auxiliaries to be kept in service unt it is convenient to isolate the board. The current tendency for the larger power stations is to use Method (a) or (c) since Method (b) has certain disadvantage, such as the complication in arranging for speedy identification of the indWvidual faulty circuit and the possible difficulties arising from malfunctioning of the surge diverter. Recommended practice is related to size of unit and voltage of system as follows: (@) 3.3 KV systems at stations with 30 MW sets : Solid earthing; ()) 3.3 KV and 6.6 KV systems at stations with sets larger than 30 MW but not exceeding 100 MW : Solid earthing for preference with resistance earthing as an alternative where special reasons operate for reducing the maximum earth fault current e.g. with the 3.3 KV auxiliary supply for 100 MW sets; ()_ 3.8 KV and 66 XY systems at stations with sets larger than 100 MW : Resistance earthing for preference; (@) 415 Volt systems at all stations : Solid earthing for preference. The factors governing the design of the neutral earthing resistor are the expected neutral earth-fault current and the overall protective characteristics of the system. 5.3.4 Equipment earthing at power stations. Practice in regard to equipment earthing at power slations Is governed by the same principle, and follows generally the same lines, as that for large substations giving no external low-voltage supaly (see Subciause 62.1), that is, a common earth is used {or the neutral earthing of generators and power station auxiliaries and for all apparatus frameworks, power cable sheaths, and extraneous metalwork not associated with the power systems other than the porimeter fence (see Subclause 5.6.1 ) 24CP 16 : 1991 5.4 Power Station And Substation Electrodes 5.4.1 General requirement. The required charactoristics of the main-station electrode and of any separate electrode used for low-voltage system earthing are: (@) A suitably iow resistance is necessary under ali climat’c conditions, depending on the system voltage and fauit currents envisaged. The resistance, and hence possible rise in potential between the station-earth system* and the general body of earth, should be 2s slow as can economically be contrived. A maximum rise in potential of 430 V should be aimed at; higher values which may occur with dificut site conditions may be tolerated but necessitate special precautions in external connections of any form to the station site. In particular, special insulating and isolating equipment on Telecommunication circuits are in these circumstances necessary (see Subclause 8.5.2) (b) The electrode needs to be capable of carrying such currents as may arise in normal operating and during fault and surge conditions without unduly increasing in resistance. () The electrode needs to be so placed that all lightning protective conductors may be brought to the earth-electrade by as short and straight a path as possible to minimize surge Impedance (refer to Singapore Standard CP 33). In addition, all electrodes should be of material which is suitably resistant to such corrosion and ‘other deteriorating influences as may exist at the site and which will not cause damage to other underground service and structural metalwork in the vicinity through electrolytic action between dissimilar metals (see Subclause 4.3). Where itis impracticable to avoid the latter danger by selection of compatible metals, the adoption of cathodic protection or other remedial action may be necossary. At power stations it may be possible to provide a complimentary earth "electrode" by making Use of buried iron piping for cooling water or penstocks. Sheet sted! piling where avaiable at power stations and large substations may be used for the same purpose, in which case the earth strap should be bonded to minimum of four piles and all the ples between the bonds should be welded together The main strap provided for the station wil ts, iid direct and without serving, cortrinute appreciably to of an officient earth. If it can be shown by tests that such adventitious earths are adequate as resistance and current-carrying capacity and that they will remain so under all climatic and. fault Conditions no other electrodes need be provided. ‘Where no such adventitious earths exist or whore they are inadequate, itis necessary to provide ‘specially installed electrodes. Clause 4 deals generally with such earth-electrodes but some aspects of design practice adopted at power stations and substations are covered in Subclauses 5.42 to 5.46 below. In any case, all steolwork such as that referred to above should be bonded to the station earthing system as also should all structural steelwork, but attention is drawn to the wasting given in Subclause 4.2.6 against relying on the latter as an earth-slectrode. 5.4.2 Choice and design. Where high prospective fault currents govern the choice of electrodes, plates are recommended for normal soil conditions. They may be of copper not less than 2.5 mm in thickness and preferably ribbed. The common size employed is 1 mx 1 m, * Hore ant elsewhere in tis context, the resistance concerned is that ofthe electrode together with any other metalwork in contact with the earth to which it may be intontionaly or inadvertently connected. 25CP 16: 1901 ‘As an altornative to plates in the above conditions, cast-iron pipes not less than 100 mm in diameter, 2 m to 3 m long and not less than 13 mm thick may be used, but are more expensive to install, than plates for the same effective area, A further alternative, sometimes employed, is the use of galvanised mild steel pipes 38 mm to ‘50 mm diameter. These can be driven, but being less durable than copper rods, should be used, if at all, only for temporary work. For low faut current, and where sof resistivity is high, copper rods are preferred to plates and pipes. They are normally driven in groups with a spacing between them not less than their length, While rods are easy to insert in soft deep sol, they are not suitable where the subsolls stony or hare; they have an advantage, however, where the water table Is too deep to be reached easily by excavation, and the surface layers have relatively high resistance, e.g. In sandy soils. In regions of high soil-resistvity, bare copper strip, stranded conductor, or mesh may be used, but in certain circumstances the cost may be high. This form of olectrade has particuiar advantage ‘where rock is at or near the surface of the area including or surrounding the station, and may also be ‘employed over a limited area as an “earth mat" where it is particularly desirable to ensure absolute protection to a man standing at a certain spot, e.g. to operate an ai-break switch. 5.43 Number and location. In small substations, whether indoor or outdoor, a single electrode ot group ¢ electrodes is provided immediately adjacent to the substation (indoor) or within or adjacent tothe perimeter fence (if outdoor). Alternatively, a bare strip or stranded conductor may be buried with ‘outgoing cables provided the cables ate served; with unserved cables the possiblity of electrolytic action arises. Where a substation gives an external low-voltage supply by overhead line only, it a separate electrode is necessary for earthing the neutral of the later and its associated equipment in accordance with Subclause 5.2.2, such electrode must be located outside the resistance area of the main station earth, At large sites, apart from securing a sufficiently low resistance and adequate current-carrying capacity, a reasonable distribution of electrodes is necessary. For power stations, the use of ‘adventitious earths (see Subclause 6.4.1) generally secures this, and any additional electrodes necessary are located at convenient points within the area of the station site. For large outdoor substations, however, itis necessary to plan the system of electrodes in relation to the layout of the equipment. AS a guide, it is suggested that one electrode or group of electrodes should be placed as near as practicable to each main transformer, transformer bank, cicuit-breaker, surge diverter, or other possible source of earth-fauit current 5.4.4 Artificial treatment of electrodes. Cove by itself maintains good contact with the sol However, metalwork in the vicinity of a coke bed tends to corrode and care should be taken to locate coke-treated electrodes sufficiently distant (6 m) from metalwork which may be adversely affected, e.g cable sheaths, water pipes, steel framework, otc. Corrosive action on the electrode embedded in the coke itself should not be overlooked. Therefore, such treatment of the earth electrode is not recommended 5.4.5 Voltage gradient around electrodes. As mentioned in Subdauso 4.5, voltage gradients around earth-electrodes under fault conditions may be such as to damage telephone and pilot cables in the vicinity. The area over which such injurious voltage may accur is dependent on whether the feeders are mainly overhead lines or cables laid direct. For substations unaffected by the latter and having the station earth-slectrode or electrodes within the perimeter fence, approximately 80 per cent of the voltageCP 16: 1991 drop from the electrode occurs within a distance from the centre of the station equal to half the ‘maximum diagonal of the boundary fence, and 75 per cent of the voltage drop occurs within twice this distance’. The effect of buried power cables laid direct in the vicinity of the station is virtually to extend the area of the electrode system and thus to increase the distance at which a glven proportion of the electrode potential exists. This offect is dependent upon the resistance to earth of the cable covering, It is recommended that steps should be taken to protect any pilot oF light-current lines within the area over which a dangerous voltage may be expected to exist, by applying suitable sheath insulation to such lines where they are in cable. An alternative solution for stations where both the feeders and the pilot cables are laid direct is to run the latter in a line as far removed as possible from the route of the power cables, Precautions which should be taken in connection with pole-mounted transformers are dealt with, in Subclause 45, 58.48 Test facilities. To permit poriodic testing of an extensive earthing system such as may exist at a large outdoor station, each main electrode or group of electrodes may be connected to the main earthing bars through a bolted link. Separate links for each pipe or rod of a group ate not required. ‘The link may be mounted adjacent to the electrodes in a concrete box with a slab cover, sunk level with the ground, In the case of indoor substations, its often convenient to bring an insulated conductor from the electrode to a disconnecting point inside the substation, For notes an the testing and maintenance of earth-electrodes, see Clauses 11 and 16. 5.5 Earthing Conductors For Power Stations And Substations 5.5.1 Disposition. It is necessary to provide permanent and substantial connections between all ‘equipment and the earth-electroues so as to afford a low-resistance path for faut curront both to earth land between items of equipment. In addition, all other metal piant in or about the station should be ‘connected into the main station earthing system. The more efficiont disposition of earthing conductors required wil depend on the layout of equipment, and the following may be taken as a guide: (@) Indoor Equipment. A main earth-bar should be provided and connected to the framework of each item and to the earth-electrodes. Except for the smaller installations, there should be a connection to the earth-electrodes at each end of the earth-bar or, it this is in the form of a ring, at several points on the ring. These connections may, depending on the layout, be buried cables of a size adequate for the short-circuit current. Where the structure of a switchboard is extensive or occupies more than one floor, a further parallel main earth-bar may be required which should be cross-connected to its companion bar at one point at least in each section of the switchboard, ‘The main earth-bar should be so placed that cable sheaths can be readily connected toit. When cables are so connected, the bonds should be made to the cable gland on which the lead sheath should be piumbed and the afmouring clamped, The main earth-bar should be accessible for the connection of any detachable earthing devices provided with the switchgear. Branch connections from the main earth bar should be provided to all accessory equipment such as control and relay panels, constructional steelwork, fre-extinguishing equipment, etc. * soe Report F/T85: "Earth ourent voltage gradients around substations’ by H.G Taylor. Published by the Eiectoal Research esosiation) 27CP. 46: 1991 (b) ‘Where busbar protection is effected at switchboards by frame leakage, two main earth bars are required. The frame bar interconnecting the framework of the switch units will be connected to the true earth bar through a current transformer and bolted links for test purposes. The true earth-bar should be run separately from the frame eatth-bar in convenient position for the connection of cable sheaths and earthing devices. Where itis mounted on the switch units, it should be insulated therefrom by insulation capable of withstanding a test voltage of 4 kV r.m.s. alternating current for 1 minute. Outdoor equipment (excluding pole-mounted transformers). A main earth bar should be provided, so positioned as to allow for the shortest subsidiary connections toall major equipment such as transformers or circuit-breakers. Wherever possible, this should be arranged to form a ring round the station. The main earth-bar (or ring) should be connected where required to earth-electrodes. For larger stations the ring should be reinforced by one or more cross-connections. From the main earth-bar, branch connections should be taken to each item of apparatus, and where several such items lie together, a subsidiary ring with short branches is preferable to a number of longer individual branches from the main bar. The alm should be to provide closed loops or a mesh system wherever this can be contrived with reasonable economy. Isolator and earthing-switch operating mechanisms and circuit-breaker control kiosks, rot integral with the circult-breakers, should be connected to the earth system by a branch entirely separate from that employed for earthing the isolator or earthing- switch bays or the circuit-breaker structure so that a short definite metallic connection exists between the hands and feet of any operator and so that this connection is not likely to carry fault current. The further contribution to safety given by an insulating link in a mechanism drive is less definite than that obtainable from an efficient earth connection Of the kind recommended above. Where the earth-wire of an incoming line ends at the terminal supports and is not connected to a point on the substation structures, a subsidiary earth connection should be provided between the substation earth system and the base of the support. If the latter lies outside the substation fence, the earth connection should be buried where it passes under the fence and should be kept well clear of the latter. Where earthing switches are mounted on steel or reinforced concrete structures, the structure should not be relied upon to provide the earth connection from them to the system. A copper connection should be provided. Earth connections to surge diverters should be of ample cross-section and as direct as possible; they should not pass through iron pipes which would increase the impedance to surges of the connection. The earth connections of the diverters should be interconnected with the main earthing system since, for the effective protection of the substation equipment, a definite connection of low impedance between the equipment and the diverters is essential, 5.5.2 Size, The size of earthing conductor required Is determined by consideration of voltage drop and temperature rise. It is desirable that the voltage drop between two nominally earthed parts with which anyone is likely to be in simultaneous contact should not exceed 60 V. The voltage drop is not, however, always readily calculable, but the size of connection required for thermal considerations will in general be sufficient to keep these voltage drops within safe limits, 28CP 16: 1991 ‘The thermal rating of earth connections should be based on the short-time current rating of the associated switchgear and a maximum temperature which will not cause damage to the earth connections or to equipment with which they may be in contact. ‘The cross-sectional area of every protective conductot, other than an equipotential bonding conductor, shall be: (@) calculated in accordance with Subclause 5.5.2.2, or (b) selected in accordance with Subclause 6.5.2.3. NOTE: Calculation in accordance with Subclause 5 5.2.2s necessary ifthe choice of coss-sectonsl areas of phase conductors has beon setormined by considerations of short-ckcut current and the aath faut curetis expected tobe Jas than the shor cuit current, If the protective conductor is separate (.e. does not form part of a two-core or multi-core cable, and is not formed by conduit, ducting er trunking, and is not contained in an enclosure formed by wiring system), the cross-sectional area shall in any event be not less than: (@) 2.8 mm? if mechanical protection is provided; (©) 4.0 mn? if mechanical protection is not provided. For an earthing conductor buried in the ground Subclause 5.5.2.4 also applies. 5.5.2.1 Where a protective conductor is common to several circuits, the cross-sectional area of the protective conductor shall be: (@) calculated in accordance with Subclause 5.5.2.2 fr the most unfavourable ofthe values of fault current and operating time encountered in each of the various circuits, or (©) selected in accordance with Subclause 5.5.2.3 so as to correspond to the cross- sectional area of the largest phase conductor of the circuits. 5522 The cross-sectional area, where calculated, shall be not less than the value dotermined by the following formula (applicable only for disconnection times not exceeding 5 seconds}: where: $ is the cross-sectional area in mi | is the value (rm. for a.c) of fault current for a fault of negligible impedance, which can flow through the associated protective device, in amperes, NOTE: Account should be taken of the current limiting effect of the circult impedances and! the limiting capably () ofthe protective device. ‘tis the operatina time of the disconnecting device in seconds, corresponding to the fault current | in amperes: k is a factor dependent on the material of the protective conductor, the insulation and other parts, and the intial and final temperatures. 20CP 16: 1991 Values of for protective conductors in various use or service are as given in Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4. The values are based on the intial and final temperatures indicated below each table, ‘Where the application of the formula produces a non-standard size, a conductor of the nearest larger standard cross-sectional area shall be used. Table 1. Values of k for insulated protective conductors not incorporated in cables and not bunched with cables or for bare protective conductors in contact with cable covering Material of conductor Insulation of protective conductar of cable covering Pvc 85-C rubber _| 90°C thermosetting Copper 143 166 176 ‘Auuminium 9% 110 116 Steel 52 60 Cl Assumed initial temperature 30°C 30°C Final temperatura I 220°C 250°C Table 2. Values of k for protective conductor as a core in a cable or bunched with cables Insulation material Material of conductor — | 85°C rubber__| 90°C thermosetting Copper 194 143 Aluminiun 89 94 ‘Assumed initial temperature 700 85°C 90°C Final temperature 160°C. 250°C Table 3. Values of k for protective conductor as @ sheath or armour of a cable Material of conductor Insulation Mater rial Pvc. 85°C rubber_| 90°C thermosetting Copper “4 bt 54 ‘Aluminium: ai 93, 98 Load 22 26 27 ‘Assumed initial temperature 60°C 75°C 80°C Final temperature 160°C 220°C 250°C 30€P-16:1991 ‘Table 4. Values of k for bare conductors where there is no risk of damage to any neighbouring material by the temperature indicated Conditions Material of conductor ~ Visible and in Normai Fito Risk _restricted area’ Conditions Copper 228 159 138 Aluminium 125 105, st Stee! 82 58 0. Assumed intial temporature 30°C 30°C 30°C Final temperature : Copper conductors ‘500°C 200°C 150°C Aluminium conductors 300°C 200°C 150°C Steel conductors 500°C 200°C 150°C “Th tomperaturesincicated are vail only whore they co not imal the quay of the connections, 55.2.3 Where itis desired not to calculate the minimum cross-sectional area of a protective conductor in accordance with Subclause 5.5.2.2, the value of cross-sectional area may be selected in accordance with Table 5 as follows: (@) where the protective conductor is made of the same material as the associated phase conductors, by selection of the appropriate value of Sp from the table, or (b) where the protective conductor and the associated phase conductors are made of different materials, by selection of the appropriate value of conductance not less than the conductance resulting from the application of the table. Where the application of Table § produces a non-standard size, a conductor having the nearest standard cross-sectional area shall be used. Table 5. Minimum cross-sectional area of protective conductors in relation to the area of associated phase conductors Cross-sectional area of phase conductor Minimum cross-sectional area of the corresponding protective conductor © (Sp) | mm? mm $s16 s 16< $295 16 S> 35 8/2 55.2.4 Byery earthing conductor shall comply with Subclause 5.5.2 and in addition, where buried in the soil, shall have a cross-sectional area not less than that stated in Table 6. 34OP 46: 1991 Table 6. Minimum cross-sectional areas of buried earthing conductors Protected against Not protected against mechanical damage mechanical damage Protected against corrosion as requited by Subclause 5.5.2 16 mm? copper Not protected against corrosion | 25 mm? copper 25 mm? copper NOTE: For tape or stip conductors, the thickness should be adequate te withstand mechanical damage and corrosion, 5.5.3 Construction. It is essential for the safety of personnel and plant that an earth system should remain effective throughout the life of the plant. It is dificut in many cases to make a check of Continuity after installation. The system must therefore be robust and protected from mechanical damage and corrosion where necessary. Any joints should be capable of retaining low resistance after ‘many passages of fault current. 5.5.3.1 Joints. Joints and bonds should be mechanically and electrically effective, eg. clamped, ‘screwed, bolted, crimped, riveted or welded. Joints in the earth bar between the switchgear units or to cable sheaths which may require subsequently to be broken should be bolted and the joint faces tinned. 5.5.2.2 Terminations. Where the diameter af the bolt for connecting the earth-bar to apparatus exceeds ‘one quarter of the width of the earth-bar, the connection to the bolt should be made with a wider piece flag of copper jointed to the earth-bar. Earth-bar of flags should be tinned at the point of connection to equipment and special care is required to ensure a permanent low resistance contact to iron or steel. 6.6.3.3. Fixing, Main earth-bars should be spaced sufficiently from the surface to which they are fixed, such as walls or the side of trenches, to allow of maxing permanent or temporary connections. Where the earth-bar itself is drilled for fastenings, the diameter of the hole should not exceed one-quarter of the ‘width of the bar. Copper earth-bars should not be fixed by ferrous screws or fittings. Where portable earthing equipment is in use, suitable loops attached to the earth-bar to accept the earth clamps should be provided. 55.8.4 Protection from corrosion. ron, lead and zinc are all anodic to copper, whose presence therefore promotes their corrosion where rainwater or soll water contains electrolyte. Connections between copper and galvanized equipment should therefore be made on a vertical face and protected ‘with paint of grease; galvanized fixing clamps should not be used for earth-bars. Earth-bars leading to cast-iron electrodes should be served for protection in the vicinity of the latter and the bonds to the electrodes should be protected by a thick ayer of compound. Where there is evidence thatthe soi is aggtessive to copper, buried earthing conductors should be protected by suitable serving or sheath, Aluminium and copper clad aluminium conductors shall not be used for final connections to earth electrodes. All connections of earthing conductors to earth electrodes shall be electrically and ‘mechanically sound and fited with a label. The label shall be permanentiy fixed in a visible postion and durably marked with the words, "Safety electrical connection - do not remove’, in legible type not less than 4.75 mm high, 5.5.4 Connections to separate earth-electrodes. Where it is necessary to connect items of ‘equipment to earth-electrodes which are separate trom, and outside the resistance area of, the main station earth-electrodes, the earthing conductors for this purpose should be suitably insulated from thoseCP 16: 1997 ‘af the main station earthing-system to withstand the voltage rise which may occur on the latter under fauit conditions, This may be effected by Using insulated cables or, where the earthing conductors ate ‘not buried, by suitable spacing and support. In the latter case the separation within the station area should be such that at no point is it possible for a person to make simultaneous comact wih any parts Of two separate earthing systems, 5.6 —_Earthing Of Non-electrical Metalwork in Power Stations And Substations 5.6.1 Perimeter fences. In deciding whether the perimeter fence should be bonded to the main station earthing system or separately earthed it is necessary to consider the relative danger to persons or animals outside the fence and able to touch it, and to persons within the fence who may make contact simultaneously with t and with tems of equipment bonded to the main station earthing systems. Where the site is sufficiently extensive to allow the latter danger to be avoided, or where itis possible by other means to avoid this danger, the fence should be earthed independenily at intervals, either by driven rods or by connections to buried strip following the fence tine. If this is not done and the fence is connected to the substation earthing system, a portion of the rise of potential of the earth-electrodes, relative to the general body of the earth during faults, would appear between the fence and the ground adjacent thereto. Where the fence is earthed independently, it is important to take special precautions to insulate the sheaths of cables passing under the fence. This will also apply to any buried earth conductors for bonding to other equipment external to the fence. Where metal gates are provided in a perimeter fence, or metal doors to an indoor-type substation, these should be bonded to the fence or steel structure. 5.6.2 Structural steelwork. All structural steelwork within a station sito, including the steel frames of buildings and steelwork supporting electrical and other equipment, should be bonded to the main station earthing system, 5.7 Miscellaneous Matters In Power Stations And Substations. if two of more stations are adjacent on what may be considered to be one site, the earthing systems and the stations should be ‘interconnected to form a single earthing system. Where the stations actually adjoin, the extremities of their earthing systems should be connected together so that the whole area Is enclosed by the earthing systems. Where the separation is too large to treat as adjcining stations, an interconnecting cable of substantial cross-section should be run to ensure that as far as practicable fault curremns are diverted from cable sheaths and armour. This is of particular importance where fault current flowing in one station is provided ftom the adjoining station, e.g. where a switching station adjoins power or transforming station site so that an earth fault in the switchgear causes current flow between the two sites in order to reach the system noutral at the generators or transformers. Such interconnections, between sites should include links suitably disposed to assist in testing, Except where special insulation is called for (see Subclause 5.2.2), sheaths of all main cables should be connected to the station earth system, With multi-core cables, the connection is generally made at the termination. With single-core cables the connection may be made where they break from close trefoil formation, at which point they should also be bonded; insulated glands should then be fitted at the sealing ends. Alternatively, single-core cables may be earthed at sealing ends not fitted with insulating ‘glands without the need of further bonds through earthed metal structures on which they are mounted; where the supporting structure is of concrete they may be bonded and earthed at that point, Single-core talls from the trfurcating joints at the termination of three-core cables (which joint should be earthed as required above) should be treated as described for single-core cables unless the length of the tai is short, in which case no additonal bonding or earthing is required beyond the joint, bbut insulated glands should be fitted 10 the sealing ends. 33CP 16: 1981 Where high earth-fauit currents aro to be expected, and an appreciable rise of potential of the station system with respect to the general body of the earth may ensue, special care is necessary with ‘connections other than main cables or lines entering the station such as water pipes and telephone or pilot cables. Water pipes should include an insulated section. In severe cases, Isolating transformers may be necessary for telephone connections. Pilot cables should he provided with insulated glands and so disposed as to minimize the possiblity of faut currents being carried by the sheaths. Where carrier-current equipment is employed, a further earth-electrode, normally a driven rod, should be provided at or immediately adjacent to each structure supporting the coupling capacitors. This earth-olectrode is an additional one for the hyf. equipment and should be bonded into the main earthing system. The structures supporting the coupling capacitors sould be earthed in the normal way. 6 OVERHEAD POWER LINES 6:1 Earthing Of Overhead Power Lines - General. Earthing methods associated with overhead Power lines, including the provision of acral earth-wires, the earthing of non-current-carrying metalwork, and the bonding of such metalwork are designed: (@) for the avoidance of danger from a broken line coneiuctor or from leakage due to breakdown of insulation, by proper design to ensure that in such circumstarices the protective gear will operate effectively; and (©) for ensuring, so far as is possible, that the current in any lightning stroke to an earth wire orto support metalwork shall be conveyed to earth without causing back flashover. This fs not normally economically practicable in the case of low-voltage lines. ‘The methods of earthing should also be such as to minimize inductive interference with ‘communication circuits, NOTE. An earth wie is elective in reduoing elncvo-magnatic induction it ke resistance, including the existance ef tower footings and other connections to earth competing the cvout with earth yturn, is small compared with its reactance at the ‘tequency ix question. A the fundamental frequency, a high-esistity earth wo (steal wire) gives, thorefore, practically no lioviation, even iti fs pertecy earthed; a single lowwesistty carth-vie (hats copper, aluminum, ete of suclene cross section) may reduce tho Induced votage. 6.2 _ Earthing Of High-Voltage Lines (Overhead). So far as earthing practices are concerned, the following classes of line construction may be recognised. 6.2.1 Motalwork bonded and earthed at each support. This is the simplest form of construction with steel tower lines. It provides no protection against lightning beyond that inherently given by the supports, it may be adopted for wood pole lines; the adequate bonding and earthing of the metalwork provide protection against the danger of pole-top fires from leakage, but demand at each support a resistance to earth which is sufficiently ow to permit protective gear to operate in the event of contact between a line conductor and earthed metalwork. This may, in areas of high soil resistivity, be less economical than the provision of a separate acral earth-wire connected tothe neutral at the supply end of the line. The bonding and earthing o ine ‘metalwork lessons the chance of danger from broken Conductors in so far as the probabilly is increased that a falling conductor will touch earthed metalwork and so cause protective gear to operate. 34CP 16: 1997 6.2.2 Metalwork bonded and connected to an aerial earth-wire which is connected to the neutral and earthed at each support or at intervals. in this construction, which is appropriate for important lines except in areas where lightning is unlikely, protection against lightning is afforded by the aerial cearth-wires, provided that these are run above the power conductors. The lower the impedance between aerial earth-wire and earth, the better is the protection, since the main isk to be avoided is thet of back flashover from the earthed metalwork to line conductors on the occasion of a direct lightning stroke to the earth-vire, Recommended practice is that the resistance in any tower footing or other connection of the aerial earh-wire shall not exceed 0.02 ohm per kilovolt of minimum impulse flashover voltage of the insulators; where this is not known, the more crude rule of 0.2 ohm per kilovolt of ine voltage gives a rough guide. Reliance for protection against lightning should be placed only on the connection to earth hhearest to the point where the line Is struck. Cn a woodpole line it may not be economically justifiable to put in earth-electrodes at each pole to get down to the required limit. In the case of steel tower or pole lines, the support foundations are often of sufficiently low resistance to provide protection. In certain cases, it has been necessary to bury a copper strip electrode the whole length of the line; such precautions are only economically feasible on very important lines carrying a heavy load. Danger from a broken line conductor is minimized by this construction in so far as: @) the probability is increased that a faling conductor will ouch earthed metalwork and 80 cause the protective gear to operate; (©) the existence of the earth-wire facilitates the earthing of cradle guards, etc. The continuous aerial earth-wire alone, if efficiently connected to a single earth-electrode and to the metalwork at each suppor, provides adequate protection against leakage provided the protective ‘gear is suitably adjusted to cater for the mirimum leakage current computed. ‘The aerial earth-wire gives some alleviation of inductive interference with communication circuits. 63 _Earthing Of Low-Voltage Lines (Overtiead). In the case of low voltage lines, the neutral or earthed conductor installed must be run below the phase conductors, which are normally arranged in vertical formation unless other special precautions are adopted. No protection against lightning is therefore provided by this conductor. Such protection is, however, afforded if separate earth-wire is Used for lines run on metal poles, and is run above the phase conductors. This wire is connected at the source of supply to the neutral and to the low-voltage supply network earth. It may also be earthed at each consumer's premises and elsewhere throughout the system, as discussed in Ciause 7. In this type of line, it's good practice to provide a suitable wooden insulator in any stay wire attached to a pole (on which the steelwork is not earthed. 7. PROTECTIVE EARTHING OF LOW-VOLTAGE SYSTEMS 7.1 Protective Earthing Of Low Voltage Systems - General. The characte devices for automatic disconnection, the earthing arrangements for the installation and the relevant impedances of the circults concemed shail be co-ordinated sc that during an earth fault the voltages between simuitanoously accessible exposed and extraneous conductive parts occurring anywhere in the installation shall be of such magnitude and duration as not to cause danger (@) _forfinal circuits supplying socket outlets, the earth fault loop Impedance at every socket Outlet is such that disconnection occurs within 0.4 second. This requirement does not apply to the reduced voltage circuitsCP 46: 1901 (©) forfinal circuits supplying only fixed equipment, the earth fault loop impedance at every point of utiisation is such that disconnection occurs within § seconds, Where metalwork is earthed the circuits concerned shall be protected against persistence of dangerous earth fault currents by: () overcurrent protective devices; (i) residuat current devices or equally efective devices. ‘The method described in item (i) above shall be used whenever the prospective earth fauit current is insuticiont 0 cause prompt operation of the overcurrent protective devices. 7.1.1 Method ((). Where protection is atforded by an overcurrent protective device, the maximum earth fault loop impedance (Z,) shall not exceed the value corresponding to the fault current necessary {or operation of the protective devices within the appropriate time. For a nominal voltage to Earth (U,) of 230 V r.m.s and for types and rated currents of protective devices in common use, maximum values of 2, are stated in the following Tables 7 and 8. Where U, is other than 230 V the tabulated impedance values are to be multiplied by U,/230. For types and rated currents of overcurrent protective devices other than those mentioned in the tables, the necessary time/current characterlstics shall be obtained from Appendix 8 af CPS : 1988 oF from the manufacturer NOTE, The tabulated values of impedance n Tabies 7 and Bare bused on tho ascumption thatthe garth faults of no impedance, ile 7.1.2. Method (ji). Where compliance is afforded by a residual current device in an Installation which Is part of a TN-$ or TT system, the product of the rated residual operating current in amperes and the ‘earth fault loop impedance in ohms shall not exceed 50. NOTE, For TT systems the sarth faut loop impedance includes the earth slactode resistance 7.1.3 The use of voltage-operated earth-leakage circult-breaker is prohibited Table 7, Maximum earth fault loop impedance (Z,) for socket outlet circuits (2) Fuses to BS 88 Part 2 Rating s | «| w] a] as «| 6 (ampere) ey | vc ER TSS | sv ve) aes (b) Fuses to BS 1361 rating 5 3 |» | 6 tamper) 2, (ohms) we fas | 7 | 1 08 36f | 4 { () Fuses to BS 9036 CP 46: 1991 Rating 5 15 20 30 45 (amperes) 2, (ohms) 9.2 26 17 a 06 () Fuse to SS 167 Rating 13 (amperes) 2, (ohms) 24 (©) Type 1 miniature circuit breakers to BS 3871 Rating 6 10 te | 2 | 2 50 i, amperes) Z, (ohms) 95 87 36 29 18 14 57/i, () Type 2 miniature circuit breakers to BS 3871 Rating 6 10 16 20 32, 50 i, (amperes) Z, (ohms) 53 3.2 2.0 16 1.0 0.64 32/i, (a) Type 3 miniature circuit breakers to BS 3871 Rating 6 10 we | 2 | 2 50 i, (amperes) Z, (ohms) 38 23 14 12 07 046 | 23/4, | NOTE. When Up, the nominel voltage fo Earth, i other than 290 V the tabulated impedance values are to be uttipiod by Uj. 37CP 46: 1991 Table 8, Maximum earth fault impedance (Z,) for circuits supplying fixed equipment (@) Fuses to BS 88 Pact 2 Rating 6 | 0 | w | 2 | 2 | a | 4 | 50 (amperes) 2, (ohms) ras | 74 | a2 | 29 | 22 | 17 | ta | os Rating 63 ao | to | 125 | to | 200 | 250 {amperes} _ Z, (ohms) ose | os7 | oa | om | 026 | o10 | ons Rating 315 400 500 630 200 (amperes) 2, (ohms) oat 0.092 0.062 0.052 0.033 (b) Fuses to BS 1964 Rating 5 | 1 | 2 | a | a | o | s | 100 (amperes) _ _ 2, (ohms) tes | 51 | 28 | 19 | 096 | 087 | 046 | o27 (©) Fuses to BS 3036 Rating 5 | 2 | a } %& | © | 100 (amperes) 2, (ohms) 192 | ssr_| a8 | 268 | 159 | 115 | 059 (d) Type 1 miniature circuit breakers to BS 3871 Rating 6 10 16 20 32 50 1, (amperes) Z, (ohms) os | 57 | 36 | 29 | 18 1t_ | 57/4 () Type 2 miniature circuit breakers to BS 3871 ating 5 wo | w | 2 | 2 | amperes) | Z, (ohms) 53 32 | 20 1.6 10 06a | 32f, 38CP 16: 1991 CU} ‘Type 3 miniature circuit breakers to BS 3871 Rating 5 10 1s | 2 | x | 60 » | (ampere | zo Las las lm | Lo Loe | wa] NOTE. Whon U,, the nominal volage to Earth, ie other than 290V the tabulated impedance values ere to be ‘muitipied by U,/230, 7.2 Allernative Methods Of Protection 7.2.1 As previously stated, unless otherwise allowed, one point of a system shail be earthed. This is normally effected by direct connection to earth of the neutral ofa three-phase system or one pole of a single-phase system (of, in threeswire a.c. of d.c. system of the middle wire) at the source of supply. Protection against electric shock from non-current-carrying metalwork under fault conditions (contact with, ar feakage from, live conductors) may be effected in one or more of the following ways: (2) By direct earthing of such metalwork; (b) By earth-auit or eartheakage protection which disconnects the supply ifthe voltage (on such metalwork with respect fo the general body of earth, or the leakage current from the lve conductors, exceeds a predetermined value which may be regarded as the limit for safety 7.2.2 Direct earthing. Throughout this Code, "direct earthing’ means connection to ant earth- electrode, cable sheath and roliance on over-current protection. | non-current-carrying metalwork is protected by direct earthing, then, under earth-fauit conditions, there will be a potential difference between the metalwork and the general mass of earth. ‘This potential difference vsil persist until the protective gear operates. Tho actual value of the potential difference depends on the line Voltage U,, the substation earth resistance R,, the line resistance R,, the fault resistance R,, and, finally, the earth resistance at the installation R,. The installation earth resistance includes the resistance of the protective conductor and the earthing conductor. An approximate value for the potential difference V, botween protected metalwork and earth is. then given by RU, SRSA R where U, is the normal supply voltage. V, shall not exceed 50 V. Direct connection to earth may be made to a suitable earth-electrode adequate to the requicements of the circuit to be protected, The resistance of various types of eanth-electrode, in relation to the resistivity of the sol in which they are instalod, is deat with in Clause 4cp 46: 1991 A further method of enhancing connection to earth, is to make use of metallic sheaths of underground cables. This is referred to in Subclause 4.2.5, but such cable sheaths are more generally sed to provide a direct metallic connection for the return of fault current to the neutral of the system rather than as a means of direct connection to earth, Water mains, water pipes and cable sheaths should not be used as a sole means of direct earthing. Where they are so used in existing installation, special precautions are necessary to contirm that the earthing remains effective (see Subclauses 4.2.4 and 4.2.6) and itis desirable that an alternative ‘ndependent means of earthing be provided as soon as practicable. 7.2.3 Earthtault protection, Earth-ault protection s a system of protection arranged to disconnect the supply automatically from an installation or part thereof when the earthfault current exceeds a predetermined value. Such a system may be made to operate more rapidly and at lower values ot fault current than one depending on overcurrent protective devices. 7.2.4 Earth-eakage protection, Where highly sensitive protection against earth-fault is required, earthleakage circuit breaker protection may be adopted. |tis essential that satisfactory operation of any such device be checked at intervals of not more than 6 months. The check should establish that all essential elements are in a condition to ensure ‘Broper operation of the device. If the installation complies with the provisions of Singapore Standard CP § it may be sufficient to (a) visually inspect the connection of the eartheakage circuit-breaker to ensure that itis properly connected; () check the operation of the earth-leakage circuit-breaker by means of the bulltin testing device; (©) test the operation of the earth-leakage circuit-breaker by creating an earth-fault through an appropriate resistor or lamp. In case of ificuity, a more comprehensive test may be necessary. Methods of test applicable to various installation conditions are described in Section Three, Cause 15. 7.25 Current-operated earth-leakage circuit-breaker. Cutrent-operated protection is applied by inserting inthe lines feeding an appliance or group of appliances a device in which the operating current is proportional to the vector sum of al the line and neutral currents, and is consequently proportional to the total earth-fauit or leakage current from the system. This form of protection may be applied to any single-phase or polyphase earthed system. The method is one which may easily be applied to provide discriminative protection for individual circuits. The differential current itself, elther directly or through a differential transformer, may be used to operate the circuittbreaker trip coil, while if greater sensitivity is required, a sensitive relay may be incorporated. The former arrangemert perwits minimum settings of the order of 1 per cent of the current transformer or circut-breaker rating, while the latter permits settings of the order of a fraction of an ampere where necessary. Figure 5 shows a current-operated earth-leakage trip applied to a single-phase clrcult. Under normal conditions, when there is no earth leakage, the algebraic sum of the currents in the two cols of the current transformer is zero, and no current will pass through the trip coil. When an earth leakage ‘occurs, the current is unbalanced and the trip coll carries cutrent and thus trips the circuit breaker. 40CP16:-1991 supply Magnetio Tip Installation Terminals Girt Push Button Load © Protective Conductor Consumers Earthing =>" ean electrode Terminal Figure 5. Circuit diagram of a current balance earth-leakage circuit-breaker These devices being current-operated, the voltage to which the metalwork ofthe installation may tise before operation, isthe product ofthe current-seting and the resistance to earth of the installation. It follows that the higher the sensitivity of the protective gear, the greater the value of earth resistance wich can be tolerated at the instalation, Current-operated protection can be used where the installation has several circuits, and itis, desired to provide discriminatory protection of individual circuits on systems, e.g factory distribution systems where the purpose is to provide earth-auit protection for the mains as well as for the equipment. Cutrent-operated protection reduces the fire risk to the extent that it reduces the value of sustained leakage current as compared with overload protection alone. This method lends itself particulaly to the protection of larger installations. 8. CONSUMERS’ PREMISES 8.1 Exchange Of Information. When the earthing of a consumers instalation is being planned, prior consultation should take place between the consultant or contractor or both and the Public Utilities Board. 8.2 Earthing For Installations In Buildings Generally 8.2.1 The provisions of this Section are based on Singapore Standard CP 5. ato al ad "1 he 1 1 Ra ir qu sh CP 16: 1901 8.2.2 Protection against earth-leakage. All electrical apparatus operating at a voltage exceeding extra-low voltage should be protected against dangerous earth-Jeakage currents, Protection may be achieved by one of the following means (@) The use of apparatus of “allinsulated construction’, that is having insulation which encloses the apparatus and is durable and substantially continuous. In certain circumstances, fixed apparatus which, although not shrouded in insuiating material, is nevertheless so guarded that it cannot be touched and cannot come into contact with exposed metal, may be regarded as of "all-insulated construction" (b) The use of appliances having double insulation in conformity with an approved standard. (c)__ The earthing of exposed metal pans. (@) The isolation of metalwork in such a manner that it is not liable to come into contact, with live parts or with earthed metalwork, Such methods of protection can be found in Chapter 41, Sections 412 and 419 of Singapore Standard CP 5. 8.2.3 Basic requirements for earthing. The earthing arrangoments of the consumer's instalation should be such that (@) __ the value of resistance is in accordance with the protestive and functional requirements, Of the instalation, and expected to be continuously effective, and (©) earth faut currents and earth leakage currents likely to occur ate carried without danger, particularly from thermal, thermomechanical and electromechanical stresses, and (©) they are adequately robust or have additional mechanical protection appropriate to the assessed conditions of extemal influence. It is desirable to ensure that the maximum sustained voltage developed under fault conditions between exposed metal required to be earthed and the consumer's earth terminal should not exceed 50 volts rams. For the compliance of disconnection times, the requirements of Subciause 7.1 shall apply. 8.2.4 Metalwork to be earthed. When earthing is adopted as the means of protection, the following should be connected by a protective conductor to the consumer's earth terminal or its equivalent (2) All metalwork associated with wiring systems (other than current-carrying parts), including cable sheaths and armour, metal conduit, ducts, trunking boxes and catenary wires except such boxes and short isolated lengths of conduit and catenary wires as ‘are dealt with in Subclause 8.22 (d). () —_ Eanth terminals of socket-outlets. () One point of the secondary winding and of metalwork (other than current-carrying Parts) of any transformer used in a consumer's installation, other than a transformer contained in an item of apparatus, such as a mains-operated radio recetver, which taken fas a whole complies with SS 143 or the secondary winding of a high-reactance transformer serving solely to energize a tesla cail or the heating element of a discharge lamp, or a transformer in which each winding is mounted on a separate limb of an earthed core, or in which the windings are senarated by an earthed metal screen. 42CP 16: 1991 (@) The exposed metalwork ofall iked electrical apparatus other than current-carrying parts ‘and small parts such as screws or nameplates isolated by insulating material (6) The exposed metalwork of all portable electrical equipment other than portable appliances provided with double insulation in conformity with an approved standard, and with the exception of current-carrying parts and small parts such as screws or nameplates isolated by insulating material. For this purpose, such metalwork should be connected to a protective conductor in the flexible cable or flexible cord supplying the equipment and thereby to the earthing-pin or earth contact of a Singapore Stanclard plug. 8.2.5 Protective conductors 82.5.1 Gonoral. Connection to earth of those parts of an installation required to be earthed should be by means of a protective conductor which may be, in whole or in part, the metal sheath of the cables, or the special continuity conductor of a cable, flexible cable oF flexible cord. Pipes containing {088 oF flammable liquids should not in any circumstances be used as protective conductors. ‘The impedance between the earth electrode or earthing terminal and any point on the protective ‘conductor should not exceed 1 chm at the frequency of the supply. Lower values are required where circuits of high currentrating are in use at low voltage. For the purpose of this requirement, the Impedance of any operating coil of an earth-leakage circuit-breaker connected in the protective conductor circuit may be excluded, 82.5.2 Separate protective conductors, The cross-sectional area of every separate copper protective ‘conductor not contained in a cable, flexible cable or flexible cord should be determined according to the methods given in Subclause 5.5.2. Not withstanding the above, the cross-sectional area should not be less than 2.5 mm? if mechanical protection is provided or 4.0 mm? if mechanical protection fs not provided, ‘The conductance of any copper-alloy earth-continuity conductor installed in lieu of copper should be equivalent to that of the copper conductor specified. Where a copper earth-continuity conductor is to be joined to aluminium, the copper should be tinned, 82.6.3 Protective conductors contained in cables. The cross-sectional area of protective conductors contained in flexible cables or flexible cords should be equal to that of the current-carrying conductors. Cross-sectional areas of protective conductors contained in metal, tough rubber or PVC-sheathed cables should comply with the appropriate Singapore Standard or British Standard. 82.5.4 Cable sheaths used as protective conductors. Where the metal sheaths of cables are used as protective conductors, every joint in such sheaths must be so made that is current-carrying capacity isnot less than that of the sheath itself, Where necessary, they should be protected against corrosion. Where non-metallic joint boxes are used, means should be provided to maintain the continuity, such as, ‘2 metal having a resistance not greater than that of the corresponding length of sheath of the largest cable entering the box. 82.5.5 Pipes and structaral steefwork. Pipes such as water pipes or members of structural steelwork should not be used to form part of a protective conductor. Water pipes should not, in any circumstances, be used as protective conductors because ofthe risk of replacement of part of the water- pipe system by non-metallic pipes or joints. Cross-bonding of water pipes to the exposed metalwork Of the electrical instalation is, however, admissible and may be essential in certain circumstances and Teference should be made to Singapore Standard CP 5.CP 16: 1991 8.2.6 _Earthing conductors. Conductors used as earthing-conductors should be of stranded or solid ‘copper or suitable copper-alloy and should be protected, where necessary, against mechanical damage and against the possibilty of corrosion, particularly atthe joint of connection to the earth-electrode or other means of earthing, Every earthing conductor shaii comply with Subclause 5.5.2 and in addition, where buried in the soll, shall have a cross-sectional area not less than that stated in Table 6. The connection of the earthing conductor to the earth-electrode or other means of earthing should be readily accessible and soundly made by the use of Soldered joints or substantial clamps of nonerrous material. Where the connection is to a metal plpe of oxternal diameter not exceeding 95 mm, any clamp used should comply with S$ 322. Where the metal sheath and armour 2f a cable are wed as a protective conductor, the armour should be bonded to the metal sheath, and the principal connection between the cable and the earthing lead should be to the metal sheath and should preferably be soldered. Clamps used for connecting an earth conductor to the metal sheath and/ot armour of a cable should be so designed and installed as to provide reliable connection without damage to the cable. 8.2.7 Consumer's earth connection. Where the requitements described in Subclause 8.2.3 can be met without the installation of earth-leakage circult-breakers, connection with earth should be effected by an earthing conductor connected at a position as near as practicable to the consumer's terminals, to an effective earth-electrode buried in the ground (see Subclause 4.24). 8.2.8 _Earth-leakage protection (see also Subclause 7.2.3). As an alternative to compliance with the provisions of Subclause 8.2.7 and in all cases where, owing to the high impedance of the earth-fault loop, itis impracticable te ensure operation of a fuse or overtoad citcuit-breaker before a dangerous eartheakage current flows, one of more earth-leakage circuit-breakers with suitable earth-electrodes, should be provided for all parts of an installation to which the requirement of earthing applies. 8.2.9 Earthing of bell and similar circuits, Where a belt or similar circuit is energized from a public ‘supply system by means of a transformer or a convertor in such a manner that there is no metallic connection between the circuit and the system, the secondary circult and the cate and screen (i any) of the transformer or convertor should be connected to earth at or adjacent to the transformer or onvertor. Where barrel pushers are used, the outer connection should be in the earthed conductor. 8.2.10 Segregation of non-current-carrying parts of an electrical instalation from the metalwork not associated with that installation. The requirements of Singapore Standard CP § should be observed 8.2.11 Bonding. The requirements of the Singapore Standard OP § should be observed. 8.2.12 Additional requirements in a room containing a fixed bath, {na room containing a fixed bath, and in which electricity is used at a voltage exceeding extra-iow voltage, the requirements of the Singapore Standard CP § should be observed 8.2.13 Special provisions relating to electrode boilers. For electrode bollers, the requirements of Singapore Standard CP § should be obsorved 44cP 4 991 8.3 Earthing In Industrial Premises 8.3.1 Large industrial installations. The electricity regulations made under the Public Uilities Act require that adequate precautions be taken to prevent non-current-carrying metalwork of the installation from becoming electrically charged. Where fuses or miniature circuit breakers (MCBs) are used to disconnect the faulty section of an installation in the event of an earth fault, the maximum earth faultloop impedance shall be in accordance with the recommendations given in Tables 7 and 8, ‘The recommended values ensure that in most cases the fuse or MCB will operate in a time whichis sufficiently short to avoid danger allowing for a number of circumstances such as the grading Of the fuse ratings (sizes of fuse wires and/or sizes of cartridge fuses), increase of resistance due to the drying out of earth electrodes in dry weather, inevitable extensions to installations involving increase in length of the circuit conductors and the protective conductors, et. Itwiibe observed that this requirement determines the overall impedance and does not contain specific reference (eg. 1 ohim as given in Subclause 8.25.1 for installations in buildings generally) to any part of the circuit such as the protective conductor together with the earth conductor, infact, in large installations the overall impedance permissible may itsolf be less than 1 ohm, so that considerably less than this might be allowable for the protective earth conductor system ‘This illustrates the need for a review of the earthing arrangements of an installation which may, in the course of time, have been considerably increased in size, since a value of earth fault-ioop impedance which was originally satisfactory may have become inadequate to ensure the clearing of phase-to-earth fault, For large installations where the load requirements are high, the use of overcurrent devices for automatic disconnection of supply would require very low earth loop impedance of fractions of an ohm, Such values would not be ccst effective and in general a large installation would employ a sensitive residual cutrent operated device or earth fault relay for the clearance of earth faults Inlarge installations having one or more substations on the premises, i is always desirable and sometimes, for the above reasons, necessary to parallel the usual protective conductor system (conduit fr armour) with copper earthing stip run from certain of the main distribution boards or sub-main distribution boards back directly to the neutral point of the transformer on the secondary or low voltage side. Good practice In earthing involves the proper installation and the subsequent careful maintenance of the protective conductor system. ‘Where aluminium cables are used it is necessary for preventing corrosion that fitings and small Parts of certain metals should be avoided. Where lead-sheathed and armoured cable is used, the lead sheath and armour should be solidly bonded together and if a copper earthing-strip is used as an additional metallic return, it wll thus be connected in parallel and so ensure that the cable covering is, relieved from carrying the full fault current, All pieces of equipment included in a multiple switchboard or fuse board should be bonded as should all incoming cable and conduit which should be connected to a common earth strip with a final single connection to the switchboard itso. In parts of factories in which there is risk of fire or explosion due to the use of flammable ‘materials, not only should flame-proof apparatus (certified for the gas or vapour group in question) be Used, but particular attention should be paid to the tightness of screwed conduit joints in order to ensure that under fault conditions no hot spot or arcing between lengths of conduit can lead to ignition, with consequent fire or explosion. 45CP 16: 1991 Earthdeakage protection using balanced current transformers may be used where greater sensitivity is desired than can be provided by means of over-current protection or is necessary to secure reliable operation of the protective devices, having regard to the impedance of the earth-fault path. Earth-leakage protection can, for example, be arranged to clear the circuit on earth fauttat values of the order of one-tenth of the ful rating of the circuit. In adaition to the advantage of sensitivity gained by such methods, the thermal and mechanical effects in the circuit associated with heavy faults would be minimized, Some degree of discrimination may In certain cases be introduced with advantage by providing time delay in the operation of an earth-leakage trip, so that earth faults on smaller subsidiary Circuits protected by fuses may have time to clear and prevent the opening of the circult-breaker controlling a larger part of the installation. 8.3.2 Small industrial installations. Smail industrial installations commonly use earth-leakage circuit- breakers of the current-operated type which are now available In sizes suitable for such installations. Its evident that there are many instances where they might be adopted with advantage, both from the Point of view of safety from shock and for minimizing risk of fire. For small current ratings, a sensitivity Corresponding to an operating current in the range of 30 to 800 mA is readily attainable and the advantage to be gained may be shown by way of an example: if in an installation depending on fuses for earth-fault protection, should there be an earth fauit on to the conduit, a current of some tens or scores of amperes may flow for seconds, minutes, or even longer before clearance is effected, depending on the earth-fauit path resistance and the size and type of fuse. Such currents flowing indiscriminately o earth via all fortuitous earth paths might enter a ‘compo’ gas pipe and would puncture the tube if the passage to the pipe were by way of a loosely touching contact. Such events do sometimes occur, and puncture of the pipe usualy leads to Ignition by the spark, with resulting fre immediate clearance of the fault by means of a device sensitive to currents of the order of an ampere is a reasonable insurance which deserves wider appreciation. Fires from overheated earthing wires, oF any protective conductors likewise take place from time to time and are a further example of the case in point. 8.3.3 Earthing of portable appliances and tools. The maintenance of good electrical continuity between the body of a portable appliance and the protective conductor of the fixed wiring is affected by a number of factors which are introduced by the use of fexible cables, plug and socket connections, connectors and extension leads. Matters needing careful attention are : (@) Current connection of the fixed wiring to the contact tubes at the socket-outlet in accordance with the standard scheme and colours in the Singapore Standard CP 5. This applies equally to the wiring of plugs and connectors. A single-pole switch must not be connected in the neutral conductor. (b) Good contact between the earth contact-tube of the socket-outlet and the earth pin of the plug; or between scraping earth contacts where these are used. () The provision and maintaining of an effective cord-grip to prevent the pulling of ‘conductors from their terminals within the plug. The provision of slack in the earth wire within the plug and the appliance, so that in the event of misuse involving loose cord grip and excessive tension on conductors, the earth-wire will not be pulled from its terminal first, may be justified in certain cases. (@) The provision of insulating separators within the plug to prevent the earth.wire from touching live metal (0) The use of extension leads only where itis certain that the correct lead and connections are present for establishing and maintaining earth-continuity 46cP 16: 1991 () The use only of plugs which are properly interchangeable with the socket-outlets Installed, e.g, the avoidance of two-pin-and-earth plugs which can be engaged in three- hase socket-oullets. (@) The replacement of damaged flexible cords and cables and the prohibition of twisted, taped joints, (h) The regular systematic examination and test of the flexible cords and associated accessories. (The avoidance of racio-interference suppressors connected in the fexbie cable of a portable appliance. Such devices should preferably be either built into, or secured to, the body of the appliance or the plug’. * Radio intcforence suppressors should comply wih the safety requirements of BS 613, ‘The most satisfactory method of reducing the risks of shock from portable appliances Is by reduction of the voltage fed to the appliance. This may be achieved by means of local double-wound transformers or by one such transformer supplying a ring main on the secondary side. The preferred secondary voltage is 110 V, and a tapping not exceeding $5 V is sometimes provided for supply to portable hand lamps. By earthing the mid-point of the secondary winding (in the case of single-phase supplies), the maximum shock voltage to earths then limited to 65 V. For three-phase supplies, the star point of the secondary winding should be earthed, Where an individual step-down transformer is associated with a tool which may be used in situations where there is no facility for connection to a protective conductor, or where itis not possible to prove readily by test that the earth connection is effective, or where work has to be carried out with the same equipment both in one or other of theso situations and where a "good" earth exists, a high agree of safety can be achieved by supplying electrically-operated portable tools through an all- insulated transformer with an unearthed secondary winding at 110 V, or preferably a lower voltage, the transformer being so designed as to prevent possible breakdown of the reduced-voltage secondary winding to the primary of to earth. ‘Additional security can be obtained by arranging the protective conductor in the flexible cable between the socket-outlet and the portable appliance In the form of a loop through which is passed a light circulating current provided by a small low-voltage transformer when the appliance is in use. Any discontinuity in this loop wil interrupt the circulating current and can thus be caused to operate a relay and disconnect the supply from the portable appliance. Figure 6a shows the principle of operation of this form of protection. In practice, the apparatus includes auxiliaries to ensure that any fault current, which would otherwise fow to earth through the pilot core when the protective conductor is broken, wil not prevent the proper operation of the protective relay. It may be modified to monitor the uitimate connection with earth, @.g. by connecting the earthed terminal ofthe hold-on transformer to an auxiliary earth-electrode as shown by the dotted connection in Figure 6b. Circulation current protection may be combined with earth-ieakage protection Such systems are well suited for the protection of portable and transportable electrical equipment, particularly in situations where special risks exist, 9. foundries. For temporary electricity supplies in construction and building sites, reference should be made to Singapore Standard CP 44, 47CP 46; 1991 = 1 $e See p= Hold-on*ranstormer J + @ Mains of transformer supply Ile ‘ Fit ore “votton vantomer | o Figure 6. Cireulating current protection for portable tools 8.3.4 _Earth-teakage protection for transportable electrical equipment 8.3.4.1. The installations here considered, fall broadly into two classes as follows : (2) Installations incorporating thelr own source of supply usually engine-driven wich may be on a separate vehicle (see Subclause 8.3.4.2). (b) Installations drawing their supply from public mains, at medium or low voltage, through an isolating tansformer (see Subciause 8.3.43). It is desirable to ensure, in each of the above cases, the safety of persons who may be using ‘equipment within the vehicle, or making contact simultaneously with the vehicle and with the ground, oF using portable tools outside the vehicle and supplied therettom, ‘Account has also to be taken of the fact that some installations, espectaly miltary mobile workshops, may be requited to work in situations of widely differing values of soil resistivity, from wet ‘marshy land where the value of earth resistivity is low, to dry sand (e.g. under desert conditions) where the earth resistivity is so high that it is practically impossible to secure an effective earth. This clause describes a method of securing protection from electric shock from electrical ‘equipment on vehicles and trom portable electric tools fed from the vehicle. The principle of the method ‘of protection is described in the following paragraphs. For greatest flexibilty, the equipment can be split Up into three units, Le. (2) an altemator unit; 48. LLCP 16: 1991 (0) an isolating transformer unit; and (©) utilization uni. This will enable the equipment to be used in any circumstances by suitable combination of the Units. Thus, items (a) and (c) may be used in situations where there is no electricity supply from public mains and items (b) and (c) where such a supply is avaiable. To cater for use in localities having different public mains supply Voltages, the isolating transformer should have a tapped primary. The three units referred to above may each be mounted on separate vehicles, or any tow or more of them may be incorporated in one vehicle, depending on the size of the units in relation to the size of the vehicles concerned. 8.34.2 Installations incorporating a vehicle-mounted alterator. The principle on wich this method of protection is based is that of complete metalic enclosure of the electrical circuit, with additional safeguards to protect personnel if the enclosure is viiated {€the whole of the equipment and source of supply is metal-enclosed it is immaterial whether the enclosure be earthed or not. Even if contact could be made simultaneously with the enclosure and conductor, a shock could not be sustained unless some other point of the supply were also in contact with the enclosure. Since, however, iis not possibie to ensure that the completeness of the enclosure will never be interfered with and that the source will never come into contact with the enclosure, such a system may occasionally give rise to a dangerous condition. To protect against a conductor making contact with the enclosure, the mid-point or the neutral of the supply could be connected to the enclosure. If itis directly connected as in Figure 7a, a fault of low impedance to the enclosure wil result in the blowing of a fuse; a person making contact with a conductor, and the enclosure wil not, however, be protected against electri shock. In order to achieve this, the mid-point or neutral would need to be connected to the enclosure, as in Figure 7b, through a sensitive trip that would operate on a current between 10 mA and 30 mA, through a relay # required, a resistance R being used if necessary to limit the current to an appropriate value. This system has the advantage that, i a portable tool is used outside the vehicle and if, through an unusual combination of circumstances, the frame of the tool could become “live" and the too! Is lying on wet earth, thus raising the vehicle to a potential above earth, a person making contact simultaneously with the vehicle and with earth could not receive a greater shock current than 30 mA, or less, aécording to the setting of the trp, without operating the protective gear. ‘Such a system, provided that all parts are metallcally enclosed and the tripping current is below 30 mA, is inherently safe. If a portable tool is used outside the vehicle and the frame of the too! is Connected to the vehicle, a fault to the frame of the tool wil trip the circul-breaker. Should the flexible metallic sheath and the bonding wire to the frame become broken and a fauit develop to frame, the system is stil Safe because of the low value of tripping current; and i is not necessary to earth the vehicle, although this may be done if desired. A further refinement would be the use of monitored “earth’ loop to the portable tool to ensure that the metallic enclosure is continuous. Socket-outiets should preferably be provided with spring-loaded metal covers, so that enclosure of the live leads can be maintained when the plug is withdrawn, It is obvious that, as with all such systems, electrical protection against accidental contact is provided only on the load side of the line XX in Figure 7b, and so it i important to pay special attention to the insulation up to this point. It is also clear that there must be No connection between the mid-point oF neutral conductor and the enclosure, except through the trip col, otherwise there would be a short Circuit across the trip col. A line-o-neutral supply cannot therefore be taken from a three-phase altermator or transformer because of the possiblity of the neutral conductor making contact with the ‘metal enclosure. Such a supply must be taken through an isolating transformer with a sensitive trip Connacted between the mid-point of the secondary winding and the enclosure. 49CP 16: 1991 A diagram illustrating the application of the method is shown in Figure 7c. it shows a supply vehicle A, on which is mounted an alternator, connected to a utlisation vehicle B by means of a flexibie cable enclosed in metal, ¢.g. a metallic flexible armoured cable, a cable enclosed in flexible conduit or piping, or a metal braided cable. Motal braided cable should preferably be protected against abrasion by a suitable covering, Mid point it single- paso winding Starpoint if tree: phase winding —f Leace between a and circuit bre of minimum length and of a high standatd of insulation “Transformer for supply ‘ingle phase hand tools “Wise phase and i distribution to outer using devious in vehicle Extornat metal enclosure prosorved via meta-clad Sockets and pluge and metal heat in the foxble cable etal plvg ‘and socket bonded to = TRE” metal sheath in cable ~~ Traretormer completely ) onclesod in metal ‘Aternator vehicle Uiizaion venicte ential tte 6 Figure 7. Supply to transportable electrical equipment from an alternator vehicle ‘As wil be seen from the diagram, the three-phase distribution and line-to-tine distribution of the utilization vehicle is effected by keeping conductors in metal conduit bonded to the vehicle. A single- phase supply to a portable tool is shown; ths 's obtained by means of an isolating transformer with the centre point of the secondary winding connected to a sensitive ttip as already described. The secondary winding can be wound for a low voltage if desired, The inclusion of a device, if required, to test the automatic tripping presents no dificuity; tony involves the fiting of a key that will enable a high resistance to be connected between the supply and the enclosure. 8.3.43 Installations drawing their supply from public mains through an isolating transformer. If the supply is obtained from a vehicle-mounted isolating transformer the foregoing method may be applied tothe secondary circuit. There is, however, the additional complication associated with the bringing in Of the leads from the public mains, since the supply would probably be earthed at some point and, i a fauit occurred between the primary circuit and the enclosure, the latter Would be at a potential above earth. itis, therefore, important to pay special attention to the insulation of the primary circul, e.g, by 50CP 16: 1991 adopting some form of double insulation for the connections. Alternatively, the use of epoxy-resin Insulation might be economically possible for the smaller sizes of transformer. It is essential that steps should be taken to minimize the possibility of breakdown between primary and secondary, and this may be achieved (a) dy introducing a screen between the primary and secondary windings and connecting itto the transformer core and tank, the whole being connected to earth and protected by an earth-leakage circuit-breaker. This involves an earth-electrode, which is not necessary with the self-contained system already described; (b) by providing a high degree of insulation betwoen the transformer primary winding and the secondary and core; or (©) by mounting the primary and secondary winding on separate limbs of the core. 8.4 — Earthing For Mines, Tunnelling Works And Quarries 8.4.1 The satisfactory solution of the earthing problem at mines, tunnelling works and quarries lies in having provision macte for tie connection of the consumer's earthing system to the neutral point of the supply transformer or generator. When leakage protection, where required by the Singapore Standard CCP 6, is installed in adiition, then precautions taken should ensure adequate protection when a phase- to-earth fault occurs on the system. 8.4.2 System earthing 84.2.1 Every part of a sysiom should be kept effectively insulated from earth except that (@) the neutral point of a polyphase system may be earthed at one point only; and (b) the mid-voltage point of a single phase or direct current system may be earthed at one point only, Where any point of a system is earthed it should be earthed by connection to an earthing system at the surlace of the mine, quarry or tunnel. {In mines in which safety lamps are required to be used from an external source of power, the neutral point shail be earthed if the system is polyphase. ‘A current limiting device may be used in the circuit between the system and the earth plate. ‘One pole of the system should be connected with earth in the following instances (a) In every two-wire system solely used for the purpose of traction and in which the running rails are designed to be connected to one pole of the system, the pole to which the running rails are connected shall be connected with earth, (b) In every two-wire system derived trom the secondary winding of a single-phase transformer, and used for indicating instruments or other accessories of switchgear, including fixed lights associated therewith, one pole should be connected with earth. 61CP 16: 1991 The system should be connected with earth at one point only provided that this requirement does not apply to a system used solaly for traction and in which the running rails are connected to one main terminal of the system. No automatic citcuit-opening device should be introduced into the connections between the system and the earth plate. A non-automatic switch or link may be used to isolate a generator or transformer for the purpose of testing A current limiting device may be used in the circuit between the system and the earth-plate. 8.4.3 Equipment earthing 84.3.1 All metalic structures, other than live conductors, which form part of, enclose or protect apparatus or which are liable to become charged from adjacent live conductors, should be earthed unless such structures cannot be touched while the circuit is live. This provision does not apply, except with respect to portable apparatus, where the voltage of the live conductors does not exceed 120 volts direct current or 50 volts alternating current. Where it is practicable, exposed metallic frames and enclosures for traction power rectifiers, inverters, switchgear and associated interconnecting busducts, can be protected by a sensing device that will automatically cut-off the power sources in the event of a leakage to the frame or enclosure. ‘All metallic structures which are required to be earthed should be connected to one or more earth electrodes by means of earthing conductors, All connections in or to any earthing conductor should be mechanically secure and electrically effective. No automatic circult-opening device should be introduced in any earthing conductor. 8.4.3.2 Earthing conductors may comprise, in whole or part, the metallic covering of a cable except in the case of flexible cable. Any earthing conductor should have an equivalent cross-section of not less than 16 mm? except : (@) the earthing conductor in a flexible cable used to supply portable apparatus at a voltage not exceeding 125 volts need not be greater than 6 mm? and (b) the earthing conductor in a flexible cable used to supply portable apparatus of a capacity not exceeding 3 kW at the surface of a mine need not be greater in cross- sectional area than any one of the other conductors in the cable, An earthing conductor should have a conductance of not less than half that of the same length Of the largest of the live conductors in relation to which itis provided ‘The conductance of the lead or other metallic sheath of a cable may be taken as contributing to that of the metallic covering, The metallic covering of every cable should be electrically continuous throughout and effectively protected against corrosion where necessary. lt is desirable in practice to earth all metallic sheaths, casings or covers where the voltage exceeds 25 volts alternating current. 62CP 16: 1991 Signalling and telephone circuits should not be connected to earth and apparatus used in connection therewith is exempt from earthing regulations. Where cables protected by a metallic covering are connected to motors, transformers, switchgear and other apparatus, the metallic covering should be securely attached to that apparatus. The term "metallic covering’, in relation to any cable, means an iron of steel wire covering and. any lead or other metallic sheath provided in addition thereto or an iron or steel pipe. ‘Steel tape armour is unsuitable for use below ground in mines. The practice is to use single or double wire armour for the metalic covering of cables, other than flexible cables. More than one earthing system may be used above ground, but it is generally preferable to provide a continuous earthing conductor so that all apparatus may be earthed to the main earthing system, 8.4.3.3 Every earthing conductor should have an equivalent cross-sectional area of not less than 16 mm* except that this requirement does not apply to an earthing conductor being (@) the metallic covering of a cable; (b) one of the conductors in a multi-core flexible cabie used to supply portable apparatus; or (©) a part of an overhead line, An earthing conductor comprising the metallic covering of a cable should have a conductance of not less than half that of the same length of the largest of the live conductors enclosed therein. Every flexible cable used to supply portable apparatus should comprise an earthing conductor having a cross-sectional area and conductance not less than that of the largest of the live conductors, comprised in the cable. When flexible cable is used to supply portable apparatus and the voltage ofthe circuit exceeds 420 vols direct current or 50 volts alternating current, such cable should be protected throughout by (2) a metallic covering which should enclose all conductors and have a conductance not loss than half that ofthe largest ofthe live conductors enclosed therein, or where that is impracticable, have a conductance not less than that of a copper conductor with a cross-sectional area of 16 mm? and of the same length as the cable. In the case of ‘quatries where the voltage in a circuit exceeds low voltage the protection shall be by metallic covering; (b) a screen of wires applied to enclose collectively the conductors ofthe circuit and having a conductance not less than that of a conductor with a cross-sectional area of 16 mn"; or (c) screens of wires applied so as to enclose individually the conductors of the circuit other than the earthing conductor. For quarries the construction and conductance of the screens must be approved by the Public Utilties Board, Normally, the screens should each have a conductance not less than that of a copper conductor with a cross-sectional area of 6mm’.cP 46: 1991 Where a cable is provided with a lead sheath in addition to metatic covering, the conductance of the lead sheath may be taken as contributing to that of the metallic covering, but for quarry installations plumbed joints must be used where the cable is jointed or terminated Where two or more earth plates are sod at the surface and the resistance between any two of them exceeds 2 ohms, they should be connected by an earthing conductor having a cross-sectional area of not less than 16 mm® This requirement does not apply, however, if any such earth plate is inaccessible to the ‘consumer, but the resistance between any other earth plates and the general mass of earth should not exceed 2 ohms. For quarry installations, a flexible metallic tubing of such length as is requisite with a separate copper earthing conductor whose cross-sectional area is not less than 16 mm can be used to enclose conductors instead of metallic covering where it is necessary to move an electric motor to enable the tension of the driving belt, rope or chain to be adjusted. Where flexible cables are used wih portable apparatus at quarries and the size of the live conductor is such as to make the use of one multi-core cable impracticable, single-core cables of an approved type may be used and care should be taken to ensure proper bonding to avoid abnormal sheath voltages or currents. Telephone and signalling apparatus are exempt from earthing regulations. 8.4.4 Earthvelectrodes. Where site constraints make it dificult to obtain a satisfactory earth underground, the earth-electrode or electrodes both for system earthing and equipment eairthing shall be situated at the sutface or ground level. It is recommended that the earth-electrodes for equipment earthing shall be constructed and maintained so that the resistance between the electrodes and the general mass of earth does not exceed 2 ohins, Not withstanding the electrical resistance between the consumer's earth electrode and the general mass of earth not exceeding 2 ohms, there should be nothing to prevent the operation of the leakage protection and other safety devices in the system through appropriate use of such devices. 8.4.5 Testing. The earthing system of mines and quarries should be so designed that tho resistance Of the earth connections can be tested without interrupting the circuit between earth and apparatus. This can be catried out quite readily if two separate earth electrodes are provided with a permanent earth test panel on the main switchboard or in the main switchroom, &5 — Earthing Of Telecommunication Circuits And Equipment NOTE: The earthing of rasio recovers is excluded from this Code, Guidance on tis subject is glen in 9§ 143, 8.5.1 General, Earth connections may be required for any or all of the following purposes : (@) —_Tocomplete the circuits of telegraph or telephone systems employing an earth path for signalling purposes: (0) To earth the battery circuit and stabiize the potential of the equipment with respect to earth; 54cP 16: 1991 (©) For lightning-protective apparatus; and {4} To provide against the risks to persons and equipment which may arise from leakage from power conductors to metallic apparatus, frames or conduits. Copper wire, preferably insulated and not smaller than 25 mm?, shoud be used for a telecommunication protective conductor within a building. The earth terminal ofall telephone lightning protectors and the framework of all apparatus racks should be conrtected to the telecommunication protective conductor. The protective conductor throughout tte building should connect together the earth-bar on every distribution frame, a terminal in every distribution case and the sheaths of al lead- shoathed telephone cables. It should then be connected to the consumer's electrical installation earth terminal or the equivalent providing this is effectively earthed in accordance with Subclause & 2.7. If this requirement is not met or if theres no electrical installation, the elocommunication protective conductor should be connected to an earth plate or spike electrode or other suitable electrode. The tolecommunication protective conductor, except where bonded at one point to the consumer's earth terminal should, wherever practicable, be segragated from the earth wiring, pipes and cables of electricity and gas services. The frames of all teecommunication apparatus connected to the supply mains should be earthed in accordance with Subciause 8.3. 8.5.2 Telecommut 1 circuits associated with high-voltage supply systems. Telocommunication circuits used in any way in connection with or in close proximity to high-voltage equipment require special attention and due consideration should be given to the safeguarding of such Circuits against rise in potential of the supply-system earth-electrodes, Where a teiecommunication circuit is provided in a building where a high-voltage system terminates snd the telecommunication circuit is part of, or is electrically connected to, a system outside the ‘earth-electrode area’, precautions should be taken to safeguard personnel and telecommunications plant against rise of potential of the earth-electrode system, The term "earth-electrode system" includes all metalwork such as power cable sheaths, pipes, frameworks of buildings, metal fences, etc., bonded to the power system earth-electrodes and situated within a distance of 100 m outside the fencing which surrounds the high-voltage compound or ‘compounds; it includes also the first three supports of any overhead line leaving the station. The "earth- electrode area’ Is any area within 6 m of any part of the earth-electrode system, The following practice is recommended : (@) Ina cases as great a separation as is practicable should be provided between the telecommunication cables and the station earth-electrode system, Nevertheless, within fa station, to prevent the appearance of potential differences between normally accessible metal parts, all such parts of the telecommunication installation should be connected to the station earth-electrode system: (&) At stations where the neutral of the highvotage system is earthed, itis generally practicable from a knowledge of the impedance of the earth-electrode system and of the maximum earth-fauit current, to estimate the rise of earth potential which will occur upon the incidence of a faut. Where the estimate does not exceed 430 Vrms., no precaution additional to that described in (a) is necessary. This limit may be extended to 650 V rm. if a! the power lines contributing to the earth fauit current are in the “high-rliabitty’ category. On such lines, the majority of fauits are cleared in less than (0.2 seconds and in all cases in less than 0.8 seconds 85CP 16: 1991 Ifthe estimate lies between 490 V (650 V for high-reliabilty ines) and 1000 V r.m.s,, the folowing additional precautions should be observed (6) Where the telecommunication circut lies within the "earth-electrode area” it should be tun in insulated cable capable of withstanding the application of a test voltage of 2000 V r.m.s, alternating current between conductors and earth for one minute, A suitable insulating covering may be applied over metal-sheathed telecommunication cable o plastics-sheathed cable may be used. The station terminal equipment and wiring should be isolated from the line by a barrier designed to withstand the test voltage as above. All wiring and apparatus connected to the line side of this barrier should be insulated from the station earth to withstand the same test vatage. (Any earth connection for the telecommunicaton circuit required on the ine side of the \solating barrier should be made via the insulated metal sheath of the external lead-in cable to an earth-electrode situated not less than 6 m and as far as. conveniently possible from the station earth-electrode system. In the case of a plastics-sheathed cable, a conductor or conductors in the cable may be used for this purpose. With an ‘overhead lead-in, an earth wire, insulated to withstand the test voltage in (c) above may be run to an earth-electrode buried at the foot of the nearest pole on the route outside the station earth-electrode area, It tis estimated that the rise of earth potential will exceed 1000 V r.m.s. special consideration should be given to reducing it. Should this be impracticable, the additional precautions in (c) and (d) above should be observed, but the test voltage of 2000 should be increased to 5000 V r.m.s. alternating current for one minute. In such a case increased separation may be required to place the earth- electrode mentioned in (8) outside the influence of the station earth. 8.6 Earthing Of Computer Installations. h computer installation will generally require to be provided with two separate insulated earthing systems which meet and terminate at the building main earth terminal. One of the earthing systems complying with CP § is the normal protective earth conductor where all exposed conductive and extraneous conductive parts shall be connected. The other is a data earth system dedicated to the computer equipment only. The data earth system is, connected to the building main earth terminal which is connected by insulated conductor to the insulated earth bars in the distribution boards. Insulated earth terminals in the underfloor link boxes are connected to the insulated earth bars. Wire armoured double PVC insulated cables shall preferably be used as supply cabling to video display terminals and for circuits from these terminals to the computer equipment, using the armour as protective conductor and usually routed round the periphery of the computer equipment. A PVC insulated cable or braided cable is usually used as the data earth conductor which shall be run by the ‘most direct routes between items of equipment and close to the associated cables, It is essential to maintain the separation of the two earth systems in order to prevent the formation of loops which will encourage inductive interference pickup, resulting in data corruption. 'nva computer room, all exposed conductive and extraneous conductive parts meeting all three criteria of Clause 413.7 of CP 5 shall be bonded under equipotential conditions and that they are bonded 10 the main protective earth system and not to the data earth, The location of down conductors of building lightning protection must be sited away from the ‘computer room and magnetic media stores, power cabling and data cabling in order to prevent inductive interference pickup. 66‘CP 16: 1991 It would be prudent at the design stage for a computer installation to consider the presence of excessive electro-magnetic radiation from all sources which could possibly affect the operation of the computer installation. Prior to the construction of a computer room, a survey shall be conducted using 1a frequeney analyzer to locate the frequencies of known local sources to determine interference such as from high power radars, television and sound radio transmitters and radio telephone, etc. For surveys conducted on an open site, the assumption is taken that a windowless computer building of conventional construction will usually provide an attenuation of about 20 dB inside the computer room. ‘without any additional measures. If electro-magnetic screening is required as shown on the resuits of a survey, this must be incorporated into the computer room during construction, to add it later would be costly and would cause disruption to the operation of the computer room. Itis offen necessary to provide fiters to the computer equipment and the power supplies in the computer room. The above recommendations ate intended for general guidance as earthing requirements for computer installations, especially with regard. to induced effects caused by power circuits on data integrity, is a specialised practice where requirements vary from instalation to installation and manufacturer to manufacturer. Where a “clean” (low noise) earth is speciied for particular items of equipment, the manufacturer of the equipment should be consulted. Additional guidelines on the practice of earthing arrangements for data processing equipment can be found in Section 545 of CP 5 1988 ~ Code of Practice for Wiring of Electrical Equipment of Buildings. 8.7 Earthing Of Network Pillars, Street Lighting Columns, Traffic Bollards, Ete 8.7.1 Overground network pillars. Sheaths and armour (if any) of all cables should be adequately connected to the carcase and non-current-carrying metalwork of the pillar. Normally, the cable sheaths will for a satisfactory metalic return path for earth-fault current or wil function effictently as an earth- electrode. Where the cable lengths are short and are connected to overhead lines, it may be necessary to provide one or more supplementary earth-electrodes. 8.7.2. Steel and concrete street lighting columns, traffic bollards, etc. In the event of a fauit between live metal and non-current-carrying metalwork in a concrete column or bollard, a voltage might ‘appear between the metal door assembly (if any) and earth due to contact through the steel reinforcing rods. A voltage might also appear between the surface of the column or bollard and earth in wet ‘weather. Danger might also arise from the use of a metal ladder against a column on which a fault had developed. To prevent danger under these circumstances, the non-current-carrying metalwork on or within the column or bollard and any metal-cased lighting components, e.g. time switch, should be ‘connected by means of a copper conductor to the service cable sheath (where permitted by the Public Utiities Board) oF to a suitable earth-electrode, The door frame should, if ited with earthing faclities by the manufacturer, be jointed to the same earthing point. The earthing conductors should be of 2.5 mm? unless contained in a composite cable ‘The same general principles should be followed in the case of stee! columns connected to underground distribution systems. In some cases, street columns or bollards will be fed by short lengths of underground cable from an adjacent overhead line. In these cases, the same method should be followed as for a service from an underground system. It may, however, be necessary to take additional measures as in (a) and (b) below if the fault loop impedance is too high to permit operation of the circuit fuse In the case of a fault between conductor and sheath in the short length of cable, or from the conductor to non-current carrying metalwork in the column or bollard. (@) The provision of a fuse of suitably low current rating at the junction of the cable with the overhead line.CP 16: 1991 (©) The use of a cable having an insulating covering over the metallic sheath and the bonding of the metallic sheath to the neutral (where permitted by the Public Ultlties Board) at the overhead line pole. Where steel street lighting columns fed by overhead services are located in subsoil of low resistivity, earthing may not be necessary. Where concrete columns are similarly fed, no means of earthing will normally be available. In this case, itis recommended that some form of double insulation should be adopted for the lighting fiting and ail equipment in the base of the column should be ofall insulated type. Alternatively, where permitted by the Public Utilities Board, the metalwork carrying the fitting may be insulated from the pole and connected to the neutral by a Conductor which should not be less than 2.5 mm* cross section unless included in a composite cable ‘An arrangement considered by local authorities, where columns are fed by overhead lines, is the provision of an earth-wire along the length of the street lighting installations, the earth-wire being connected to all of the columns, and to the earth. LIGHTNING PROTECTION 9.1. Protection Of Structures. Recommendations for the earthing of lightning-protective systems for structures are given in Singapore Standard CP 33, and these should be followed where applicable. 9.2 Protection Of Transmission Systems 9.2.1 Aspects of earthing on transmission systems which are affected by consideration of lightning are dealt with in the pertinent sections of this Code. In addition, special attention should be paid to the earthing of lightning-protective devices. The following are the points to be considered (@) Ail lightning-protective devices of the discharge type are rendered less effective by appreciable resistance in the discharge path to earth; (b} The connection to earth should be as short and straight as possible (consistent with the general requirement that the device should be situated as close as possible to the ‘apparatus to be protected) so as to minimize the impedance in the discharge path; (©) Short leads and low earthing resistance are particularly important with devices which embody a voltage-dependent resistor (surge divertor), because of the inherent voltage drop in these devices; (@ When a particular tem of equipment is to be protected, it is recommended that the earth side ofthe protective device be connected as directly as possible to the earthed patts, e.g, transformer case, cable-termination box, tc., of that equipment; (©) tt, on operational grounds, itis necessary to earth the protective device separately from the main equipment earth, it is recommended that thero should be, in addition, a cconnection as described in (d) in which is interposed an air gap, This air gap should be designed to flash over at a voltage somewhat ‘ower than that which cause breakdown between the conductors and the tank, case, sheath, etc, of the protected equipment. This wil ensure that any flashover folowing operation of the protective device and arising from the surge impedance ofits connection with earth occurs at a point at which no permanent damage will be caused. secP 4 991 9.2.2 Provided only lightning conditions have to be considered, there is for transmission systems a free choice of three types of earthing conductor namely: (@) solid circular conductor of net tess than 4 mm diameter; (b) stranded conductor of not less than 35 mm? cross section; (©) strip conductor of a size not less than 25 mm x 8 mm. ‘The choice between these depends mainly on the fixing method employed. Ifthe earthing conductor is used for purposes other than lightning protection and must safely carry fauit current, the minimum permissible cross-sectional area will depend on the magnitude of maximum fault cutrent SECTION TWO ‘TEMPORARY SAFETY EARTHING OF HIGH-VOLTAGE APPARATUS OR MAINS 10. GENERAL This section deals only with the broad principles. It is intended to cover the safety earthing of both light and heavy current equipment. To ensure safety, a set of detailed regulations is necessary in each particular sphere. For instance in the electricity supply industry, comprehensive regulations which incorporate these basic principles are essential, 10.1 Temporary Safety Earthing - General. When maintenance or repair work, etc., is to be Undertaken on high-voltage apparatus or mains, precautions in connection with temporary safety earthing should be taken generally as indicated below. More detalled recommendations are given in Singapore Standard CP 17. ‘Al phases or conductors of any apparatus or main to be worked on should be made dead, isolated and earthed. The earthing conductor should in every case be of adequate cross-sectional area to carry with safety, during the time of operation of the protective devices, the maximum short-citcuit current which may flow under fault conditions. If possible it should be a flexible braided or stranded bare copper ‘conductor. in no case, even for the earthing of light current equipment (eg. high-voltage testing equipment) should the cross-sectional area of the earthing-lead be less than 6 mm® It has been found, In some cases, that a 70 mm? earthingead is the largest which can be conveniently handled, in such cases where a larger size of lead is necessary to carry with safety the ‘maximum short-circuit current which can occur, it may be necessary to use a number of leads of 70 mm? or other suitable size in parallel. The earthing conductor or earth.wire should first be effectively bolted or clamped to the permanent safety earthing system or to a substantial and safe electrode of low resistance. Should no Convenient permanent earth-electrode be readily available, a substantial copper earth-spike driven well into the ground can be utiized to provide a quick and convenient temporary earth-electrode. Whilst such a spike Is not generally adequate as a primary safety earth, Protection against atmospheric charges or energization by induction. gives a degree ofCP 16+ 1991 The earthing conductor or earthawire should then be securely bolted or clamped to apparatus ‘or conductors to be worked on, and these connections should be removed in all cases before the earthing-lead or wire is disconnected from the earth-electrode or safety earthing-system. Itis advisable to uiize a suitable type of earthing-sick to discharge and earth the conductors hist the working earthing conductor is being attached to apparatus or conductors on which work is to be undertaken, ‘Should any doubt whatsoever exist as to whether or not a circuit is dead, a suitable type of high- voltage detector should be applied to it before any conductor is earthed by means of an earthing-stick The high-voltage detector should itself be tested before and after use by some suitable method to prove that it i8 operating satisfactorily. Earthing conductors or wires should be kept as short as possible, and be placed in such a postion that they cannot be accidentally disconnected or disturbed whilst work isin progress. 10.2. Precautions Relating To Apparatus. In the case of switchgear, all phases of the section in which work is to be done, should be short-circuited and earthed to the same earthing system. Self- ‘contained or portable apparatus is generally available for this purpose. All automatic tripping features should be rendered inoperative by being disconnected from the tripping battery, and the breaker ‘operating mechanism should be locked in the closed position, With tansformers, if there is any possibilty of any winding becoming inadvertently ve, the terminals of all windings should be earthed so that no danger from shock can occur. When the neutral points of several transformers are connected to a common bar, which is then earthed through a resistance or an arc-suppression coll, the neutral point of any transformer which is to be worked on should be disconnected and directly earthed as well as the phase terminals. ‘When liquid earthing resistors are to be worked on, particularly when they are drained for work inside, the central electrode should be shorted to the tank and not earthed remotely. This is especially important where two liquid resistors are located side by side, and one remains in commission while the ‘ther is opened for maintenance. 10.3 Precautions Relating To Overhead Lines. After a line has been made dead, isolated, discharged and earthed at all points of supply, a working earth should be securely attached to each phase of the line at the point or points where work is to be cartled otk. The provision of a working earth entails the temporary short-circuting ofall phase conductors, and connection to a continuous earth wire or temporary earth-electrode, the resistance of which need not be low. The connection of the earthing Conductor to each conductor of the overhead line should be made by means of a suitable mechanical clamp placed round the conductor by means of a rod which can also be utilized to secure the clamp tightly round the line conductor. When it is required to remove the working earth from the line, the mechanical clamp can be unscrewed and released from the conductor by means of this rod. Even when ‘an overhead line is earthed at each point of supply; itis necessary to place a working earth at each and every position where work is being carried out on the line on account of the danger ofthe line becoming energized by induction from other power lines, and to safeguard against the charging of the line by atmospheric disturbances. Where the work entails breaking a conductor, for example, on the jumper ata sectioning point, it is necessary to provide a working earth on both sides of the working point.cP16: 1991 SECTION THREE INSPECTION AND TESTING 11, MEASUREMENT OF EARTH CTRODE RESISTANCE {It must be appreciated that the measurement of an earth-electrode resistance is not necessarily ‘a simple matter, and that while certain fairly simple rules may be laid down, circumstances frequently arise which make it necessary to modify them. ‘The best method of measurement is illustrated diagrammatically in Figure 8. A measured current is passed between the electrode X to be tested and an auxiliary current electrode Y. The voltage drop between X and a secondary awniliary electrode Z is measured and the resistance of the test electrode is then the voltage between X and Z divided by the current flowing between X and Y. The test may be made at power frequency, in which case the resistance of the voltmeter must be high compared with that of the potential electrode Z. This latter may in certain circumstances be 1000 ohms or more, so that for an accuracy of 5 per cent the voltmeter resistance requires to be at least 20 000 ohms. The source of current should be isolated from the supply by a double-wound transformer and the earth- electrode under fest should be disconnected fram the system, {in most cases there will be stray currents flowing in the soll and unless some step are taken to eliminate their effect, they can produce serious errors in the measured value. Ifthe testing-current is, ofthe same frequency as the stray current, this elimination becomes very ificult and itis beter to use an earthtester incorporating hand-driven generator. These earth testers usually generate direct current and have a rotary current-reverser and synchronous rectifier mounted on the generator shaft so that alterating current Is supplied tothe test circuit and the resulting potentials are rectified for measurement by a direct-reading moving coll ohmmeter. The presence of stray currents in the soll is indicated by a ‘Wandering of the Instrument pointer, but an increase or decrease of generator handle speed will cause this to disappear. The auxiliary electrodes Y-and Z usually consist of a 13 mm diameter mild steel rod driven up to 1 m into the ground, and the spacing of these electrodes is of importance. The resistance of any earth-electrode consists of that of a body of earth surrounding it, the area of this surface on the ground being referred to as the resistance area of the electrode. In placing the current electrode Y, it is essential to ensure that the resistance areas of X and Y are reasonably independent. It is not possible to make them completely independent, as theoretically the resistance area of any elactrode extends to an infinite distance from it. In the practical case, It Is usually possible to find a value of electrode separation such that the error in measurement, due to the fact that the resistance areas are not quite independent, is not important, If the earth-electrade under test is a simple one, consisting of a single driven rad or a plate, the current-electrode Y may be placed, say 30 m from the test electrode X, and the potential-electrode Z placed midway between. A reading should be taken and then two further tests made with Z moved 6 m nearer to X and 6 m nearer to Y, respectively. If the three results agree within the accuracy required, then the mean value can be taken as the correct value of the test electrode resistance. If the results do ‘not agree, then the current olectrode Y must be moved further away, say, 50 m and the procedure repeated. This whole process must be repeated until the three readings give the required agreement. 6E t i cP 16: 1991 ammeter volimeter Figure 8. Measurement of earth-electrode resistance This simple method wil not give satisfactory results when the test elactrode Is of very low resistance, say, 1 ohm or less, or in those cases when the resistance of the auxlary current-electrode is very high. in these cases what may be termed the effective resistance area of the auxiliary current- electrode is much higher, with the result that much larger separations are necessary. These conditions may arise when the test electrode is at @ substation or power station having an extended earthing system. In such cases, no definite rules can be laid down and it is necessary to obtain an earth- resistance curve or curves. To do this, the current electrode is placed at some arbitrary distance from the test electrode and a serles of measurements made with the potential electrode at various distances from the test electrode. A curve of measured resistance against distance of the potential electrode is thon plotted, and ithe curve has a substantially horizontal portion, this will give the required resistance. Ifthe curve has not this horizontal portion, then the current electrode must be moved away, until the Curve obtained does show this horizontal portion. It should be noted that this does not usually occur when the potential electrode is midway between the test electrode and the current electrode. In ore (est on a large power station where the resistance was ultimately found to be about 0.05 ohm, it was necessary to place the current electrode 650 m from the test electrode, and the horizontal soction or the curve was found for potential electrode distance of 60 - 100 m, In some cases, itis possible to make a measurement of the test-electrade resistance in series, with another electrode of known or negligible resistance, such as a cabie sheath or well-oarthed water pipe. This method should only be used if space limitations make it impossible to use the method described above, as there will always be a doubt whether the resistance areas of the two electrodes are sufficiently Independent and therefore whether an accurate resuit is being obtained 12, EARTH RESISTIVITY MEASUREMENT Earth resistivity is goneraily measured by means of the hand-driven earth-tester described in the previous clause. Four test spikes are driven to a depth of up to 1 m (not exceeding one twentieth of their separation as illustrated diagrammatically in Figure 9). Assuming the soll to be homogeneous, the resistance measured is approximately2/2xd, where ois the average soll resistivity in ohm m to a depth of 'd" m. By repeating the measurement with different values of "dl, the averaye resistivity to various depths can be found and the results will indicate whether any advantage is to be gained by installing deoply-driven earth-electrodes to reach strata of lower resistivity. NOTE. When osistance is boing measured, itis important to ensure thatthe resistance area ofthe electrodes do nat overlap. 62