AR ate) of aA AT Ta een aC Ce ele) ——. a 7, me se = eePublished by : LAXMI PUBLICATIONS (P) LTD 118, Golden House, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110002 Phone : 011-43 53 25 00 Fax : 011-43 53 25 28 www laxmipublications.com info@laxmipublications.com Compiled by : Smt. RAMESH RAJPUT © All rights reserved with the Author and Publishers. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitied in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher. Price : Rs, 296.00 Only. First Edition : 2006 Reprint : 2006 Offices : India USA Bangalore (Phone : 080-26 61 15 61) @ Boston @ Chennai (Phone : 044-24 34 47 26) 11, Leavitt Street, Hingham, © Cochin (Phone : 0484-239 70 04) ‘MA 02043, USA Guwahati (Phones : 0361-254 36 69, 251 38 81) ‘Phone : 781-740-4487 © Hyderabad (Phone : 040-24 75 02.47) » Jalandhar City (Phone : 0181-222 1272) @ Kolkata (Phones : 033-22 27 37 78, 2227 52 47) @ Lucknow (Phone : 0522-220 95 78) © Mumbai (Phones : 022-24 91 54 15, 24 92 78 69) © Ranchi (Phone : 0651-280 77 64) EEP-0679-226-UTILISATION OF ELECT POWER ‘C—12987/06/08 Laser Typesetted at : Goswami Printers, Delhi. Printed at : Ajit Printers, Delhi.CONTENTS Chapters “Pages ILLUMINATION 1-64 LL__Intreduetion 12__Definitiona unis L 14. Polar Curves 19 5, Photometry p 20 1L5.1._Photometer heada 1.5.2. Photocells (for photometry measurements) es 22 15.3. Distribution photometry = 23 1.5.4. Measurement of M.S.C.P. by integrating sphere ee 23 15.5, Measurement of brightness or luminance : 24 ‘1.5.6___Measurement of illumination 4.444444 1.6. Artificial Sources of Lights is 17. Incandescent Lamps ‘ 18. Are Lamps a 30 9. Discharge Lamps 31 1.9.3. Sodium vapour lamp 32 1.9.2. High pressure mercury vapour lamp zs 33 19.3. Mereury iodide lamps « 33 1.9.4, Neon lamp z x 33 1.9.5. Fluorescent tube (lamp) a 34 1.10, Lighting Schemes : 39 1.10.1, Diffusing and reflecting surfaces - 39° 1.10.2. Requirements of good lighting = 40 1.10.3._‘Types of lighting schemes & 40 1.10.4. Design of lighting scheme z 42 1.10.5. Method of lighting calculations 44 1.10.6 Calculation ofillumination a 111. Street Lighting di 52 1.12. Factory Lighting 53 1.18. Flood Lighting 54 Highlights 56 Objective Type Questions s 56 ‘Theoretical Questions : 61 Unsolved Ezamples = 63Chapters Pages 2_ELECTRICHEATINGANDWELDING 00 21. Electric Heating e 65 ‘Q11__Introductin 2.1.2. Advantages of electric heating Z 65 2.13. Modes of heat transfer 90° 2.14. Methods of electric heating » 70 2.15. Resistance heating g 72 2.16. Archeating—Are furnaces _ a 79 2.17. _ Induction heating t a9 2.18. Diclectric heating 3 97 219. Choice offreqency 2.1.10. Infrared or radiant heating 2 102 (22, Electric Welding i 103 2.2.1. Definition of welding 2 103 2.2.2. Welding processes = 103 2.2.3. Resistance electric welding = 104 224. Electric arc welding 4 107 Submerged are welding = 114 6. Tungsten inert-gas (TIG) weldin = 115 Metal inert-gas (MIG) welding = 115 Electro-siag and electro-gas welding a 116 2.2.9. Electron-beam welding = 118 itrasonic welding 118 Plasma are welding 119 Laser beam welding 120 Electrodes—General aspects 121 Welding of various metals 122 5. Rebuilding 124 Hard facing 125 2.2.17. Defective welda 125 2.2.18, Under-water welding i 125 2.2.19. Defects in welding 5 126 2.2.20. Testing of welded joints 126 Highlights 126 Objective Tyne Questions 127 ‘Theoretical Questions 135 Unsolved Examples a 136 3. ELECTROLYTIC PROCESSES 3.1. 3.2, 3.3, a4. 3.5. Introduction “ Electrolysis—The Basic Principle ~ Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis " ‘Terma Connected with Electrolytic Processes Applications of Electrolysis 3.5.1, Electro-deposition = 3.5.2. Manufacture of chemicals &35.3. Anodizing " 149 3.5.4. Blectro-polishing ss 150 3.5.5. Electro-cleaning orPickling = 151 35.6. Blectro-parting or Electro-stripping . 151 35.7. Electro-metallurgy 151 36. Power Supply for Electrolytic Processes 2 152 Highlights . 153 Objective Type Questions 2 153 Theoretical Questions : 154 Unsolved Examples 154 4.1, Introduction to “Refrigeration” ‘ 156 4.2, Applications of Refrigeration = 157 43. Elements of Refrigeration Systems we 157 44. Reftigeration Systems 157 46. Standard Rating of a Refrigeration Machine 7. Me-rabigsrestin Sretent 47.2. Air-refrigeration system work 48. Simple Vapour Compression Refrigeration System i 48.1. Tnteduction 482. Simple vapour compression ayatem 2 160 48.3. Functions of parts of a simple vapour compression system 161 49. Domestic Refrigerator i 162 49.1. Construction and working 162 49.2. Electrical circuit of a refrigerator = 163 49.3. Maintenance of domestic refrigerator “ 165 49.4. Troubleshooting ofrefrigerator = 165 4.10. Water Coolers 166 411. Refrigerants : 169 4.111. Introduction 169 4.11.2. Classification of refrigerants 169 4.143. Desirable properties of an ideal refrigerant 170 4.12, Refrigeration Components and Controls = 470 AIR-CONDITIONING 4.18, Concept of Paychrometry and Paychrometrica 17 414. Human Comfort 4.14.1, Thermodynamics of human body = 171 4.142. Factors affecting comfort E 172 4.14.3. Effective temperature 173 15. Air-Conditioning Systeme am 173Chapters Poges 4.15.2. Air-conditioning eyele Central system. 4.15.5. Unitary systems 4.16.2. Cocling-load estimate a 179 4.16.3. Heating-load estimate 180 4184. Solar radiation °° 4.16.5, Solar heat gain through glass 3 180 4.16.6. Internal heat gains = 181 4.17, Air-Conditioning of Theatres = 181 418 Manufactureoflog (°° pg Highlights 4 183 Objective Type Questions oe 184 Theoretical Questions i 184 6.1__Introduction - z 186 5.2, Advantages and Disadvantages of Electrical Drives _ 187 5.3, Types of Motors used for Electrical Drive = 187 $4. Selection of Electrical Drives 56, Classification of BlectricalDrives = 87. s of Londs/Load Torques 191 3.B__D.G.MotorDrives 8D “6.8.1. General aspects 193 5.82. Advantages and disadvantages of D.C. motore 193 5.8.3. D.C. motors and their performance 193 5.8.4, Shunt and separately excited motors 195 5.8.6. Series motors 206 5.8.6. __Compound motor a 222 4.8.2. Universal motor ; 222 5.8.8. Permanent magnet D.C. motors a 224 5.8.10. Moving coil motors = 226 5.8.11, Torque motors ss 228 5.9. Starting of D.C. Motors = 228 SQL Need for starters §.9.2. Starters for shunt and compound motors on 229 5.92. Automatic starters 0 og (5.10._Reversing of D.C. Motors os 229 11, Electric Braking of D.C. Motors . 232 Copyrighted materialChopters Pages 5.12. Speed Contrel of D.C. Motors “ 235 5.12.1. Factors controlling the speed a 235 5.12.2. Field control method 40 5.12.8. Rheostatic control 259 5.12.4. Voltage control i 273 5.12.5. Thyristar enntro! of D.C, motors 276 6.12.6. Electronic control of D.C. motors 94. OT 5.13. AC. Motors ~ 291 5.13.1, Three-phase induction motors 291 5.13.2. Synchronous motor oa 361 5.13.4, Electronic control of A.C. motors a : 5 S14... Introduction 5.14.2. Acceleration time 2 379 5.14.3. Energy losses during starting “i 382 5.14.4. Energy losses during braking _ 385 5.14.5. Braking of motors during lowering of loads wt 386 5.14.6. Dynamics of braking 387 5.15. Heating and Cooling of Electrical Machines 389 5.15.1. Heatingand cooling curves 389 5.15.2. Insulating materials 401 5.16. Size and Rating of Motors . 402 5.16.1. Standard rating of motors 402 5.16.2. Classes of duty we 403 5.16.3. Ambient temperature and ratings we 404 5.16.4. Overload capacity of motors 404 5.16.5. Determination of power rating of electric motors for different applications . 405 5.16.6. Temperature rise with short time ratings 410 5.16.7. Load equalisation 412 5.17. Enclosures for Rotating Electrical Machines = 421 5.18. Bearings A422 Snes ae 0. Choice of Drive 429 521_Noise 429 5.22. Selection of Electric Motor for any Application 429 5.23. Motors for Particular Applications 431 524. Energy Conservation in Electrical Drives 435 Highlights “ 436 Objective Type Questions 437 Theoretical Questions z 442 Unsolved Examples 444 6 _ELECTRICTRACTION a 6.1.__Intreduction 45 62. ‘Traction Systems a 453Chapters Poges 63.__ Requirements of an [deal Traction System 453 64. Different Systems of Traction 453 65.__ Systems of Railway Electrification 4 457 66. Comparison between Pure A.C. and D.C. Systems - 460 67. Comparison between D.C. and A.C. Systems of Railway Electrification from the Point of View of Main Line and Suburban Line Railway Service. 461 68, Electric Traction Systems—Power Supply 461 68.1. Transmission lines to sub-stations = 46: 682. Sub-stations 463 68.3. Peeding and distribution system on A.C. traction 463 Feeding and distribution for D.C. tramw; 68.5. Electrolysis bycurrents through earth 464 68.6. Negative boosters 5 465 68.7. Problems associated with single-phase traction system 465 69. AC. Locomotive 467 6.10. Tramways 468 6.11. Trolley-Bus 469 6.12. Diesel Electric Traction a 6.13. Overhead Equipment - 471 6.13.1. Collector gear for overhead equipment s 472 6.13.2. The conductor-rail equipment/syatem es 473 6.14. Power Factor and Harmonies a Highlights ‘ 475 Objective Type Questions 475 Theoretical Questions 476 7._TRAIN MOVEMENT ANDENERGY CONSUMPTION ABBOT 2.1, ‘Types of Railway Services as 478 a ed-Time Curves for Train Movement 78 2.3. Crest Speed, Average Speed and Schedule Speed 480 ‘14. Simplified Speed-Time Curves 481 7.5. Mechanism of Train Movement 491 7.5.1. Adhesive weight and coefficient of adhesion me 492 7.5.2. Driving axle code for locomotives 25.3 _Natureoftractionload gg 72.8. ‘Tractive Effort for Propulsion of Train 2 493 7.1. Power Output from the Driving Axles 495 78. Energy Output from Driving Axles 495 71.8.1. Specific energy output 496 7.8.2. Energyconsumption 498 Highlights = 512 Objective Type Questions 5 513 Theoretical Questions - 520 Unsolved Examples - 521Chapters Pages 8, TRACTION DRIVES ea 8.1. Significant Features of Traction Drives Z 522 82. Desirable Properties of Traction Motors a 523 8. Traction Motors 5 52g 8.4. D.C. Series Motors - 525 84.1. Characteristics of D.C. motera J. 8.4.2. Torque developed by a D.C. motors 526 8.4.3. Suitability of series motor for traction duty ~ 528 8.4.4. Series motore—Parallel operation with unequal wheel diameters 529 8.4.5. Series motors—Series operation with unequal diameters 529 8.4.6. Shunt motore—Parallel operation with unequal wheel diameters. 530 8.4.7. Shunt motors—Series operation with unequal wheel diameters. 530 84.8. Parallel operation, equal wheel diameters, but dissimilar ‘speed—Current curves E 530 84.9. Tractive effort and horse power = 535 8.4.10. Effect of sudden change in supply voltage Si 536 8.4.11. Temporary interruption of supply = 536 85._AC.Seriea Motor 00 5g 88. Three-Phase Induction Motors 7 543 87. Linear Induction Motor we 543 88. Conventional D.C. and A.C. Drives Used in India = 543 89. Traction Motor Control ~ 546 89.1. Control of D.C. motors = 546 8.9.2. Control of single-phase series motors ‘ 561 89.3. Control of three-phase motors se 562 8.10. Braking 7 562 10.1 Introduction sa 8.10.2. Advantages and disadvantages of electrical braking over mechanical braking 582 810.8. Requirements of a braking system = 563 ‘Types of braking - “ 563 Electric braking = 564 ‘8.10.6. Energy saving in regenerative braking _ 569 8.10.7. Mechanical braking oF 575 &.11. Mechanical Considerations, Control and Auxiliary Equipment zs 579 8.11.2. Control and auziliary equipment 580 Highlights - 582 Objective Type Questions 5 583 Theoretical Questions 584 Unsolved Examples = 585 9. ECONOMICS OF POWER GENERATION, ELECTRIC POWER SUPPLY ANDUTLISATION 7 aL Introduetion 588 92. Terms and Definitions 5BaChapters Pages 9.3. Base Load and Peak Load i 593 9.4. _ Principle of Power Plant Design 594 95. Location of Power Plant gg 9.6. Layout of Power Plant Building 5 595 9.7. Cost Analysis 595 9.8. Selection of Type of Generation = 399 9.9. Selection of Power Plant Equipment i 599 9.9.1. Selection of boilers a 599 9.9.2. Selection of prime-movers 600 9.9.3. Selection of size and number of generating units 601 910. Economics in Plant Selection gD 9.11. Factors Affecting Economics of Generation and Distribution of Power’ z 603 9.12. How to Reduce Power Generation Cost ? 604 9.13. Power Plant—Useful Life - 604 9.14. Economies of Hydro-electric Power Plants 605 9.15. Economics of Combined Hydro and Steam Power Plants 606 9.16. Performance and Operating Characteristics of Power Plants ~ 606 9.17. Economic Load Sharing 608 9.18. Tariff for Electrical Energy 643 Q@181. Intrnductiqn a 9.18.2. Objectives and requirements of tariff z 643 918.3. Genersltariffform a 9.18.4. Spot pricing z 647 9.18.5. Comparison between private generating plant and public supply 647 9.19. Power Factor Improvement - 659 9.19.1. Apparent, active (true or real) and reactive power and power factor. 659 9.19.2. Average power factors of some common appliances 660 9.19.3. Causes of low power factor 660 9.19.4. Effects and disadvantages of low power factor 661 9.19.5. Advantages of power factor improvement 661 9.19.8. Methods of power factor improvement, = 662 9.19.7. Location of power factor correction equipment i 666 9.19.8. Economics of power factor equipment 666 Highlights 691 Objective Type Questions 692 Theoretical Questions 693 Unsolved Examples = 694 INDEX 705-7071 Illumination 1.1, Introduction, 12, Definitions, 1.3. Laws of illumination or luminance, 14. Polar curves, 1.5, Photometry—Photometer heads—Photocells—Distribution photometry—Meas- urement of M.S.C.P. by integrating sphere—Measurement of brightness or luminance—Meas- urement of illumination. 1.6, Artificial sources of light. 1.7. Incandescent lamps. 1.8. Arc lamps. 1.9. Discharge lamps—Sodium vapour lamp—High pressure mercury vapour lamp— Mercury iodide lamps—Neon lamp—Fluorescent tube (lamp). 1.10. Lighting schemes—Dif- fasing and reflecting surfaces—Requirements of good lighting—Types of lighting schemes— Design of lighting scheme—Characteristics of a good lighting scheme—Factors to be considered for designing the lighting scheme—Methods of lighting calculations—Calculation of illumina- tion. 1.11. Street lighting. 1.12. Factor lighting. 1.13. Flood lighting—Highlights—Objec- tive Type Questions—Theoretical Questions —Unsolved Examples, 1.1. INTRODUCTION © Light is a form of electromagnetic energy radiated from a body which is capable of being perceived by the human eye. The sensation of light results from a flow of energy into the eyeand the light will appear to vary if the rate of this flow of energy varies. Light radiations form only a very small part of the complete range of electromagnetic radiations, Light can be of different colours, which depend on the wavelength of the radiation causing it. @ Light can bo described as a vibratory motion, which is transmitted in the form of waves through space. Visible light trav- elsin the formofttransverse waves "ER, 7M Segue Nenuw claves of electromagnetic oscillations. w 2ag ‘The speed of all electromagnetic sxe © ‘Cosmic rays: waves is 3% 108 m/s in freespace. 9x10” 10°? J rays ‘The wavelength and frequency are a = different for different waves. The *1° ee velocity with, which these waves 3x10" 10° Unrate travel is related to the wavelength “ 5 |acnten a and frequency, by the relation :y 3% 10 10 Semen ay 3x10” 10" + infeared rays (Heat) ‘The complete range of waves along gx 19"° 16 snaceaens rains wats with their frequency and wavelength is 3 illustrated in Fig. 1.1. 3x10 1 Fig. 1.2 shows the light emitted to- 3x10° 10° + Long-wave radio waves. gether with its colour for the wavelengths 4, 1¢ cs within the visible spectrum, : Since the wavelengths of light are 310" 10! very short, smaller unit of length called Ang- strom Unit (AU) named after a Sweedish Fig. 1-1. Spectrum of electromagnetic waves. scientist is used.12. UTILISATION OF ELECTRICAL POWER ‘Wavelength (A) Uttraviolet frequency Hz 4000 Violet 75x10" Blue “ 5000 sc 60x10 8000: Yellow -|5.0x10" ‘Orange “ ‘7000 Red | 4.910" 8000 | 375% 14" Infrared Fig. 1.2, Wavelength and colour of light. Angstrom Unit (A) = 10“ m Another smaller unit is micron (1 mieron = 10-* m). A list of colours with their wavelengths is given below : Colour Wavelengths Violet 4100 A, Blue 4700 A Green 5500A Yellow 5800 A Red 6000A Orange 6100A @ All the studies and research in lighting engineering try to achieve a good lighting scheme to make the occupants feel happy in the case of interior design and factory lighting and make the pedestarians and motorists and other road users comfortable in the case of highway lighting. The following are the essentials of any good lighting system : (@) Adoquate illumination of suitable colour on the working surfaces. (i) Good maintenance (ii) Avoidance of hard shadows Gv) Avoidance of glare. © ‘The aim of artificial lighting is to supplement the daylight or to replace it in modern offices, homes, industries, workplaces etc. Good illumination ensures increased produe- tion, effectivity of work and reduced accidents. DEFINITIONS 1. Solid angle @ A plane angle is subtended at a point and is enclosed by two straight lines lying in the same plane. [Fig. 1.3 (a). Its magnitude is given by, Arey ai = —- ‘radians’ Radius ““0"* ‘The largest angle subtended at a point is 2n radians.ILLUMINATION 3 A radian is the angle subtended by an arc of a circle whose length equals the radius of the circle. © Solid angle is the angle generated by the surface passing through the point in space and the periphery of the area [Fig. 1.3(6)]. Itis denoted by @, expressed in ‘steradians’ and is given by the ratio of the area of the surface to the square of the distance between the area and the point, ie an 2 © Radius)? 7? ‘The largest solid angle subtended at a point is due to (b) Solid angle Area ig. 1.3. Plane id solid angie. a sphere at its centre, and is equal to 4”7* (Area of sphere) Fie seems : 7 = 4n steradians. Relationship between @ and @ is obtained as follows : Consider a curved surface ofa spherical segment ABC of height A and radius r (Fig. 1.4). Surface area of segment ABC = 2rrh 2 Here, h(BD) = OB - OD =r—reos © = 1 (1-202) Surface area of segment ABC = 2? (- os 5) Solid angle, a = —— fins) 8 = 2n| 1-cos— AD (1-ae8]} an 1. Light. The radiant energy from a hot body which produces the visual sensation upon the human eye is called light. It is denoted by the symbol Q, expressed in lumen-hours (analogous to watt-hours) 2, Luminous flux. The total quantity of light energy emitted per second from a luminous body is called luminous flux. It is represented by the symbol F and measured in Jumens. The concept of luminous flux assists us to specify the output and efficiency of a given light source. 3. Luminous intensity. Luminous intensity in a given direction is theluminous flux emitted by the source per unit solid angle. It is denoted by the symbol J and is measured in ‘candela’ (ed) or lumens/stearadian i.e, I = £ lumons/steradian or candela, where win the solid angle). 4, Lumen. Itis the unit of luminous flux and is defined as the amount of luminous flux given out in a space represented by one unit solid angle by a source having an intensity of one candle power in all directions.4 UTILISATION OF ELECTRICAL POWER ie. Lumens = Candle power (C.P.) x Solid angle (w) ‘Total lumens given out by source of one candela is 4x lumens. 5. Candle power. It is defined as the number of lumens emitted by a source in a unit solid angle in a given direction. It is denoted by symbol C.P. Lumens o 6, Ulumination. It is the Juminous flux received by a surface per unit area. It is denoted by ie, OP. symbol E and is measured in tumens per square mere’ or lx or metrecandle (ce, B= ~ \umens/m? or lux, where A is the area of the surface). lumination differs from light very much, though generally these terms are used more or less synonymously. Strictly speaking light is the cause and illumination is the result of the light on the surfaces on which it falls. Thus illumination makes surfaces more or less bright with a certain colour and it is this brightness and colour which the eye sees and interprets as something useful or pleasant or otherwise. 7. Brightness (or luminance). Brightness of a surface is defined p as theluminous intensity per unit projected area of the surface in the given direction. It is denoted by the symbol L. When a surface of area A has an effective luminous intensity of I candelas ina direction@ to the normal (Fig. 1.5), then luminance or bright- ness of that surface, X L = = candela/square metre (Ca/m?) / | howe Acos8 Le) A “uniform diffuse source” is one in which the intensity per unit ms projected area is the same from all directions of view. a © Relation between I, Land E: Fig. 15 Consider a uniform diffuse spherical source with radius r metres and luminous intensity J candela. I Then, Ls en I I and, EapaXtney Een 1.2) 8. Mean horizontal candle power (M.H.C.P.). It is defined as the mean of candle power in all directions in the horizontal plane containing the source of light. 9, Mean spherical candle power (M.S.C.P.). It is defined as the mean of candle powers in all directions and in all planes from the source of light. 10. Mean hemi-spherical candle power. It is defined as the mean of all candle powers in all directions above or below the horizontal plane passing through the source of light. 11, Reduction factor. Reduction factor of source of light is the ratio of its mean spherical candle power to its mean horizontal candle power, i.e., MS.C.; MSP. Reduction factor =ILLUMINATION 5 12. Lamp efficiency. It is defined as the ratio of the luminous flux to the power input. It is expressed in lumens per watt. 18. Specific consumption. It is defined as the ratio of power input to the average candle power. It is expressed in watts per candle. . 14, Space-height ratio. It is defined as the ratio of horizontal distance between adjacent lamps and height of their mountings. 15, Utilisation factor (UF). The ratio of total lumens reaching the working plane to total lumens given out by the lamp is called utilisation factor (or co-efficient of utilisation). 16. Maintenance factor (MF). It is the ratio of illumination under normal working condi- tions to the illumination when the things are perfectly clean. 17. Depreciation factor. This is merely the reverse of the maintenance factor and is defined as the ratio of initial metre-candles tothe ultimate maintained metre-candles on the working plane. It value is more than unity. 18. Waste light factor. Whenever a surface is illuminated by a number of sources of light, there is always a certain amount of waste of light on account of overlapping and falling of light outside at the edges of the surface. The effect is taken into account by multiplying the theoretical value of lumens required by 1.2 for rectangular areas and 1.5 for irregular areas and objects such as statues, monuments ete. 19. Absorption factor. In the places where atmosphere is full of smoke fumes, such as in foundries, there is a possibility of absorption of light. The ratio of total lumens available after absorp- tion to the total lumens emitted by the source of light is called the absorption factor. Its values varies from unity for clean atmosphere to 0.5 for foundries. 20. Beam factors. The ratio of lumens in the beam of a projector to the lumens given out by lamps is called the beam factor. This factor takes into account the absorption of light by reflector and. front glass of the projector lamp. Its value varies from 0.3 to 0.6. 21, Reflection factor, When a ray of light impinges on a surface it is reflected from the surface at an angle of incidence, as shown in Fig. 1.6. A certain portion of incident light is ab- sorbed by the surface. The ratio of reflected light to the incident light is called the ‘reflection factor’. It is always less than unity. 22, Glare. The opening of the pupil in the human eye is controlled by the iris. Ifa bright object comes into the view of the eye, large amount of light produces an intense image on the retina and the iris automatically protects the eye by contracting the pupil, thus reducing the intensity of the image. When the eye is towards another object which ie less bright as compared to the bright object already in the field of view, the iris will contractreducing the amount of light received on the retina from every object in the field of view and makingit difficult to see the object desired. At the same time, the portion of the retina which received image of the bright object remains fatigued. This phenomenon is called “Glare”, and is familiar in connection with motor-car head lights. In other wards, “glare” may be defined as the brightness within the field of vision of such a character as to cause annoyance, discomfort, interference with vision or eye-fatigue. 1.8. LAWS OF ILLUMINATION OR LUMINANCE ‘The illumination (E) of a surface depends upon the following factors (The source is assumed to be a point source or otherwise sufficiently away from the surface to be regarded as such).6 UTILISATION OFELECTRICAL POWER 1. E isdirectly proportional to the luminous intensity (I) of the source. In other words, E « I 2. Inverse Square Law. The illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the square of the distance of the surface from the source. 1 In other words, E « —. = Proof: Consider surface areasA, and A, at distances r, and r respectively from the point, source of luminous intensity I and normal to the rays as shown in Fig. 1.7. Let the solid angle sub- tended be «. Total luminous flux radiated = Io lumens Tilumination of the surface of area A, £,= = 2% 4 iumens per unit area AL on? ne Similarly, illumination on the surface of area Ay, Io_ Io _1 Bye gil lumens por unit ara, Hence the illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the surface and the light source provided that the distance between the surface and the source is sufficiently large 20 that source can be regarded as @ point source. 3. Lambert’s Cosine Law. According to this law, Bis directly proportional to the cosine of the angle made by the normal to the illuminated surface with the direction of the in- cident flux. ‘As shown in Fig. 1.8, let F be the flux incident on the surface of area A when in position 1. When this surface is turned back through an angle 0, then flux incident on it is F F = Luminous flux cos 8. Hence, illumination of the surface when in position 1is ‘A= Area of the surface Ej £. But when in position 2, By Foos@ Fig. 1.8. Lambert's cosine law. E, =, 008 6 2 Combining all these factors together, we get £= 1288 the unit is lumens per unit area. 7 Example 1.1. A 250 V lamp has a total flux of 1500 lumens and takes a current of 0.4 A. Calculate : (i) Lumens per watt. (i) MSP. per watt. Solution. Given : V= 250 volts; F= 1500 lumens; [= 0.4A Mean spherical candle power of lamp, 1500 4n Output of lamp in lumens __ 1500 Wattage oflamp in watts ~ 20x04 ~1° (Ans) (@ Lumens per watt =ILLUMINATION 7 MS.C.P. oflamp __ 119.4 ‘Wattage oflamp 250x04 Example 1.2. A 0.3 metre diameter diffusing sphere of opal glass having 15% absorption, encloses an incandescent lamp with a luminous flux of 4500 lumens. Calculate average luminance of the sphere. Solution. Given: d= 0.3 m; Lamp =.4500 lumens Flux 1 emitted by the sphere, F,yar¢ = (1 - 0.18) x 4500 = 3825 lumens (i) M.S.C.P. per watt = = 1.194. (Ans.) 3 2 Surface area of the sphere = 4m? 24nx (%2) = 0.2827 m* Fi, * Surface area of sphere = 3825-13530 lumens/m?, (Ans.) 0.2827 . Example 1.3. A filament lamp of 500 W is suspended at a height of 4.5 metres above the working plane and gives uniform illumination over an area of 6 m diameter. Assuming an efficiency of the reflector as 70% and efficiency of lamp as 0.8 watt per candle power, determine the illumination on the working plane, Solution. Wattage of the filament lamp Height of the lamp above the working plane Diameter of the uniformly illuminated area Efficiency of reflector Efficiency of lamp =0.8 W per candle power Tlumination on the working plane: Average luminance of sphere Candle power of thelamp = we 625 CP. Luminous output of lamp = 4 x 625 = 2500 x lumens Flux emitted by the reflector = Efficiency of reflector x Total luminous output of the lamp = 0.7 x 2500 x = 1750 x lumens Area of working plane =D xO? =o m, 1750" on Example 1.4. The candle power of a lamp is 120. A plane surfaceis placed at a distance of 2.5 metres from this lamp. Calculate the illumination on the surface when it (i) normal, (ii) inclined to 45°, and (iii) Parallel to rays. C.P._ 120 Solution. () £ = = ag = Illumination on the working plant 194.44 Lumena/m®. (Ans.) 19.2Iux. (Ans.) pele: op 10 og 45° (0) Bin =a Hoe 46 =@a cos 45° = 13.58 lux. (Ans.) ji) E =0, since the rays of light are parallel to the surface, they cannot illuminate it. (Ans.) Example 1.5. Derive the relation to find the illumination at any point on the plane surface due to light source suspended at height h from the plane surface.8 UTILISATION OF ELECTRICAL POWER Solution. Refer to Fig. 1.9. Consider a point P on the plane surface AB where illumination due to light sourceS of candle power CP. at a height h from the surface AB is to be determined. Let d be the distance between source § and point P. Then, cos o= a ee” 05 0 ‘Mlumination at point P, by laws of illumination = OP eos0= Gilcos 8} and illumination at any point O, vertically below the source of light GP. surface Fig. 19 Hence illumination at any point on a plane is cos! 0-times of illumination at a point just vertically below the light source, where @ is the angle between the normal ta the surface at the point and rays of light. ‘ Example 1.6. A 500 W lamp having M.S.CP. of 800 is suspended 3 m above the working plane: (i) Ilumination directly below the lamp at the working plane. (ii) Lamp efficiency. (iii) Illumination at « point 2.4 m away on the horizontal plane from vertically below the lamp. Solution. Wattage of the lamp = 500 W MS.CP. of the lamp, T= 300 Height of the lamp, h=3m @ Ilumination directly below the lamp at the working plane: Illumination directly below the lamp, I _ 800 Ey=jy> gr = 880lux. (Ans) Gi) Lamp efficiency : Luminous flux ‘Power input _4nxMS.C.P. ~ 500 _ 4mx 800 “500 =20.1 lumenshwatt. (Ans.) We aig ele Lamp efficiency = (iii) Mumination at a point 2.4 m away : —— Mlumination at a point 2.4 m away on the horizontal plane from vertically below the lamp, y= cost 0ILLUMINATION 9 3 Here, on O= ea = 0-808 S09, x (0.7808) = 42.3 lux. (Ans,) E,= Example 1.7. A lamp with reflector is mounted 10 m above the centre of a circular area of 20 m diameter. If the combination of the lamp and reflector gives a uniform C.P. of 800 over the circular area, determine the maximum and minimum illumination produced on the area. (Panjab University) Solution. Candle power of the lamp, C.P. = 800 Lome Height of the lamp, &=10m Q Diameter of the circular area = 20 m I\ ‘The maximum illumination will occur directly below thelamp ie, at pointA and a : 4 =8lux, (Ans.) ‘The minimum illumination will occur atthe periphery ofthe G7 10m | 10m —\, circular area i.e, at point B and oF cost f}+-——— 20 m dia ———] B Big. 111 2 10 =x = 283 lux. (Ans.) 10 (, 10? + 107 ] Example 18.4 lamp having a uniform C.P. of 300 in all directions is provided with a reflector which directs 60 per cent of the total light uniformly on to a circular area of 12 m diameter. The lamp is 5 m above the area. Calculate : W The illumination at the centre and edge of the surface with and without reflector. (i) The average illumination over the area without the reflector. Solution. Candle power of the lamp C.P, = 300 Hoight of tho lamp, h = 6 m Efficiency of the reflector = 60% (@ The illumination at the centre without reflector. The illumination at the centre P._ 300 yi gr =12lux, (Ans) The illumination at the edge of the surface with and without the reflector : ‘The illumination at the edge of the surface without reflec- tor.10 UTILISATION OF ELECTRICAL POWER With reflector the illumination at the edge and at the centre will be the same since the reflector directs the light uniformly on the surface. Total lumens given out, F=4nx CP. = 4x x 300 = 1200n Total lumens reaching the surface = 0.6 x F = 0.6 x 1200x = 720" Total surface area = m= nx 6 = 36mm? 720% :. Average illumination with reflector = —==—~ = 20 ux. (Ans.) i) Average illumination over the area without the reflector : Average illumination of the surface without refletor will be found by first determining the solid angle subtended by the surface at the lamp and then finding out the luminous flux'emitted in that solid angle. Solid angle subtended by the area at the lamp, Total flux reaching the surface = Jw = 900 x 1.28n = 384n lumens ‘Average illumination = ad =10.671ux. (Ans.) .28x steradians Example 1.9. The illumination at a point on a working plane directly below the lamp is tobe 80 lumens/m?. The lamp gives 180 C.P. uniformly below the horizontal plane. Determine : @ The height at which the lamp is suspended. (i) The illumination at a point on the working plane 1.5 m away from the vertical-axis of the lamp. Solution. Luminous intensity of the lamp, J = 180 CP. Ilumination directly below the lamp, E = 80 lumens/m?, Refer to Fig. 1.13. (@ The height at which the lamp is suspended, h : We know that, I Rag vamp _ 180 a) a Pa or he eee =15m. (Ans) (ii) The illumination at a point 1.5 m away: ‘The illumination at a point on the working plane 1.5 m ‘away from the vertical axis of the lamp, By = = cos? o= 180, «| 5 ° a ‘ ae a5? “| Seis? Fig. 1.13, = 2.96 lux. (Ans.) Example 1.10. Two lamps L, and Ly are hung at a height of 9 m from the floor level. The distance between the lamps is 1 m. Lamp L, is of 500 C.P. If the illumination on the floor vertically below this tamp is 20 lux, find the candle power of the lamp Ly. (AME)ILLUMINATION u Solution. Candle power of lamp L, = 500 CP. Distance between the lamps = 1m Mlumination vertically below lamp Z = 20 lux Refer to Fig. 1.14. Candle power of the lamp Ly, xt Tilumination at point A on the floor level vertically below lamp, = Illumination due to lamp Z, + Illumination due to lamp L, ie, 20 = 520 5 on! o= 2.24 2 ] g? "9 81 81 eee 500 , 0.982 _ 500+ 0.982 x e181 a1 _ (20x81- 500 ~ 0.982 Example 1.11. A small light source with intensity uniform in all directions is mounted at a height of 8 metres above a horizontal surface. Two points A and B both lie on the surface with point A directly beneath the source. How far is B from A ifthe illumination at B is only 1 as great as at A? (Roorkee University) A =20hux) ) =11405C.P. (Ans) Fig. 114 Solution. Refer Fig. 1.15. Let I = Intensity of the source, candela, and, x = Distance between points A and B. ‘Thon, Hlumination at point A, E,= ora b= 8m Mumination at point B, Ey a eos! © Fig. 1.15 But, ~.(Given) 1 Gas 128d or, (64 + x2)? = 6144 or, 64 +x? = (6144) = (6144)? = 336.4 x= (336.4—64)2 = 16.5 m. (Ans.) Example 1.12.A light source having an intensity of 200 CP. in all directions is fitted witha reflector so that it directs 85% of its light along a beam having a divergence 20°, Calculate :12 UTILISATIONOF ELECTRICAL POWER (@ The total light flux emitted along the beam. Gi) The average illumination produced on a eurface normal to the beam direction at a distance of 5 metres. (Gorakhpur University) Solution. Intensity of light source, J = 200 CP. Beam angle, 6 = 20° Refer to Fig. 1.16. (@ The total light flux emitted : ‘The total flux emitted along the beam = 0.85 x 4m x 200 = 2136.3 lumens. (Ans.) (ii) The average illumination : Distance SA = 5 m Radius of the circle to be illuminated, r=Satan $= 5tan(2") = 0982 m Area of surface to be illuminated =n? = x (0.882)? = 2.444 m?* 136. 444 Average illumination = = 874.1 lux. (Ans.) Example 1.13. Find the height at which alight source having uniform spherical distribution should be placed over a floor in order that the intensity of horizontal illumination at agiven distance from its vertical line may be greatest. s Solution. Refer to Fig. 1.17. The intensity of horizontal illu- @ ‘mination at point B, at a given distance ‘d’ from the vertical line SA, }#~————- a 4 Fig. LIT Differentiating J, w.r.t. h, we have ae = CP. [(h? +279 x 14 A(— 3/2)(h? +0275” x 2h) SCP, (2 + 0? P92 32h? + 2-89] For maximum I, 2B -9 (h? +d?) = Shh? + d2y? or (i? +2) = 3h? jd? id or Wed? or h= fl =4 so70Td. (ans) 2° 2ILLUMINATION 13 Example 1.14. Two lamp posts are 14 m apart and are fitted with 200 C.P. lamp each at a height of 5 m above the ground. Calculate : (i) Mlumination mid-way between them. (ii) Mumination under each lamp. (Panjab University) Solution. Candle power of each lamp = 200 C.P. Height of each lamp from the ground = 5m Distance between the two lamps = 14m ( Mumination midway between the lamps: Illumination midway between the lamps, Ec =Mumination due to lamp L, + Illumination due to lamp Ly 200 = BP x cos #04 BP x cos! ° ; 20 (#) =3.144 lux. (Ans) c 8 \— m7 m4 14m 4 Fig. 1.18 (ii) Mumination under each lamp: Tilumination under either of the lamps, say under lamp Ly, Ey = Ilumination due to lamp Z, + Illumination due to lamp L 200 ar = ae os? 8, + 1) 3 =2i( 5 Jeea =83lux. (Ans) 14.87, Example 1.15. Two similar lamps having uniform intensity of 600 C.P. in all directions below the horizontal are mounted at a height of 4 metres. What must be the maximum spacing between the lamps so that the illumination on the ground mid-way between the lamps shall be at least one half the illumination directly under the lampe. (Gorakhpur University) Solution. Candle power of each lamp = 500 C.P. Height of each lamp from the ground, h = 4m Let the maximum spacing between the lamps be d metres. Tumination mid-way between the lamps, Ec= 2» Illumination due to either lamp 2 enh y+ 20 500 500 4 =2 BP wtonan a 4 fa? + (anyUTILISATION OFELECTRICAL POWER Fig. 1.19 Illumination under either of the lampe, say Ly, Ec = Mlumination due to lamp L, + Illumination due to lamp L., = SP con? 0, + Bp = TP (os? 8 +0) 3 5 ||| a] | # | leew 16 [G6 +a? ie SOOO, BOD: “O64 ad 7 "16 : Now, Fo= 3 Es Given 4000___1[__2000__, 500 fy” 2|Ge+a* * 36 (1+) 4000 2000 = [og te Ge ate #8 1645 : (+4) or 4=9.56m. (Ans) Example 1.16. The lamps spaced 9.15 m apart and suspended at a height of 4.575 m are lighting a corridor. If each lamp gives 200 C.P. in all directions below the horizontal, find the maxi- mum and minimum value of the illumination on the floor along the centre line. Solution. Refer to Fig. 1.20. Let Ly, Lay Lyy Ly Lg ete. be the lamps. ‘The illumination at any point A due to a lamp is 100 439-100 4575" 20.93 os* @ : ‘The total illumination due to all the lamps is = OO (coc, + om 0, + cos? +. In order to findout the maximum and minimum illumination, we have @ [ 200 S [EER eet 0, +c? 0 + on 85+. ]=0ILLUMINATION 1s 200 ino, 221 ; or, ~ 3055” 3 {cost @,8in@; =z fi) 183+% Also, tan 0, = Differentiating both sides w.r+. x, we have de sect, 2-1 _ de” 4875 dt _ cos? @ dx 4575 itarly, 292 - £087 0 , d0y _ cos" dy , dO _ cost ty Similarly, ao aat ae ane dn ae and go on. Substituting the values of Sot, $2 on a ete. in eqn. (1), we get -200_ ‘ Fay x gpg ost ©, sin 0,+ cost @, sin ®, + cos! Sain $8.15 ms — 9.15 m—e—x—a} fe 9.15 m—+e—$ 9.15 m— #— 9.15 m——a} Fig. 120 When A is mid-way between L, and L,, @, =0,, 0, =9, and so on, when the terms cancel out in pairs and the illumination is either a maximum or a minimum ; it is a minimum. When P is directly under Ls, @, = 0, €,=8,, 0, = @, ete. which gives @, term as zero and rest cancel out in pairs, the illumination is a maximum under L;. ‘The illumination under L, is found by putting x = 0 and constructing the following table : I con 6 co? 6 cos? 65 = 1 08° 8, = 0.0895 08 6,=1 0.4473 ens = 00 0, = 0.2496 206" 0, = 0.0143 08 @, = 0.1644 0878, = 0.00444 The maximum illumination, Eyugg = ZOO (1 +2 x 0.0895 + 2x 0.0143 + 2x 0.00444) = 11.62 lux. (Ans)16 UTILISATION OF ELECTRICAL POWER | ‘The minimum illumination occurs at a mid-way between Ly and L, and we get : 0, = 0,= tan“ 1; 0, =0,=tan™8 ;0, = 0, = tan S etc. We construct the following table : 6 con 6 @,=tan*1=45" cos @,= 0.7071 0, = tan"! 3 = 71.56° coe? 6 = 0.09164 0, = tan“! 5 = 78.69° cas? By = 0.00754 The minimum illumination, Eyjg= ~ x (0.8535 + 0.03164 + 0.00754)=7.5 lux. (Ans) Example 1.17.A small area of 5 metres in diameter is to be illuminated by a lamp suspended at a height of 4.5 m over the centre of the area. A lamp having an efficiency of 24 lumens per watt is fitted with a reflector which directs the light output only over the surface to be illuminated. If utiliza- tion coefficient is 0.65 and illumination 800 lux, determine the wattage of the lamp. Solution. Area of the working plane, A = 3 x 5? = 19.63 m? Efficiency of the lamp = 24 lumens/watt Utilisation coefficient = 0.6 Ilumination on the working plano, Z = 800 lux Luminous flux reaching the working plane, F = Ex A= 800 x 19.63 = 15704 lumens ‘Total luminous flux emitted by the lamp F 15704 = Ulillsation coefficient ~ 065 ~ 74160 lumens Wattage ofthe lamp = ae =1007 say 1000W. (Ans,) Example 1.18. A lamp of 200 candela is placed 1 m below a plane mirror which reflects 85 percent of light falling on it. The lamp is hung 5 m above ground. Find the illumination at a point on the ground 4 m away from the point vertically below the lamp. Solution. Fig. 1.21 shows the lamp and mirror arrange- ment. ‘The lamp L produces an image L’ as far behind the mirror a8 itis in front. Height of the image from the ground = 6+ 1=7m L’ acts as the secondary source of light and its candle power = 0.85 x 200 = 170 candela. Tlumination at point B (4m away from the point vertically below the lamp), = Illumination due to L + Mumination due to L’ 200 48 94 170 sagdgr or ar ie, 3 3 = 200,/_ 5 | ,170/__7 SOF (ler) Oe = (8 x 0.476) + (3.47 x 0.654) = 6.08 lux. (Ans.)ILLUMINATION 7 Example 1.19. light is placed 4.5 m above ground and its candle power is 200 cos @ in any downward direction making an angle @ with the vertical. If A and B are two points on the ground, A being vertically under the light and the distance AB being 4.5 m, calculate : (@) The illumination of the ground at A and also at B. (ii) The total radiations sent down by the lamp. Solution. (i) The illumination of the ground at A and B: CP, along LA=100x cos 0*=100 8, = 2-987 lux, (Ans.) L 45m 3 C.P. along ZB = 200 cos 45°=141.4 .. Eg= 3 =247lux. (Ans.) (ii) The total radiation sent down by the lamp : Consider an imaginary hemisphere of radius r metre whose centre lies on the given lamp Fig. 1.23). CP. along LB = 100 cos © cB, = 200088 7 The area of the elementary strip at an angular distance 9 from the vertical and width of PQ = r.dd is = (ar sin ©) x r.d0 = 2nr? sin 0.0 Flux incident on the shaded area = OOS oer gin 8.40 = 200 x 2 sin cos 8 d0 = 200m sin 280 ‘Total flux over the hemisphere can be obtained by integrating the above expression between proper limits. 2 Total flux =f '200n sin 2040 = 200n| - 528 = 200n = 628.3 lumens. (Ans.) Example 1.20. A perfectly diffusing surface has a luminous intensity of 20 candelas at an angle of 60° to the normal. If the area of the surface is 50 em, determine the brightness and total flux radiated.18 UTILISATION OF ELECTRICAL POWER Solution, Given : I = 20 candelas ; @ = 60°; A = 50 cm? = 50 x 104 m? < Brightness or luminance, (.) In = — cam? == Toso \\ - 20 < s ° = Fondo 7 eosape 7 9000 cola Fig. 1.24 = xx 8000 = 25132.7 lumens/m®, (Ans.) 6 Bex) Total flux radiated = 25132.7 x 50 x 10+ = 125.66 lumens. (Ans.) Example 1.21.4 2.5 om diameter dise source of luminance 1200 ed /cm? is placed at the focus of a specular parabolic reflector normal to the axis. The focal length of the reflector is 10 cm, diameter 40 cm and reflectance 0.8. @ Calculate the axial intensity and beam-spread. (ii) Show diagrammatically what will happen if the source were moved away from the reflector along the axis in either direction. (AMLE,) Solution. (i) Axial intensity (1) and beam-spread (6) : ‘The axial or beam intensity I depends upon —luminance of the dise source i.e, —aperture of the reflector i.e, A — reflectivity of the reflector i.e., p ‘ I's pAL candela Now, L = 1200 cd/em® = 1.2 x 107 cd/m? Aa Fa? oF x Oa) = 0.1957 mt T= 0.8 x 0.1257 x 1.2 x 10? = 1.207 x 10% cd. (Ans.) 'o a first approximation, the beam-spread for disc source is determined by reflector focal length and sizo of the disc source. If @ is the total beam-sproad when the source is at the focus of the reflector [Fig. 1.25(a)] then, O=2 tan Wipf Here, Radius r 238 = 1.25.m ; Focal length, f= 10cm Given oe Ban (3) 14.25". (Ans.)ILLUMINATION 19 (i) The effect of axial movement of the source. The effect of axial movement ofthe source is shown in Fig. 1.25 (6) and (c). 1.4. POLAR CURVES ‘The luminous intensity in most lamps or sources of light is not the same in all directions, because of their un-symmetrical shape. Often it is necessary to know the distribution of light in various directions to ascertain how the candle power of a light source varies in different directions. The luminous intensity in all the directions can be represented by polar curves. — If the luminous intensity ie, candle power is measured in a horizontal plane about a vertical axis and a curve is plotted between the candle power and the angular position, a “horizontal polar curve” or diagram is obtained. — If the candle power is measured at angular position in a vertical plane, a polar curve in the vertical plane, called “vertical polar curve”, is obtained. Fig. 1.26 shows typical polar curves for an ordinary lamp. Cee er XD Nive (e) For horizontal plane. © pt Fig. 1.26. Polar curves. The polar curves are used to determine the following : (@ The mean horizontal candle power (M.H.C.P.) and mean spherical candle power(MS.CP.). (ii) The actual illumination of a surface by employing the candle power in that particular direction as read from the vertical polar curve in illumination calculations. © TheM.H.CP. of alamp can be determined from the horizontal polar curve by taking the mean value of the candle power in a horizontal direction. © TheM.S.CP. can be determined from the vertical polar curve byRoussean’s construction. Roussean’s construction. Suppose the vertical polar curve is in the form of two lobes symmetrical about YOY’ axis. The Roussoan's construction for this polar curve is illustrated in Fig. 1.27. © Draw acircle with any convenient radius with centre O as the centre. © Draw PQ parallel to YOY’ and equal to the ver- tical diameter of the circle. © Draw any line OA meeting the polar curve in E and the circle in A. Let the projection be S. Fig. 1.27. Roussean’s construction.20 UTILISATION OFELECTRICAL POWER © At S erect an ordinate ST = OE. © By similar construction draw other ordinates. The curve PSQUTVP obtained by joining these ordinates is known as Roussean’s curve. The mean ordinate of this curve gives the mean spherical candle power (M.S.C.P.). Area PSQUTVP Length of PQ ‘The area under the curve can either be determined on a graph paper or by using Simpson's ‘The mean ordinate of the curve = rule, 1.5. PHOTOMETRY We shalll now discuss the comparison and measurement of candle powers. The candle power of a source in any direction is measured by comparison with a standard or substandard source employing photometer bench and some form of photometer. ‘The “photometer bench” consists of two steel rods (2 to 3 metres long) which carry the stands or saddles for holding the two sources, the carriage for the photometer head and for any other apparatus employed in making measurement. One of the steol rods carries a brass strip with gradu- ated scale in mm. Photometer head or screen ‘= Standard source (known C.P.) L= Lamp under test. Fig. 1.28. Photometer bench for measurement of candle power. The bench should be rigid so that source being compared may be free from vibrations and the carriage holding the photometer head should be capable of moving smoothly and with very little effort. The photometer head acts as a screen for comparison of illumination of the standard source and the source under test. ‘The photometer head or screen is moved in between the two fixed sources until the illumina- tion on both the sides of the screen is same. If the distances of the standard source S and lamp (source) under test L from photometer head are |, and J, respectively, then applying inverse square law, we get Candle power of L _ 1,7 Candle power of S- 1? ye Candle power of L = Candle power of S x 75 (18) h In order to climinato errors due to reflected light the experiment is performed in dark room with dead black walls and ceiling. © Ina measurement since the square of distances are involved, therefore, distances should be accurately measured. For obtaining distance exactly, two points are determined at which there is a perceptible difference in illumination from the two sides and the point half-way between them is taken as the position of equal illumination.ILLUMINATION 21 1.5.1. Photometer Heads Although quite a few types of photometer heads are in use, yet most common in use are Bunsen and Lummer Brodgun type. These heads give quite accurate results when the lamps of the same or very similar colour are to be compared. However, when two lamps with different colours are to be compared, a “Flicker photometer” gives better results, Bunsen head, It is also called the “Grease Spot Photometer”. It consists of a piece of thin opaque paper at the centre of which is a transluscont “spot” which is made by treating the paper with oil or wax. Fig. 1.29. Grease spot Photometer head. © Light falls on the paper from both the lamps. The opaque part of the paper will be illumi- nated on either side by the lamp on that side only, But the transparent “spot” will be illuminated from both the lamps. The photometer head is adjusted at such positions that the transparent spot is not perceptible. The paper is viewed from one side first and then from the other. We get two distances /, and,’ of the photometer head from the test lamp (L) and 1, and 1,’ the distances of the photometer head from the standard lamp ($). The C.P. (candle power) of the test lamp is calculated from the following relation : C.P. of test lamp (L) bh GP. of the standard lamp(S) yh’" © In another method, one side of the paper is illuminated from a fixed lamp. One the other side of the photometer first the test lamp (L) is used and then the standard lamp (S) is used to make the spot to vanish. If, and , are these distances, then we have, CLP. of test lamp (L)___ 4? CP. of standard lamp(S) 1, * The use of two mirrors with the photometer head is perhaps the most accurate method (Fig. 1.29). The two sides of the spot can be viewed simultaneously and the position of the head for equal “contrast” in illumination between the opaque part and the transparent spot of the paper on the two sides is located. The C.P. of the test lamp (L) ean then be calculated by the expression given earlier. Lumner-Brodgun photometer head. There are two types of Lummer-Brodhum photometer heads : @) Equality-of-brightness type. (ii) Contrast type. Contrast type is more accurate and, therefore more used in photometric measurements.2 UTILISATION OF ELECTRICAL POWER Flicker photometers: ‘© These photometers are used when the two sources giving light of different colours are to’be compared, ‘© They operate on the fact that if two illuminated surfaces are presented to the eye with rapid alternations, the flicker disappears when the surfaces are of equal brightness. The speed of alternation should be kept as low as possible at which the disappearance of the flicker can be obtained for the small variation in brightness. © These photometers are not affected by the difference in colour of two lights to be com- pared as much as photometers of the steady comparison types are affected since the col- our difference between two alternating fields of light disappears at a lower spoed of altor- nation than the speed at which difference in brightness appears. 1.5.2, Photocells (for photometry measurements) Except for the measurement of luminance of sources, measurement by visual comparisons have been replaced by ‘photocel!” because of the following facts : @ The more complex procedures and the apparatus involved in visual measurements are avoided. i) These cells give more accurate and faster measurements. (iii) The measurements are consistent. ‘The two types of photocells used in photometry measurements are : 1. Photovoltaic cells 2. Photoemissive cells. 1. Photovoltaic cell. Fig. 1.30 shows the construction of a photovoltaic cell (also known as the barrier layer or rectified cell). It consists of a base plate made of either steel or aluminium and carries a layer of metallic selenium which is light sensitive, An electrically conducting layer of cad- mium oxide is applied by sputtering over the selenium layer. The layer is sufficiently thin to allow light to reach the selenium and is electrically continuous as it acts as a negative pole. The negative contact is formed of a strip of wood’s metal sprayed on to the edge of the top surface. The base plate forms the positive contact. The front surface of the cell is protected by a transparent varnish. Ligtt ‘Varnish CE IMM ‘Selenium layer ‘Gadrrium oxide tayer Electically conducting layer Fig. 1.30. Photovoltaic cell. As the light falls on the upper surface of selenium, electrons are released from the surfaco which maintain a flow of current through the external circuit connected between the +ve and —ve contacts. #' In photometry the current output of a photocell should be proportional to the illumination which is achieved by keeping the external resistance at a low value. For achieving greater accuracy the illumination should not be allowed to exesed 275 lumens/m?,