Professional Documents
Culture Documents
THOR I. FOSSEN
Professor of Guidance, Navigation and Control
January 2011
2nd edition
Figures iii
1 Introduction 1
2 Aircraft Modeling 3
2.1 De…nition of Aircraft State-Space Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Body-Fixed Coordinate Systems for Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2.1 Rotation matrices for wind and stability axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.3 Aircraft Equations of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3.1 Kinematic equations for translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3.2 Kinematic equations for attitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3.3 Rigid-body kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3.4 Sensors and measurement systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4 Perturbation Theory (Linear Theory) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4.1 De…nition of nominal and perturbation values . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4.2 Linearization of the rigid-body kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4.3 Linear state-space model based using wind and stability axes . . . . . 11
2.5 Decoupling in Longitudinal and Lateral Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.5.1 Longitudinal equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.5.2 Lateral equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.6 Aerodynamic Forces and Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.6.1 Longitudinal aerodynamic forces and moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.6.2 Lateral aerodynamic forces and moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.7 Standard Aircraft Maneuvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.7.1 Dynamic equation for coordinated turn (bank-to-turn) . . . . . . . . 17
2.7.2 Dynamic equation for altitude control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.8 Aircraft Stability Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.8.1 Longitudinal stability analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.8.2 Lateral stability analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.9 Design of ‡ight control systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3 Satellite Modeling 23
3.1 Attitude Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.1.1 Euler’s 2nd Axiom Applied to Satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
i
ii CONTENTS
1.1 Sketch showing a modern …ghter aircraft (Stevens and Lewis 1992). . . . . . 1
2.1 De…nition of aircraft body axes, velocities, forces, moments and Euler angles
(McLean 1990). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2 De…nition of stability and wind axes for an aircraft (Stevens and Lewis 1992). 5
2.3 Control inputs for conventional aircraft. Notice that the two ailerons can be
controlled by using one control input: A = 1=2( AL + AR ): . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4 Aircraft longitudinal eigenvalue con…guration plotted in the complex plane. . 21
iii
iv LIST OF FIGURES
Chapter 1
Introduction
This note uses a vectorial notation to describe aircraft and satellites. The notation is similar
to the one used for marine craft (ships, high-speed craft and underwater vehicles). The
equations of motion are based on:
The kinematic and kinetic equations of a marine craft can be modi…ed to describe aircraft
and satellites by minor adjustments of notation and assumptions.
Figure 1.1: Sketch showing a modern …ghter aircraft (Stevens and Lewis 1992).
1
2 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
This note is in addition to the textbook Handbook of Marine Craft Hydrodynamics and
Motion Control in the course TTK4109 Guidance and Control that is given at the Depart-
ment of Engineering Cybernetics, NTNU.
Blakelock, J. H. (1991). Aircraft and Missiles (John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)
Etkin, B. and L. D. Reid (1996). Dynamics of Flight: Stability and Control (John
Wiley & Sons Ltd.)
McRuer, D., D. Ashkenas and A. I. Graham (1973). Aircraft Dynamics and Auto-
matic Control (Princeton University Press)
Roskam, J. (1999). Airplane Flight Dynamics and Automatic Flight Controls (Darcor-
poration)
Stevens, B. L. and F. L. Lewis (1992). Aircraft Control and Simulation (John Wiley
& Sons Ltd.)
Information about the author as well as the graduate coursesTTK4109 Guidance and Control
and TK8109 Advanced Guidance and Control are found on the web-pages:
Thor I. Fossen
Trondheim –3 January 2011
Chapter 2
Aircraft Modeling
This chapter gives an introduction to aircraft modeling. The equations of motion are lin-
earized using perturbation theory and the …nal results are state-space models for the longi-
tudinal and lateral motions. The models can be used for aircraft simulation and design of
‡ight control systems.
2 3 2 3
U longitudinal (forward) velocity
6 V 7 6 lateral (transverse) velocity 7
6 7 6 7
6 W 7 6 vertical velocity 7
:= 6
6
7=6
7 6 roll rate
7
7 (2.1)
6 P 7 6 7
4 Q 5 4 pitch rate 5
R yaw rate
2 3 2 3
XE Earth-…xed x-position
6 YE 7 6 Earth-…xed y-position 7
6 7 6 7
6 ZE ; h 7 6 Earth-…xed z-position (axis downwards), altitude 7
7 6
:= 6
6 7 = 6 roll angle
7
7 (2.2)
6 7 6 7
4 5 4 pitch angle 5
yaw angle
Comment 1: Notice that the capital letters L; M; N for the moments are di¤erent from
3
4 CHAPTER 2. AIRCRAFT MODELING
Figure 2.1: De…nition of aircraft body axes, velocities, forces, moments and Euler angles
(McLean 1990).
those used for marine craft–that is, K; M; N: The reason for this is that L is reserved as
length parameter for ships and underwater vehicles.
Comment 2: For aircraft it is common to use capital letters for the states U; V; W; etc.
while it is common to use small letters for marine craft.
Body axes
Stability axes
Wind axes
The axis systems are shown in Figure 2.2 where the angle of attack and sideslip angle
are de…ned as:
W
tan( ) := (2.4)
U
V
sin( ) := (2.5)
VT
where p
VT = U2 + V 2 + W 2 (2.6)
2.2. BODY-FIXED COORDINATE SYSTEMS FOR AIRCRAFT 5
Figure 2.2: De…nition of stability and wind axes for an aircraft (Stevens and Lewis 1992).
is the total speed of the aircraft. Aerodynamic e¤ects are classi…ed according to the Mach
number:
VT
M := (2.7)
a
where a = 340 m/s = 1224 km/h is the speed of sound in air at a temperature of 20o C on
the ocean surface. The following terminology is speed:
An aircraft will break the sound barrier at M = 1:0 and this is clearly heard as a sharp
crack. If you ‡y at low altitude and break the sound barrier, windows in building will break
due to pressure-induced waves.
pwind = Rwind
body p
body
(2.11)
m
2 32 3
cos( ) sin( ) 0 cos( ) 0 sin( )
pwind = 4 sin( ) cos( ) 0 5 4 0 1 0 5 pbody (2.12)
0 0 1 sin( ) 0 cos( )
m
2 3
cos( ) cos( ) sin( ) sin( ) cos( )
pwind = 4 cos( ) sin( ) cos( ) sin( ) sin( ) 5 pbody (2.13)
sin( ) 0 cos( )
This gives the following relationship between the velocities in body and wind axes:
2 3 2 3 2 3
U VT VT cos( ) cos( )
vbody = 4 V 5 = (Rwind > wind
body ) v = R> >
y; Rz;
4 0 5 = 4 VT sin( ) 5 (2.14)
W 0 VT sin( ) cos( )
Consequently,
U = VT cos( ) cos( )
V = VT sin( ) (2.15)
W = VT sin( ) cos( )
which gives: 2 3 2 32 3
_ 1 s t c t P
4 _ 5=4 0 c s 54 Q 5; c 6= 0 (2.19)
_ 0 s =c c =c R
m( _ 1 + 2 1) = 1 (2.20)
ICG _ 2 + 2 (ICG 2) = 2 (2.21)
RB = g( ) + (2.25)
8 CHAPTER 2. AIRCRAFT MODELING
where is a generalized vector that includes aerodynamic and control forces. The gravita-
tional force fG = [0 0 mg]T acts in the CG (origin of the body-…xed coordinate system) and
this gives the following vector expressed in NED:
2 3
mg sin( )
6 mg cos( ) sin( ) 7
6 7
fG 6 mg cos( ) cos( ) 7
ned >
g( ) = (Rabc ) =66
7
7 (2.26)
O3 1 6 0 7
4 0 5
0
or in component form:
m(U_ + QW RV + g sin( )) = X
m(V_ + U R W P g cos( ) sin( )) = Y
m(W _ + V P QU g cos( ) cos( )) = Z
Ix P_ Ixz (R_ + P Q) + (Iz Iy )QR = L (2.28)
Iy Q_ + Ixz (P 2 R2 ) + (Ix Iz )P R = M
Iz R_ Ixz P_ + (Iy Ix )P Q + Ixz QR = N
Equilibrium condition
If the aerodynamic forces and moments, velocities, angles and control inputs are expressed
as nominal values and perturbations = 0 + ; = 0 + and = 0 + ; the aircraft
equilibrium point will satisfy (it is assumed that _ 0 = 0):
CRB ( 0) 0 + g( 0) = 0 (2.34)
m(Q0 W0 R0 V0 + g sin( 0 )) = X0
m(U0 R0 P0 W0 g cos( 0 ) sin( 0 )) = Y0
m(P0 V0 Q0 U0 g cos( 0 ) cos( 0 )) = Z0
(Iz Iy )Q0 R0 P0 Q0 Ixz = L0 (2.35)
(P0 R02 )Ixz + (Ix Iz )P0 R0
2
= M0
(Iy Ix )P0 Q0 + Q0 R0 Ixz = N0
10 CHAPTER 2. AIRCRAFT MODELING
Perturbed equations
The perturbed equations–that is, the linearized equations of motion are usually derived by
a 1st-order Taylor series expansion about the nominal values. Alternatively, it is possible
to substitute (2.32) and (2.35) into (2.27) and neglect higher-order terms of the perturbed
states. This is illustrated for the …rst degree of freedom (DOF):
m[U_ + QW RV + g sin( )] = X
+ (2.36)
m[U_ 0 + u_ + (Q0 + q)(W0 + w) (R0 + r)(V0 + v) + g sin( 0 + )] = X0 + X
Since U_ 0 = 0 and
m(Q0 W0 R0 V0 + g sin( 0 )) = X0 (2.38)
If it is assumed that the 2nd-order terms wq and vr are negligible, the linearized model
becomes:
m[u_ + Q0 w + W0 q R0 v V0 r + g cos( 0 ) ] = X (2.40)
m[u_ + Q0 w + W0 q R0 v V0 r + g cos( 0 ) ] = X
m[v_ + U0 r + R0 u W0 p P0 w g cos( 0 ) cos( 0 ) + g sin( 0 ) sin( 0 ) ] = Y
m[w_ + V0 p + P0 v U0 q Q0 u + g cos( 0 ) sin( 0 ) + g sin( 0 ) cos( 0 ) ] = Z
Ix p_ Ixz r_ + (Iz Iy )(Q0 r + R0 q) Ixz (P0 q + Q0 p) = L (2.41)
Iy q_ + (Ix Iz )(P0 r + R0 p) 2Ixz (R0 r + P0 p) = M
Iz r_ Ixz p_ + (Iy Ix )(P0 q + Q0 p) + Ixz (Q0 r + R0 q) = N
where
2 3
m 0 0
6 m 0 03 7
6 3 7
6 0 0 m 7
MRB = 6
6
7
7
6 Ix 0 Ixz 7
4 03 3 0 Iy 0 5
Ixz 0 Iz
2 3
0 mR0 mQ0 0 mW0 mV0
6 mR0 0 P0 W0 0 U0 7
6 7
6 mQ0 mP0 0 mV0 mU0 0 7
NRB = 6
6
7
7
6 Ixz Q0 (Iz Iy )R0 Ixz P0 (Iz Iy )Q0 7
4 03 3 (Ix Iz )R0 2Ixz P0 (Ix Iz )P0 2Ixz R0 5
(Iy Ix )Q0 (Iy Ix )P0 + Ixz R0 Ixz Q0
2 3
0 mg cos( 0 ) 0
6 03 mg cos( 0 ) cos( 0 ) mg sin( 0 ) sin( 0 ) 0 7
6 3 7
6 mg cos( 0 ) sin( 0 ) mg sin( 0 ) cos( 0 ) 0 7
G = 6
6
7
7
6 7
4 03 3 03 3 5
2.4.3 Linear state-space model based using wind and stability axes
An alternative state-space model is obtained by using and as states. If it is assumed
that and are small such that cos( ) 1 and sin( ) ; Equation (2.15) can be written
as:
U = VT U = VT
V
V = VT ) = VT (2.43)
W
W = VT = VT
Furthermore, the state-space vector:
2 3 2 3
u surge velocity
6 7 6 sideslip angle 7
6 7 6 7
6 7 6 angle of attack 7
x=6 6 p
7=6
7 6
7
7 (2.44)
6 7 6 roll rate 7
4 q 5 4 pitch rate 5
r yaw rate
is chosen to describe motions in 6 DOF. The relationship between the body-…xed velocity
vector:
= [u; v; w; p; q; r]T (2.45)
and the new state-space vector x can be written as:
= Tx = diagf1; VT ; VT ; 1; 1; 1; 1gx (2.46)
12 CHAPTER 2. AIRCRAFT MODELING
where VT > 0: If the total speed is VT = U0 = constant (linear theory), it is seen that:
1
_ = w_ (2.47)
VT
_ 1
= v_ (2.48)
VT
V_ T = 0 (2.49)
UW _ W U_
_ = (2.50)
U2 + W 2
_ V_ VT V V_ T
= (2.51)
VT2 cos
U U_ + V V_ + W W
_
V_ T = (2.52)
VT
In the linear case it is possible to transform the body-…xed state-space model:
_ = F + Gu (2.53)
to
x_ = Ax + Bu (2.54)
where
A = T 1 FT; B = T 1G (2.55)
For V_ T 6= 0 this transformation is much more complicated. The linear state-space transfor-
mation is commonly used by aircraft manufactures. An example is the Boeing B-767 model
(see Chapter 4).
m[u_ + Q0 w + W0 q + g cos( 0) ] = X
m[w_ U0 q Q0 u + g sin( 0 ) cos( 0) ] = Z (2.56)
Iy q_ = M
2 32 3 2 32 3
m 0 0 u_ 0 mQ0 mW0 u
4 0 m 0 5 4 w_ 5 + 4 mQ0 0 mU0 5 4 w 5+
0 0 Iy q_ 0 0 0 q
2 3 2 3 (2.57)
mg cos( 0 ) X
4 mg sin( 0 ) cos( 0 ) 5 =4 Z 5
0 M
Kinematics:
_ =q (2.58)
Kinematics:
_ 1 tan( 0 ) p
_ = (2.61)
0 1= cos( 0 ) r
14 CHAPTER 2. AIRCRAFT MODELING
Figure 2.3: Control inputs for conventional aircraft. Notice that the two ailerons can be
controlled by using one control input: A = 1=2( AL + AR ):
@X @L
Xindex = @ index
Lindex = @ index
@Y @M
Yindex = @ index
Mindex = @ index
@Z @N
Zindex = @ index
Nindex = @ index
In order to illustrate how control surfaces in‡uence the aircraft, an aircraft equipped with
the following control inputs will be considered (se Figure 2.3):
2.6. AERODYNAMIC FORCES AND MOMENTS 15
T Thrust Jet/propeller
Control surfaces on the rear of the aircraft used for pitch and
E Elevator
altitude control
Hinged control surfaces attached to the trailing edge of the wing used
A Aileron
for roll/bank control
Hinged surfaces on the trailing edge of the wings used for braking
F Flaps
and bank-to-turn
R Rudder Vertical control surface at the rear of the aircraft used for turning
Linear theory will be assumed in order to reduce the number of aerodynamic coe¢ cients.
Control inputs and aerodynamic forces and moments are written as:
= MF _ NF + Bu (2.62)
u_ = T 1 (uc u) (2.63)
where uc is commanded input, u is the actual control input produced by the actuators and
T = diag{T1 ; T2 ; :::; Tr } is a diagonal matrix of positive time constants. Substitution of (2.62)
into the model (2.42) gives:
(MRB + MF ) _ + (NRB + NF ) + G = Bu
m (2.64)
M_ + N + G = Bu
The matrices M and N are de…ned as M = MRB + MF and N = NRB + NF . The linearized
kinematics takes the following form:
_ =J +J (2.65)
_ J J 0
= + u (2.67)
_ M 1G M 1N M 1B
16 CHAPTER 2. AIRCRAFT MODELING
2 3 2 32 3 2 32 3
dX Xu_ Xw_ Xq_ u_ Xu Xw Xq u
4 dZ 5 = 4 Zu_ Zw_ Zq_ 5 4 w_ 5 + 4 Zu Zw Zq 5 4 w 5 +
dM Mu_ Mw_ Mq_ q_ Mq Mw Mq q
2 32 3 (2.68)
XT XE XF T
4 Z Z E Z F 54 E 5
T
MT ME MF F
which corresponds to the matrices MF ; NF and B in (2.62). If the aircraft cruise speed
U0 = constant, then T = 0: Altitude can be controlled by using the elevators E : Flaps F
can be used to reduce the speed during landing. The ‡aps can also be used to turn harder
for instance by moving one ‡ap while the other is kept at the zero position. This is common
in bank-to-turn maneuvers. For conventional aircraft the following aerodynamic coe¢ cients
can be neglected:
Xu_ ; Xq ; Xw_ ; X E ; Zu_ ; Zw_ ; Mu_ (2.69)
Hence, the model for altitude control reduces to:
2 3 2 32 3 2 32 3 2 3
dX 0 0 Xq_ u_ X u Xw 0 u XE
4 dZ 5 = 4 0 0 Zq_ 5 4 w_ 5 + 4 Zu Zw Zq 5 4 w 5 + 4 Z E 5 E (2.70)
dM 0 Mw_ Mq_ q_ Mq Mw Mq q ME
If the actuator dynamics is important, aerodynamic coe¢ cients such as X _ T ; X _ E ; ::: must
be included in the model.
2 3 2 32 3 2 32 3 2 3
dY Yv_ Yp_ Yr_ v_ Yv Yp Yr v YA YR
4 dL 5 = 4 Lv_ Lp_ Lr_ 5 4 p_ 5 + 4 Lv Lp Lr 5 4 p 5 + 4 L A L R 5 A
R
dN Nv_ Np_ Nr_ r_ Nv Np Nr r NA NR
(2.71)
which corresponds to the matrices MF ; NF and B in (2.62). For conventional aircraft
the following aerodynamic coe¢ cients can be neglected:
Yv_ ; Yp ; Yp_ ; Yr ; Yr_ ; Y A;
Lv_ ; Lr_ ; Nv_ ; Nr_ (2.72)
This gives:
2 3 2 32 3 2 32 3 2 3
dY 0 0 0 v_ Yv 0 0 v 0 YR
4 dL 5 = 4 0 Lp_ 0 5 4 p_ 5 + 4 Lv Lp Lr 5 4 p 5 + 4 L LR 5 A
(2.73)
A
R
dN 0 Np_ 0 r_ Nv Np Nr r NA NR
2.7. STANDARD AIRCRAFT MANEUVERS 17
1. Straight ‡ight: 0 = Q0 = R0 = 0
2. Symmetric ‡ight: 0 = V0 = 0
= _ =0 (2.74)
0 = 0 = 0 (2.75)
m[V_ + U R WP
g cos( ) sin( )] = Y (2.76)
+
m[(U0 + u)(R0 + r) (W0 + w)(P0 + p) g cos( ) sin( )] = Y0 (2.77)
Assume that the longitudinal and lateral motions are decoupled–that is, u = w = q = = 0:
If perturbation theory is applied under the assumption that the 2nd-order terms ur = pw =
0;we get:
m(U0 R0 + U0 r W0 P0 W0 p g sin( )) = Y0 (2.78)
The equilibrium equation (2.35) gives the steady-state condition:
m(U0 R0 W 0 P0 ) = Y 0 (2.79)
or
W0 g
r= p+ sin( ) (2.81)
U0 U0
18 CHAPTER 2. AIRCRAFT MODELING
The aircraft is often trimmed such that the angle of attack 0 = W0 =U0 = 0. This implies
that the yaw rate can be expressed as:
g small g
r= sin( ) (2.82)
U0 U0
which is a very important result since it states that a roll angle angle di¤erent from zero
will induce a yaw rate r which again turns the aircraft (bank-to-turn). With other words, we
can use a moment in roll, for instance generated by the ailerons, to turn the aircraft. The
yaw angle is given by:
_ =r (2.83)
An alternative method is of course to turn the aircraft by using the rear rudder to generate
a yaw moment. The bank-to-turn principle is used in many missile control systems since it
improves maneuverability, in particular in combination with a rudder controlled system.
_ 0 = 0,
If the acceleration is perturbed according to azCG = az0 + az and we assume that W
the following equilibrium condition is obtained:
Furthermore, assume that the altitude is changed by symmetric straight-line ‡ight with
horizontal wings such that V0 = 0 = 0 = P0 = Q0 = 0: This gives:
Assume that the 2nd-order terms vp and uq can be neglected and subtract the equilibrium
condition (2.87) from (2.89) such that:
az = w_ U0 q (2.90)
Di¤erentiating the altitude twice with respect to time gives the relationship:
•=
h az = U0 q w_ (2.91)
_
If we integrate this expression under the assumption that h(0) = U0 (0) w(0) = 0, we get:
h_ = U0 w (2.92)
h_ = U0 (2.94)
_h 0 1 0 U0 0 h 0 0
20 CHAPTER 2. AIRCRAFT MODELING
Phugoid mode
Short-period mode
The phugoid mode is observed as a long period oscillation with little damping. In some
cases the Phugoid mode can be unstable such that the oscillations increase with time. The
Phugoid mode is characterized by the natural frequency ! ph and relative damping ratio ph :
The short-period mode is a fast mode given by the natural frequency ! sp and relative
damping factor sp : The short-period mode is usually well damped.
Classi…cation of eigenvalues
a = [
-0.0168 0.1121 0.0003 -0.5608
-0.0164 -0.7771 0.9945 0.0015
-0.0417 -3.6595 -0.9544 0
0 0 1.0000 0]
damp(a)
Eigenvalue Damping Freq. (rad/sec)
-0.0064 + 0.0593i 0.1070 0.0596
-0.0064 - 0.0593i 0.1070 0.0596
-0.8678 + 1.9061i 0.4143 2.0943
-0.8678 - 1.9061i 0.4143 2.0943
Figure 2.4: Aircraft longitudinal eigenvalue con…guration plotted in the complex plane.
Tuck Mode: Supersonic aircraft may have a very large aerodynamic coe¢ cient Mu :
This implies that the oscillatory Phugoid equation gives two real solutions where one
is positive (unstable) and one is negative (stable). This is referred to as the tuck mode
since the phenomenon is observed as a downwards pointing nose (tucking under) for
increasing speed.
A third oscillatory mode: For …ghter aircraft the center of gravity is often located
behind the neutral point or the aerodynamic center–that is, the point where the the
trim moment Mw w is zero. When this happens, the aerodynamic coe¢ cient Mw takes
a value such that the roots of the characteristic equation has four real solutions. When
the center of gravity is moved backwards one of the roots of the Phugoid and short-
period modes become imaginary and they form a new complex conjugated pair. This
is usually referred to as the 3rd oscillatory mode. The locations of the eigenvalues are
illustrated in Figure 2.4.
where the term in the last equation corresponds to a pure integrator in roll–that is, _ = r.
The term ( + e) is the aircraft spiral/divergence mode. This is usually a very slow mode.
Spiral/divergence corresponds to horizontally leveled wings followed by roll and a diverging
spiral maneuver.
22 CHAPTER 2. AIRCRAFT MODELING
The term ( +f ) describes the subsidiary roll mode while the 2nd-order system is referred
to as Dutch roll. This is an oscillatory system with a small relative damping factor D : The
natural frequency in Dutch roll is denoted ! D :
If the lateral B-767 Matlab model in Chapter 4 is considered, the Matlab command
damp.m gives:
a = [
-0.1245 0.0350 0.0414 -0.9962
-15.2138 -2.0587 0.0032 0.6450
0 1.0000 0 0.0357
1.6447 -0.0447 -0.0022 -0.1416
damp(a)
Eigenvalue Damping Freq. (rad/sec)
-0.0143 1.0000 0.0143
-0.1121 + 1.4996i 0.0745 1.5038
-0.1121 - 1.4996i 0.0745 1.5038
-2.0863 1.0000 2.0863
In this example we only get four eigenvalues since the pure integrator in yaw is not
include in the system matrix. It is seen that the spiral mode is given by e = 0:0143 while
the subsidiary roll mode is given by f = 2:0863. Dutch roll is recognized by ! D = 0:0745
and D = 1:5038.
Satellite Modeling
When stabilizing satellites in geostationary orbits only the attitude of the satellite is of
interest since the position is given by the Earth’s rotation.
23
24 CHAPTER 3. SATELLITE MODELING
4.1 Boeing-767
The longitudinal and lateral B-767 state-space models are given below. The state vectors
are: 2 3 2 3
u (ft/s) (deg)
6 (deg) 7 6 p (deg/s) 7
xlang = 6 7 6
4 q (deg/s) 5 ; xlat = 4 (deg/s)
7
5 (4.1)
(deg) r (deg)
E (deg) A (deg)
ulang = ; ulat = (4.2)
T (%) R (deg)
Equilibrium point:
b = [ -0.0243 0.0519
-0.0634 -0.0005
-3.6942 0.0243
0 0 ];
25
26 CHAPTER 4. MATLAB SIMULATION MODELS
Eigenvalues:
lam = [
-0.8678 + 1.9061i
-0.8678 - 1.9061i
-0.0064 + 0.0593i
-0.0064 - 0.0593i];
b = [
-0.0049 0.0237
-4.0379 0.9613
0 0
-0.0568 -1.2168];
Eigenvalues:
lam = [
-0.1121 + 1.4996i
-0.1121 - 1.4996i
-2.0863
-0.0143];
b = [
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
20.2 0
0 20.2
0 0 ];
c= [
0 0 0 57.2958 0 0 -1
0 0 57.2958 0 0 0 0
57.2958 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 57.2958 0 0 0 0 0 ];
Eigenvalues:
lam = [
-1.0000
-0.4224+ 3.0633i
-0.4224- 3.0633i
-0.0167
-3.6152
-20.2000
-20.2000 ];
Notice that the last two eigenvalues correspond to the actuator states.
28 CHAPTER 4. MATLAB SIMULATION MODELS
Figure 4.1: Schematic drawing of the Bristol F.2B Fighter (McRuer et al 1973).
_ = g = 9:81
= 0: 233 (4.5)
U0 138 0:3048
Equilibrium point:
Eigenvalues:
lam = [
0
0
-0.4752
-7.0358];
30 CHAPTER 4. MATLAB SIMULATION MODELS
Bibliography
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[2] Etkin, B. and L. D. Reid (1996). Dynamics of Flight: Stability and Control (John
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[4] Fossen, T. I. (1994). Guidance and Control of Ocean Vehicles (John Wiley & Sons
Ltd.)
[5] Fossen, T. I. (2011). Handbook of Marine Craft Hydrodynamics and Motion Control.
(John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)
[6] Hughes, P. C. (1986). Spacecraft Attitude Dynamics (John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)
[7] McLean, D. (1990). Automatic Flight Control Systems (Prentice Hall Inc.)
[9] Nelson R. C. (1998). Flight Stability and Automatic Control (McGraw-Hill Int.)
[11] Stevens, B. L. og F. L. Lewis (1992). Aircraft Control and Simulation (John Wiley
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[12] Roskam, J. (1999). Airplane Flight Dynamics and Automatic Flight Controls (Dar-
corporation)
31