CHAPTER STATIONARY PRINCIPLES, THE RAYLEIGH-RITZ METHOD, AND INTERPOLATION ‘The equilibrium configuration of a system is found by analysis of its potential energy. Expressions for potential energy are presented. These and other integral expressions, called functionals, are introduced as a starting point for an approx- imation technique—namely, the Rayleigh-Ritz method—whose modern form is the finite element method. Interpolation, necessary to the method, is described. 3.1 INTRODUCTION In preceding chapters, element stiffness matrices [k] have been formulated by direct physical argument. This is easily done for truss and beam elements by activating d.o.f. in turn and computing the nodal loads required to maintain the deformation state. Finite elements obtained by discretization of a continuum are not as easily formulated. (For example, is there an easy way to find nodal forces that appear in response to displacement u; in Fig. 1.1-2c?) A systematic and general way of obtaining [k] is needed. One of the best ways is the Rayleigh-Ritz method. An alternative, the method of weighted residuals, is discussed in Chapter 15. ‘The Rayleigh-Ritz method has a classical form and a finite element form. In the classical form, an approximating field is defined over the entire region of interest. In the finite element form, the approximating field is defined in piecewise fashion. As degrees of freedom, finite elements use nodal values of the field (and perhaps nodal values of one or more spatial derivatives of the field as well). By degrees of freedom (d.o.f.) we mean independent quantities used to define a configuration of a system that violates neither compatibility conditions nor con- straints such as support conditions. Using more general terms, one can say that d.o.f. are quantities used to define the spatial variation of an approximating field, In order to analyze a continuum by use of the Rayleigh-Ritz method, one must, have a functional. A functional is an integral expression that implicitly contains differential equations that describe the problem. In structural mechanics the most widely used functional is the expression for potential energy. Functionals are also. available for problems of heat conduction, acoustic modes in cavities, certain types of fluid flow, and other problems. We will present some of these functionals and will show how they are used to produce finite element formulations. Differential equations are said to state a problem in the strong form. An integral expression such as a functional that implicity contains the differential equations is called the weak form. The strong form states conditions that must be met at every material point, whereas the weak form states conditions that must be met only in an average sense. Co)70 STATIONARY PRINCIPLES, THE RAYLEIGH-RITZ METHOD, AND INTERPOLATION A functional, such as that for potential energy Il, contains integrals that span the line, area, or volume of interest. After applying the Rayleigh-Ritz method, the I], expression contains no integrals and is no longer called a functional. Rather, TI, is then a function of a finite number of d.o.f. Indeed, for an initially discrete structure such as a truss, no integrals need be invoked in writing the II, expression. We will consider these “initially discrete”” forms first, then return to integral forms later in this chapter. Physical insight was responsible for the early rapid development of the finite element method and for its ready appeal to stress analysts. A more mathematical approach augments physical understanding by placing the finite element method ‘on a sound foundation, thus allowing statements to be made regarding bounds and convergence, and suggesting solution tactics that are not apparent from phys- ical reasoning alone. 3.2 PRINCIPLE OF STATIONARY POTENTIAL ENERGY In the present section we consider time-independent problems of structural me- chanics, We define a system as the physical structure and the loads applied to it. The configuration of a system is the set of positions of all particles of the structure. Let the system have a reference configuration Cy and a displaced configuration Cp. A system is called conservative if work done by internal forces and work done by external loads are each independent of the path taken between Cy and Cp. In an elastic structure, work done by internal forces is equal in magnitude to the change in strain energy. The loaded spring of Fig. 3.2-1 is a case in point. Let Cy and Cp refer to unstretched and stretched configurations, respectively. If the spring dissipates no energy, then the work of internal forces (j.e., strain energy in the spring) depends only on stretch D, not on whether the passage from Cx to Cp is via path A or path B. Similarly, ifexternal load P has constant magnitude and constant direction, it does negative work of magnitude PD regardless of the path taken from Cp to Cp. We conclude that because internal forces and external loads are both con- servative, so is the system. Boundary conditions are of two types: essential (or principal) and nonessential (often called natural). In the finite element method, essential boundary conditions are prescribed values of nodal d.o.f., and nonessential boundary conditions are prescribed values of higher derivatives of the field quantity than are usually used as nodal d.o.f. For example, if standard beam elements are used, nodal d.o.f, are lateral deflection w and its first derivative, w,,. When these elements are used to analyze the beam of Fig. 3.2-2a, essential boundary conditions (which can also be called geometric or kinematic in this problem) are that w = 0 and w,, = 0 Figure 3.2-1. A linear spring of stiffness k loaded by a constant force P that acts parallel to the x axis. Hypo- thetical displacement paths A and B of the loaded point are shown by dashed lines.Principle of Stationary Potential Energy 1 jd @ o Figure 3.2-2. (a) A cantilever beam. (b) An inadmissible configuration (upper dashed line) and two admissible configurations (lower dashed lines). at x = 0. Nonessential boundary conditions are that W,.. = 0 and Wyex = Oat x = L, since bending moment M = Elw,,, and transverse shear force V = ElWsexe are both zero at x = L. An admissible configuration is any configuration that satisfies internal com- patibility and essential boundary conditions. Examples appear in Fig. 3.2-2b. The uppermost curve, which is inadmissible, has four faults: it violates the two es- sential boundary conditions w = 0 and w,, = Oat x = 0, and it violates com- patibility because of the jump at A and the cusp at B. The lower two curves are both admissible, even though only the lower one seems physically reasonable. An admissible configuration need not satisfy nonessential boundary conditions. Thus, at x = L, neither of the two lower curves need display Ww, = 0 of Wreee = 0. A conservative mechanical system has a potential energy. That is, one can express the energy content of the system in terms of its configuration, without reference to whatever deformation history or path may have led to that config- uration [3.1]. Potential energy, also called total potential energy, includes (a) the strain energy of elastic distortion, and (b) the potential possessed by applied loads, by virtue of their having the capacity to do work if displaced through a distance. The principle of stationary potential energy states that Among all admissible configurations of a conservative system, those that satisfy the equations of equilibrium make the potential energy stationary with respect to small admissible variations of displacement This principle is applicable whether or not the load versus deformation relation is linear. If the stationary condition is a relative minimum, the equilibrium state is stable. Note that loads are kept constant while displacements are varied. Example. Linear Spring with Axial Load. A very simple system is shown in Fig. 3.2-3 Its (total) potential energy TI, has two parts; @ o Figure 3.2.3. (a) Unstretched (reference) configuration of a linear spring of stiffness k. (b) Configuration after force P is applied, stretching the spring D units.n STATIONARY PRINCIPLES, THE RAYLEIGH-RITZ METHOD, AND INTERPOLATION m,=U+9 GB.2-1) where U is the strain energy of the system, which in the present example is given by kD G22) The potential of loads, called Q, is here given by a= PD 3.23) ‘The load is regarded as always acting at its full value P. In moving through displacement, Dit does work in the amount PD, thereby losing potential of equal amount; hence the negative sign in the expression © = — PD. The potential energy Tl, = 4kD® ~ PD G.2-4) can be regarded as the total internal and external work done in changing the configuration from the reference state D = 0 to the displaced state D ¥ 0. Note that if P were directed toward the left, while D remains positive toward the right, then 2 would become + PD. This is in essence the same as increasing potential energy by increasing the elevation of a weight. If only displacements along the x axis are allowed, then the single d.o.f. D defines all admissible configurations. The equilibrium configuration D., is found from the stationary value of TT,: dU, = (kDgq ~ P) dD = hence Dey mI 6.25) The equation (KD., ~ P) dD = (is an instance of the virtual work principle: zero net work is done by all forces during a small admissible displacement dD from the equilibrium configuration. This is graphically apparent in Fig. 3.2-4. We see also that Il, is a relative ium, which means that the equilibrium state is stable. The reference datum for 9 can be arbitrarily changed by a constant. For example, if wwe say that 2s zero at the equilibrium configuration, then = P(D., — D). The added constant PD,, disappears in the process of writing dll, = 0, and the same value of Deg is again obtained. uelene Figure 3.2-4. Graphical interpretation of the po- tential energy relations for the problem of Fig. 3.23.Problems Having Many D.O.F. B In Eq. 3.2-2 we write @ = —PD rather than 9 = —PD/2. This is because P is regarded as always acting at full intensity. True, we could bypass the stationary potential energy principle and imagine that Dis produced by a gradually increasing load whose final value is P. Thus, equating work done against a linear spring to strain energy stored, we have aI }PDeq = }kD3, — from which Deg = G.2-6) This energy balance argument is valid but rarely helpful. It yields but one equation, even if there are a great many d.o.f. that must be determined. 3.3 PROBLEMS HAVING MANY D.O.F. AA finite element analysis typically uses hundreds of d.o.f. They may be the x and y displacements of nodes (as in a plane stress problem), or lateral displacement w and its first derivative w,, at nodes (as in a beam problem), and so on. Let n be the number of d.o.f. that must be calculated, and let them be collected in the structure displacement vector {D} = [D, D2... D,|’. We assume here that support conditions are already imposed, so that arbitrary values of the D, always create admissible configurations. Potential II, is a function of the D,. Symbolically, 1, = I, (D:,Dz, » D,). Applying the principle of stationary potential energy, we write I, 4p, , ale Ty ap, - dil, = wp, + 2D: dD, + + D, dD, =90 (3.3-1) The stationary principle states that equilibrium prevails when dll, = 0 for any small admissible variation of the configuration. We can imagine that only dD, is nonzero, or that only dD; and dD; are nonzéro, and so on. For any and all such choices, dT, must vanish. This is possible only if coefficients of the dD, vanish separately. Thus, fori = 1, 2,3,....% al, @D; 0 or, in alternative notation, {ae = {0} 3.32) These are 2 equations to be solved for the n values of d.o.f. D; that define the static equilibrium configuration. [ example. Springs in Series. The structure shown in Fig. 3.3-1 has the potential Il, = 4&3 + £kx(Dz — Dy? + Fk(Dy ~ Dy — P\D, ~ PDs ~ PsD, B.3-3) Equations 3.3-2 and 3.3-3 yield, for i = 1, 2, 3, kD, ~ k(D; = D) ~ Py = 0 K (Dz — Dy) — k(Dy ~ D2 ~ P2 = 0 G34) Ks(Dy — Ds) ~ Py = 0"4 STATIONARY PRINCIPLES, THE RAYLEIGH-RITZ METHOD, AND INTERPOLATION >, Dy Ds \ I ky ke ee oe ee Figure 3.3-1. A three d.o.f, system of three linear springs and three axial loads P), Ps, and Ps. D.0.f. D,are axial displacements relative to a fixed point, such as the left support. The springs are un- stretched when D, = D; = Dy = 0. In the matrix form [KHD} = {R}, Eqs. 3.3-4 are ky tke -k 0 1(D, Pr ky ka thy ky [Dap = 4 P 63-5) 0 =k ks | [Ds Py ‘The correctness of stiffness matrix [K] in Eq. 3.3-5 can be checked by the procedure of activating one d.o.f. at a time, as described in Section 2.2. Example, Plane Truss Problems. Consider the plane truss element of Figs. 2.4-1 and 2.4-2. Its potential expression is Th, = # he? — pyar — qr ~ py — ay 33-6) | where k = ABIL and elongation ¢ is given by € = (wy ~ u) cos B + (v) ~ v) sin B 37) Setting to zero the four derivatives of II, with respect to d.o.f. u, 01 wy and v, we obtain the four rows of Eq. 2.43. ‘The same procedure can be applied to an entire structure. Consider the three-bar truss of Fig. 2.2-1, with support conditions u = v2 = us = 0 already imposed. Its potential energy is Tl, = bkyut + 4 ko} + Fh: [© = 1 -0.6) + (vs = v0.8) + Poy B.3-8) The Po, term bears a positive sign because the potential of the (downward) load P is increased by a positive (upward) displacement v,. The derivatives of II, with respect to %,, 0, and vs, When equated to zero, are found to yield Eqs. 2.3-8. From the foregoing examples we draw the following conclusions, which are true in general. 1. A system that has linear load versus displacement characteristics has a symmetric stiffness matrix; that is, Kj = Kj. This happens because each symmetrically located pair of off-diagonal coefficients comes from a single term in I], whose form is a constant times D;D;. Thus Kj = #I1,/aD, aD, #I,/aD; aD; = Ky. 2. If D; is a nodal displacement (or rotation), the equation aI1,/aD, = 0 is a nodal equilibrium equation stating that forces (or moments) ap)Potential Energy of an Elastic Body 8 node sum to zero in the direction of D). Included in the sum are (a) loads applied externally, and (b) loads applied internally, owing to deformation of structural components (and perhaps also to thermal load, body force, etc.). 3. Static indeterminacy does not alter the procedure or make a problem more difficult. For example, in Fig. 3.3-1 we could connect a fourth spring between the fixed support and node 3. Then TI, is augmented by k.D3/2, and the last stiffness coefficient in Eq. 3.3-5 is changed from k; to ks + ks, but the same three d.o.f. still suffice. The potential energy of a structure can be wi en in the form Il, =U +, where U= }{D}IK]D} and 0 = HAR} (3.3-9) If U = 0, then either {D} = {0} or {D} expresses a rigid-body motion. If the structure is stable and is supported so that rigid-body motion is not possible (as in Eqs. 3.3-3 and 3,3-5), then 4 {D}"[K]{D} > 0 for any nonzero {D}; that is, [K] is said to be positive definite. 3.4 POTENTIAL ENERGY OF AN ELASTIC BODY The potential energy of an elastic body consists of the strain energy contained in elastic distortions and the potential of loads that act within the body or on its surface. The potential energy expression can be used to formulate element stiffness matrices and clement load vectors. Simple finite element formulations appear later in this chapter. Additional formulations appear in subsequent chapters. In this section we present formulas, argue their validity, show that special cases yield correct results, and consider examples. Derivations and detailed arguments may be found elsewhere [3.1,3.2]. Consider a linearly elastic body that carries conservative loads. Let its volume be V and its surface area be S. The expression for its potential energy is Lp =f, Mele) ~ te)"TEIed) + {€}"{oo)) dV ~ fw av ~ foi} as — wre} Gan) The notation is explained in Section 1.6 and in the following. Explanation and Justification. In the first integral of Eq. 3.4-1, the expression within parentheses represents Up, the strain energy per unit volume, The expres- sion is derived as follows. Consider a unit cube (i.e., a cube of unit length along each edge). Stresses that act on faces of the cube do work during infinitesimal straining of the cube. This work is stored as an increment of strain energy dU. Ona unit cube, stress and force have the same magnitude on each face, and strain and elongation have the same magnitude along each edge. Therefore, since work is equal to force times displacement, dUp = 0, de, + 0, dey + 0; de, + Tey Uey + Tye Pye + Te Aer B42)76 STATIONARY PRINCIPLES, THE RAYLEIGH-RITZ METHOD, AND INTERPOLATION Changes in stress produced by infinitesimal strain increments have been discarded from dU because they produce terms of higher order. For example, (#, + do.) de, ~ o,de,. From Eq. 3.4-2 we conclude that aUplde, = o-, dUd/de, = Oy, + + +, WUolA%x = Tox. Expressing these six derivatives in matrix format and using the stress-strain relation (Eq. 1.7-8), we obtain {22} = tor or (22) - ee ~ rte + for 6.48) Integration of the latter equation with respect to the strains yields the parenthetic expression in Eq. 3.4-1. That the integration is correct may be shown by applying differentiation rules given in Appendix A. A constant of integration has been discarded. It is superfluous because it disappears during the differentiation process that makes I, stationary. Integrals in Eq. 3.4-1 that contain body forces {F} and surface tractions {®} represent work done (hence potential lost) by {F) and {®} as the body is deformed. Displacements in the x, y, and z coordinate directions are fu? = |v vw] (3.4-4) ‘Thus potential changes associated with {F} and {®}, per unit volume and per unit area, respectively, are -Fyu ~ Fo - and -@u- Ov - ow (3.45) These are the products — {u}"{F} and ~{u}"{@). It is assumed that positive senses correspond—for example, that F,, ,, and w are all considered positive when acting in the +. direction. Integrals that contain {F} and {®} are evaluated only over the portions of V and where {F} and {¢} are prescribed. The final term in Eq. 3.4-1, —{D}"{P} = —D,P; — DP, — +++ — D,Pp, accounts for work done (hence potential lost) by concentrated forces and/or mo- ments applied to the body. The potential of these loads could be included in the surface integral by imagining large tractions to be applied over small areas, but is easier to regard the potential of such loads as —{D}"{P}. As usual, the same sense is considered positive for a displacement or rotation D, and for its corre- sponding force or moment P, In a typical problem, many of the load terms {eq}, {oo}, {F}, {®}, and {P} are zero. For example, if heating is localized {¢9} is zero over most of the body. If gravity or acceleration loads are considered unimportant, {F} = {0}. Surface trac- tions {®} usually act on only a portion of surface $ and may be absent altogether. Indeed, all these load terms might be zero if nonzero values of one or more d.o.f. are prescribed instead. Equation 3.4-1 is not restricted to rectangular coordinates. It requires only that x, y, and z refer to three mutually perpendicular directions at each material point. Particular Cases. In its most general form, Eq. 3.4-1 includes all six strains in {e}. Material property matrix [E] is 6 by 6. Its coefficients are stated in Eq. 1.7-3 for the case of isotropy. If the problem is one of plane stress or plane strain, then {e)7 = le. 6 Yo and (E] is a 3 by 3 array whose coefficients are given by Eq. 1.7-4 or Eq. 1.7-5 for the case of isotropy.Potential Energy of an Elastic Body 1 The simplest special case is that of uniaxial stress. For this particular case, and perhaps for others as well, it may be easiest to derive the strain energy expression afresh, as follows, rather than specialize Eq. 3.4-1. Equations 3.4-2 and 3.4-3 become dUy = , de, and dUy/de, = o, = Ee, ~ Ee + oy. After integration and inclusion of the load terms, we obtain in place of Eq. 3.4-1 T= fr (EG — Be) + 00) Ade — fi UF.A dx — (DINP} G.4-6) where E = elastic modulus, dV = A dx, A = cross-sectional area, and L = length. In the second integral, the integrand could be regarded as uF, dV or as uq dx, where q = FA: axial body force F, and axial line load q have the same effect when the body is mathematically one-dimensional. In beam bending, Fig. 3.4-1, each z = constant layer of the beam is regarded as being in a state of uniaxial stress if, as is common, transverse shear deformation is neglected. Accordingly, the expression for strain energy in a beam can be derived from Eq. 3.4-6. Let b represent the width of the beam. Since ¢, = Ws, and u = —zw,,, the first term in Eq. 3.4-6 yields freeav = [freon odode = fiends G47) where, if the cross section is rectangular, ! = b1°/12 is the moment of inertia of cross-sectional area A. If terms analogous to ¢) and a» are omitted (but which the reader may add as an exercise), the expression for potential of a straight beam without transverse shear deformation is Th, = fd ett de — [wa de — (wR — 10 OM) G48) where {w}” = |w, 2. .J and {6}7 = |6, 6... are lateral deflections and rotations (@ = w,,) at locations where lateral forces {F} and moments {M} are applied as loads. The second integral in Eq. 3.4-8 accounts for work done by lateral force increments q dx during lateral displacement w. Axial stress in the beam is o, = Bey = Ets, = ~EzW yx. | AO’ 4 : nu LL Ei % L @ Figure 3.4-1. (a) A beam loaded by lateral forces F,, moments M,, and distributed lateral load q (force per unit length). (6) A slice cut from the beam, shown after it has undergone lateral deflection w and small rotation w,,. Transverse shear deformation is ignored.B STATIONARY PRINCIPLES, THE RAYLEIGH-RITZ METHOD, AND INTERPOLATION Figure 3.4-2. Uniform bar under axial load P. Plates in bending are analogous to beams in that strain energy is conveniently expressed in terms of curvatures rather than strains. Specifically, in a thin plate having lateral deflection wv, strain energy can be expressed in terms of Wx, Wyays and w,,, instead of ¢,, €, and y,,. Potential expressions for problems of plates, shells, and other special cases are introduced in subsequent chapters where they are used. Example. Bar Under Axial Load. The correctness of Eq. 3.4-6 can be established by solving simple test problems. For example, let the uniform bar of Fig. 3. end load P and be uniformly heated T degrees, D designates the end produced by P and 7. With & = aT, oo = 0, and ¢, = D/L, Eq. 3.4-6 becomes EAI — DEAal ~ DP (3.4-9) Di _ =P bet) ade — pr End displacement D is found from the equation dIl,/dD PL D= Fp t ath 3.4-10) Finally, the axial stress o, is, with e, = D/L, P P a, = Ee, ~ Bey = E & ‘ at) ~ bat = G41) which is the result expected. 3.5 THE RAYLEIGH-RITZ METHOD A structure composed of discrete members, such as a truss or a frame, can be represented exactly by a finite number of d.o.f.; these d.o.f. are motions of the joints. A continuum, such as an elastic solid, has infinitely many d.o.f.; these d.o.f. are the displacements of every material point. The behavior of a continuum is described by partial differential equations. For all but the simplest problems there is little hope of discovering a stress field or a displacement field that solves the differential equations and satisfies boundary conditions. The need to solve differential equations can be avoided by applying the Rayleigh—Ritz method to a functional such as II, that describes the problem. The result is a substitute problem that has a finite number of d.o.f. and is described by algebraic equations rather than by differential equations. A Rayleigh-Ritz solution is rarely exact but be- comes more accurate as more d.o.f. are used.The Rayleigh-Ritz Method ud The Rayleigh-Ritz method began in 1870 with studies of vibration problems by Lord Rayleigh. He used an approximating field that contained a single d.o.f, In 1909, Ritz generalized the method by building an approximating field from several functions, each satisfying essential (i.e., kinematic) boundary conditions, and each associated with a separate d.o.f. Ritz applied the method to equilibrium problems and to eigenvalue problems. The procedure for an equilibrium (static) problem is as follows, Consider an elastic solid. Displacements and stresses produced by applied loads are required. The displacement of a point is described by the displacement com- ponents u, v, and w. A Rayleigh-Ritz solution begins with approximating fields for u, v, and w. Each field is a series, whose typical term is a function of the coordinates, f, = fi(x,y,2), times an amplitude a; whose value is yet to be deter- mined. The a; may be called generalized coordinates. We write w= Safi v= Saf w= S al GS-1) Each of the functions f, = f,(x.y,z) must be admissible; that is, each must satisfy compatibility conditions and essential boundary conditions. It is not required that any of the f; satisfy nonessential boundary conditions (but doing so yields a more accurate approximation for a given number of d.o.f.). Usually, but not necessarily, the fare polynomials. The analyst must estimate how many terms are neede: each series in order to achieve the accuracy required. Thus the series are truncated rather than infinite, having, respectively, €, m — €, and n — m terms, for a total of m terms, The d.o.f. of the problem are the n amplitudes a;. They are determined as follows. Substitute Eqs. 3.5-1 into the strain-displacement relations (Eqs. 1.5-6) to find strains {e}, then use Eq. 3.4-1 to evaluate H,. Thus II, becomes a function of d.of. aj, just as II, is a function of d.o.f. D, in Eq. 3.3-1. According to the principle of stationary potential energy, the equilibrium configuration is defined by the n algebraic equations atl, 3a 3.5-2) After Eqs. 3.5-2 are solved for numerical values of the a,, the displacement fields of Eqs. 3.5-1 are completely defined. Differentiation of the displacement fields yields strains, which enter the stress-strain relations to produce stresses. The foregoing procedure has two principal steps. First, establish a trial family of admissible solutions. Second, apply a criterion to select the best form of the family. Here the criterion is that II, be stationary. Alternative criteria are available, such as methods of weighted residuals (Chapter 15). Equations 3.5-1 create a substitute problem because the infinitely many d.o.f. of the real structure are replaced by the finite number of d.o.f. in the mathematical model. A Rayleigh-Ritz solution is usually approximate because the functions f; are usually incapable of exactly representing the actual displacements. The so- lution process selects amplitudes a, so as to combine the functions f; to best advantage. When I, is the functional, “best” means tending to satisfy differential equations of equilibrium and stress boundary conditions more and more closely as more and more terms a,f, are added to the series.80 STATIONARY PRINCIPLES, THE RAYLEIGH-RITZ METHOD, AND INTERPOLATION Equations 3.5-2 are found to be stiffness equations. They can be written in the usual form [K]{D} = {R}, where {D} = lay az. . . dyl?. Not all D, have units of displacement and not all R, have units of force, but each product R,D; has units of work or energy. Example. Bar Under Axial Load. Consider the uniform bar of Fig. 3.5-1a. The load is distributed along the length of the bar in linearly varying fashion: q = cx, where c is a constant that has units of force divided by the square of length. Axial displacement « and axial stress 7, are to be computed by the Rayleigh-Ritz method. ‘Axial strain is € = 1... Thus eq. 3.4-6 becomes Uh, = fb nga dx — ules) de (3.53) Equation 3.5-1 becomes, with f, = f,(x) and only polynomial functions considered, w= Safi= ax tae tae to} ax G54) Note that there is no initial term ay: the displacement mode u = ay is inadmissible because it violates the essential boundary condition—namely u = 0 atx = 0. The simplest approximation results from using only the first term of the series, w a,x. From Eqs. 3.5-2, 3.5-3, and 3.5-4, ABLy eld , n= AEE ag - a, @.5-5a) Te 9 yietas .5-5b) he oe id B55 ence w= Eh a 5-5) Before commenting on these results we consider a two-term solution, using the field ¥ Bract and two ‘Two Terms terms (almost coincident) Exact axe VSS N L—., One Term One term ° i; 0 tr @ w o ‘igure 3.5-1. (a) Uniform bar under linearly varying distributed axial load of intensity q = cx, where c is a constant. (b) Exact and approximate axial displacements. (c) Exact and approximate axial stresses.Comments on the Rayleigh-Ritz Method Based on Assumed Displacement Fields 81 w= ax + ap, After substituting into Eq, 3.53 and writing 2 = 0 and SH obtain 1 Ly Jfa| _ laf 4 a.) _ clr [Lr aeer[s, asl} =e bt} o {2}- ely} ess hence w= rege — ae) and oy = Bay = E201, — 6) 5-66) eeu = EE yx - 3) 0, = Ba = EOL, 6) BS Figures 3.5-1b and 3.5-Ic show the comparison between exact and approximate results. As might be expected, the two-term results (Eqs. 3.5-6) are better than the one-term results (Eqs. 3.5-5). With the body force term F, = cx/A, the differential equation of equilibrium (Eq. 1.6-2a) becomes Ont OF AB tg, + cx 35-7) The latter equation results from the substitution 7, = Eu,,. Neither Eq. 3.5-7, nor the natural boundary condition 7, = Oatx = L,, is satisfied by the foregoing two approximate solutions. Notice that approximate displacements are more accurate than approximate stresses. This is to be expected, because stresses are calculated from derivatives of the approx- imating field. (To see that differentiation emphasizes discrepancies, consider the func- tions fy = 4x(1 — x) and f = sin ax. In the range 0 fe, +00,)4 }___, ____| alas be @ o Figure 3.7-1. (a) Uniform elastic bar loaded by distributed axial load q and end stress 0. (b) Forces that act on a differential element of the bar. also be seen to produce the virtual work equation and to suggest an alternative formulation method (the method of weighted residuals). In Eq. 3.4-6, let € = us,, Fy = lA, D = uz, and P = Aoz. Thus the potential energy functional for the bar in Fig. 3.7-1a is 2 1 “ fp ede — [qu de ~ dod, G.7-8) We presume that u = u(x) is an admissible displacement field for this problem— that is, a field that is continuous and satisfies the essential boundary condition u = Oat x = 0. Let u be perturbed by an amount du, which we elect to write as du = en, where ¢ is a small number and 7 = n(x) is an admissible field. Thus the perturbed field w + 7 is also admissible and satisfies the same essential boundary condition as u. Hence, u,, becomes u,, + €N«, ux becomes uz + Enz, and I], becomes I, + 6ll,. The change in energy (Il, + Il,) — I, is a, e [ae f tem de = [andr taoon| +S fF ide (3.7-9) According to the potential energy principle, stable equilibrium occurs when II, is a relative minimum. This implies that 41, > 0 for any admissible n. Now e*n?, is never negative, and the remaining term e[---] changes sign when e changes sign. We conclude that if 411, is to be positive for all small values of e, the bracketed expression in Eq. 3.7-9 must vanish. Setting this expression to zero, and integrating its first term by parts according to the standard formula J udv = — fvdu + uv, we obtai L r je L o=- ae f. tue nde + [At »| - fi an dx ~ (Aorn, 3.710) But 1 = Oat x = 0, s0 Eq. 3.7-10 becomes o= - [Akt + andr + AEw. on BTID Since » = (x) is admissible but otherwise arbitrary, an arbitrary value of nz can be assigned while infinitely many functions » are yet possible in the range 0 <Stationary Principles and Governing Equations 87 x < L. Accordingly, Eq. 3.7-11 can be satisfied only if the coefficients of 7 and ‘mz vanish separately. Thus we obtain AE +q=0 for O =INGHT 7 = INIT) 10-3) in which, for example, UNad = UN Nae Nad G.10-4)94 STATIONARY PRINCIPLES, THE RAYLEIGH-RITz METHOD, AND INTERPOLATION ‘The expression for Tin Eqs. 3.10-3 indicates that nodal temperatures are regarded as functions of time, but the N, are independent of time. Thus 7 and 7 are interpolated from nodal values {T,} and {T.} by means of the same shape function matrix [N]. Substitution of Eqs. 3.10-3 into 3.10-2 yields, for a single element, T= AT SUHT) + (TITS — (I%oh G.10-5) in which we have defined terms as follows: Ud =f PUN AEN + INGPIN Dk de dy G.10-6a) tel = f fUN*INIpe ax ay 3.10-6b) tro} = f fino ae dy G.10-60) Finite element equations are obtained by making Il stationary with respect to variations of nodal temperature: {#} = {0} yields (kT) + felt} = fro} ~—G.10-7) Upon assembly of elements, {T,} is replaced by the global vector {T}, which contains all nodal temperatures of the structure. The global equations are therefore (CV KMT + CE eT = S {rob 3.10-8) in which summation signs imply the usual assembly process of summing over- lapping terms of element matrices. (Equation 3.10-8 is again obtained if assembly is indicated earlier, i.e., by summing element contributions from Eq. 3.10-5 to a global IT.) For the sake of having notation like that used in structural mechanics, we can write (k] of Eq. 3.10-6a in the form Ik) = J fosreteir as ay, where [B] = Ral G.10-9) Thickness 1 is taken as unity in the preceding development. Remarks. The foregoing derivation has significance that goes beyond the problem of plane heat conduction. The derivation shows that a finite element formulation of a physical problem is available from only two basic ingredients—namely, a functional that describes the physical problem and a shape function matrix [N] that describes the element. From these we obtain definitions of element properties (e.g., Eqs. 3.10-6) and algebraic equations of the structure (e.g., Eqs. 3.10-8). To obtain numerical results one must next attend to specifics by choosing the element shape, number of d.o.f., distribution of d.o.f. over the element, and the shape function matrix |N]. These choices have great influence on the efficiency of calculation and the accuracy of results.Interpolation 95 3.11 INTERPOLATION To interpolate is to approximate the value of a function between known values by operating on the known values with a formula different from the function itself. This is done in each of the three spans of length Z in Fig. 3.9-1a, where a linear operator [N] is applied to known values 1;, uz, 43, and us that happen to lie on a cubic curve. In a finite element context, the “known values" are d.o.f. to be found by solving algebraic equations, and they are usually approximate rather than exact. Operator [N], the shape function matrix, serves as a basis from which a finite element can be formulated. One can regard interpolation as the basic motivation of the finite element method, in that a sufficiently small portion of even a complicated field can be modeled well enough by a simpler interpolating field. A linear interpolating field, as used in each element of Fig. 3.9-la, may be adequate if many elements are used. Elements based on a quadratic field or a cubic field would provide a better fit of the actual field: fewer elements would be needed, but each element would be more complicated. The limiting case of a single element with many d.o.f. yields the classical Rayleigh-Ritz method Should one use many simple elements or a few complicated elements? There is no easy answer. A good analyst is familiar with how various elements behave in various circumstances. In solving a transient or nonlinear problem, for example, many analysts prefer simpler (and therefore cheaper) elements because of the need to seek low cost in every computational step. Degree of Continuity. For future use, we introduce the following symbolism to define the degree of continuity of a function or a field. A field is said to have C” continuity if derivatives of the field through order m are continuous. Thus @ = 6(x) is C* continuous if ¢ is continuous but 6,, is not. An example of C® continuity appears in Fig. 3.11-1a. Another example of C® continuity is axial displacement win Fig, 3.9-1. Figure 3.11-1b shows an example of C' continuity: both ¢ and $y. are continuous but ¢,.. is discontinuous at x = x,. In general, it is necessary that derivatives of 6 of order m be used as nodal d.o.f. if the field ¢ produced by a mesh of finite elements is to be C” continuous. Element Node Identification. Heretofore we have labeled element nodes with letters and structure nodes with numbers. We will subsequently encounter ele- ore, bore, @ @ Figure 3.11-1. Function ¢ = (x) is (a) C® continuous and (6) C* continuous.96. STATIONARY PRINCIPLES, THE RAYLEIGH-RITZ METHOD, AND INTERPOLATION ments that have many nodes, for which letters would be awkward as node labels. Therefore, we will henceforth use numbers as element node labels. At this stage our study, the reader should be able to distinguish between an element and a structure without the artifice of separate labeling systems 3.12 SHAPE FUNCTIONS FOR C° ELEMENTS A C® clement provides interelement continuity of the field quantity @ but not interelement continuity of all first derivatives of . Thus, in a mesh of C° elements, 4.2, 6,y, and/or ¢,: exhibit a jump as one passes from one element into another. Interpolation formulas lead to shape functions [N], from which finite elements can be formulated. In this section and the next we consider shape functions for some simple elements. These and other elements are considered in more detail in subsequent chapters A field ¢ is interpolated over an element from n element nodal values {¢.} = lor o2 ¢,J7 according to the formula = IN| {b.} — thatis, @ = > Nib; (3.12-1) a where the N, are functions of the coordinates. A shape function N; defines the distribution of ¢ within the element when the ith nodal d.o.f. 4; has unit value and all other nodal ¢'s are zero. One Dimension. Linear interpolation in one dimension is depicted in Fig. 3.12-1a. The interpolated function ¢ = ¢(x) is to have value #, at x = x, and (= ey - 0) (ey Hey) ety ~ x) ZITA GEES, a — ney - 9 Na “E = 72 ~ 13) @ o Figure 3.12-1. (a) Linear interpolation and shape functions. (b) Quadratic inter- polation and shape functions.