Edexcel A level PHYSICS 2 PEARSONPublished by Pearson Education Limited, 80 Strand, London WC2R ORL. ‘wwnpearsonschoolsandfecolleges cous Copies of official specifications forall Edexcel qualifications may be found on the website: anmncedexcelcom Test © Pearson Education Limited 2015 Edited by Susan Gardner Designed by Elizabeth Arnoux for Pearson Education Limited ‘Typeset by Techset Ltd. 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Caltech/NASA/ESA/STScI 16, Royal Astronomical Society 126, Steve Allen 28, Tea Kinsman 32-13, ‘Thomas McCauley/Lucas Taylor/CERN 92-93; Shutterstock.com: 1000 Words 31, Albert Barr 1811, ArtisticPhoto 44, Evgeny Murtola 10%, Julio Embun 48-49, poder 74, RA Stucbo 142-143, vals torms 10h; ‘SuperStock: Eric Poi/ Age Fotostock 20-21, Fit 174, Transtock 53 UK 3b Seientifc Lea: 69 All other images @ Pearson Education \We are grateful tothe following Sor permission to reproduce copyright material Figures Figure on page 95 adopted from Speed and Kinetic Energy of Relativistic Electrons, American Journal of Physic, Vel 32. p. 851 (Bertoza, W. 1962), (Copyright 1984, American Association of Physics Teachers: Figure ‘on page 95 from Speed and Kinetic Energy of Relativistic Flectrons American Journal of Physics, Vo. 32, p 553, Fig. 3 (Bertozd, W. 1964), ‘Copyright 1964, American Association of Physics Teachers: Figure on page 101 showing the Lange Hadkon Collider reproduced with permission from CERN; Figure on page 104 ftom Feasbility study fora biomedical ‘experimental fcity based on LEIR at CERN, by Cane! Able, Adriano ‘Garonna, Christian Cal, Manjit Dosanjh and Ken Peach, Journal of Racistion Research, 2013, July. 54 Suppl 1) i162—167. htp://www. acbialm ning pme/atiles/PMC37005 18/ ~ hip. //unvened slmnih.gov/pme/articles/PMC37005 1 /figute/ RRTOSEF L/, © The ‘ator 2013. Published by Oxo University Presson bell of The Japan Radiation Research Society and Japanese Society for Therapeutic Radiology and Oncology: Figure on page 166 adapted by permission from Macmillan Publishers Lc: Figure on page 168 from Nature Intrusion luiggering ofthe 2010 Byjaffalaokull explosive eruption, 468. pp. 426-3, by Sigrmundsaon, Fetal, copyright 2010, Screenshots Screenshot on page 54 fom Microsoft Excel* used with permission from Micosot. ‘Tables ‘Table on page 188 from The 1% Concordance Hubble Constant, Asrophysiea! Journal, 724 (C. L. Bennett. D- Larson, JL Welland, and G Hinshaw 2014), pub 1 October doi10.1088/0008-537%/794/2/135, © ‘AAS, reproduced with permission. ‘Text Extract on page 16 from Armagedtion (1998) plot summary by Julin Retachbit'//ynwwimc com tile/*0120591/plotsummary with permission from Julian Reishi; Extract on page 28 adapted from Hall ‘TW (2012) SpinGale: An Arifcial-Gravry Calculator in JavaScript, itp, /wwartificil-gravitycom/sw/SpinCale/SpinCale bes, ith permission {rom Ted Fill Exact on page 56 fiom Paper based ‘ecapacitars vith carton nanatubes-graphene composites, Journal of Applied Physics. Vol. 115 Issue 16 (Li. J. Cheng. X. Sun. J. Brand, C. Shashurn, A, Reeves Mand Keiday i 2014), Copyright 2014, AIP Publishing LLC. reprinted with permission: Extract on page 4 from Big Eddy — Kright 500-V Transmission Project Appendix E, Electrical Effects, March 2010, prepared by T Dan Bracken, Ine for Bonnevile Power Adminisvation, dated March 2010, hup.//elwbpa ‘gov /environmental_services/Dacument_Library/Big. Eley Knight pall Appendixi-ElecricaletfectsCombined pd, Section 3.1, pp. 4-5; Extract an page 74 from Metal Detector Basics and Theory by Bruce Candy, https//yrwminelabscom/_fles/#/11043/METAL DETECTOR BASICS AND THEORYpdt Bruce Candy, Chief Scientist, Minelab Electronics; Extract on page 86 adapted fram Why do accelerated elections radiate electromagnetic radiation? by Dr Rhodti Evans, 13 May 2014, hips /theeuriousastrenomerwordpress.com/2014/05/3/ hy Go-accelerated-sectrons-radiate-eecromagnetic-achaton/, Extract on ppage 102 adapted from CERN intensifies medical physis research by Tami Freeman, 24 February 2014, hp'//mecicalphysieswesorg/ews/ atile/opinion/36205, © 1OP Publishing Reproduced with permission, All rights reserved: Extract on page 101 from ATLAS text fom hup:// atlas ch/eraurs_exper/etours_experl2 html, reproduced with permission fom CERN. Eviract on page 136 fiom A Beginners Guide to High Altitude Ballooning, hp akhasoreuk/ generalbeginners_guide_ high altitude ballooning as at 6 November 2014, with permission fom UK High Altitude Society: Exact on page 156 ftom Tressury rebuked bby EU over hidden nuclear costs, newspaper, 27/10/2014, p43 (Lefley M). hrp:/wwindependent.co uk/news /business/news/treasury- ‘ebuked.ny-eu-overhidden-nivlear-costs-08 10900;nim! Extract on page 166 fom fnroducing Valeanoigy, Dunedin Academic Press (Jerram, D. 201) ppas-87, reproduced with permission: Exact on page 190 from New space mission into “davk univers, an online article by CBBC's Newsround programme, posted on 20 June 2012 huzp//wwwibbecouky ‘newstownd/ 18524597; Extract on page 208 from The afilennium Zridge, ‘Avup and the RAE (Royal Academy of Engineering) (Fitzpatrick Tet a 2001) p11. p.22 © Arup Partnership. “The Publisher would ike to thank Chris Curtis and Keith Bridgeman {or their contributions to the Maths skils and Preparing for your exams sections of this book “The Publisher would alo ike co thank John Kinchin for his cllaboration inreviewang this hookContents How to use this book TOPIC 6 Further mechanics 6.1 Further momentum 1. Energy in collisions 2. More collisions ‘Thinking Bigger Exam-style questions 6.2 Circular motion 1. Circular motion basies 2 Centripetal force ‘Thinking Bigger Exam-style questions TOPIC 7 Electric and magnetic fields 7.1. Electric fields 1 Blectric fields 2 Milikan’s oil drop experiment 3 Radial electri felds 4 Coulomb's law ‘Thinking Bigger Exam-style questions 7.2. Capacitors 1. Capacitor basics 2 Charging and discharging capacitors 3 Capacitor mathematics ‘Thinking Bigger Exam-style questions 7.3. Electromagnetic effects 1. Magnetic fields 2 Electic motors 3. Magnetic forces 4 Generating electricity 5 Alternating current ‘Thinking Bigger Exam-style questions 10 12 16 18 20 22 25 28 30 32 34 37 39 4a 44 46 50 52 55 58 62 66 68 nm 73 76 78 TOPIC 8 Nuclear and particle physics 81 Probing matter 1 Anuclear atom 2. lectrons from atoms ‘Thinking Bigger Exam style questions 82 Particle accelerators and detectors 1 Particle accelerators 2 Particle detectors, 3. The Large Hadron Collider ‘Thinking Bigger Exam-style questions 83. The particle zoo 1 Particle interactions 2 The particle zoo 3 Particles and forces 4 Particle reactions ‘Thinking Bigger Exam-style questions TOPIC 9 Thermodynamics 9.1 Heat and temperature 1 Heat and temperarure 2 Internal energy 3 Heat transfer 4 Ideal gas behaviour 5 Kinetic theory equations ‘Thinking Bigger Exam-style questions TOPIC 10 Nuclear radiation 10.1 Radioactivity 1 Nuclear radiation 2 Rate of radioactive decay 3 Fission and fusion 4 Nuclear power stations ‘Thinking Bigger Exam-style questions 80 82 36 88 90 92 94 98 101 104 106 108 110 2 4 116 120 122 124 126 128 130 133 138 138 140 142 144 148 151 155 158 160= TOPIC 11 Gravitational fields TOPIC 13 Oscillations 11.1 Gravitational fields 162. 13:1 Oscillations 198 1 Gravitational forces 1641. Simple harrnonic motion (SHM) 200 2. Gravitational files 166 2 SHM mathematics 203 ‘Thinking Bigger 1688. SHM energy 205 Examstyle questions 170 4 Resonance and damping 207 ‘Thinking Bigger 212 TOPIC 12 Space Exam-style questions 214 121 Space 172 Maths skills 216 1 Starshine 174 Preparing for your exams: 222 2. Stellar classification 1% Gy 3 Distances to the stars 181 Se mg 4 The age of the Universe 186 Indes 234 5. ‘The fate of the Universe 190 Thinking Bigger 194 Bxam-style questions 196How to use this book ‘Weleome to Book 2 af your A level Physics course. This book, covering Topics 6-13 of the specification, follows on from Book 1, which covered Topics 1-5. The exams that you will sit atthe end af your A level course will caver content from both books. The following features are included to support your learning: Chapter openers Each chapter tars by sting the contest for that chapter's learning + Links to other areas of physics are show. including previous novldge ta is bul on inthe chapter and far learning that you wl cover aterm your course «The All the maths you need checks helps you to Jnow what maths sas wil be required. Main content ‘The main part of each chapter covers all the points fhom the specification that you need to learn. The text is supported by diagrams and photes that will help you _understane the concepts. Within each section, you will find the following features: + Learning objectives at the beginning of each section, highlighting what you need to know and understand. + Key definitions shown in bold and collated atthe end of each section for easy reference + Worked examples snowing you how to work through questions, and how your calculations should be set out. + Investigations provide a summary of praetical experiments that explore key concepts, This includes the core practicals that you need to complete as part of your course and which may be assessed in your examinations. You can find detailed worksheets forthe core practicals on the Edexcel website + Learning tips to help you focus your learning and avoid + Did you know? boxes featuring interesting facts to help you remember the key concepts, + Working as a Physicist icons highlight key sections that develop your skill as a scientist @ and relate to the Working as a Physicist section of the specification, + Questions io helo you check whether you have understood ‘what you have just read, and whether there is anything that ‘you need to look at again. Answers to the questions can be found on Pearson's website asa free resourcea Thinking Bigger your course + analyse how scients + think critically and consider the issues + develop your own writing + understand how different aspects of your learning piece together xs write Exam-style questions Atthe end of each chapter thre are also Exam-style questions to help you to: + test how fully you have understood the learning + practise for your exams. Getting the most from your online ActiveBook ‘This book comes with 3 years’ accesso AciveBook" ~an online digital version of your textbook, Follow the insrucions printed on the inside font cover to stat using your ActveBOok Your AciveBook's the perfect way o personalise your leering as you progres through your Edexcel A level piyscs course, You can + access your content oni, anytime, anywhere +e the inbuilt highlighting and annotaon ro0lsto personalise the content and make it realy relevant you + search the content quel using the index. Highlight tool Use this to pick out key terms or topics so you are ready and prepared for revision Annotations tool Use this to add your own notes, for example links to your wider reading, such as websites or other files. Or make a note to remind yourself about work that you need to do. ‘ror new purchases ony IF this access code has already been reveled ie may na longer be vali. If you have bousht ‘his ebook secondhand the code may ateady have been used by the fist onnet of the bookw ff Further momentum Introduction Acceleration, which can be considered asa change in momentum per unit mass can often be more exciting than basic D) cautions such as aleulatng the changing speed of car, Curling hes became very much a mainstream sporin “A ‘recent years, and in the UX it's particularly popular in Scotland, which is arguably the original home ofthe game. Cuting in a similar manner to snooker, pool and bowl, relies very heavily onthe ideas of conservation of momentum and elastic collisions Players deliberately collide the stones in order to knock their opponents'stones cut ofthe way, and to ensure ‘their own stone finishes in a winning position. More subtly, the friction with the ice causes a change in momentum to so stone toa stop. In this chapter, you will learn about the way forces can change the momentum ofan object overtime. The chapter will also cover how kinelic energy changes in diferent types of colsions, whilst momentum is conserved. Al ofthis will be extended to events happening in two dimensions, so vector addition and the resolving of vectors willbe revisited inordertomakethe = necessary calculations, All the maths you need + Use of tigonometric functions eq. finding components of momentum vectors) + Use of Pythagoras theorem (e.g, finding velocity. sum) + Changing the subject ofan equation (eg. rearanging the impulse equation) + Substituting numerical values into algebraic equations (e9. finding the velocity after acolsion) + Visulising and representing 2D forms (eg. drawing a 2D momentum diagram for a collision between meteors)What have | studied before? How to add forces as vectors renee ee ny eee ey Cerny Name ai eee maminieee a: feria atieenrrr > Cee pEeere a Re ore ETS ETCHE Large-angle alpha particle scattering indicating eee eens Se os Ree eee! eee ed ee rea Wane aU Rape ccd Set | Perc eed oT eR ce Conservation of linear momentum in wo crn ene eet eee coe Seg ery ee ie ra aeEnergy in collisions By the end of this section, you should be able to.. © explain the difference between elastic and inelastic collisions ‘@ make calculations based on the conservation of linear momentum to determine energy changes in collisions © derive and use the equation for the kinetic energy of a non-relativistic particle We have seen in Book 1, Chapter 2.9 that linear momentum is always conserved in any colision between objects and this is responsible for Newton's third law of motion, We also learned that Newton's second law of motion expresses the concept that a force is equivalent to the rare of change of momentum. Book 1, Chapter 2.1 explained how forces can do werk, asthe means by which energy is, transferred. So, does the kinetic energy change in a collision? fig. Damaging a car uses energy Sow of inatic energy in aca ras? Elastic collisions Ina collision between one snooker ball and another, often the first one stops dead and the second then maves away from the collision. As both snaoker balls have the same mass, the principle of conservation of momentum tells us that the velocity of the ‘second ball must be identical to the intial velocity of the first ‘This means that the kinetic energy of this system of two balls before and after the collision must be the same. A collision in which kinetic energy is conserved is called an elastie collision. In general, these are rare. A Newton's cradle is an example taat is nearly perfectly elastic (a tiny amount of energy is lost as sound) ‘A collision caused by non-contact forces, such as alpha particles being scattered by a nucleus (see Section 10.1.1), is perizcily elastic ! fig Newtorls cradle mai « kinetic ney a6 wel 6 conserving 10 Inelastic collisions a crash between two dodgems at the fair, the total momentum after the collision rmust be identical to the total momentum prior toit. However if we calculate the total kinetic energy before and. after, we invariably find that the total is reduced by the collision. ‘Some of the kinetic energy is transferred into other forms such ‘as heat and sound. A collision in which total kinetic energy is not conserved is called an inelasti¢ collision. Inelastic collision example rive m= 300g —e 'm,=300 kg —> a= Im 300 kg— {€ The fun of inelastic collisions If you calculate the total momentum before and after the collision in fig C, you will see that it is conserved, However, what happens to the kinetic energy? Before eosin’ % (200) x F = 150 5% (300) x 5! 5 Tota kinetic energy = 3800 Afr collision Ey, = 4 my, =4 x (300) x 4?= 24001 £4, =} my? =} x (200) x 22= 600.5 Total kinetic energy = 3000.) Loss in kinetic energy = 900 J This isan inelastic collision, This lost energy will have been transfered into heat and sound energy Learningtip Remember that the idea of energy conservation, when considered in ‘order ta decide whether a collision is elastic or inelastic, only relates to the kinetic energy. Total energy in all forms must always be conserved.