Cook, W. J.

“Thermodynamic Cycles”
The Engineering Handbook.
Ed. Richard C. Dorf
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000

© 1998 by CRC PRESS LLC

 48
Thermodynamic Cycles
48.1 Power Cycles
48.2 Refrigeration Cycles

William J. Cook
Iowa State University

A thermodynamic cycle is a continuous series of thermodynamic processes that periodically

returns the working fluid of the cycle to a given state. Although cycles can be executed in closed
systems, the focus here is on the cycles most frequently encountered in practice: steady-flow
cycles, cycles in which each process occurs in a steady-flow manner. Practical cycles can be
classified into two groups: power-producing cycles (power cycles) and power-consuming cycles
(refrigeration cycles). The working fluid typically undergoes phase changes during either a power
cycle or a refrigeration cycle. Devices that operate on thermodynamic cycles are widely used in
energy conversion and utilization processes since such devices operate continuously as the
working fluid undergoes repeated thermodynamic cycles.
The fundamentals of cycle analysis begin with the first law of thermodynamics. Since each
process is a steady-flow process, only the first law as it applies to steady-flow processes will be
considered. For a steady-flow process occurring in a control volume with multiple inflows and
outflows, the first law is written on a time rate basis as
X X
Q_ + [m(h
_ _ +
+ V 2 =2 + gz)]in = W [m(h
_ + V 2 =2 + gz)]out (48:1)

For a single-stream process between states i and j, Eq. (48.1) on a unit mass basis becomes

i qj + hi + Vi2 =2 + gzi = i wj + hj + Vj2 =2 + gzj (48:2)

where i qj = i Q_ j =m _ j =m
_ , i wj = i W _ , and m
_ is the mass rate of flow. See Van Wylen et al.[1994].
In processes involved with the cycles considered here, changes in kinetic and potential energies
(V 2 =2 and gz terms, respectively) are small and are neglected. Power W_ is considered positive
when it is transferred out of the control volume, and heat transfer rate Q_ is considered positive
when heat transfer is to the control volume. In the figures herein that describe the transfer of power
and heat energy to and from cycles, arrows indicate direction and take the place of signs. The
accompanying W_ or Q_ is then an absolute quantity. Where confusion might arise, absolute value
signs are used. Only power transfer and heat transfer occur across a closed boundary that encloses
the complete cycle. For such a boundary,
hX X i
Q_ = W_ (48:3)
cycle

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 48.1 Power Cycles
The purpose of a power cycle is to produce a net power output on a continuous basis from heat
energy supplied to it from a high-temperature energy source. The device in which the power cycle
is executed is sometimes referred to as a heat engine. Gas-turbine engines and reciprocating
internal combustion engines are used widely to produce power. Strictly speaking, these engines are
not classified as power cycles because their working fluids do not undergo thermodynamic cycles.
Figure 48.1(a) shows a heat engine that receives heat energy at the rate Q_ H from a
high-temperature energy source and produces net power W_ net . As a consequence of its operation
it rejects heat energy to the lower-temperature surroundings at the rate Q_ L . A widely used
performance parameter for a power cycle is ´ , the cycle thermal efficiency, defined as

_ net =Q_ H
´=W (48:4)

Second law considerations for thermodynamic power cycles restrict ´ to a value less than unity.
Thus, W_ net in Fig. 48.1(a) is less than Q_ H . By Eq. (48.3), the rate at which heat energy is rejected
to the surroundings is

jQ_ L j = Q_ H ¡ W
_ net (48:5)

Figure 48.1 Descriptions of power cycles: (a) Power cycle operation. (b) The simple vapor power cycle.

© 1998 by CRC PRESS LLC

 It is useful to consider cycles for which the energy source and the surrounding
temperaturesdenoted respectively as TH and TL are uniform. The maximum thermal efficiency
any power cycle can have while operating between a source and its surroundings, each at a
uniform temperature, is that for a totally reversible thermodynamic cycle (a Carnot cycle, for
example) and is given by the expression

´max = (TH ¡ TL )=TH (48:6)

where the temperatures are on an absolute scale [Wark, 1983].
Figure 48.1(b) illustrates a simple vapor power cycle. Each component operates in a steady-flow
manner. The vapor generator delivers high-pressure high-temperature vapor at state 1 to the
turbine. The vapor flows through the turbine to the turbine exit state, state 2, and produces power
W_ turbine at the turbine output shaft. The vapor is condensed to liquid, state 3, as it passes through
the condenser, which is typically cooled by a water supply at a temperature near that of the
surroundings. The pump, which consumes power W_ pump , compresses the liquid from state 3 to
state 4, the state at which it enters the vapor generator. Heat energy at the rate Q_ H is supplied to
the vapor generator from the energy source to produce vapor at state 1. Thus, the working fluid
executes a cycle, in that an element of the working fluid initially at state 1 is periodically returned
to that state through the series of thermodynamic processes as it flows through the various
hardware components. The net power produced, W_ net , is the algebraic sum of the positive turbine
power W_ turbine and the negative pump power W_ pump .

Example 48.1. Consider the power cycle shown in Fig. 48.1(b) and let water be the working
fluid. The mass flow rate m _ through each component is 100 kg/h, the turbine inlet pressure P1 is
1000 kPa, and turbine inlet temperature T1 is 480± C . The condenser pressure is 7 kPa and
saturated liquid leaves the condenser. The processes through the turbine and the pump are
isentropic (adiabatic and reversible, constant entropy). The pressure drop in the flow direction is
assumed to be negligible in both the steam generator and the condenser as well as in the
connecting lines. Compute W_ net , Q_ H , ´ , and Q_ L .
Solution. Table 48.1 lists the properties at each state and Fig. 48.2 shows the temperature (T )
versus entropy (s) diagram for the cycle. Property values were obtained from Steam Tables by
Keenan et al. [1978]. Evaluation of properties using such tables is covered in most basic textbooks
on engineering thermodynamics, for example, Wark [1983] and Van Wylen et al. [1994].
Properties at the various states were established as follows. State 1 is in the superheat region and
the values of entropy and enthalpy were obtained from the superheat table of Steam Tables at the
noted values of P1 and T1 . Also, since s2 is equal to s1 ,

s2 = sf + x2 (sg ¡ sf ) = 7:7055 = 0:5592 + x2 (8:2758 ¡ 0:5592)

This yields the value for the quality x2 as 0:9224 and allows h2 to be calculated as

h2 = hf + x2 (hg ¡ hf ) = 163:4 + 0:9261(2572:5 ¡ 163:4) = 2394:4 kJ=kg

In these equations, quantities with f and g subscripts were obtained from the saturation table of
Steam Tables at P2 . The value of enthalpy at state 4 was determined by first computing 3 w4 , the
work per unit mass for the process through the pump, using the expression for the reversible
steady-flow work with negligible kinetic and potential energy changes [Wark, 1983]:

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 where the specific volume v is assumed constant at v3 since a liquid is pumped. With v3 obtained
from Steam Tables as vf at P3 ,

3 w4 = ¡0:001 007(1000 ¡ 7) = ¡1:00 kJ=kg

Writing Eq. (48.2) for the adiabatic process from state 3 to state 4,

h4 = h3 ¡ 3 w4 = 163:39 ¡ (¡1:00) = 164:4 kJ=kg

Proceeding with the solution for W_ net ,

_ net = W
W _ turbine + W
_ pump = m
_ 1 w2 + m _ 1 ¡ h2 ) + m
_ 3 w4 = m(h _ 3 w4

= 100:0(3435:2 ¡ 2394:4) + 100:0(¡1:00) = 103 980 kW

where 1 w2 was obtained by writing Eq. (48.2) between states 1 and 2. Next, Q_ H is determined by
writing Eq. (48.1) for a control volume enclosing the steam generator and noting that there is no
power transmitted across its surface. Equation (48.1) reduces to

Q_ H = mh
_ 1 ¡ mh
_ 4 = 100:0(3435:2 ¡ 164:4) = 327 080 kW

To find ´ , substitution into Eq. (48.4) yields

´ = 103 980=327 080 = 0:318 or 31:8%

The solution for Q_ L can be obtained by either of two approaches. First, by Eq. (48.5),

jQ_ L j = Q_ H ¡ W
_ net = 327 080 ¡ 103 980 = 223 100 kW

The solution is also obtained by writing the first law for the process between state 2 and state 3.
The result is

jQ_ L j = jm(h
_ 2 ¡ h3 )j = j100(163:4 ¡ 2394:4)j = 223 100 kW

The cycle in this example is known as the Rankine cycle with superheat. Modified forms of this
cycle are widely used to provide shaft power to drive electric generators in steam-electric power
plants and other power applications.

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Table 48.1 Properties at Cycle States for Example 48.1
State Pressure, Temperature, Quality, Entropy, Enthalpy, Condition
kPa °C kg/kg kJ/kg K kJ/kg
1 1000 480 * 7.7055 3435.2 Superheated vapor
2 7 39 0.9261 7.7055 2394.4 Liquid-vapor mixture
3 7 39 0  163.4 Saturated liquid
4 1000  *  164.4 Subcooled liquid
*Not applicable

Figure 48.2 Temperature-entropy diagram for the steam power cycle in Example 48.1.

Example 48.2. Let Q_ H in Example 48.1 be supplied from a high-temperature source at a fixed
temperature of 500± C and let the surrounding temperature be 20± C . Find the maximum thermal
efficiency a cycle could have while operating between these regions and compare this value with ´
calculated in Example 48.1.
Solution. Equation (48.6) gives the expression for maximum thermal efficiency:

´max = (TH ¡ TL )=TH = [(500 + 273) ¡ (20 + 273)]=[500 + 273] = 0:621 or 62:1%

© 1998 by CRC PRESS LLC

compared to 31.8% for Example 48.1. The maximum value of cycle thermal efficiency was not
realized because of the inherent irreversibilities associated with heat transfer across finite
temperature differences in the heat reception and heat rejection processes for the cycle.

48.2 Refrigeration Cycles

The function of a refrigeration cycle is to cause heat energy to continuously flow from a
low-temperature region to a region at a higher temperature. The operation of a refrigeration cycle is
illustrated in Fig. 48.3(a), in which heat energy flows at the rate Q_ L from the low-temperature
refrigerated region, heat is rejected at the rate Q_ H to the higher-temperature surroundings, and
power W_ net is required. From Eq. (48.3) these are related as

jQ_ H j = Q_ L + jW
_ net j (48:7)

The performance parameter for conventional refrigeration cycles is termed coefficient of

performance and is defined as

¯ = Q_ L =jW
_ net j (48:8)

The maximum value ¯ can have when regions at uniform temperature TH and TL are considered is
again derived from consideration of totally reversible cycles [Wark, 1983]. The expression, in
terms of absolute temperatures, is

¯max = TL =(TH ¡ TL ) (48:9)

Figure 48.3 Descriptions of refrigeration cycles: (a) Refrigeration cycle operation. (b) The simple vapor
compression refrigeration cycle.

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 Figure 48.3(b) illustrates a simple vapor-compression refrigeration cycle. The compressor
receives the refrigerant (working fluid) in the vapor phase at low pressure, state 1, and compresses
it to state 2, where P2 > P1 . Cooling at the condenser by means of a liquid or air coolant causes
the vapor to condense to a liquid, state 3, after which it passes through a throttling device to the
evaporator pressure. The refrigerant is a mixture of saturated liquid and saturated vapor at state 4.
The liquid in the evaporator undergoes a phase change to vapor that is caused by the transfer of
heat energy from the refrigerated region. The refrigerant leaves the evaporator as vapor at state 1,
completing its thermodynamic cycle. The cycle illustrated in Fig. 48.3(b) is the basis for practical
refrigeration cycles.

Example 48.3. A simple vapor compression refrigeration cycle, Fig. 48.3(b), has a refrigerating
capacity of three tons (36 000 Btu=h ) and operates with R134a as the refrigerant. The temperature
of the refrigerated region is 15± F and the surroundings are at 90± F . Saturated vapor leaves the
evaporator at 5± F and is compressed isentropically by the compressor to 150 psia. The refrigerant
leaves the condenser as saturated liquid at 150 psia and flows through the throttling device to the
condenser, in which the temperature is uniform at 5± F . Determine W_ net , ¯ , and the maximum
coefficient of performance a refrigerator could have while operating between the refrigerated
region and the surroundings.
Solution. Figure 48.4 shows the T-s diagram for the cycle and the temperatures of the two regions.
Table 48.2 lists values for the various properties obtained for R134a from the ASHRAE Handbook
[1993] at the four states. The mass rate of flow is determined by applying Eq. (48.1) to the
evaporator. The result is

Q_ + mh
_ 1 = mh
_ 2 = 36 000 + m(46:78)
_ = m(103:745)
_
m
_ = 632:0 lbm=h

To find W_ net , application of Eq. (48.1) to the compressor yields

_ net = 1 W
W _ 2 = m(h
_ 1 ¡ h2 ) = 632:0(103:745 ¡ 120:3) = ¡10 460 Btu=h

To find ¯ , Eq. (48.8) yields

¯ = 36 000=10 460 = 3:44

The solution for maximum coefficient of performance is obtained by applying Eq. (48.9) as
follows:

¯max = [15 + 460]=[(90 + 460) ¡ (15 + 460)] = 6:33

Irreversibilities present due to finite temperature differences associated with the heat transfer
processes and the irreversibility related to the throttling process cause ¯ to be less than ¯max .

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Figure 48.4 Temperature-entropy diagram for the refrigeration cycle in Example 48.3.

Table 48.2 Properties at Cycle States for Example 48.3

State Pressure, Temperature, °F Quality, Entropy, Enthalpy, Condition
psia lbm/lbm Btu/lbm R Btu/lbm
1 23.767 5 1.00 0.22470 103.745 Saturated vapor
2 150 118.7 * 0.22470 120.3 Superheated vapor
3 150 105.17 0.0 0.09464 46.78 Saturated liquid
4 23.767 5 0.368 0.10210 46.78 Liquid-vapor mixture
*Not applicable

Defining Terms
Control volume: A region specified by a control surface through which mass flows.
First law of thermodynamics: An empirical law that in its simplest form states that energy in its

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 various forms must be conserved.
Heat energy: Energy that is transferred across a control surface solely because of a temperature
difference between the control volume and its surroundings. This form of energy transfer is
frequently referred to simply as heat transfer.
Irreversibilities: Undesirable phenomena that reduce the work potential of heat energy. Such
phenomena include friction, unrestrained expansions, and heat transfer across a finite
temperature difference.
Steady flow: A condition that prevails in a flow process after all time transients related to the
process have died out.
Working fluid: The substance that is contained within the apparatus in which the cycle is
executed. The substance undergoes the series of processes that constitute the cycle.

References
ASHRAE. 1993. Refrigeration systems and applications. ASHRAE Handbook, I-P Edition.
American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, GA.
Keenan, J. H., Keys, F. G., Hill, P. G., and Moore, J. G. 1978. Steam Tables, SI Units. John Wiley
& Sons, New York.
Van Wylen, G., Sonntag, R., and Borgnakke, C. 1994. Fundamentals of Classical
Thermodynamics, 4th ed. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Wark, K. 1983. Thermodynamics, 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, New York.

Further Information
Proceedings of the American Power Conference, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL.
Published annually.
Stoecker, W. F. and Jones, J. W. 1982. Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill,
New York.
Threlkeld, J. L. 1970. Mechanical vapor compression refrigeration cycles (chapter 3). Thermal
Environmental Engineering, 2nd ed. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.

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