fo Jury 2013 DOHA QATAR CSWIP 3.2 - Senior Welding Inspector - Level 3 wisio Twi ir “Tianng & Examination Serves ‘Granta Park Great Abington ‘Cambriigo'082' GAL, UK ‘Copyrint © Ten LasCSWIP 3.2 - Senior Welding Inspector - Level 3 Contents ‘Section Subject 1 Duties ofthe Senior Welding Inspector 2 Terms and Definitions. 3 Planning 4 Codes and Standards 5 Calibration of Welding Equipment 6 Destructive Testing 7 Heat Treatment 8 WPS and Welder Qualifications 2 Materials Inspection 10 Residual Stress and Distortion 1" ‘Weldabilty of Stet 2 Weld Fractures: 3 Welding Symbols 14 Nor 18 Welding Consumables 16 MAG Welding v7 MMA Welding 8 ‘Submerged Are Welding 1” TIG Welding 20 ‘Weld Imperfections a Weld Repairs 2 ‘Arc Welding Safety 2 ‘Appendices. 28 Further Reading TWI ee wor twitraining.comSection 1 Duties of the Senior Welding Inspectorba Sng agar ‘cogs nasa Duties of the Senior Welding Inspector 44 General ‘The Senior Welding Inspector has primarily a supervisoryimanagerial role, which could encompass the management and control of an inspection Contract. The role would certainly include leading a team of Welding Inspectors, who wil look to the Senior Welding Inspector for guidance, ‘specially on technical subjects. The Senior Welding Inspecior wil be ‘expected to give advice, resolve problems, take decisions and generally lead from the front, sometimes in difcut situations. “The attributes required by the Senior Welding Inspector are varied and the emphasis on certain attioutes and skis may differ from project to project. Essentially though the Senior Welding Inspector will require leadership skis, technical skils and experience 4.2 Leadership skills, ‘Some aspects on the theory of leadership may be taught in the classroom, but leadership is an inherent part ofthe character and temperament of an indwvidual. Practical appication and experience play a major part in the ‘development of leadership sklls and the Senior Welding Inspector should strive fo improve and fine tune these skils at every opportunity “The skils required forthe development of leadership include a ‘+ Willingness and abilty to accept instructions or orders ftom senior staff and fo actin the manner prescribed + Wilingness and ability to give orders in a clear and concise manner, ‘whether verbal or wtitlen, which wil leave the recipient in no doubt as to ‘hat action or actions are required. + Willingness to take responsibilty, particularly when things go wrong, Perhaps due to the Senior Welding Inspector's direction, or lack of i. + Capacity to listen (the basis for good communication skils) if and when ‘explanations are necessary and to provide constructive reasoning and advice. ‘+ Wilingness to delegate responsibilty o alow staff to get on with the job ‘and to trust them to act in-a professional manner. The Senior Welding Inspector should, wherever possible, stayin the background, managing ‘+ Wilingness and abilty to support members of the team on technical and ‘administrative issues. TWI " won twitraining.com14 18 Technical skills ‘A number of factors make up the technical skills required by the Senior Welding Inspector and those are a knowledge of: ‘+ Technology. Normative documents. Planning, ‘© Organisation. + Auatng Knowledge of technology ‘Welding technoogy knowledge required by the Senior Welding Inspector is very similar to that required by the Welcing Inspector, but with some ‘ditional scope and depth Certain areas where additional knowledge Is required area: ‘+ Knowledge of quality assurance and quality contro. ‘= Sound appreciation of the four commonly used non-destructive testing methods ‘+ Basic understanding of steel metallurgy for commonly velded materials ‘and the application of this understanding to the assessment of fracture surfaces, ‘+ Assessment of non-destructive test reports, particularly the interpretation of radiographs Knowledge of normative documents Itis not a requirement for Inspectors at any level to memorise the content of relevant normative documents, except possibly with the exception of taking ‘examinations. Specified normative documents (specifications, standards, codes. of Practice, etc) should be avaiable at the workplace and the Senior Welding Inspector woud be expected to read, understand and apply the requirements with the necessary level of precision and direction required ‘The Senior Welding Inspector should be aware of the more widely used standards as applied in welding and fabrication. For example: ‘BS EN ISO 18814 7ASME IX] Standards for welding procedure rove BS 4872, BS EN 267] ASME IX | Standards for welder approval PED BS 5500/ ASME Vill Standards for qualty of fabrication. BS EN ISO 9000 - 2000 ‘Standards for quality management“Syiees shea 1.6 Knowledge of planning ‘Any project or contract will require some planning if inspection is to be ccartied out effectively and within budget ‘See Section: Planning for more detailed information. 1.7 Knowledge of organisation ‘The Serior Welding Inspector must have good organisational skill in order to ensure that the inspection requirements of any qualityinspection plan can ‘be met, within the allocated time, budget and using the most suitable personnel for the activity. Assessment of suitable personnel may require ‘consideration of their technical, physical and mental abilities in order to ‘ensure that they are able to perform the tasks required of them. Other ‘considerations would include availability of inspection personnel at the time ‘required, levels of supervision and the monitoring ofthe inspecior’s activities form start to contract completion. 41.8 Knowledge of quality/auditing ‘There are many situations in manufacturing or on a project where the Senior Welding Inspector may be required to carry out euits. ‘See section on: Quality Assurance/Quality Control and Inspection for ‘more detailed information. 4.9 Manmanagement ‘As mentioned above, the Senior Welding Inspector will have to direct and ‘work with @ team of inspection personnel which he may well have to pick. He will have to liaise with customer representatives, sub-contractors and third party Inspectors. He may have to investigate non-compliances, deal ‘with matters of discjaine as well as personal matters of his staff. To do ths effectively he needs skill in man management. 1.10 Recruitment ‘When recruiting an individual or @ team the SWI wil frst have to establish the requirements of the work, Among them would be: ‘+ What skills are definitely required for the work and what additional ones: ‘would be desirable? ‘+ Are particular quaifications needed? ‘+ Is experience of similar work desirable? ‘+ What physical attributes are needed? ‘+ Is the work local, in-shop, on-site, in a third world country’? ‘+ Does the job require working unsociable hours being away from home. for long periods? Twi wor twitraining.com114 ‘= Is the job fer permanent staf or fora fixed term? + troverseas whet are te leave and travel arrangements? What isthe likely salary? During subsequent interviews the SWI will need to assess other aspects of the candidates’ suitability: : Has he the ability to work on his own intative? Can he work as part ofa team? Ioverseashas the person been to a similar location? ‘What is his martaViome situation? ‘Are there any PassportiVisa problems likely? Morale and motivation ‘The morale of a workforce has a significant effet on is performance so the ‘SWI must strive to keap the personnel happy and motivated and be able to detect signs of low morale, Low morale can lead to among other things, poor productivly, less good ‘workmanship, lack of aligence, taking short cus, ignoring safely procedures ‘and higher levels of absenteeism. ‘The SWI needs to be able to recognise these signs and others such as Personnel not siarting work promptly, taking longer breaks, talking in groups ‘and grumbling about minor matters. ‘A.g00d supervisor should not allow his workforce to get into such a stat, He must keep ther motivated by: ‘+ His own demeanour ~ does he have drive and enthusiasm or is he ‘seen to have no energy and generally depressed. The workforce will react accordingly, ‘+ Is he seen o be leading from the front in a fait and consistent manner? ‘+ Favoutiism in the treatment of staf, on disciplinary matters, the allocation of work, allotment of overtime, weekend working’ and holidays are common causes of problems, ‘+ Keep them informed in all aspects of the job and their situation Rumaurs cf impending redundancies or cuts in allowances etc will not ‘make for good morale. Discipline Any workforos must be working in a disciplined manner, normally to rules ‘and standards laid down in the Company's conditions of employment or relevant compary handbook. The SWI must have a good understanding of these requirements and be able to apply them ina fair and equitable TWI a wow.twitraining.com"Sigs ST He must have @ clear understanding as to the limits of his authority — knowing how far ne can go in disciplinary proceedings. ‘The usual stages of dsciplinary procedure are: “The quiet word. Formal verbal waming, Written warning. Possible demotion, transfer, suspension. Dismissal with notice. Instant dismissal Usually after the written waming stage the matter will be handled by the ‘Company’s Personnel or Human Resources Department Its of vital importance that the company rules are rigorously folowed as ‘ny deviation could result in claims for unfair or constructive dismissal In coating with disciplinary matters the SWI must ‘Act promptly. + Mean what he says. ‘+ Treat everyone fay and as an adult ‘+ Avoid constant complaining on petty issues. Where there are serious breaches of company rules by one or two people the rest of the workforce should be informed of the matter so that rumour land counter-tumours can be quashed. Some matters of discipine may well aise because of incorrect working Pesctices, passing off below quality work, signing for work whieh has not been done, etc In all such cases the SWI will need to cary out an investigation and apply Stringer bead ‘Arun of weld metal mada with ite or ne weaving mation, iwi a ‘www.twitraining.com MT exzsscseSection 3 Planning32 Planning General ‘The Senior Welding Inspector is usually Involved in planning for inspection at one oF more ofthe following stages of a project + Pro-contract, Identiication of the job requirements, recruiting and allocating suitably trained and qualified staff, gathering together relevant normative documents, technical data and crawings, producing work/inspection schedules and quality plans as well as general administration, = Incontract Application of inspection methodologies to the requirements of the contract specification, production and collection of inspection and test reports/documentation, + Post-contract Compilation of inspection reports, cerication and test data, There are a number of methods of planning for inspection actives, the method selected being dependant on a number of factors, primarily the requirements ofthe client and the specific project. “The various methods are: In-situ inspection; an inspectors) placed permanently atthe work place. The Inspector would be expected to work independently, responsible for using the allocated inspection time in a useful and expedient manner. Periodic Visits to the work place would be made by the Senior Inspector. Gantt charts Gantt charts define stages of production and estimated work time for each stage. ‘A Gantt chart is a popular type of bar chartigraph that illustrates @ project fchedule i list of a project's terminal elements. Terminal elements comprise the work breakdown structure (WBS) of the project and are the lowest activity or deliverable, with intended start and finish dates, Terminal elements are not further subdivided. Terminal elements are the items that are estimated in terms of resource requitements, budget and duration inked by dependencies and schedules. ‘An example of @ typical Gantt chart that could be used to plan inspection activities for ether manufacturing or construction is shown below ‘The WBSitask elements are listed on the left hand side and the start and ‘completion of each activity is represented by a bar tothe right ofthe activity TWI ad \wowtwitraining.comeee Tyna ‘The time period n tis example is represented in months, both planned and factual. Some Gantt cnerts may show tme In weeks, which can also be broken down into days. Example of a Gantt chart ‘Any Project Phase 1 Inspection Schedule Centon 2011 Srcture wes) nny one Mor en May ste = = ay ay co 4 7 * vnntangcomcopyian Tw 0 33 Critical path analysis (CPA) Critical path analysis (CPA) is @ powerful project management too! that hes to schedule and manage complex projects, Developed in the 1960s to control large defence projecis, CPA has been used routinely since then. AS with Gantt charts, CPA nelps plan all tasks that must be completed as part (of a project. They act as the basis both for preparation ofa schedule and of resource pianning. During management of a project, they allow monitoring (of achievement of project goals. (CPA can also show where remedial action needs to be taken in order to get a project back on course. ‘The benefit of using CPA over Gantt charts is that CPA formally identifies tasks which must Be completed on time in order forthe whole project to be completed on ime and also identifies which tasks can be delayed fora while if resources need to be reallocated to catch up on missed tasks. ‘A further benefit of CPA is that it helps to identity the minimum length of time needed to compete a project. Where there is need to run an accelerated project, fast track, it helps to identity which project stops should bo ‘accelerated in order to complete the project within the available time. This helps to minimise cost while stil achieving objectives. ‘The disadvantage of CPA is that the relation of tasks to time is not as Immediately obvious as with Gantt charts. This can make them more difficult to understand for someone wo isnot tamar wth the technique. CCPA\is presented using circle and arrow diagrams. The circles show events within the project, such as the start and fnish of tasks. Circles are normally fhumbered to allow Identiletion of them. An arrow running between two event circles shows the activity needed to complete that task A description Of the task is wltlen underneath the arrow. The length of the task Is shown ‘above it. By convention, all arrows run left 10 right. ‘An example of avery simple diagram is shown below: = Inspection ‘Simple circle and arrow Twi saad wor twitraining.com‘This shows the start event (cicle 1) and the completion of the recruit and allocate inspecton stat task (crcle 2). The arrow between the two circles shows the actvly of carying out recruit and allocates inspection staf. The time allocated fer this activity is 4 weeks. In the example above, the numbers above the circios show the earliest possible time that this stage ofthe projec will be reached. ‘Where one acthity cannot start untl another has been completed and when other actvties need to be scheduled itis useful to tabulate the terminal ‘elements and atocete time against each activity. For example the inspection _aativlles for project could be shown as: Terminal ‘Sereduled Tine Ientiteation | slemenwvactvity | completion allocated A [Rectutand alocate [To be completed Wt | 4 wooks Inspection staft Review fabrication | Startwhen Ais drawings, material | completed 8 | Spo corsumebie Bd cortiicates Review WPS, ‘Start when ATS | WPOR's and ‘completed 2 weeks WATC's Prepare quali plans | Start when Bis and identity ‘completed © Vinspection S weeks requirements Witness and fest | Stanwhon CTs & | Wes's and completed 2weoks WPORS's [Witness welder | Startwhen ©. D 8nd | > weeks qualification tests _| E are completed Yjisual inspection and | Start when Fis 6 | esting of production | completed S weeks welds Toil ims alocsted Dawesks ‘The above tabulated terminel elements can now be shown as an algorithm, see the following example Ev TWI ‘worw.twitraining.com1200 Buren nn ERE MT 7pafaud vonsedeu eyduexa oy seheue ype remus,Inthe example, the actives of B and C cannot be started unt A has been completed, ‘This diagram also brings out @ number of other important points: + Within CPA, reference to actives is made by the numbers in the circles at each end. For example, task A would be caled activity 1-2. ‘+ Task B would be activity 2-3. Activities are not drawn to scale. In the diagram above, activites are 8, 4, 3nd 2 woeks long, ‘+ In the example the numbers above the ciries indicate the earliest possible ime that this stage inthe project wil be reached. (CPAIs an effective and powerful method of assessing ‘What tasks must be carried out. Whee paralel activity can be performed ‘The shortest ime in which you can compete a projec. Resources needed to execute a project. ‘The sequence of actives, scheduing and timings involve. Task priorities. ‘The most effcient way of shortening time on urgent projects {An effective CPA can make the diference between success and failure on ‘complex projects. t can be very useful for assessing the importance of problems faced during the implementation ofthe plan. 3.4 Programme evaluation and review technique (PERT) PERT is a variation on GPA but takes a more sceptical view of time festmates made for each project stage. To use it, estimate the shortest Possible time each activity wll take, the most likely length of time and the Tongest time thet might be taken ifthe activity takes longer than expected ‘The formula below is used to calculate the time for each project stage: ‘Shortest time +4 x kely time + longest time 6 ‘This helps to bias time estimates away from the unrealistically short time- scales normally assumed 'A variation of both CPA ond PERT le a technique known a6 reverse Scheduling, which the completion date for the last terminal element for the project is determined and then all other operations are worked back from {his date, each operation having its own target date, i = aerca ceovome rm tase 3.5 Summary “The Senior Welding Inspector doe not need to have an in-depth knowledge Cf planning and would not be responsibe for the planning of inspection ‘activiies ona large projec or contract; this would be the responsibly ofthe Planning team or planning department. However the SWI does need to have @ basic understanding of project Planning as Inspection tasks must link in with other terminal activities to fensure thal inspection tasks are carried out on a timely and cost effective basis, in accordance with the planning system being used on a particular project or contract, aw * www twitraining.comSection 4 Codes and Standardsoo 42 424 422 Codes and Standards General ‘The control of quality in a fabrication and welding situation is achieved by working to company procedures and codes of construction or standards. ‘The laiter may be international, national, company's own or specific to the particular cent cr contract Company procedures are usually covered in quality manuals the scope of which may vary widely depending upon the size of company, its range of work, its working practices and many other factors. Company manuals Quality assurance manual Qualty assurance is defined in ISO 9000 as; part of quality management focused on providing confidence that qualty requirements wil be fufiled. Essentially what the QA manual sots out is how the company is organised, to lay down the responsibities and authorily of the various departments, how these departments intorink. The manual usually covers all aspects of the company structure, not just those aspects of manufacture, Quality contro! manual Qualty control is defined in ISO 9000 as; part of quality management focused on fuliling quality require “The QC manual will be the manual most often referred to by the SWI as it will spell out in detail how diferent departments and operations are organised and controled, ‘Typical examples would be: production and control of drawings, how ‘materials and consumables are purchased, how welding procedures are produced, ete Essentially all operations to be carried out within the organisation wil have contol procedures laid down. In particular it wil lay down how the Inspection function, whether visual, dimensional or NDT, will be performed, inspection being defined as the activly of measuring, examining and testing characteristics of a product or service and comparing these to a specified requirement. Such requirements are laid down in Codes of practice and standards. 1 ‘www.twitraining.com43 Auditing ‘Ausiting is @ tem originating from accountancy practice which involves an independent accountant checking the accounts of a company to see if the ‘accounts ara far and accurate. A similar checking process is naw widely practised in manufacturing and construction industries and inspection personne! will be involved inthe carrying out of this operation, Different types ct audits may be performes: ‘= Full audit of a company, usually carried out by a third party such as = Certifying Aithorty, checking the company for the award of a QA accreditation system such as ISO 9000 or ASME stamp. ‘+ Major audit by @ potential customer prior to placement of a large Contract. This is usually caried out fo demonstrate the company has all the necessary facilities, plant, machinery, personnel and quailty systems In place to enable them to successfully complete the contract ‘+ Part aucits carried out as ongoing demonstration thatthe quality system {is working propery. ‘An example of the latter case would be where @ Senior Inspector is responsible for sigring-of the data book or release certificate for @ product ‘After checking that al the necessary documents are in the package and that they have beer corectly completed and approved where necessary, the ‘SWI would look ata part of the job ~ a beam, a piece of pipework etc and ‘rosscheck aganst the drawings, mil certificates, inspection reports etc that all comply with te job requirements 4.4 — Codes and standards IIs not necessary for the Inspector to camy a wide range of codes and standards in the performance of hisiher duties. Normally the specification or more precisely the contract specication is the only document required However the contract specification may reference supporting codes and slandards and the inspector should know where to access these normative documents “The folowing isa list of definitions relating to codes and standards which the Inspector may come across whilst carrying inspection duties 444 Definitions Normative document: Provides rules, 2udelines or characteristics for activities or ther results. ‘The term normative document is generic and covers documents such as standards, tecinical specifications, codes of practice and regulations.“ TWI ee wowetwitraining.comcoopgien usa ‘Standard ‘Document established by consensus and approved by a recognised body. {A standard provides, for common and repeated uso, guidelines, rules, and Characteristics for activities or their results, almed at the achievement of the ‘optimum dagree of order in @ given context. * Harmonised standards ‘Standards on the same subject approved by different standardising bodies, that establish interchengeabilly of products, processes and services, or ‘mutual understanding of test results or information provided according to these standards Code of practice Document that recommends practices or procedures for the desion, ‘manufacture, installation, maintenance, ulisation of equipment, structures or produc, ‘A code of practice may be a standard, part ofa standard or independent of a standard.” Regulation Document providing binding legislate rules that is adopted by an authority." Authority Body (responsible for standards and regulations logal or administrative entity that has specific tasks and composition) that has legal powers. and rights Regulatory authority ‘Authority responsible for preparing or adopting regulations.” Enforcement authority ‘Authonty responsible for enforcing reguiations." Specification Document stating requirements. Meaning full data and its supporting ‘medium stating needs or expectations that is stated, generally implied or obligatory. "* Procedure Specified way to carry out an activity or a process.* Usually it is a writen description ofall essertial parameters and precautions to be observed when ‘applying a technique to @ speci application following an established standard, code or specification i S anaes45 Instruction ‘Witen descapion ot the precise steps to De folowed based on an established procedure, standard, code or speciation. Quality plan ‘A.cccument spectying which procedures and associated resources shall be ‘applied by whom and when to @ specific project, product, process or contract" +180 IEC Guide 2 Standardisation and related actives — General vocabulary. “EN ISO 9000 ~ 2000 ~ Gvalty management systems ~ Fundamentals and vocsbulay. ‘Summary ‘Applicaton of the requirements of the quality manuals, the standards and ‘codes of pracice ensure that @ structure or component will have an acceptable leve of qualty and be fit forthe intended purpose. ‘Applying te requirements of a standard, code of practice or specication can be a problem for the inexperienced Inspector. Confidence In applying the requirements of one or all of these documents to a specie application cy comes with use over period of time {Hin doubt the Inspector must siways refer to a higher authority in order to avoid confusion and potential problems. a 4 wacomBS No. Tite BS 485: Part 1 | Glossary of welding terme, BS 7 iehogs of destucive testing Tasion welded jis and wold aia in sioa. BETTS ‘Specticaion fr design and manufaclre ofwaler tube siaam generating plant Baas ‘Speciation fo ilar mata or gas welang BS 18 ‘Speciation fr cass [ony -aceylene welding of erie se) pe work for carrying fui, BS2aS tow alloy tee electrodes for MINA welding BS 2688 ‘Speciation for class [ac weleing of Fee Sse pipa work Tor arying tes, 352500 ‘Specification for lass oxy ~aceiylene welding of carbon See! pipe work ot carrying fis. BS 2658 ‘Speciation for mandacre of vetcal sel welded non refigrate storage tanks with buttwelded shels forthe petoleum industry. TBS ZOU PanS:_[ Fil rods ane wes Tor Copper and Copper aly. BS 226 ‘Specifeaion for chromium & Ghromiuniciel seal aearoass {cha BS 2026 ‘Specifealon for chvenium & Gwonium ihe] seal sedroass rnin BS 3018 TIG weleng BS 3608 ‘Stee pes and lubes for preseure purpores; Fare ley cleo) with species elevated temperature properties for pressure purposes. BS 3605 ‘Specification for Seamiess Tbs, BS 4515 ‘Specification for welding of steel pipatines on land and offshore. aS aaT0 ‘Speciieation for fusion welding of sel casing BS 4677 ‘Specifcaton for are welding of austen saniess See pipe work for earring Tid. BS GETZ Pan T: [Approval esing of welders when procedure approval not ‘raquied, Fuson welding of 08 BS ABTE PART [TIG oF MIG wel of aluminum and Rs a1oyS SoS ‘Spociteaion for seamless and welded seal tubes Tor _utomebile, mechanical and general engineering purposes. BS ae ethos for determination of eflusbie hydrogen in weld metal 3S 6880 ‘Gode of practice for welding on steel pipes conaining process uid or thei residues, BST ‘Speciication for weldable Structural seals ferred shore siueces, S770 ‘Code of pracios Tor valaion of ars welding equipment TWI = ww.twitraining.comBS EN No Title BEEN 57 Par 1 | Gualicaion tat of weters- Fusion welding Sees. BS EN aid Wire electrodes and deposits for gas shielded metal are ff nonallay and fine grain stool, BEEN a ‘Covered electrodes for manual metal are wong af non + | aoy ana fine grain steels. BSEN 3834. | Quality requirements fr fusion wolding of metallic Parts 1105 materials. BB EN 758 Wire electodes and Tox wire combinalions fo SubmieTged ‘rc welding ofnon-aloy and fie grin sits BEEN TED Fluxes for submerged are welang BSENGTO Tion-destructive examination of fasion welds visual examination. BSENDIO Desirucive tats on welds metalic materiale - Bend ees BSEN T2072 __| Filer rods and wires for sainlesssiees. TBS ENTSO 1627 [ Aluminium and aluminiam aloys & magnesium aloys, Nek ‘nickel alo Tote: The Inspestor should have an awareness of standards printed In bold BS EN NUMBER THLE BS EN T01T ‘Waiding recommondatlons for welding of metallia materia Part: General guidance for are welding. Part 2: [Are welding of ferric steals Part Arc welding of siiness steels Part, ‘ze welding of aluminium and luminium al EN 1320 Destructive tests on welds in metalic materials ENTERS ‘Non-destrucive examination af welds - Raciographie ‘examination of welded ots. BEEN T0002 | Tensile testing of metalic materials ‘BS EN 10020 | Deion and classifeaton of grades of el ‘BEEN T0027 | Designation systems for sees ‘BEEN T0045 | Charpy inpaat tests on metalic materals, SEN T0204 | Wale products types of apecton documents BS EN 22553 | Welded, brazed and soldered joints - symbole representation on drawings. TBE EN 24063 [Welding, brazing, soldering and braze wolding of metal Nomenclature of processes and reference numbers for symbolic representation on drawings. BS EN 2557 [Are welded joints in stael. Guidance on quality vals for Imperfections. BS EN76520 [Classification of imperfections in metallic fusion walds, vith explanations. ‘BEEN 25548 | Specifcation for tungslen elecrodes for ner ges shielded are welding an for plasma cuting and weleng ‘wow twitraining.com180 No Tile TSO 857-1 | Welding and alied processes Vocabulary -Part T= Metal welsing processes. 1506347 | Welds - Working positions -dlinitions of angles of slope ‘and rotation TSO SUS=2_] Gualeaion test ot welders Toston waking, Part? Aluminium & aluminum aloye, 150 T8607 | Specification and quaiifiation of walding procedures Tor metalic materials General rules, TSO 78605 | Welding - Guidelines for a metallic material grouping eystom 180 78608-1 | Specfiation and quafication of welding procedures for ‘metallic materials - Welding procedure specification - Part ‘re weld TSO TSETO | Spectication and qualfcaton of welding procedures for metal ‘materials Qualfcaton based on tested welding consumables. TSO TEST? | Speciation and qualifeaton of wetding procedures for metal ‘materials Quaifcaton based on previous wading experience. TSO TEETS | Specticaton and quaiicaton of weding procedures for metalic ‘materials - Qualification based on pre-prducton-welding es TSO TEST | Specification and qualification of welding procedures for metallic materials - Welding procedure test. Pant ‘Ae andl gas weldng of steels and are welding OF oka and WERT alloys. Pan? ‘Are welding of aluminium and is alloys* Pana ‘Welding procedure teats forthe are weling of cast rons Pans Fishing weling of alumisum castings” Pans ‘Ae walang of itenium, zirconium and ther alloys Pans Copper and copper alloys" Pan? Notused Pan 8 Wielding of tubes to tube-plate joints. Par 9: Underwater hyperbaric wet welding” Par 10 Hyperbarie dry welding” Pant Elon and seer beam welding Pan 12 ‘Spot, seam and projection welcing™ Part 13 Resistance but ang fash welding” Note: The nepector should have an awareness of standard printed Ih Bold ‘Proposed Twi if wow twitraining.comSection 5 Calibration of Welding Equipment52 ‘Soren in at Calibration of Welding Equipment Introduction BS 7570 - Code of practice for validation of arc welding equipment ~ a standard that gives guidance to: © Manufacturers about the accuracy required ffom output meters fited to ‘welding equipment to show welding current and voltage, te. + End users who need to ensure that the output meters provide accurate readings. ‘Tho Standard refers to two grades of equipment - standard and precision ‘rade, ‘Standard grade equipment Is suitable for manual and semi-automatic ‘welding processes. Precision grade equipment is intended for mechanised or automatic welding because there is usualy a need for greater precision for all welding variables s well as the prospect of the equipment being used for higher duty cycle welding. Terminology [BS 7570 defines the terms ituses such as: Calibration (Operations for determining the magnitude of erors ofa measuring instrument, ate Validation Operations for demonstrating an item of welding equipment or welding system conforms to the operating specification fr that equipment or system, ‘Accuracy (Closeness of an observed quantty tothe defined, or tue, value. ‘Thus, when considering welding equipment, those that have output meters for welding parameters (curent, voltage and travel speed, et.) can be cealibated by checking the meter reading with a more accurate measuring deviee and adjusting the readings appropriately. Equipment that does not have output meters (some power sources for NMA, MIGIMAG) cannot be calibrated but they can be validated, that isto ‘make chacks to see that the controls are functioning propery ua \worw.twitraining.com53 Calibration frequency 'BS 7570 recommends re-calibrationvaiation at ‘= Yearly intersls (folowing an inal consistency test at 3 monthly Intervals) for standard grace equipment. + Six monthly intervals or precision grade equipment. However, the S'andard also recommends that re-calibrtionvalidation may be necessary more frequently. Factors to consider are: Equipment manufacturer's recommendations. User's requirements. Ifthe equiprrent has been repaired it should always be re-clibrated, It there is reason to beleve the performance of the equipment has eteriorated, 5.4 __ Instruments jor calibration Instruments used for calibration should: ‘+ Be calibrated by a recognised calibrator using standards traceable to national standard ‘+ Be at least hice and preferably five times, more accurate than the ‘accuracy required for the grade of equipment, + For precision grade equipment it will be necessary to use instruments ‘with much greater precision for checking output meters. 5.5 Calibration methods “The Standard gves details about the characteristics of power source types, how many readngs should be taken for each parameter end guidance on precautions thal may be necessary. For the main welding parameters the Standard recommends: Current Details are given about the instrumentation requirements and how to measure pulsed current but there are requirements specified, or recommendations made, about where in the circut current measurements should be made. The implication is that current can be measured at any postion in he orcuit ~ the value should be the same, Voltage ‘The standard emphasises that for processes where voltage is pre-set (on constant voltage the power sources) the connection points used for the voltmeter incorporated into the power source may differ ftom the are voltage, which is the important parameter. To obtain an accurate measure of arc votiage, the vottmeter should be positioned as near as practcal to the Twi aa \worw.twitraining.com‘This is ilustrated by the flgure below which shows the power source voltage ‘meter connected across points 1 and 7 ‘An example of welding ccul (or MIGMAG), However, because there will be some voltage drops in sections 1-2, 3-4 and 6-7 due to connection points iniroducing extra resistance into the circu, the voltage meier reading on the power source will end to give @ higher reading than the true are votage. Even if the power source voltmeter is connected across points 3 and 7 (which it may be) the meter reading would not take account of any significant voltage crops in the return cable - section 6-7 ‘The magnitude of any voltage drops in the welding circult will depend on ccable ciameter, length and temperature and the Standard emphasises the following: a 5 wring om+ tis desirable to measure the true arc voltage between points 4-5 but for ‘some welding processes it is not practical to measure arc voltage so close tothe ac, + For MMA, itis possible to take a voltage reading relatively close tothe arc by connecting one terminal of the voltmeter through the cable sheath as close as ~2n from the arc and connect the other terminal to the ‘workpiece (oto earth). + For KIIGIMAG the nearest practical connection points have to be 3-5 but ‘change fom an air-cooled to a water.cooled torch or vice-versa may have a significant effect on the measured voltage. + Voltage drops between points 56 wil be insignificant if there is a good connection ofthe return cable at point. ‘The Standard gives guidance about minimising any drop in line voltage by ensuring that: ‘+ The current retuin cable is as short as practical and is heavy, low resistance, cable, ‘+ The current-eturn connector is suitably rated and firmly attached and so does not overheat due to high resistance, ‘The standard gives deta for line voltage drops (DC voltage) according to ‘current, cable cross section- and cable length (for both copper and ‘aluminium cables). ‘Wie feed speed For constant vctage (self-adjusting arc) processes such as MIG/MAG the standard recogiises that calibration of the wire feeder is generally not ‘needed because its linked to current If calibration is required, itis recommended thatthe time be measured (in seconds) for ~im of wife to be delivered (using a stopwatch or electronic timer) ‘The length of wire should then be measured (with a steel rule) to an accuracy of mm and the feed speed calculated. ‘Travel speed Welding manipulators, such as rotstors and robotic manipulators, as well 25 the more conventional linear travel carriages, influence heat input and other Properties of a weld and should be checked at intervals. Most uf Une stinuard devives can be cheched using @ stopwatch and measuring rule, but more sophisticated equipment, such as @ tacho- ‘generaior, may be appropriate, ‘www.twitraining.comSection 6 Destructive Testingi 6 Destructive Testing 6.4 Introduction European Welcing Standards require test coupons that are made for welding procedure qualifcation testing to be subjected to non-destructive testing and then destructive testing. ‘The tests are called destructive tests because the welded joint is destroyed when various types of test piece are taken from it Destructive tests can be divided into 2 groups, those used to: ‘+ Measure a mechanical property ~ quantitative tests + Assess the joint quality ~ qualitative tests Mechanical tesis are quanttatve because a quantity is measured ~ & mechanical property such as tensile strength, hardness and impact, toughness, Qualitative tests are used to verify that the joint is free from defects ~ they are of sound quality - and examples of these are bend tests, macroscopic ‘examination and fracture tests (filet fracture and nick-break), 6.2 Test types, test pieces and test objectives Various types of mechanical tests are used by material manufacturers and ‘suppliers to venty that plates, pipes, forgings, etc. have the minimum property values specified for particular grades. Design engineers use the minimum property values listed for particular grades of material as the basis for design and the most cost-effective ~12mm and bent so that the full oint thickness is tested (side in tension). Longitudinal bend Test specimen teken with axs parallel to the longitudinal axis of a butt weld; specimen thickness is ~12mm and the face or root of weld may be tested in. tension, TWI oe UU wor itralning.com‘Test method [Bend tests for welding procedure qualification (and welder qualification) are Lsualy guided tend tests, Guided means that the stzin imposed on the specimen is uniformly ‘controlled by being bent around a former witha certain diameter. ‘The clameter ofthe former used for a particular testis speciied inthe code, having been determined by the type of material that is being tested end the ‘Guctlity that ean be expected from it after welding and any PWHT. ‘The diameter of the former is usually expressed as a multiple of the specimen thickness and for C-Mn steel it is typically at (tis the specimen thickness) but for materiais that have lower tensile ductity the rads of the former may be greater than 10t “The standard that specifies the test method will specity the minimum bend tangle thatthe ssecimen must experience and this is typieally 120-180 ‘Acceptance criteria Bend ast piooes should exhibit satisfactory soundness by not showing cracks or any signs of significant fissures or caviles on the outside of the bend, TWI 615 ‘wrw.twitraining.comexten Tsing cconpe nasa ‘Small indications less than about 3mm in length may be allowed by some standards, 63 Fracture tests 63.1 Fillet weld fractures Test objective ‘The qualtysoundness of a filet weld can be assessed by fracturing test pieces and examining the fracture surfaces. ‘This method for assessing the quaity of filet welds may be specified by application standards as en alterative to macroscopic examination. {tis a test method that can be used for welder qualification testing according to European Standards bulls not used for welding procedure qualification to European Standards. Test specimens ‘A test weld is cut into short lengths (typically 250mm) and a longitudinal ‘notch is machined into the specimen 2s shown below. The notch profile may be square, V or U shaped. ‘Test method ‘Specimens are made to fracture through their throat by dynamic strokes (hammering) or by pressing, as shown below. The welding standard of ‘application standard will specty the number of tests (typically 4) Twi oe ‘wwrw.twitraining.comAcceptance criteria ‘ne standard for welder qualitcation, of appication standard, wil specify the ‘acceptance criteria for imperfections such as lack of penetration into the root Of tha joint and solid inclusions anc porosity that are visible on the fracture surfaces, “Test repoits shuld also give a description ofthe appearance ofthe fracture and locaton of eny imperfection Butt weld fractures (nick-break tests) Test objective ‘The objective ofthese fracture tests is the same as forfllet facture tests. ‘These teste are speciiod for welder qualifestion testing to European ‘Standards as an aliemative to radiography. They are not used for welding procedure qualifcation testing to EU Standards Test specimens ‘Test specimens are taken from a butt weld and notched so thatthe fracture path wit be in he central region of the weld. Typical test piece types are ‘shown below. ‘Tost method ‘Test pieces are made to fracture by hammering or three-point bending ‘Acceptance criteria ‘The standard fer welder qualification, or application standard, wll specify the ‘acceptance criteria for imperfections such as lack of fusion, solid Inctusions ‘and porosity that are visible onthe fracture surfaces. i Ss acones Twa ‘Test reports should also give a description of the appearance of the fracture and location of any imperfection 6.4 Macroscopic examination ‘Transverse sections from butt and filet welds are required by the EU Slandards for welding procedure qualifcation testing and may be required for some welder qualification testing for assessing the qual ofthe welds. ‘This is considered in detain a separate section of these course notes, Macro examination ‘Micro examination Objectives ‘+ Detecting weld defects. (macro), ‘+ Measuring gran size. (micro). ‘© Detecting brite structures, preciptates. | Assessing resistance Iowa brite fracture, cold cracking and corrosion sensitivity. iwi oe www.twitraining.comEuropean Standards for Destructive Test Methods ‘The following Standards are specified by the European Welding Standards for destructive testing of welding procedure qualifeaton test welds and for some welder qualification test welds. EN 875 Destructive tesls on welds in metalic materials - Impact tests - Test ‘specimen location, notch orientation and examination. EN 895 Destructive tests on welds in motallc materials - Transverse tonsils test. EN 910 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials ~ Bend tests, EN 1321 Destructive tests on welds in metalic materials — Macroscopic and microscopic examination of wold BS EN 10002 Metalic materials - Tensile testing, Part 1: Method of test at ambient temperature, BS EN 10002 Tensile testing of metalic materials. Part 6: Method of test at elevated temperatures. Twi a a www.twitraining.comSection 7 Heat Treatment7 Heat Treatment 7.4 Introduction ‘The heat treatment given to a particular grade of steel by the steelmaker! ‘supplier should be shown on the material test certincate and may be ‘referred to as the supply condition. i: Welding inspectors may need to refer to material test certificates and itis appropriate that they be familiar with the terminology that is used and have ‘some understanding of the principles of some of the most commonly applied heat treatments, Welded joints may need to be subjected to heat treatment after welding (PWHT) and the tasks of monitoring the thermal cycle and checking the heat treatment records are often delegated to welding inspectors. 7.2 Heat treatment of steel The main supply conditions for weldable steels are: AAs rolled, hot rolled, hot finished Plate is hot rolled to finished size and allowed to aie cool; the temperature at which roling fishes may vary from plate to plate and so strength and toughness properties vary and are not optimised: Applied Relatively thin, wer strength C-steel ‘Thermo-mechanical controlled processing (TMCP), control rolled, thermo-mechanically rolled Steel plate give’ precisely controled thickness reductions during hot roling within carefuly controlled tempereture ranges; final roling temperature is also carefully cntrolled; Applied to Relatively thin, high strength low alloy steels (HSLA) and for some steels with good toughness at low temperatures, eg cryogenic steels. Normalised ‘After working the steel (rolling or forging) to size, itis heated to ~200°C and then allowed to cool in air to ambient temperature; this optimises strength ‘and toughness and gives uniform properties. from item to item for & particular arade of steel; ‘Applied to ‘C-Win steels and some low alloy steels, TWI a OT wuw.twitraining.comnone Ts ‘Quenched and tempered after working the steel (oling oF forging) to size, it is heated to ~900°C and then cooled as quickly as possible by quenching in water or ol; after quenching, the steel must be tempered (softened) to improve the ductility of the 2s-quenched stee! ‘Applied to ‘Some low alloy steels to give higher strength, toughness or wear resistance, ‘Solution annealedtheat treated ‘Ater hot oF cold working to size, steel heated to ~1 100°C and rapily cooled bby quenching ino water to prevent any carbides or other phases fom forming: ‘Applied to ‘Austenitic stainless steels such as 304 and 316 grades. Annealed ‘After working the steel (pressing or forging etc) to size, it is heated to 900°C and then alowed to coo! in the furnace to ambient temperature; his, reduces strength and toughness but improves duct: Applied to CCihin staels and some iow alloy stele Figure 7.0-7.8 show the thermal cycies for the main supply conditions and subsequent heat treatment that can be applied to steels. 7.3 Post weld heat treatment (PWHT) Post weld heat treatment has to be applied to some welded steels to ensure that the properties of the weldment wil be suitable for their intended applications. ‘The temperature at which PWHT is carried out is usually well below the temperature where phase changes can occur (note 4), but high enough to allow residual stresses to be relieved quickly and to soften (temper) any hhard regions in the HAZ. ‘There are major benefits of reducing residual stress and ensuring that the HAZ hardness is not too high for particular steels with certain service applications, Examples of these benefits are: ‘+ Improved the resistance of the joint to brittle fracture. ‘+ Improved the resistance of the joint to stress corrosion cracking. ‘= Enables welded joints to be machined to accurate cimensional tolerances. TWI ia 7 em ‘worw.twitraining,com14 144 Because the main reason for (and beneft of) PWHT is to reduce residual ‘stesses, PWHT Is often called stress rele. Note 1: There are circumstances when a welded joint may need to be ormalised to restore HAZ toughness. However, these are relatively rere Cercumstances and it is necessary to ensure that welding consumables are carefully selected because normalising will significantly reduce weld inotal strength. PWHT thermal cycle ‘The application standard/code will specify when PWHT is required to give benefits #1 or #2 above and also give guidance about the thermal cycle that ‘must be used. In order to ensure that a PWHT cycie is carried it in accordance with a particular code, Its essential that a PWHT procedure Is prepared and that the folowing parameters are specified: ‘+ Maximum heating rate ‘+ Soak temperature range. ‘+ Minimum time atthe soak temperature (soak time). ‘+ Maximum coating rate Heating rate ‘This must be controlled to avoid large temperature differences within the fabricated item. Large differences in temperature (large thermal gradients) will produce lage stresses and these may be high enough to cause Astotion (or even cracking). ‘Application standards usually require contol of the maximum hesting rate ‘whan the temperature of the tem is above ~300°C. This is because stasis fart to show signifcant loss of strength above this temperature and are ‘more suscepti to distortion i there are large thermal gradients, ‘The temperatue of the fabricated item must be monitored curing the thermal cycle and this is done by means of thermocouples attached to the surface at a number of locations representing the thickness range of the iter, ‘By monitoring furnace and item temperatures the rate of heating can be Controlled to ensure compliance with code requirements at all positions ‘within the item. Maximum heating rates spectied for C-Ain stael depend on thickness of the item but tend tobe in the range ~60 to ~200°Cm. TWI ™ ‘www twitraining.comPeeters 142 143 744 ‘Soak temperature ‘The soak temperature specified by the code depends on the type of steet and thus the temperature range required to reduce residual stresses to a low level © and C-Mn stesls require 2 soak temperature of ~800°C whereas some low alloy steels (such as Cr-Mo stoeis used for elevated temperature service) require higher temperatures — typically in the range ~700 to 760°C, Note: Soak temperature is an essential variable for a WPOR. Thus, it is very important thatthe its controlled within the specified limits otherwise it ‘may be necessary to cary out a new WPQ test to validate the propertios of the tem and at worst it may not be fitfor-purpose. ‘Soak time It is necessary to allow time for all the welded joints to experience the specified temperature throughout the ful joint thickness. ‘The temperature is monitored by suriace-contact thermocouples and its the thickest jont of the fabrication that govems the minmum time for temperature equalisation Typical speci soak times are 1h por 25mm thickness. Cooling rate Its necessary to contol the rate of cooling from the PWHT temperature for the same reason that heating rate needs to be controled — to avoid dlstorion (or cracking) due to high stresses from thermal gradients Codes usually specity controlled coating to ~300°C. Below this temperature the item can be withdrawn trom a fumace and allowed to cool in air because steel is relatively strong and is unlikely to suffer plastic strain by any temperature gracients thet may develop. Figure 6 a typical PWHT thermal cycle, 7.8 Heat treatment furnaces It is important that oil and gas-fired furnaces used for PWHT do not allow flame contact with the fabrication as this may induce large thermal ‘gradients. Itis also important to ensure that the fuel (particulary for oltfired furnaces) does not contain high levels of potentially harmful impurities ~ such as sulphur. Twi ae a ‘worw.twitraining.com7.6 Local PWHT Fora pipeline or pipe spool itis often necessary to apply PWHT to individual Wolds by local application of heat, For this, a PWHT procedure must specify the previously described parameters for controling the thermal cycle but it Is also necessary to ‘spediy the folowing: ‘+ Wiath ofthe heated band (must be within the soak temperature range) *+ Width of the temperature decay band (scak temperature to ~300°C). Other considerations ar: + Position of the thermocouples within the heated band width and the ‘decay band, + Ifthe item needs to be supported in a particular way to allow movement! avoid distortion ‘The commones: method of heating for local PWHT is by means of insulated lectrical elements (electrical mats) that are attached to the weld, Gas-fired, radiant heating elements can also be used. Figure 7 shows typical control zones for localised PWHT ofa pipe butt weld. Normalising ‘+ Rapid heating to soak temperature (100% austenite) ‘= Short soak time at temperature ‘= Coo! inair to ambient temperature s zg 5 Tine Figure 7.0 Typlal nomalising heat treatment applied fo C-Mn and some low aioy sols TWI as won twitraining.com‘Quenching and tempering Rapid heating to soak temperature (100% austenite) ‘Short soak time at temperature Rapid cooling by quenching in water or ot Reheat to tempering temperature, soak and air cool, Temperature" Tine Figure 7.1 Typical quenching and tempering heat tretment applied to some low alley stots, Slab heating temperature > ~1050°C Temperature’ Fernie + pearite As-olied Control-olted (ayriron cari) hot lle ce Tine Figure 7.2 Comparieon of the ‘contotroled”(TMCP} and ‘sealed’ conditions hot ring). TWI ™ a wor twitraining.comSolution heat treatment + Rapid heating to soak temp. (100% austenite) ‘+ Shotsoak time at temperature. + Rapid cool cooling by quenching into water or ol ‘Quenching eee Time Figure 7.3 Typical solution heat treatment (solution annealing) applied to austenitic sainless seas Annealing ‘= Rapd heating to soak temperature (100% austenite), ‘= Shot ‘soak ime at temperature. ‘Slow cool in furnace to ambient temperature, Temoeratue"C Figure 7.4 Typical annealing heat treatment applied fo C-Mn and! some low alloy sees. TWI 7 ‘www twiltraining.comcomin Tm Ga PWHT (C-Mn steels) + Controlled heating rate from 300°C to soak temperature. = Minimum soak time at temperature. = Coniroled coating to ~200°C, “Temperature °C Figure 75 Typcal PWHT applied to C-in steels: Weld seam Figure 7.6 Local PWHT of ppe gith seam. TWI ™ COM sess ‘www twitraining.comSection 8 WPS and Welder Qualificationsa2 WPS and Welder Qualifications General When structures and pressurised items are fabricated by welding, itis essential that all the welded joints are sound and have sultable properties, for their application Control of welding is by means of welding procedure specications (WPS) that give detailed written instructions about the welding conditions that must be used to ensure that welded joints have the required properties. ‘Atthough WPS are shop floor documents to instruct welders, welding inspectors need to be familiar wth them because they will need to refer to \WPSs when they are checking that welders are vorking in accordance wit the specified requirements. Welders need to understand WPSs and have the skll lo make welds that fare not defective and demonstraie these abilties before being allowed to make production welds Qualified welding procedure specifications Itis industry practice to use qualified WPS for most applications. ‘A. welding procedure is usually qualified by making @ test weld to omonsirto. that the properties of the Joint satisfy the requirements ‘specified by the application standard (and the cllentlend use). Demonstrating the mechanical properties of the joints the principal purpose (of qualification tests but showing that a defect-ree weld can be produced is also very important. Production welds that are made in accordance wih welding conditions similar to those used for a test weld should have similar properties and therefore be for ther intended purpose, Figure 1 is an example of a typical WPS writen in accordance with the European Welding Standard format giving details of all the welding conditions that need tobe species, ‘Welding standards for procedure qualification European and American Standards have been developed to give comprehensive details about '+ How a welded test piece must be made to demonstrate joint properties. + How the test piece must be tested, ‘+ What welding detas need tobe included in a WPS? TWI “7 _ ww .twitraining.com322 823 TwI * mr ‘+ The range of production welding allowed by a particular qualification test wel. ‘The principal European Standards that specity these requirements are: EN ISO 18614 Specification and qualification of welding procedures for ‘metalic materias — Welding procedure test rt 1: Arc & gas wolding of steels & are welding of nickel & nickel alloys. Part2: Arc welding of aluminium and its alloys. “The principal American Standards for procedure qualifeaion ar: [ASME Section IX for pressurised systoms (vessels & pipework). AWS D1.1 Structural welding of steels [AWS 1.2 Structural welding of aluminium, ‘The qualification process for welding procedures ‘Athough qualifed WPS are usually based on test welds that have been ‘made to demonstrate weld joint properties; welding standards also alow ‘qualified WPS to be written based on ather data (fr some applications). Some alternative ways that can be used for witing qualified WPS for some ‘applications are ‘+ Qualification by adoption of a standard welding procedure - test ‘welds previcusly qualified and documented by other manufacturers. ‘+ Qualification based on provious welding experiance - wold joints that have been repeatedly made and proved to have suitable properties by ‘their service record Procedure qualfcation to European Standards by means ofa test weld (and similar in ASME Section IX and AWS) requires @ Sequence of actions that is, typified by those shown by Table 1 A successful procedure qualification testis completed by the production of a ‘welding procedure qualification record (WPQR), an example of which is ‘shown by Figure 2 Relationship between a WPQR and a WPS Once a WPQR has been produced, the welding engineer is able to write ‘qualified WPSs for the various production weld joints that need to be made. wuw.twitraining.com‘The welding conditions that are allowed to be written on a quslifed WPS are referred to as the qualification range and this range depends on the Welding conditions that were used for the test piece (the as-run details) and form part ofthe WPOR. Wilding conditions are refered to as welding variables by European and Amerlean Weldng Standards ang are classified a3 ether essential ‘Variables 0 non-essential varlables. ‘These variables can be defined as folows: ‘+ Essential varlable a variable that has an effect on the mechanical ‘propertias of the weldment (and if changed beyond the limits specified by tho standard willrequice the WPS to be re-qualified), ‘+ Non-essential variable a variable that must be specified on a WPS but does not have a sigifcant effect on the mechanical properties of the Weldment (and can be changed without need for re-qualification but Will require & new WPS to be written) Itis because essential variables can have a significant effect on mechanical properties that they are the controling variables that govern the quaification range and determine what can be writen into a WPS. W @ welder makes @ production weld using conditions outside the ualifcaion range given on a particular WPS, there is danger that the Welded joint will not have the required properties and there are then two options: ‘+ Make another test weld using similar welding conditions to those used for the affected weld and subject this fo the same tests used for the relevant WPR to demonstrate that the properties stil satisfy specified requitements, ‘+ Remove the affected weld and re-weld the joint strictly in accordance with the designated WPS, ‘Most ofthe welding variables that are classed as essential are the same in both the European and American Welding Standards but their quaification ranges may der. ‘Some Application Standards specify their own essential variables and itis necessary to ensure that these are taken into consideration when procedures are qualified and WPSs are writen. Examples of essential variables (accorcing to European Welding Standards) are given in Table 2 TWI a pa ‘www twitraining.com334 332 Welder qualification “The use of qualfied WPSS is the accepted method for controling production walding but this wil only be successful if the welders have the ability to Understand and workin accordance with them, Welders also need to have the skll to consistently produce sound welds (free from defecis) Welding Standards have been developed to give guidance on what particular test welds are required in order to show that welders have the Fequired skis 1o make particular types of production welds in particular materials Welding standards for welder qualification ‘The principal European Standards that specify requirements are: EN 287-4 Qualifcation test of welders — Fusion welding Part 1: Steels EN ISO 9606-2 Qualification test of welders — Fusion welding art 2: Aluminium and aluminium alloys EN 1418 Welding personnel ~ Approval testing of welding ‘operators for fusion welding and resistance weld setters for fully mechanised and automatic welding of metalic materials ‘The principal American Standards that specly requiements for welder ‘quatfication are: [ASME Section XK Pressurised systems (vessels & pipework) AWS D1 Structural welding of stools AWS 01.2 ‘Structural welding of aluminium The qualification process for welders Qualification testing of welders to European Standards requires test welds to be made and subjected o specified tests to demonstrate that the welder Understands the WPS and cen produce a sound weld, For manual and semiautomatic welding the emphasis of the tests is to demonstrate ability 0 manipulate the electrode or welding torch. For mechanised and automatic welding the emphasis is on demonstrating ‘that welding operators have abilty to control particular types of welding ‘equipment, Twi “ 0 veo witraining.com333 ‘American Standards allow welders to demonstrate that they can produce sound welds by subjecting their frst production weld to non-destructive testing Table 3 shows the steps requited for qualifying welders in accordance with European Standards, Figure 8 shows a typical Welder Qualification Certificate in accordance with European Standards. ‘Welder qualification and production welding allowed ‘The welder is allowed to make production welds within the range of qualification recorded on his welder qualification ceticate. The range of qualifcation is based on the limits specified by the Welding Standard for welder qualification essential variables - defined as: a variable that if changed beyond the limits specified by the Welding Standard may require greater skill than has been demonstrated by the test weld. ‘Some welding variables that are classed as essential for welder qualification fare the same types as those classified as essential for welding procedure ‘qualification, but the range of qualification may be significantly wider. ‘Some essential variables are specific to welder qualifcation Examples of welder qualification essential varlables are given In Table 4 Period of validity for a welder qualification certificate ‘A welders quailfcation begins from the date of welding ofthe test piece. “The European Standard allows a qualification certficate to remain valid for a Period of to years ~ provided that + The welding co-ordinator, or other responsible person, can confirm that the welder has beon working within the initial range of qualification. ‘© Working within the intial qualiication range is confirmed every six months, 0 wwwitraining.com835 Prolongation of welder qualification ‘A welder’s qualfation cerifcate can be prolonged every two years by an fexaminerlexamhing body but before prolongation is allowed certain conditions needto be satisfied: + Records/evidence are available that can be traced to the welder and the \WPS that have been used for production welding, ‘+ The supportng evidence must relate to volumetric examination of the \elder's production welds (RT or UT} on two welds made during the 6 ‘months prirto the prolongation date. ‘+The supportng evidence welds must satisfy the acceptance levels for lmpertections specified by the European welding standard and have been made under the same conditions as the original test weld worw.twitraining.comTable 1 Typical saquence for welding procedure qualifcation by means ofa test weld ‘The welding engineer writes a preliminary Welding Procedure Specification {pWPS) for each test coupon to be welded a ‘Awelder makes the test coupon in accordance with the pWPS '* A.welding inspector records all the welding conditions used to make the test coupon (called the as-run conditions) ‘An Independent Examiner! Examining Body/Third Party Inspector may be ‘requested fo monitor the procedure qualification a The test coupon Is subjected to NDT in accordance with the methods specified by the Standard visual inspection, MT or PT and RT or UT a ‘© The test coupon is destructively tested (tensile, bend, macro tests) ‘© The codelappiication standardictiont may require additional tests such as hardness tests, impact tests or corrosion tests ~ depending on ‘material and application © AWelding Procedure Qualification Record (WPOR) is prepared by the welding engineer giving details of: > Theas-run welding conditions > Results of the NOT > Results of the destructive tests > The welding conditions allowed for production welding © Ifa Third Party Inspector is involved he will be requested to sign the WPQR as a true record of the test TWI * YT wu straining combathe ‘Table 2 Typical examples of WPS essential variables according to European Welding Standards ‘VARIABLE RANGE for PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION Welding process | No range ~ process qualifed is process that must be used in production PWT “ints Tested after PWHT only_qualiy as PWAT production joints doints tested 'as-weldedt only qualify 'as-welded’ Production joints arent material — | Parent materials of similar composition and mechanical type properties are allocated the same Material Group No.; {ualifcation only allows production welding of materials with the same Group No. Welding ‘Consumables for production welding must have the same consumables | European designation - as a general rule Waterial ‘A Wickness range is alowed ~ below and above the eat thickness: ‘coupon thickness ‘Type of current | AC only qualiias for AC; DC polarity (@VE or-VE) cannot 'be changed; pulsed current only qualifies for pulsed current production welding Preheat “The preheat lomiperature used Tor the testis the minimum temperature | that must be applied Taterpace “The highest inferpass temperature reached in the tests temperature | the maximum allowed Heat input (a) | When impact requirements apply maximum HI alowed = 25% above test HI ‘when hardness requirements apply minimum HI allowed |s 25% below test HI by ‘Pate 8 tat “ -werw.twitraining.com‘able 9 Stages for qualfeation ofa welder. “The welding engineer writes a WPS for welder qualification test piece zg © The welder makes the test weld in accordance with the WPS. ‘A.welding inspector monitors the welding to ensure that the welder Is working in accordance the WPS ‘An Independent ExaminerfExamining Body/Third Party Inspector may be requested to monitor the test a © The fest coupon is subjected to NDT in accordance with the methods ‘specified by the Standard (visual inspection, MT of PT and RT of UT) © For certain materials, and welding processes, some destructive testing may be required (bends or macros) a © AWelder's Qualification Certificate is prepared showing the welding ‘conditions used for the test piece and the range of qualification allowed by the Standard for production welding © Ifa Third Party Is involved, the Qualification Certificate would be endorsed as a true record of the test TWI * er ‘www.twitraining.com‘Table 4 Typical examples of welder qualification essential vaiables according to European Weng Standards ‘VARIABLE RANGE for WELDER QUALIFICATION. Welding process | No range — process quaiied is process that a welder can sein production ‘Type of weld | Bult walds cover any type of joint except branch welds fillet welds only qualify filets ‘Parent material | Parent materials of simlar composiion and mechanical type properties are allocated the same Material Group No.; ualifcaton only allows production welding of materials with the same Group No. but the Groups allow much wider ‘composition ranges than the procedure Groups Filler material | Electrodes and filer wires Tor producion welding must be ‘ofthe same form as te test (Solid wire, ux cored, etc); for [MIA coating type is essential, Materia ‘Rihickness range is allowed; for fst pieces above Tamm thickness: allow >Smm Pipe diameter | Essential and very restricted for small damaters; test pieces above 25mm allow > 0.5 x diemeter used (min. 25mm) ‘Walding positions | Poslion of welding vary important, H'LOAS allows al positions (except PG) 0 TWI ‘worw.twitraining.comSa eH ‘www twitraining.comFIGURE 21 Exanps of © WPOR Document (Qualfstion Range) to EN 15614 Format —_ eee wy o a=r TWI eis 0 wu titraining.comay nen 2011 FIGURE 23 Exangeof« WPOR Document (Osta of Weld Test 1 EW 15614 Format Twi oe www.twitraining.comwor twitraining.comSection 9 Materials Inspectionis et 9 Materials Inspection 9.1 General (One of the duties of the Visual Welding Inspector is to carry out materials inspection, There are a number of situations where the inspector will be required fo cary out materia inspection: ‘= Atthe plate or pipe mi, ‘+ Of material durin fabrication or construction. Of material after installation, usually during a planned maintenance programme, outage or shutdown, ‘Awide range of materials are available, that can be used in fabrication and Welding. These include, but are not ited to: Stools Slainiess stools ‘Aluminium and its alloys, [Nickel and as alloys. Copper and its alloys. Tianium and its alloys, Castiron ‘These materials are all widely used in fabrication, welding and construction to meot tho requirements of a diverse range of epplcations and industry sectors, There are three essential aspects to materials inspection thatthe Inspector should consider: ‘+ Material type and weldabilty. = Material traceabilty. ‘= Material condition and dimensions. 9.2 Material types and weldability ‘A Welding Inspector must be able to understand and interpret the material designation inorder to check compliance with relevant normative documents. For example materials standards such as BS EN, API, ASTM, the welding procedure specification (WPS), the purchase order, fabrication drawings, ine quaity lanthe contract speciation and cient requirements ‘A-commonly used material standard for stee! designation is BS EN 10025 ~ Hot rolled products of non-alloy structural steels. mw a vor cow93 94 {Atypical steel cesignation to this standard, $355J2G3, would be classified ts (alow, S__ Structural stoet 355 Minimum yeld strength: Nimmé att < 1mm 2. Longitudinal Charpy, 27 Joules 620°C G3_Normaised or normalised rolled In terms of material type and weldabilty, commonly used materials and ‘most alloys of tiese materials can be fusion welded using various welding processes, ina vide range of thickness and, where applicable, diameters. Reference to other standards such as ISO 15808 Welding - Guidelines for a ‘metallic material grouping system, steel producers and welding consumable data books can also provide the Inspector with guidance on the suitability of ‘a material and consumable type fora glven application. Alloying elements and their effects ron Fe Carbon «Gor strength Manganese Mn For toughness Silicon Si) <0.3% deoxidser ‘Aluminium Al Grain refiner, <0.008%6 deoxiiser + toughness Chromium GF Corrosion resistance ‘Molybdenum Mo 1% is for creep resistance Vanadium = VStrength Nickel Ni Low temperature applications Copper -Su_Used for weathering steels (Corten) Sulphur 3 Residual element (can cause hot shortness) Phosphorus > Residual element Titanium Ti Grain refiner, used as a micro alloying element (S&T) Niobium Yb Grain refiner, used as a micro alloying element (SBT) (GET) = strengh and toughness Material traceability ‘Tracoabilly is defined as ‘the ability to trace the history, application or location of that which is under consideration. In the case of a welded product, traceability may require the Inspector to consider “+ Origin ofthe materials — both parent and filer materia Processing history —for example before or ater PHT. + Location of the product — this would usually refer to @ apscifc part or subassemty, wr = wnnenwacon‘To trace the history of the material, reference to the inspection documents must be made, 85 EN 10204 Metalic products — Types of inspection documents is the standard, which provides guidance on these types of document. Under BS EN 10204 inspection documents fll nto two types: a) Non-specific inspection Inspection cartied out by the manufacturer in accordance with his own procedures to assess whether products defined by the same product ‘specication and made by the same manufacturing process, are in ‘compliance with the requirements of the order or not Type 2.1 are documents in which the manufacturer dectares that the products supplied are in compliance with the requirements of the order Without inclusion of test results, ‘Type 22 are documents in which the manufacturer declares that the products supplied are in complance with the requirements ofthe order and Inwhich test results based on non-specific inspection are supplied. ») Specific inspection Inspection carried out, before delivery, according to the product spectication, on the products to be supplied or on test units of which the products supplied are part, in order to verity that these products are in ‘compiance with the requirements ofthe order. ‘Type 3.1 are documents in which the manufacturer declares that the products supplied are in compliance with the requirements of the order and ‘In which test results are supplied. ‘Type 3.2 ere documents prepared by both the manufacturer's authorised inspection representative independent of the manufacturing department, land either the pufchaser’s authorised representative or the inspector designated by the official regulations, and in which they deciare that the products supplied are in compliance with the requirements of the order {and in which test results are supplied. ‘Application or location of a particular material can be carried out through a review of the welding procedure specication (WPS), the fabrication drawings, the quality plan or by physical inspection of the material at the point of use. In certain circumstances the Inspector may have to vitness the transfer of ‘cast numbers from the orginal plate to pieces to be used in production. (On pipeline work itis @ requirement that the inspector records all the relevant information for each piece of line pipe. On large diameter pipes this Information is usually sienciled on the inside of the pipe. On smaller meter pipes the information may be stenciled elong the outside of the Pipe. TWI ce UT ‘www.twitraining.comBS EN 10204: Netalic materials ‘Types of inspecion documents summary, [ 42) NON-SPECIFIC INSPECTION * Inspection document type 2.1 Dediaraton of compliance withthe order Statement of compliance wih the order. Valted by the manufacturer. Inspection document type 2.2 Testreport ‘Statement of compliance with the order, ‘wh incieaton of results of non-specic inspecton. Validated bythe manufacturer 8). Non-specific inspection may be replaced by specific inspection if specified in the ‘material standard or the order [ ») SPECIFIC INSPECTION Inspection certificate type 3.2 Statement of compliance wth the oer, with incieaton of results of specie inspection Validated bythe manufacturer's authorised Inspection representative infepencent of the manufacuring department and eter the purchasers autnorised mepecton representative or ha inspector designated by te ofelalregulatons Inspection certificate type 3.1 Stelement of compliance withthe corde, with inceation of resus of Speci inspection Validated by the manufacturers authorised inspecton representative Independent ofthe manufectuing epartment ) Quality management system of the material manufacturer certified by a ‘competent body established within the community and having undergone 2 specific assessment for materials Twi “ ‘www.twitraining.comcont Tn 9.5 Material condition and dimensions The congition ofthe material could have an adverse effect on the service Ife cof the component; itis therefore an important inspection point. The points for inspection must include: General inspection, visible imperfections, cimensions and surface condition, General inspection This type of inspection takes account of storage conditions, methods of handing, the number of plates or pipes and distortion tolerances. Visible imperfections. Typical visible imperfections are usually attributable to the manufacturing process and would include cold laps, which break the surface or laminations it they appear at the edge of the plate, For laminations, which may be present in the body of the material, ultrasonic testing using a compression probe may be require, Cold lap Plate lamination Dimensions For plates this would include length, width and thickness, For pipes, this would not only include length and wall thickness, but also inspection of diameter and ovaliy. At this stage of the inspection the ‘material cast or heat number may also be recorded for validation against the material certificate. Surface condition The surface condition of the material is important, it must not show ‘excessive mill scale and rust, must not be badly pitted, or have ‘unacceptable mechanical damage, TWI ‘www twitraining.com“There are four grades of rusting which the inspector may have to consider RustGradeA Stool surface largely covered with adherent mil scale with litle ‘orn rust. Rust GradeB Steel surface, which has begun to rust, and from which mill ‘scale has bagun fo ke. Rust GradeC Stee! eurface on which the mill scale has rusted away or from which it can be scraped. Slight ping visible under nocmal Rust Grade D Stes! surface on which mil scale has rusted away. General piting visible under normal vision WA www-twitraining.comirae ean pio on St 96 ‘Summary Material inspection Is an important part of the Inspector's duties and an Understanding of the documentation involved isthe key to success. Material inspection must be approached in a logical and precise manner if ‘material verficaton and traceabilty are to be achieved. This can be diffcut if the material is not resdiiy accessible, access may have to be provided, safety precautions observed and authorisation obtained before material inspection can be carried out, Reference to the quality plan should identity, the level of inspection required and the point at which inspection takes place. Reference to a fabrication drawing should provide information on the type and location of the material | material type cannot be determined from the inspection documents lable, or if the inspection document is missing, other methods of Identifying the material may need to be used. These methods may include but are nat limited to: spark test, spectroscopic analysis, chemical analysis, scleroscope hardness test, etc. These types of tests are normally conducted by an approved test house, but sometimes on site, and the Inspector may be required to witness these tests in order to verily compliance with the purchase order or appropriate standard(s) “EN ISO 9000 Quality management systems - Fundamentals and vocabulary 7 ‘wwewtwitralning.comSection 10 Residual Stress and DistortionSoaps Tandsat 10 Residual Stress and Distortion 10.1. What causes distortion? Because welding involves highly localised heating of joint edges to fuse the material, non-uniform stresses are set up in the component because of ‘expansion and contraction ofthe heated materia Initially, compressive stresses are created in the surrounding cold parent metal when the weld pool is formed due to the thermal expansion of the hot metal (heat affected: zone (HAZ)) adjacent to the weld pool. However, ‘ensile stresses accur on cooling when the contraction ofthe weld metal and Immediate HAZ is resisted by the bulk of the cold parent metal ‘The magnitude of thermal stresses induced into the material can be seen by ‘he volume change in the weld area on solfcation and subsequent cooling to room temperature. For example, when welding C-Mn steel, the molten weld metal volume wil be reduced by approximately 3% on solidification {and the volume of the solidified weld motalHAZ will be reduced by a further 7% as its temperature falls from the meling point of steel to room temperature. If the stresses generated from thermal expansionicontraction exceed the yield strength of the parent metal, localised plastic deformation of the metal ‘occurs. Plastic deformation causes a permanent reduction in the component dimensions and distorts the structure 10.2 What are the main types of distortion? Distortion occurs in several ways: Longitudinal shrinkage. ‘Transverse shrinkage, Anguiar distortion. Bowing and dishing Bucking Contraction of the weld area on cooling results in both transverse end ongitudinal shrinkage \Non-uniform contraction (through thickness) produces angular distortion as well as longitudinal and transverse shrinking For example, in a single V butt weld, the fst weld run produces longitudinal land transverse shrinkage and rotation. The second run causes the plates to rotate using the fist weld deposit as a fulcrum. Therefore balanced welding in 8 double side V butt joint can be used to produce uniform contraction and prevent angular distortion. wunw.twitraining.com Twi ro iCregne nwa Similar, in @ single-sided filet weld, non-uniform contraction wil produce ‘angular distortion of the upstanding leq. Double-sided fit welds can tharefore be used to contol distortion in the upstanding filet but because the weld is only deposited on one side of the base plate, angular distortion will now be produced inthe plat. Longitudinal bowing in welded plates happens when the weld centre is not Coincident with the neutral axis of the section so that iongitudinal shrinkage inthe welds bends the section into @ curved shape, Clad plate tends to bow in two directions due to longitudinal and transverse shrinkage of the cladding. This produces a dished shape. Dishing is also produced in stifened plating. Plates usually dish inwards between the siffeners, because of angular distortion at the stifener attachment welds In plating, long range compressive stresses can cause elastic buckling in thin plates, resuting n dishing, bowing or rippling, see below. Examples of citation. Increasing the leg length of filet weld 10.3. What are the factors affecting distortion? Hf @ metal is uniformly heated and cooled there would be almost no distortion. However, because the material is locally heated and restrained by ‘the surrounding cold metal, stresses are generated higher than the material Yield stress causing permanent distortion. The principal factors affecting the {ype and degree of distortion are: in particular, increases shrinkage. ‘+ Parent matetal properties, Amount of restraint. ‘© Joint design wurw.twitraining.com‘ces nies 103.1 10.3.2 103.3 103.4 103.5 TWI 2 tr + Part ftup, + Welding procedure Parent material properties Parent material properties, which influence distortion, are coefficient of thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, and to a lesser extent, yield stress and Young's modulus. As distortion ‘is determined by expansion and contraction of the material, the coefficient of thermal expansion of the material plays a significant role in determining the stresses generated during \welding and, hence, the degree of distortion. For example, as stainless stoel has a higher coefficient of expansion and lesser thermal conductivity than plain carbon stee|, it generally has significanty more dstorton. Restraint If component is welded without any extemal restrain, it distorts to relieve the welding stresses. So, methods of restraint, such as strongbacks in butt ‘welds, can prevent movement and reduce distortion. As restraint produces higher levels of residual stess in the material, there is a greater risk of ‘racking in weld metal and HAZ especially in crack-sensiive materials. Joint design Both butt and filet joints are prone to distortion, but it can be minimised butt joints by adopting a joint type, which balances the thermal stresses ‘through the plate thickness. For example, double in preference to a single- sided weld. Double-sided filet welds should eliminate angular distortion of the upstanding member, especially if the two welds are deposited at the same time, Part fitup Fitup should be uniform to produce predictable and consistent shrinkage. Excessive joint gap can also increase the degree of distortion by increasing the amount of weld metal needed to fil the joint. The joints should be ‘adequately tacked to prevent relative movement between the parts during welding Welding procedure This influences the degree of distortion mainly through its effect on the heat input. As welding procedures are usually selected for reasons of quality and productivity, the welder has limited scope for reducing distortion. As a ‘general rule, weld volume should be kept to a minimum. Also, the welding Sequence and technique should aim to balance the thermally induced stresses around the neutral axis of the component.10.44 Distortion - prevention by pre-setting, pre-bending or use of restraint Distortion can cften be prevented at the design stage, for example, by placing the welds about the neutral axis, reducing the amount of welding ‘and deposting the weld metal using @ balanced welding technique. In designs where this is not possible, distortion may be prevented by one of the following methods: ‘+ Pro-sotting o” parts. * Pre-bending af parts. © Use of restrant. ‘The technique chosen willbe influenced by the size and complexity of the ‘component or assembly, the cost of any restraining equipment and the need to limit residual stresses ‘Lr Ly *\ LP LP eiyemneran eetorenttert _2)Pre.seting of tet joint to prevent angular distortion. _)re-seting of bt onto prevent angular distortion. Pre-setting of parts ‘The parts are pre-cat and left free to move during welding (see above). In practice, the parts are pre-set by a pre-determined amount so that distortion ‘occurring during welding is used to achieve overall alignment and ‘dimensional contol “The main advartages compared with the use of restraint are that there is no expensive equipment needed and there will be lower residual stress in the structure. Unfortunately, a it is diffcut to predict the amount of pre-seting needed to accommadats shrinkage, a number of tial welds will be required. For example, when MMA or MIG/MAG welding butt joints, the joint gap wall normally close ahead of welding; when submerged arc welding; the joint ‘may open up during welding. When carrying out tral welds, it is also ‘essential that the test structure is reasonably representative ofthe fullsize ‘structure in order to generate the level of distortion likely to occur in practice For these reasons, pre-setting is @ technique more suitable for simple ‘components or assemblies. Twi ~ COM exes www twitraining.com‘anes Tito Pro-bending, using strongbecks and wedges, to accommodate angular distortion in thin plates. 10.42 Pre-bending of parts re-bending, or pre-springing the parts before welding is used to pre-stress the assembly to counteract shrinkage during welding. As shown above, pre- bending by means of strongbacks and wedges can be used to pre-set 2 ‘seam before welding to compensate for angular distortion. Releasing the wedges after welding will alow the parts to move back into alignment. The figure shows the diagonal bracings and centre jack used to pre-bend the fixture, not the component. This counteracts the distortion iniroduced though out-of-balance welding 10.43. Use of restraint Because of the difficulty in applying pre-setting and pre-bending, restraint is ‘the more widely practised technique. The basic principle is that the parts are placed in position and held under restraint to minimise any movement during welding. When removing the component from the restraining equipment, a felatively small amount of movement wil occur due to lockedsin stresses, This can be cured by either applying a smell amount of pre-set or stress- roliaving before removing the restraint. When welding assemblies, all the component parts should be held in the correct position until completion of welding and a suitably balanced fabrication sequence used to minimise distorton. Welding with restraint will generate aditional residual stresses inthe weld ‘which may cause cracking. When welding susceptible materials, a suitable ‘welding sequence and the use of preheating will reduce this risk. Restraint is relatively simple to apply using clamps, jigs and fixtures to hold the parts during welding Welding jigs and fixtures digs and fixtures are used to locate the parts and ensure that dimensional accuracy is maintained whilst welding. They can be of a relatively simple construction, as shown in a) below but the welding engineer will need to ensure that the finished fabrication can be removed easily after welding TWI 70510.44 TWI ic “mr ‘esi es a to Grove nm tt Flexible clamps A fiexible clamp (b) below) can be effective in applying restraint and also Setting-up and maintaining the joint gap (it can also be used to close a gap that is too wide) [A disadvantage is that 2s the restraining forces in the clamp will be transferred into te joint wnen the clamps are removed, the level of residual stress across the joint can be quite high. ©) Strongbacks with wedges Restraint techniques to prevent stort, Strongbacks (and wedges) ‘Strongbacks are a popular means of applying restraint especially for ste work, Wedged strongbacks (¢)) above), will prevent angular distortion in plate and help crevent peaking in welding cylindrical shells. As these types Of strongback wil allow transverse shrinkage, the risk of cracking will be (greatly reduced compared with fully welded stronabacks. Fully wolded strongbacks (welded on both sides of the joint) (d) above) will minimise both angular distortion and transverse shrinkage. As significant stresses can be generated across the weld, which wil increase any tendency for cracking, care should be taken in the use of this type of strongback Best practice ‘Adopting the folowing assembly techniques will help to control distortion: ‘+ Pre-set parts so that welding distortion wll achieve overall alignment and. dimensional control with the minimum of residual stress, ‘+ Pre-bend joint edges to counteract distortion and achieve alignment and dimensional control with minimum residual stress. . wwe twitraining.comSap Twos + Apply restraint during welding by using jigs and fitures, flexible clamps, strongbacks and tack welding but consider the risk of eracking which can be quite significant, especially for fully welded strongbacks. ‘+ Use an approved procedure for welding and removal of welds for restraint techniques, which may need preheat to avoid forming imperfections in te component surface. 10.5 Distortion - prevention by design Design principles [At the design stage, welding distortion can often be prevented, or at least restricted, by considering: Elimination of welding, Weld placement. Reducing the volume of weld metal. Reducing the number of runs. Use of balanced welding, 10.6 Elimination of welding [As distortion and shrinkage are an inevitable result of welding, good design requires that not only the amount of welding is kept to a minimum, but also ‘the ‘smallest amount of weld metal is deposited. Welding can often be ‘eliminated at the design stage by forming the plate or using a standard rolled section, as shown below. a 7 mination of welds by: a) Forming the plate; b) Use of roled or extruded section. It possibla, the design should use intermittent welds rather than @ continuous run, to reduce the amount of welding. For example, in attaching stiffening plates, @ substantial reduction in the amount of welding can often be achieved whilst maintaining adequate strength106.1 Weld placement Placing and balancing of welds ere important in designing for minimum distortion. The chser a weld is postioned to the neutral axis ofa fabrication, the lower the leverage effect of the shrinkage forces and the final distortion, Examples of pocr and good designs are shown below. Distortion may be reduced by placing the welds around the neutral aus ‘As most welds are deposited away from the neutral axis, distortion can be ‘minimised by cesigning the fabrication so the shrinkage forces of an individual weld are balanced by placing another weld on the opposite side of ‘the neutral axis. When possible, welding should be carsied out altemately on opposite sides, instead of completing one side first. In large structures, if distortion is occuring preferentially on one side, it may be possible to take corrective actiors, for example, by increasing welding on the other side to Control the overall distortion Reducing the volume of weld metal ‘To minimise distortion, as well as for economic reasons, the volume of weld ‘metal should be limites to the design requirements, For a single-sided joint, the cross-section ofthe weld should be kept as small as possibie to reduce the level of angtiar distortion, asilustrated below. He as ck om aa [a -Relicng the amount of angular dlstotion and lterl shrinkage. 108 wa wr twitraining.com 4 = i qnrgs nus 108.3, TWI ee ‘Ways of reducing angular distortion and lateral shrinkage: + Reducing the volume of weld metal + Using single pass weld + Ensure filet welds are not oversize. {Joint preparation angle and root gap should be minimised providing the weld ‘can be made satisfactorly. To taciltate access, it may be possible to specify 4 larger root gap and smaller preparation angle. By cuting down the diference in the amount of weld metal atthe root and face of the weld, the ‘degree of angular distortion will be correspondingly reduced. Bult joints made in a single pass using dep penetration have litle angular distortion, ‘especially ia closed but joint can be welded (see above), For example, thin ‘section material can be welded using plasma and laser welding processes and thick section can be welded, in the vetical position, using electrogas ‘and electroslag processes. Although angular distortion can be eliminated, there wil stil be longitudinal and transverse shrinkage. In thick section material, 2s the cross-sectional area of a double V joint preparation is often only half that of a single V preparation, the volume of ‘weld metal to be deposited can be substantially reduced. The double V joint preparation also permits balanced welding about the middle of the joint to ‘eliminate angular cistotion [As weld shrinkage is proportional to the amount of weld metal both poor joint fi-up and over-welding wil increase the amount of distortion. Angular distortion in filet welds is particularly affected by overvelding. As design ‘strength is based on throat thickness, over-welding to produce @ convex ‘weld bead doas not inerease the allowable design strength but will increase the shrinkage and distortion. Reducing the number of runs ‘There are conficting opinions on whether itis better to deposit a given volume of weld metal using a small number of large weld passes or a large hhumber of small passes, Experience shows that for a single-sided butt joint, or filet wel, a large single weld deposit gives less angular distortion than if the weld is made with a number of small runs. Generally, in an unrestrained joint, the degree of angular distortion is approximately proportional to the number of passes, Completing the joint wth @ small number of large weld deposits results in more longitudinal and transverse shrinkage than a wold completed in a larger number of small passes, In a mult-pass weld, previously deposited \weld metal provides restraint, so the angular distortion per pass decreases as the weld is built up. Large deposits also increase the risk of elastic buckling particularly in thin section pate, en ‘www twitraining.comeee 10.6.4. Use of balanced welding Balanced welding isan effective means of contralling angular distortion in @ ‘muli-pass butt weld by arranging the welding sequence to ensure that angular distortion is. continually being corrected and not allowed to accumulate during welding. Comparative amounts of angular distortion from balanced weldirg and welding one side of the joint first are shown below. ‘The balanced welding technique can also be applied to filet joins, 2c em Oey ) iti Balanced welding to reduce the amount of angular distortion {if welding alternately on either side of the joint is not possibie, or if one side hhas to be completed frst, an asymmetrical joint preparation may be used with more weld metal being deposited on the second side. The greater ‘contraction resulting from depositing the weld metal on the second side wil hhelp counteract ihe distortion on the frst side. 1085 Bostpractice ‘The following design principles can control distortion: ‘+ Eliminate welding by forming the plate and using rolled or extruded sections, Minimise the amount of weld metal Do not over-weld Use intermittent welding in preference to a continuous weld pass. Place welds about the neutral axis Balance the welding about the middle of the joint by using @ double V int in preference to a single ‘Adopting best practice principles can have surprising cost benefits For ‘example, for a cesign filet eg length of 6mm, depositing an 8mm leg length will resuitin the deposition of 57% additional weld metal. Besides the extra cost of depositirg weld metal and the increase risk of distortion, itis costly to remove this exta weld metal later. However, designing for distortion contro‘Sage Wnuesen ‘may incur additional fabrication costs. For example, the use of a double V joint preparation is an excellent way to reduce weld volume and control Gistorion, but. extra costs may be incurred in production through ‘manipulation of the workpiece forthe welder io access the reverse side, 10.7 Distortion - prevention by fabrication techniques 10.7.1 Assembly techniques In general, the welder has litle influence on the choice of welding procedure but assembly techniques can often be crucial in minimising distortion. The principal assembly techniques are: + Tack welding. + Back-to-back assembly + Stifening Tack welding Tack welds are ideal for setting and maintaining the joint gap but can also be used to resist transverse shrinkage. To be effective, thought should be given to the number of tack welds, their length and the distance between them. With too few, there is the risk ofthe joint progressively closing up 2s ‘welding proceeds. In a long seam, using MMA or MIGIMAG, the joint edges: may even overlap. It should be noted that when using the submerged arc process, the joint might open up ifnot adequately tacked The tack welding sequence is important to maintain @ uniform root gap along the length ofthe joint. Three alterative tack-welding sequences are shown below: ‘+ Tack wald straight through to the end of the joint a). It is necessary to clamp the plates orto use wedges to maintain the joint gap during tacking, ‘+ Tack weld one end and then use a back stepping technique for tacking the rast ofthe joint b). ‘+ Tack weld the centre and complete the tack welding by back stepping c), ae eee Pia Sada teeth 13 b+ €¢ ¢ € ¢ ¢ Altemative procedures use for tack welaingto prevent iransversa shrinkage Twi fort YY a www switraining.comCopig THs 2008 Directional tacking is a useful technique for controling the joint gap, for ‘examle closing joint gap which is (or has become) too wide. \When tack welding, tis important that tacks which are to be fused into the main weld, are produced to an approved procedure using appropriately Qualified welders. The procedure may require preheat and an approved consumable as specified for the main weid. Removal of the tacks also needs careful control to avoid causing defects in the component surface, Back-to-back assembly By tack welding or clamping two identical components back-to-back, welding of both components can be balanced around the neutral axis of the combined assembly (see a) on next page). It is recommended that the assembly is sitess-elieved before separating the components. If stress- relieving is not 3one, it may be necessary to insert wedges between the ‘components (b) on next page) S0 when the wedges are removed, the parts ‘will move back to the correct shape or alignment. ae » ce wh Backto-back assembly f0 contra! dlstotion when welding two identical ‘components: 2) Assemblies tacked together before welang ») Use of wedges for components that astort on separation after welding TWI 12 wurw.twitraining.comT MT exesszcece 10.7.2 W. Stiffening clearance Longituaina stiteners prevent bowing in butt welded thn late joints. Longitudinal shrinkage in butt welded seams often results in bowing, especially when fabricating thin plate structures. Longitudinal stitfeners in the form of flats or angles, welded along each side of the seam (see above) are effective in preventing longitudinal bowing. Stffener location is important they must be ata Sufficient distance from the joint so they do not interfere with welding, unless located on the reverse side of a joint welded from one side. Welding procedure AA sullable welding procedure is usually determined by productivity and quality requirements rather than the need to control distortion. Nevertheless, the welding process, technique and sequence do influence the distortion level Welding process General rules for selecting a welding process to prevent angular distortion are: ‘+ Deposit the weld metal as quickly as possible. ‘© Use the least numberof runs to fil the joint Unfortunately, selecting a suitable welding process based on these rules ‘may increase longitudinal shrinkage resulting in bowing and buckling, In manual welding, MIGIMAG, a high deposition rate process, is preferred to MMA. Weld metal should be deposited using the largest diameter electrode (MMA), oF the highest current level (MIG/MAG), without causing lack-of- fusion imperfections. As heating is much slower and more difuse, gas welding normally produces more angular distortion than the arc processes. Mechanised techniques combining high deposition rates and welding speeds have the greatest potential for preventing cistortion. As the distortion T 7018eign Tt is more consistent, simple techniques such as pre-setting are more effective in controling anguiar distortion Welding technique General rules for preventing distortion are: Keep the weld (il) tothe minimum specified size ‘© Use balanced welding about the neutral axis. ‘© Keep the time between runs to a minimum, Angular distortion ofthe joint as determined by the number of runs inthe filet wel In the absence of restraint, angular cistorton in both filet and butt joints wall, be a function ofthe joint geometry, weld size and the number of runs for a ‘given cross-secion. Angular distortion (measured in degrees) as a function ‘of the number ofruns for 2 10mm leg length filet weld is shown above, It possible, balanced welding around the neutral axis should be done, for ‘example on double-sided fillet joints, by two people welding simultaneously. In butt joints, the run order may be crucial in that balanced walding can be Used to correct angular distortion as it develops, 7 = eoCop Thu 107.3 Twi 7345 Use of welding direction to control distortion: 8) Bockestop welding: 2) Skip wolarg Welding sequence ‘The welding sequence, or direction, of welding is important and should be towards the free end ofthe joint. For long welds, the whole of the weld is not ‘complated in one direction. Short runs, for example using the back-step or ‘skip welding technique, are very effective in distortion contra (see above). ‘+ Back-step welding involves depositing short acjacent weld lengths in the ‘opposite direction tothe general progression (see above). ‘+ Skp welding is laying short weld lengths in a predetermined, evenly spaced, sequence along the seam (b) in above figure). Weld lengths and the spaces between them are generally equal to the natural run-out length of one electrode. The direction of deposit for each electrode is the same, but it is not necessary for the welding direction to be opposite to the direction of general progression, Best practice “The following fabrication techniques are used to control distortion: + Using tack welds to set-up and maintain the joint gap. + Identical components welded back-to-back so welding can be balanced about the neutral axis + Attachment of longitudinal stifeners to prevent longitudinal bowing in butt welds of thin plate structures, ‘+ Where there is choice of welding procedure, process and technique should aim to deposit the weld metal as quickly as possible; MIG/MAG in preference to MMA or gas welding and mechanised rather than manual welding. ‘+ In fong runs, the whole weld should nat be completed in one direction; back-step or skip welding techniques should be used. www twitraining.com108 10.84 ‘Geen Nusa Distortion - corrective techniques Every effort should be made to avoid distortion at the design stage and by Lsing suitable febrication procedures. As it is not always possible to avoid distortion during fabrication, several wel-estabiished corrective techniques ‘can be employed. Reworking to correct distortion should not be undertaken lighty as itis costly and needs considerable skill to avoid damaging the component, General guidelines are provided on best practice for correcting distortion using mechanical or thermal techniques. Mechanical techniques The principal mechanical techniques are hammering and pressing Hammering may cause surface damage and work hardening In cases of bowing or anguiar distortion, the complete component can often be straightened on a press without the disadvantages of hammering Packing pieces are inserted between the component and the platens of the ‘ress, It's important to impose sufficient daformation to give over-correction ‘0 that the normal elastic spring-back will allow the component to assume ts comect shape, Use of prass fo comect bowing in T but joint Pressing to comect bowing in @ flanged plate is shown above. In long ‘components, distortion is removed progressively in a series of incremental pressings; each one acting over a short length. In the case of the Ranged plats, the load ehould act on the flange to prevent local damage to the web at the load points. As incremental point loading will only produce an ‘approximately straight component, it i better to use a former to achieve @ straight component orto produce a smooth curvature, Twi 7048 MT wes www twitraining.com‘Sens Wueson 1082 TWI 107 Best practice for mechanical straightening ‘The following should be adopted when using pressing techniques to remove distorion: + Use packing pieces which will over correct the distortion so that spring- back will return the component to the correct shape. + Check that the component is adequately supported during pressing to prevent buckling. + Use a former (or roling) to achieve a straight component or produce @ curvature, + As unsecured packing pieces may fly out from the press, the folowing safe practice must be adopted: Bolt the packing pieoes tothe platen, Place a metal plate of adequate thickness to intercept the missile. Clear personnel from the hazard area, ‘Thermal techniques ‘The basic principle behind thermal techniques is to create sufficiently high local stresses so that, on cooling, the component is pulled back into shape. 998 Localised heating to correct distortion. This is achieved by locally heating the material to a temperature where plastic deformation will occur as the hot, ow yield strength material tres to ‘expand against the surrounding cold, higher yield strength metal. On cooling to room temperature the heated area will attempt to shrnk to a smaller size than before heating. The stresses generated thereby will pull the component into the required shape (see above). Local heating is, therefore, a relatively simple but effective means of correcting welding distortion. Shrinkage level is determined by size, number, location and temperature of the heated zones. Thickness and plate size determines the area of the heated zone, Number and placement of heating ‘zones afe largely a question of experience. For new jobs, tesis will often be needed to quanily the level of shrinkage ‘Spot, line, or wedge-shaped heating techniques can all be used in thermal correction of distortion, ‘wurw twitraining.comeer Spot heating ‘Spot heating for carrctng bucking ‘Spot heating is used to remove buckling, for example witen a relatively thin sheet has beer welded to a sli frame. Distortion is corrected by spot heating on the convex side, If the buckling is regular, the spots can be ‘ranged symmetrically, stating at the centre of the buckle and working ‘outwards, Line heating ‘Line heating to carect angulr distortion in a filet weld, Heating in straght lines is often used to correct angular distortion, for ‘example, in filet welds. The component is heated along the line of the \welded joint but on the opposite side to the weld so the induced stresses wil pull the flange flat. Wedge-shaped heating “To corractdistartion in larger complox fabrications ik may be necessary to heat whole arees in addition to employing line heating. The pattern aims at shrinking one part of the fabrication to pul the material back into shape. ioe ‘www twitraining.comUse of wedge shaped heating to straighten pte ‘Apart from spot heating of thin panels, a wedge-shaped heating zone should be used from base to apex and the temperature profile should be uniform ‘through the plate thickness. For thicker section material, it may be necessary to use two torches, one on each side ofthe plate. [As a general guideline, to straighten a curved plate wedge dimensions should be: ‘+ Length of wadge - two-thirds ofthe plate width “+ Width of wedge (base) - one sixth ofits length (base to apex). ‘The degree of straightening will typically be 5mm in a 3m length of plate. Wedge-shaped heating can be used to correct distortion in a variety of situations, (see below): + Standard rolled secon, which needs correction in two planes a. + Buckle at edge of pate as an alternative to roling b). + Box section fabrication, whichis distorted out of plane c) 4) Standard rolied _b) Buckled edge of pate ©) Box fabrication Stoel section 7 Wedge shaped heating to corect alstorton TWI v8 www twitraining.comoa Sets tn ‘Serene sae TWI General precautions ‘The dangers of using thermal straightening techniques are the risk of over- shrinking too large an area or causing metallurgical changes by heating to too high a temperature. As a general rule, whten correcting distortion in steals the temperature of the area should be restricted to approximately to £600-650°C - dulled heat If the heating is interrupted, or the heat lost, the operator must alow the ‘metal to cool and then begin again Best practice fer distortion correction by thermal heating ‘The following should be adopted when using thermal techniques to remove distortion: ‘+ Use spot heating to remove buckling in thin shest structures, ‘© Other than ir spot heating of thin panels, use @ wedge-shaped heating technique. ‘+ Use line heating to correct angular distortion in plate, Restict the area of heating to avoid over-shrnking the component. ‘+ Limit the temperature to 600-650°C (dull red heat) in steels to prevent metallurgical damage. ‘+ In wedge heating, heat from the base to the apex of the wedge, penetrate evenly through the plate thickness and maintain an even temperature, Toa ‘www twitraining.comSection 11 Weldability of Steelscomin ura 11 Weldability of Steels 11.1 Introduction “The term weldabily simply mesns the ability to be welded and many types fof steel that are weldable have been developed for @ wide range of ‘applications. However, itis the ease or dificulty of making a weld with suitable properties and tree from defects which determines whether steels are considered 2s having ‘good weldabiiy’ or seid to have poor weldabilty. A steel is usually said to have poor weldabily iit is necessary take special precautions 10 avoid a particule type of imperfection. Another reason may be the need to ‘weld within @ very narrow range of parameters to achieve properties Fequired forthe joint. 11.2. Factors that affect weldability ‘A number of inter-related factors determine whether a stee! is said to have {00d or poor wedeabilty. These are: + Actual chemizal composition. + Weld joint configuration + Welding process to be used. + Properties required from the weldments, For steels with poor weldabiliy itis particularly necessary to ensure that ‘+ Welding procedure specifications give welding conditions that donot cause cracking but achieve the specified propertes. + Welders werk strictly in accordance with the specified welding conditions ‘+ Welding inspectors regularly monitor welders to ensure they are working strictly in accordance the WPSs, Having a good understanding of the characteristics, causes, and ways of ‘avoiding imperfections in steel weldments should enable welding inspectors to focus atterticn on the most infuential welding parameters when steels with poor weldabilty ae being used 41.3 Hydrogen cracking During fabrication by welding, cracks can occur in some types of steel, due to tho preceneo of hydrogen. The tochnieal name for this type of eradking hydrogen induced cold cracking (HICC) but tis often referred to by other names that describe various cheracterstics of hydrogen cracks: + Cold cracking - cracks occur when the weld has cooled down HAZ cracking - cracks tend to occur mainly in the HAZ TWI ~ wunw.twitraining.comast ceprgnte rs 20 + Delayed cracking - cracks may occur some time after welding has finished (possibly up to ~48h), ‘+ Underbead cracking - cracks occur in the HAZ beneath a weld bead. [though most hydrogen cracks occur in the HAZ, there are circumstances when they may form in weld metal. Figure 4 shows typical locations of HAZ hydrogen cracks, Figure 2 shows hydrogen crack in the HAZ of a filet wel, 1134. Factors influencing susceptibility to hydrogen cracking Hydrogen cracking nthe HAZ a steel ours when 4 conditions exist at tho sare tne Hydrogen evel > mr1009 of weld metal deposited Skene Zoot eld erece Temperature < 300°C Suscaptbie microstructure > 400HV hardness ‘These fur condtons (ou factors) ae muta interdependent so that he Iience of coe concn (fs eee lev eopents ‘on Rew sve the ines tse ters 1122 Cracking mechanism Hydrogen (H) can enter the moten weld metal when hyekogen containing tocies ere broken own atoms te weld oe Because H atoms ar very smal they can move about ise) nso steel fn who weld tal set they canis ote wel suave and escape ino te smoepher. However, a lower lompratures H canot ise as quick and ifthe weldment sols down qu to amen omperatreH wil become rapped “sua he HAZ Tw w8 wurw.twitraining.com133 ‘yas ue Zot If the HAZ has a susceptiole microstructure ~ indicated by being relatively hard and brite, there are also relatively high tensile stresses in the ‘weldment than F cracking can occur. The precise mechanism that causes cracks to form is complex but H is believed to cause embritiement of regions of the HAZ so that high-locaised stresses cause cracking rather than plastic straining. Avoiding HAZ tydrogen cracking Because the facors that cause cracking are interdependent, and each need to be at an active level at the same time, cracking can’be avoided by fensuring that at laast one ofthe four factors is not active during welding, Methods that can be used to minimise the influence of each of the four factors are constiered in the following sub-sections. Hydrogen ‘The principal source of hydrogen is moisture (H20) and the principal source Cf moisture is welding flux. Some fluxes contain cellulose and this can be a very active source of hydrogen. ‘Welding processes that do not require flux can be regarded as low hydrogen processes, Other sources cf hydrogen are moisture present in rust or scale, and oils and greases (hysrocarbons), Reducing the infuence of hydrogen is possible by: ‘+ Ensuring that fluxes (coated electrodes, fluxcored wires and SAW. fluxes) are low in H when welding commences, ‘+ Low H electiodes must be either baked & then stored in a hot hoiding ‘oven or supplied in vacuum-sesied packages. ‘+ Basie agglomerated SAW fluxes should be kept in a heated silo before issue to maintain ther as-Supplied, low moisture, condition ‘+ Check the dusibie hydrogen content ofthe weld metal (sometimes itis specified on the test certificate). + Ensuring that a low H condition is maintained throughout welding by not allowing fluxes to pick-up moisture from the atmosphere. + Low hydrogen electrodes must be issued in small quantities and the ‘exposure tims limited; heated ‘quivers’ facitate this conto + Fluxcored wire spools that are not seamlass should be covered or returned to asuitable storage condition when notin use. ‘+ Basic agglomerated SAW fluxes should be returned to the heated sio ‘when welding is not continuous. ‘+ Check the amount of moisture present inthe shielding gas by checking the dew point (must be bellow -60°C). TW 13 www twitraining.com‘+ Ensuring that the weld zone is dry and fee from rustscale and ollgrease, Tensile stross ‘There are always tensile stresses acting on @ weld because there are always residual stresses from welding. ‘The magnitude ofthe tensile stresses is mainly dependent on the thickness of the steel atthe joint, heat input, joint type, and size end weight of the ‘components being welded, Tonsil stresses in highly restrained joints may be as high as the yield strength of the steel and this is usually the case in large components with thick joints and itis not a factor that can easily be controled, The only practical ways of reducing the influence of residual stresses may be by: ‘Avoiding stress concentrations due to poor fi-up. ‘Avoiding poor weld profile (sharp weld toes). ‘Applying a stress-relief heat treatment after welding Increasing the travel speed as practicable in order to reduce the heat input + Keeping weld metal volume to an as low level as possible ‘These measures are particulary Important when welding some low alloy steels that have particuiary sensivty to hydrogen cracking. Susceptible HAZ microstructure AA susceptible HAZ microstructure is one that contains a relatively high proportion of hard brite phases of stoe!- particularly martensite ‘The HAZ hardness is @ good indicator of susceptibility and when it exceeds 2 certain value a particular steel is considered to be susceptible. For C and CC-Min steels this hardness value is ~ 350HV and susceptibility to H cracking increases as hardness increases above this value, The maximum hardness of an HAZ is influenced by: + Chemical composition ofthe steel. ‘© Cooling rate of the HAZ after each weld run is made. For C and C-Mn steals a formula has been developed to assess how the chemical composition will influence the tendency for significant HAZ hardening - the carbon equivalent value (CEV) formula. Twi rT www twitraining.com‘Nevsbiny oie cope uesath ‘The CEV formula most widely used (and adopted by IW) is: CEVie = %C + Mn + GCr+ MO + HV + SNI+ MEU 6 5 15 ‘The CEV of a steel is calculated by inserting the material test certificate values shown for chemical composition into the formula. The higher the CEV of a steel ne greater its susceptibility to HAZ hardening and therefore the greeter the susceptibility to H cracking, “The element with most influence on HAZ hardness is carbon. The faster the rate of HAZ ccoling after each weld run, the greater the tendency for hardening Cooling rate tends to increase as: ‘+ Heat input decreases (lower energy input) + Joint thickness increases (bigger heat sink). Avoiding a susceptible HAZ microstructure (for C and C-Mn_ steels) requires: ‘+ Procuring steel with a CEV that is at the low-end of the range for the ‘steel grade (Imited scope of effectiveness). ‘+ Using moderate welding heat input so that the weld does not cool quickly (and give HAZ hardening). ‘+ Applying precheat so that the HAZ cools more slowly (and does not show significant KAZ hardening); in mult-run welds, maintain @ specific interpass temperature For low alloy stels, with additions of elements such as Cr, Mo and V, the CEV formula is not appiicable and so must not be used to judge the ‘susceptility to hardening. The HAZ of these steals will aways tend to be Telatvely hard regardless of heat input and pre-heat and so this is @ factor’ that cannot be effectively controlled to reduce the risk of H cracking, This is the reason why some of the low alloy steels have greater tendency to show hydrogen cracking than in weldable C and C-Nin steels, which enable HAZ hardness to be controled. Weldment at low temperature Weldment temperature has. @ major influence on susceptibility to cracking ‘mainly by influencing the rate at which H can move (diffuse) through the Weld and HAZ. While a weld is relatively warm (>~300°C) H wil diffuse quite rapidly and escape into the almosphere rather than be trapped and cause ‘embritlement. Ts worw twitraining.comcagwant ssi 134 14 TWI 118 Reducing the influence of low weldment temperature (and the risk of ‘rapping H in the weldment) can be effected by: + Applying a suitable pre-heat temperature (typically 60 to ~250°C). + Preventing the weld from cooling down quickly after each pass by ‘maintaining the preheat and the specific interpass temperature during welding. ‘+ Maintaining the pre-heat temperature (or raising it to ~250°C) when welding has finished and holding the joint at this temperature for a ‘number of hours (minimum 2) to facilitate the escape of H (called post heat *) *Post-heat must not be confused with PWHT at a temperature 2~600°C, Hydrogen cracking in weld metal Hydrogen cracks can form in steel weld metal under certain circumstances, ‘The mechanism of cracking, and identification of al the influencing factors, 's less clearly understood than for HAZ cracking but it can occur when ‘welding conditions cause H to become trapped in weld metal rather than in HAZ. However it is recognised that welds in higher strength materials, thicker sections and using large beads are the most common areas where problems arise. Hydrogen cracks in weld metal usualy lie at 45° to the direction of principal tensile stress in the weld metal and this is usually the longitudinal axs of the \weld (Figure 3). In some cases the cracks are of a V formation, hence an alternative name chevron cracking, ‘There are not any welldefined rules for avoiding weld metal hydrogen ‘racks apart from: ‘+ Ensure a low hydrogen welding process is used. ‘+ Apply preheat and maintain a speci interpass temperature, BS EN 1011-2 eniitied Welding — Recommendations for welding of metalic ‘materials ~ Part 2: Arc welding of fertc steels gives in Annex C practical guidelines about how to avoid H cracking. Practical controls are based principally on the application of presheat and control of potential H associated withthe welding process. Solidification cracking ‘The technically correct name for cracks that form during weld metal solidifcation is solidifcation cracks but other names are sometimes used when referring to this type of cracking, www twitraining.comcoyigae TW 24 ‘+ Hot cracking they occur et high temperatures ~ while the wel is hot ‘© Centreline cracking - cracks may appear down the centreline of the weld bead, ‘+ Crater cracking - small cracks in weld craters are solidification cracks. Because 2 weld metal may be particulary susceptible to solidification Cracking it may be said to show hot shortness because itis short of ductility ‘when hat and so tends to crack Figure 4 shows a transverse section of a weld with @ typical centreline solidification crack. 11.4.4 Factors influencing susceptibility to solidification cracking Solcification cracking accurs when three conditions exist at the same time: ‘+ Weld metal has a susceptible chemical composition. ‘+ Welding conditions used give an unfavourable bead shape ‘+ High level ofrestrant or tensile stresses present in the weld area, 11.42 Cracking mechanism [Al weld metals soldfy over a temperature range and since solidification starts at the fusion line towards the centreline of the weld pool, during the last stages of weld bead soliificaton there may be enough liquid present to form a weak zone in the centre of the bead. This liguid fim is the result of ow melting point constituents being pushed ahead ofthe solidification front. During solidification, tensile stresses start to build-up due to contraction of the solid parts of the weld bead, and itis these stresses that can cause the ‘weld bead to rupture. These circumstances result in a weld bead showing a ccentreline crack tat is present as soon as the bead has been deposited, Centreline soldfcation cracks tend to be surface breaking at some point in their length and can be easily seen during visual inspection because they tend to be relatively wide cracks, 11.43 Avoiding solidification cracking ‘Avoiding solidification cracking requires the influence of one of the factors responsibe, to te reduced to an inactive level Weld metal composition ‘Most C and C-Nin stee! weld metals made by modem steelmaking methods do not have chemical compositions that are particularly sensitive to solidification cracking. However, these weld metals can become sensitive to this type of cracking if they are contaminated with elements, or compounds, that produce relatively ow melting poi fms in weld metal Twi w MT wesc www twitraining.comcopyigite Talis 2011 ‘Sulphur and copper are elements that can make steel weld metal sensitive to solidification cracking if they are present in the wold at relatively high levels. Sulphur contamination may lead to the formation of iron sulphides that remain liguid when the bead has cooled down as low as ~880°C, whereas bead solcation starts at above 1400°C, The source of sulphur may be contamination by ol or grease or it could be picked up from the less refined parent steel being welded by dluton into the weld, Copper contamination in weld metal can be similarly harmful because it has low solubility in steel and can form films that are stil molten at ~1100°C. Avoiding solidification cracking (of an otherwise non-sensitive weld metal) requires the avoidance of contamination with potentially harmful materials by ensuring ‘+ Weld joints are thoroughly cleaned immediately before welding ‘© Any copper containing welding accessories are suitable/in suitable ‘concition = such as backing-bars and contact tips used for GMAW, FCAW and SAW. Unfavourable welding conditions Unfavourable welding conditions are those that encourage weld beads to solidity so that low melting point flms become trapped at the centre of solicitying weld bead and become the weak zones for easy crack formation. Figure 5 shows a weld bead that hes solidified using unfavourable welding conditions associated with centreline solfcation cracking, The weld bead has a cross-section that is quite deep and narrow ~ a width= to-depth ratio <-2 and the solidifying dendrites have pushed the lower melting point iquid to the centre of the bead where it has become trapped Since the surrounding material is shrinking as a result of cooling, tis film ‘would be subjected to tensile stress, which leads to cracking. In contrast, Figure 6 shows a bead that has a width-to-depth ratio that is 2. This bead shape shows lower meting point liquid pushed ahead of the solidiying dendrites but it does not become trapped at the bead centre, Thus, even under tensile stresses resulting from cooling, this fm is sel healing end cracking is avoided, ‘SAW and spray-transfer GMAW are more likely to give weld beads with an Unfavourabie width-to-depth ratio than the other arc welding processes. ‘Also, electron beam and laser welding processes are extremely sensitive to this kind of cracking as a result ofthe deep, narrow beads produced. ‘Avoiding unfavourable welding conditions that lead to centreline solidification cracking (of weld metals with sensitive compositions) may require significant changes to welding parameters, such as reducing the: 8 wurwtwitraining.com15 154 ‘+ Welding current to give a shallower bead). and ‘+ Welding speed (to give a wider weld bead) ‘Avoiding unfavourable welding conditions that lead to crater cracking of a ‘sensitive weld metal requires changes to the technique used at the end of a ‘weld when the arc is extinguished, such es: + For TIG welsing, use @ current slope-out device so that the current, and weld pool depth’ gradually reduce before the arc is extinguished (gives ‘more favourable weld bead width-to-depth ratio). It is also a common practice to backtrack the bead slightly before breaking the arc or lengthen the arc gradually to avoid crater cracks. © For TIG welding, modify weld pool solidification mode by feeding the filler Wire info the pool untl solidification is almost complete and avoiding a ‘concave crater. © For MMA, modify the weld pool solidifcation mode by reversing the direction of travel at the end of the weld run so that crater i file, Lamellar tearing Lamellar tearing is a type of cracking that only occurs in steel plate or other rolled products underneath a wel. Characteristics oflamelar tearing are: ‘Cracks only eccur in the rolled products og plato and soctions. Most commen in C-Mn steele ‘Cracks usualy form close to, but just outside, the HAZ. Cracks tend to lie parallel 1o surface of the material (and the fusion boundary of he weld), having a stepped aspect. ‘The above characteristics can be seen in Figure 72, Factors influencing susceptibility to lamellar tearing Lamellar tearing occurs when two conditions exist atthe same time: + Asusceptile oled plate is used to make a weld joint. ‘+ High stresses act in the through-ihickness direction of the susceptible ‘material (known as the shor-transverse direction). Susceptible rolled plate ‘Amateral that is susceptible to lamellar tearing has very low ductliy in the through-thickness direction (shortransverse direction) and is only able to ‘accommodate the residual stresses from welding by tearing rather than by plastc straining, TWI 18 MT west wae twitraining.comPeeteniieen ‘Low through-thickness ductity in roled products is caused by the presence (of numerous non-metallic inclusions in the form of elongated stringers. The Inclusions form in the ingot but are flatened and elongated during hot roling of the materia Non-metalic inclusions associated with lamellar tearing are principally ‘manganese sulphides and manganese silicates. High through-thickness stress Weld joints that are T, K and Y configurations end up with a tensile residual stress component in the through-thickness direction, ‘The magnitude of the through-thickness stress increases as the restraint (tiidity) ofthe joint increases. Secton thickness and size of weld are the ‘main influencing factors and its in thick section, full penetration T, K and jpints that lamellar tearing is more likely to occur. 11.5.2 Cracking mechanism High stresses in the through-thickness direction, that are present as welding residual stresses, because the inclusion stringers to open-up (de-coheso) ‘and the thin ligaments between individual de-cohesed inciusions then tear ‘and produce a stepped crack Figure 11b shows a typical step-like lamellar tear. 11.53 Avoiding lamettar tearing Lamellar tearing can be avoided by reducing the influence of one, or both, of the factors, ‘Susceptible rolled plate EN 10164 (Steel products with improved deformation properties perpendicular to the surface of the product ~ Technical delivery conditions) {ives guidance on the procurement of plate to resist lamellar tearing Resistance to lamellar tearing can be evaluated by means of tensile test pieces taken with their axes perpencicular tothe plate surface (the through- {hicknese direction). Through-thickness ductility is measured as the % reduction of area (PR of A) at the point of fracture of the tensile test piece (Figure 8) ‘The greater the measured %R of A, the greater the resistance to lamellar tearing, Values in excess of ~20% indicate good resistance even in very highly constrained joints Twi a LM esse wurw.twitraining.comfasts tt Reducing the suscopibilty of rolled plate to lameliar tearing can be achieved by ensuring that t has good through-thickness ductility by ‘+ Using clean steel that has ow sulphur content (<~0.018%) and ‘consequently has relatively few inclusions. ‘+ Procuring steel plate that has been subjected to through-thickness tensile testing to demonstrate good through-thickness ductility (as EN 10164) Through-thickness stress ‘Through thickness stress in T, K and Y joints is principally the residual ‘stress from welcing, although the additional service stress may have some influence, Reducing the magnitude of through-thickness stresses for a particular weld joint would require modification to the joint, in some way and so may not always be practical because of the need fo satisfy design requirements, However, methods that could be considered are: Reducing the size of tho weld by: Using a partial penetration butt weld instead of full penetration. Using filet woids instead of aful, or a partial pen butt weld (Figure 11.6). By applying 2 buttering layer of weld metal to the surface of a susceptble plate so that the highest through-thickness strain is located in the weld metal and not the susceptible plate (Figure 11.9) ‘+ Changing the joint design — such as using a forged or extruded intermediate piece so that the susceptible plate does not experience through-thickness stress (Figure 11.10}. TWI a wwe titraining.comSumas Figure 11.1 Hydrogen induced cold crack that nated the HAZ at the toe ofa filet wld, Twi 2 OM wu twitraining.comcope Lat in H 3 Uhre LE | ~ 1Y¥ a secre toxYaxs, Z. ae Figure 14.20 and ‘2) Plan view a plate butt weld showing subsurace transverse cracks; > Longitudinal section X-Y ofthe above weld showing Now the transverse cracks actual eat 45" to the surface. They fond to remain within an individual weld run land may be in weld several layers, Meir appearance inthis orientation has given Vise fo the name hewon' cracks farow shaped cracks) se ie www twitraining.comsey cts Figure 11.3 {).Solidifeaton crack at the wold bean centre where columnar dencites have trapped some lower melting pont iquid 1). Tho wold bead does not have en idee! shape but it has soled without the ‘dendrites meeting ‘end.on’ and trapping lower meting point liquid thereby resisting ‘olticaton eracking. Twi Tn wi taining comt ZR < 8 ZS] DC) 7 Twi nal www twitraining.com13.4 Supplementary symbols Wold symbols may be complemented by a symbol (0 inuicate Uy raguted shape ofthe weld Examples of supplementary symbols and how they are applied are given below. Designation Tiustaton of joint preparation aL Flat (lush) single V butt wala Convex double V butt weld OX] 2. Condition: Cracks, chips and concentric. @ www twitraining.comsybian Gonearabee ne TLS ‘Checks should also be made to ensure that basic electrodes have been through the corre! precuse procedure. Having been baked to the correct temperature (ypically 300-380°C) for 1 hour and then held in a holding ‘oven at 150°C before being issued to the welders in heated quivers. Most slectrode fux ccatings wil deteriorate rapidly when damp and care should be taken to inspact storage facilities to ensure that they are adequately dry, and that all electrodes are stored in condiions of controled temperature and humidity 15.2 Cellulosic electrodes Calluloseis the arincipal substance in this type of electrode and comprising typically ~ 40% of the flux constituents, Cellulose is en organic material (naturally occurring) such as cotton and wood, but itis wood pulp that isthe principal source of cellulose used in the manutacture of electrode coverings. ‘Tho main characteristics of cellulosic electrodes are: + Cellulose breaks down during welding and produces carbon monoxide ‘and dioxide and hydrogen, ‘+ Hydrogen provides part of the gas shielding function and gives a ‘relatively high arc voltage. ‘+ The high arc voltage gives the electrode @ hard and forceful are with ‘good penetretionfusion ably ‘+The volume of slag formed is relatively smal, Cellulosic electrodes cannot be baked during manufacture or before ‘welding because this would destroy the cellulose; the manufacturing procedure is to harden the coating by drying (typically a 70-100°C). Because of the high hydrogen levels there is always some risk of H cracking which requires control measures such as hot-pass welding 10 facilate the rapid escape of hydrogen, Because of the risk of H cracking there are limits on the strength’ composition and thickness of steels on which they can be used (electrode are manufactured in classes E60xx, E7Oxx, E80xx and E90xx but both lower strength grades tend to be the most commonly used). ‘+ High toughness at low temperatures cannot be consistently achieved ‘rom this type of electrode (typically only down to about -20°C). 18.21 Applications of cellulosic Cellulosic electodes have characteristics that enable them to he used for vertical-down welding at fast travel speed but with low risk of lack-of-fusion because of ther forceful arc. trodes “The niche application for this type of electrode is gith seam welding of large diameter steel pipes for overiand pipelines (Transco (BGAS) P2, BS 4515 ‘and API 1104 applications). No other type of electrode has the ability to TWI aes TT wi titaining.comconw Fsa0i allow root pass welding at high speed and stil give good root penetration when the root gap is less than ideal Because of their penetration abiliy these electrodes have also found application on oil storage tanks ~ for vertical and circumferential seam welding of the upperithinner courses for which preparations with large root ‘aces or square edge preparations are used. 15.3 Rutile electrodes Rutile is @ mineral that consists of about 90% titanium dioxide (TiOz) and is present in C and C-Min steel rutile electrodes at typically ~50%, Characteristics of rutile electrodes are: ‘+ They have @ very smooth and stable arc and produce a relatively thin slag covering that is easy to remove, ‘+ They give a smooth weld profile. + They are regarded as the most user-friendly of the various electrode types. ‘+ They have relatively high combined moisture content and because they ‘contain typically up to ~10% cellulose they cannot be baked and ‘consequently they do not give a low H weld deposit ‘+ Because of the risk of cracking they are not designed for welding of high ‘strength or thick section steel. ‘+ (Although electrodes are manufactured in classes E60x, E70xx, EBOx the EB0xx grade is by far the most commonly used). ‘+ They do not give high toughness at low temperatures (typically only down to about -20°C). ‘The above listed characteristics mean that this type of electrode is used for general-purpose fabrication of unalloyed, low strength steels in relatively thin sections (typically s ~13mm), 15.3.1 Rutile electrode variants By adding iron powder to the covering a range of thick-coated electrodes hhave been produced in order to enhance productivity. ‘Such electrodes give weld deposits thet weigh between ~135 and 190% of their core wire weight and so referred to as high recovery electrodes, or more specifically for example a 170% recovery electrode. The weld deposit from such electrodes can be relatively large and fluid end this restricts welding to the flat position and for standing filets for electrodes with the highest recovery rates. In all other respects these electrodes have the characteristics listed for standard rutile electrodes. Twi a es wonw.twitraining.comBasic electrodes tWasic electrodes are so named because the covering Is made witn a nigh proportion of basic minerals/compounds (alkaline compounds), such as ‘calcium carbonate (CaCOs), magnesium carbonate (MgCOs) and calcium fluoride (CaF) ‘A fully basic electrode covering wil be made up with about 60% of these basic mineralsioompounds. Characteristics cf basic electrodes are: ‘+The basic slag that forms when the covering melts reacts with impurties, ‘such as suiptur and phosphorus, and also reduces the oxygen content ‘of the weld metal by de-oxidation, ‘+ The relatively clean weld metal that is deposited gives a very significant improvement in weld metal toughness (C-Mn electrodes with Ni additions: can give good toughness down to 90°C). ‘+ They can be baked al relatively high temperatures without any of the compounds present in the covering being destroyed, thereby giving low ‘moisture content inthe covering and low hydrogen levels in weld metal + In order to maintain the electrodes in a low hydrogen condition they need tobe protected rom moisture pickup 'By means of beking before use (\ypicaly at ~350°C), transferring to @ holding oven (typically at ~120°C) and issued in small quantities andlor using heated quivers (‘portable ovens’) at the work station (ypicaly -70°. > By use of vacuum packed electrodes that do not need to be re- baked before use. ‘+ Basic slag is retatvely viscous and thick which means that electrode ‘manipulation requires more skill and should be used with a short arc 10 ‘minimise the risk of porosity. + The surface profile of weld deposits from basic electrodes tends to be convex and slag removal requires more effort Metal powder electrodes contain an addition of metal powder to the flux coating to increase the maximum permissible welding current level. Thus, for 2 given electrode size, the metal deposition rate end efficiency (percentage of the metal deposited) are increased compared with an electrode containing no iron powder in the coating. The slag is normaly ‘easily removed. ran powder electrodes are mainly used in the lat and HIV pposilons to lake advantage of the higher deposition rates. Cficiencies a high as 120-140% can be achieved for rutle and basic electrodes without marked deterioration of the arcing characteristics but the arc tends to be less forceful which reduces bead penetration. wuvwtwitraining.comcg Gonmtanee ss 20 154.1 Applications of basic electrodes Basic electrodes have to be used for all applications that require good fracture toughness at temperatures below ~ -20°C. To avoid the risk of hydrogen cracking basic electrodes have to be used for welding hardenable steals (most C-Mn and all low alloy steels) and for most steels when the join thickness is greater than about 15mm, 15.5 Classification of electrodes National standards for electrodes that are used for welding are + EN 499 - Covered electrodes for manual metal arc welding of non-alloy ‘and fine grain steals, + AWS AS.1 - Specification for carbon steel electrodes for shielded metal are welding + AWS AS.5 - Specification for low-alloy steal electrodes for shielded metal are welding Electrode classification is based on tests specified by the standard on weld ‘deposits made with each type of covered electrode. The standards require ‘chemical analysis and mechanical tests and electrode manufacturers tend to dual certify electrodes, wherever possible, to both the European and ‘American standards 155.1 EN 499 EN 499 - Covered electrodes for manual metal arc welding of non-alloy and fine grain staels (see Figure 1) This isthe designation that manufacturers print on to each electrode so that itcan be easily identified. The classification is split into two sections: ‘Compulsory section - this includes the symbols fr: + Type of product Strength + Impact properties. ‘© Chemical composition + Type of electrode covering Optional section - this includes the symbols for: + Weld metal recovery. +The type of current. ‘+ The welding postions, ‘+The hydrogen content TWI 18 wnw.twitraining.comTwi comp rus 0 ‘The designation, compulsory (strength, toughness and coating including ‘any ight alloying elements) must be identified on the electrode, however the ‘optional (postion, hydrogen levels ete are not mandatory and may not be ‘shown on all electrodes, 187 wurw.twitraining.comSo au ot ving nets compe? sao Figure 15.1The electrode classifcation system of EN 499, 15.5.2 AWS AS.1/5.1M: 2003 [AWS AS.1/5.1M: 2003 - Specification for carbon steel electrodes for shielded metal arc welding (see Figure 15.3). ‘This specification establishes the requirements for classification of covered ‘lectrodes with carbon steel cores for MMA welding. Requirements inciude TWI eemechanical properties of weld metal; weld metal soundness; and usabity of ‘electrodes. Requirements for chemical composition of the weld metal, moisture conten: of low hydrogen electrodes, standard sizes and lengths, ‘marking, manufacturing and packaging are also included. A guide to the use of the standard is given in an appendix. Optional supplementary Fequitements include improved toughness and ductility, lower moisture Contents and diffusible hydrogen limit. ‘The AWS classifcation system has mandatory and optional designators and requires that both the mandatory classification designators and any optonal designators be printed on each electrode. The last two digits of the ‘mandatory part of the classification are used to designate the type of Clectrode coatinglcovering and examples of some of the more widely used electrodes are shown below. “AWS AS.1 | Tensile strength, Nima Type of coating classification E6010 Caltulosie E6011 414 ‘Cellulosic E6012 Rutile E6013 Rutile E7014 Rl, ron powder E7015 482 ‘Basic E7016 Basic E7018 Basia, iron powder E7024 Rutile high recovery Figure 16.2 Exanples of some ofthe commonly used AWS AS.1 electrodes, Designates: analecode | Designates: tetensie svengin | Designates: The wading postion the (ran) inPSt of wold metal "ype of covering ana te kind of Figure 16.3 Mandatory cassfcation designstos TW 158 www twitraining.comcece Table 1 Common elecrades that are classified to BS EN 498 & AWS AS.1 (5.5 General descr ENG JAWSASAT | 55, Cellulosic electrodes Eweson SOTO (For vertical-down welding E4a23zc2 7010-6 "Stovepipe welding’ of pipeline girth welds) 4637021 8010-6 423025 7010-7 1° E464iNic25 | Es010-P 4° TP = specily designated piping electrodes Rutile electrodes ES2R 1D ERIS (For general purpose fabrication of | E420 12 5013 ow sirength steels ~ can be used for all postions except vertical-down) Heavy coated rutile electrodes |E420RR 13 EOS (tron-powder electrodes) E420RR74 7024 (For higher productivity welding for ‘general fabrication of low strength Steels can generally only be used for downhand or standing filet welding) Basic electrodes E4226 2HI0 EOE (For higher strength stools, thicker | £4248 32H5 E7018 Section steels where there is risk of H ‘racking: for all applications requiring | 466 Mn1NiB 1215 |E 7016-6 {900d fracture toughness) E856 MniNiB32H5 | E8018.01 E485 1NIB4SHS* | E8018.6 9018.6 10018.6 7 Varical-down low H slectrodes: MT sss 70 www tit itraining.comcss Fnsaon 156 1864 TIG filler wires Filer wares menufactured for TIG welding Nave compositions very similar 10 those of base materials. However, they may contain very small additions of ‘elements that wil combine with oxygen and nitrogen as a means of scavenging any contaminants from the surface of the Bese material or from, the almosphere For manual TIG, the wires are manufactured to the BS EN 440 and are provided in 1m lengths (Iypicaly 1.2, 1.6, and 2.4mm diameter) and for Identiication have flattened ends on which is stamped the wire designation (in accordance with a particular standard) and, for some grades, a batch umber. ‘TIG consumable dentifcation is stamped atthe end of the wire. For making precsion root runs for pipe butt welds (particulary for automated ‘TIG welding) consumable inserts can be used thet are made from material the same as the base material, or are compatible with it, For small diameter pipe, the insert may be a ring but for larger diameter pipe fan insert of the appropriate diameter is made from shaped stiphwire, ‘examples of which are shown below. a ee 2A WES TIG shielding gases Pure argon isthe shielding gas that is used for most applications and is the preferred gas for TIG welding of steel and gas flow rates are typically ~8-12 ltresimin for shielding ‘The shielding gas not only protects the arc and weld pool but also is the ‘medium required to establish a stable arc by being easy to ionise. A stable ‘are cannat be established in air and hence the welder would not be able to ‘wold ifthe shieling gas were not switched on. TWI eH wwe twitraining.comcaps rio204 15.7 Twi 182 [Argon with a helium addition — typically ~0% may be used when a hotter arc is needed such as when welding metals with high thermal conductivity, such a coppericopper alloys or thicker section aluminium/aluminium alloys. There are some circumstances when special shielding gases are beneficial, for example: Ar+ 3-5%H for austenitic stainless steels and Cu-Ni alloys. ‘Ar +-~39%N for duplex stainless steels. TIG back-purging For most materials, the underside of a weld root bead needs to be protected byan inert gas (a back-purge) ~ typically ~6-8 les/min during welding For C steels and low alloy steels with total alloying additions <2.5% it may not always be necessary to use a back-purge but for higher alloyed stools land most other materials there may be excessive oxidation — and risk of lack of fusion iitis not used, MIGIMAG filler wires Solid filer wires manufactured for MIGIMAG generally have chemical ‘compositions that have been formulated for particular base materials and ‘the wires have compositions similar to these base materials. Sold wices for ‘welding steels with active shielding gases are deoxidised with manganese land sileon to avold porosity. Thare may also be titanium and alumiaium ‘additions. Mild steel filer wires are available with diferent levels of deoxidants, known as double or triple de-oxidised wires. More highly deoxidised wires are more expensive but are more tolerant of the plate surface condition, eq mill scale, surface rust, ol, paint and dust. There may, therefore, be a reduction in the amount of cleaning of the steel before welding These deoxidiser addons yield a smal amount of glassy slag on the surface of the weld deposit, commonly referred to as silica deposits. These ‘small pockets of siag are easily removed with light brushing; but when galvanising or painting after welding, it is necessary to use shot blasting During welding, it is common practice to weld over these small islands since they do not represent a thick slag, and they usualy spall off during the contraction of the weld bead. However, when multipass welding, the slag level may build up to an unacceptable level causing weld defects and unreliable ace starting wwe twitraining.comcot swrisaats ‘Steel wires usually have a flash coating of copper to improve current pick-up fand to extend the shotf Ife of the wire. However, the copper coating can ‘Sometimes flake off and be drawn into the liner and wire feed mechanism, particulary if thee is misalignment inthe wire feed system. This may cause Clogging and erratic wire feed. Uncoated wires are avaliable as an alternative, although electrical contact may not be as good as with copper- coated wires, and contact tip operating temperatures may be higher. ‘Some typical Stendards for specication of steel wire consumables are: EN 440 ‘Welding consumabies - Wire electrodes and deposits for gas shielded metal ‘are welding of non-alloy and fine grain steels - Cassfication, EN 12534 ‘Welding consumables - Wire electrodes, wires, rods and deposits for gas shielded metal arc welding of high strength steels - Classification. Wire sizes are typically in the range 0.6-2.4mm diameter but the most ‘commonly used sizes are 0.8, 1, 1.2 and 1.6mm and provided on layer wound spools fo consistent feeding. ‘Spools should be labelled to show the classification of the wire and its’ diameter. Flux-cored and metal-cored wires are also used extensively although the process is then referred to as FCAW (fux-cored arc welding) and MCAW (metal cored are welding) 15.7.4 MIGIMAG gas shielding For non-ferrous metals and their alloys (such as Al, Ni and Cu) an inert shielding gas must be used. This is usually ether pure argon or an argon, rich gas witha helium addition. ‘The use of a full inart gas isthe reason why the process is also called MIG. \walding (metal inert gas) and for precise use of terminology this name should only be tsed when referring tothe welding of non-ferrous metas, ‘The addition of some helum to argon gives a more uniform heat ‘concentration within the are plasma and this effects the shape of the weld bead profile, ‘Argomhelium mixtures effectively give a hotter arc and so they are beneficial for welding thicker base materials those with higher thermal cconcuctvity eg copper or aluminium. Twi 183 MT nsec wor stralning.comcom's rinussot For welding of steels —all grades, including stainless steels — there needs to be a controlled addition of oxygen or carbon dioxide in order to generate a stable arc and give good droplet wetting. Because these additions react with ‘the molten metal they are referred to as active gases and hence the name MAG welding (metal acive gas) is the technical term that is use when referring to the welding of steels, The percentage of carbon dioxide (CO.) or oxygen depends on the type of steel being welded and the mode of metal transfer being used — as indicated below: » + 100%C0, For low carbon steel to give deeper penetration (Figure 4) and faster Welding this gas promotes globular droplet transfer and gives high levels Of spatter and welding fume. + Argon + 15 10 25%COs Widely used for carbon and some low alloy steols (and FCAW of stainless steels. + Argon + 4 10 5%02 Widely used for stainless steels and some low alloy steels. wey" Figure 15.4 Effects of shielding gas composition on wed ponstration and profile, wurw.twitraining.com Twi ry imVomsandoasiome +23 4s8 7 Few HR RM ox 18 aT ep come ; ‘pena Bamncovmaee Figure 15.5 Active shielding gas mikturos for MAG welding of carbon, carbon- ‘manganese and by alloy steels. Blue is @ cooler gas mixture; red is a hotter mixture. ‘Gas mixtures - hellum In place of argon gives a hotter arc, more fluid weld pool and better weld profi, These quaternary mixtures permit higher ‘welding speeds, but may not be suitable for thin sections. Stainless stools Austenitic stainless stools are typically welded with argon-COx/O3 mixtures, {or spray transfer, or argon-helium-COs mixtures for all modes of transfer. ‘The oxidising potential of the mixtures are kept to a minimum (22.5% ‘maximum CO; conten!) in order to stablise the arc, but with the minimum effect on corrosion performance. Because austenitic steels have a high thermal conduaivity, the addition of helium helps to avoid lack of fusion defects and overcome the high heat dissipation Into the material. Helium additions are up to 85%, compared with ~25% for mixtures used for carbon {and tow alloy steels. CO; -containing mixtures are sometimes avoided to ‘eliminate potental carbon pick-up. Saseneeel a UU Figure 18.6 Active shiekting gas miures for MAG welding of stainless steels. Twi TS COM wees we titraining.comTwi 7546 Blue is a cooler gas mixture; red is a hotter mixture For martensitic and duplex stainless steels, specialist advice should be sought. Some Ar-He mixtures containing up to 2.5%Ns are available for ‘welding duplex staniess steels. Light alloys, eg aluminium and magnesium, and copper and nickel and their alloys Inert gases are used for light alloys and alloys that are sensitive to oxidation. Welding grade inert gases should be purchased rather than commercial purity to ensure good weld quality. Argon: ‘Argon can be used for sluminium because there is sufficient surface oxide available to stabilise the arc. For materials that are sensitive to oxygen, such 26 titanium and nickel alloys, arc stabilty may be difficult to achieve with inert gases in some applications, “The density of argon is approximately 1.4 times that of air. Therefore, in the 1 has basic characteristics; fuly basic fuxes have Bl of “335. + Aflux wth BI

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