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Wind Tunnels and Their Instrumentation PDF
Wind Tunnels and Their Instrumentation PDF
Wind Tunnels and Their Instrumentation PDF
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WIND T U N N E L S
AND T H E I R
I NS T R U M E NTATlON
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lI11
WIND TUNNELS
AND
THEIR INSTRUMENTATION
and
Copyright 0 1966
Israel Program for Scientific Translations Ltd.
IPST C at . No. 1680
T r a n s l a t e d by P. Boltiansky, E. E.
Edited b y IPST Staff
Price: $ 9 . 00
XII/13/4.5
-
r
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
v
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
Chapter I . THE DESIGN OF MODELS FOR AERODYNAMIC EXPERIMENTS .
. 3
5 1. Criteria of similarity . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
9 2. Coordinate axes. Aerodynamic coefficients . . . . .
8
Chapter I1 . WIND TUNNELS AND INSTALLATIONS . . . . . . . .
13
9 3. Operating principles of wind tunnels . . .. . . . .
13
. . .
5 4 . Subsonic wind tunnels . Open-circuit tunnels . .
24
$ 5 . Transonic tunnels . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
(5 6 . Supersonic wind tunnels . . . . . . . . . . .
63
5 7 . Hypersonic wind tunnels . . . . . . . . . . .
86
5 8 . Wind tunnels for testing aircraft engines. . .. . .
115
Chapter I11. WIND TUNNEL DESIGN CALCULATIONS . . . . . . . .
122
5 9 . Design of subsonic tunnels . . . . . . . . . . .
122
$10. Gas dynamics of supersonic tunnels . . . . . . . .
142
Chapter IV . MEASUREMENT OF FLOW PARAMETERS I N WIND TUNNELS .
. 156
(511. Pressure measurement . . . . . . . . . . . .
160
$12. The measurement of the Mach number and flow velocity .
. 173
513. The measurement of flow direction . . . . . . . .
195
(514. Measurement of temperature in flow . . . . . . . .
207
51.5. Measurement of density: humidity corrections . . . . .
219
5 1 6 . Boundary-layer measurements . . . . . . . . . .
223
$ 1 7 . Instruments for mapping distributions . . . . . . .
232
518 . Visual and optical methods of flow distributions . . . .
239
Chapter V . INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS FOR PRESSURE MEASUREMENT . 255
manometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
...
lll
. . . .
625 . Wind-tunnel balances located outside the model 328
529 . . . . .
The errors of wind-tunnel balances. Calibration 425
.
$30 Adjustment of wind tunnels . . . . . . . . . . 438
.
5 3 1 Techniques and methods of balance measurements . . . 445
.
5 3 4 Testing of blade cascades . . . . . . . . . . . 476
.
635 Testing of fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
.
536 Experimental determination of local resistances . . . . 496
.
537 Testing of wind turbines . . . . . . . . . . . 503
.
039 Determining rotational derivatives . . . . . . . . 510
.
$ 4 3 Methods of automatically processing measured data . . . 564
. .
$ 4 4 Digital conversion of measured values Digital
conversion of angles . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
.
$ 4 5 Processing the measured data on computers . . . . . 586
iv
FOREWORD
S. M. G.
I. I. s.
r
IN TR ODUC TION
I
Even m o r e involved a r e supersonic wind tunnels, where the power may
r e a c h t e n s , and even hundreds, of megawatts. Measuring techniques,
developed f o r use a t lower speeds, can still, with c a r e , be used, but
optical techniques become m o r e important, and supplementary techniques
must be introduced. The installations a r e f a r m o r e expensive; a
considerable p a r t of the book is devoted t o the use of automatic measuring
and data -proces sing techniques which thus become economical.
Hypersonic speeds, only lately being studied, involve high temperatures
and physicochemical p r o c e s s e s in gases. They demand a new approach
t o wind-tunnel design; techniques and instrumentation a r e being evolved
rapidly, and t h e i r full description would justify a s e p a r a t e volume. Here
we have m e r e l y reviewed this aspect of the subject in o r d e r t o acquaint
r e a d e r s with the trends.
Within each of the five speed ranges it is impossible to separate sharply
measuring techniques and u s e of equipment f r o m installation design. We
have therefore alloted individual chapters t o the description of aerodynamic
r e s e a r c h installations, t o the measurement of the various flow p a r a m e t e r s ,
to wind-tunnel balances, etc. We hope that this method of presentation w i l l
p e r m i t the r e a d e r to study each problem in detail, while avoiding the
repetition which would inevitably follow f r o m a division of the material by
speed range. An exception has been made in the chapter on hypersonic
speeds, which combines a brief description of experimental installations and
common measuring techniques.
Chapter I
THE DESIGN OF MODELS FOR AERODYNAMIC
EXPERIMENTS
§ 1. CRITERIA OF SIMILARITY
A=--- V
@ .
Here n, is the number of revolutions of the screw; the advance ratio,
relating the flight speed to the circumferential velocity of the blade tips,
is a f o r m of the Strouhal number, which ensures similarity of the systems.
For steady flow of viscous, incompressible liquids two conditions of
similarity apply. Both the Froude number
-- ---- . . -. _ . . I . . ....
following dimensionless p a r a m e t e r s in the two systems :
It thus follows that the ratio of the reactions RI and R1 of the fluid on
geometrically s i m i l a r (and similarly oriented) bodies is
T h e criterion C / T is important when t h e gases have different numbers of atoms per molecule. For
gases of t he same atomicities t h e values of x and PI w i l l b e the same.
*' Sutherland's Criterion can be written
-
where k and 14correspond t o T 273.1'.
t This ma y b e done by using t h e criterion
5
I1
l lllll Il
This law is exact only when the fluid displays ideal behavior during the
experiment,
For viscous flow of a fluid a t sufficiently high Reynolds number this
law is a good approximation. A t v e r y low velocities, corresponding to
s m a l l values of Re, the influence of the viscous f o r c e s i n c r e a s e s . When
inertia f o r c e s become negligible in comparison with the viscous drag, the
force on a body is proportional to the velocity, t o the l i n e a r dimensions of
the body, and to the coefficient of viscosity (Stokes Law). A t very high
Reynolds numbers viscosity effects d e c r e a s e while compressibility effects
increase. A s the flow velocity i n c r e a s e s , the f o r c e s due t o the elasticity
of the gas, which depend on its p r e s s u r e , become comparable with the
f o r c e s of friction, inertia etc. This causes not only a quantitative change i n
the aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the body (e. g., drag), but a l s o in the
nature of the flow around the body. In particular, a s M approaches unity,
the flow becomes locally supersonic in s e v e r a l regions around the body;
this causes shock waves and dissipation of energy, The p r e s s u r e distribution
over the body and the moments due t o the applied f o r c e s will change, and the
drag w i l l i n c r e a s e sharply. It may, therefore, be best to accept variations
of the Reynolds number in experiments, t o avoid changes in the Mach number
Attainment of full similarity i. e., similarity of all p a r a m e t e r s , may
in practice be impossible. If we choose the s a m e medium for the two
systems ( e . g . , water o r a i r ) at the s a m e temperature and p r e s s u r e , then
f o r equality of Fr, Re, and M we must have PI = p ~ ,V I = v 2 , , and 6, = g,; s o
that V , = V 2 and 1, = 1 2 , i. e., it is impossible t o obtain s i m i l a r motions in the
s a m e medium for two bodies of different s i z e s . Although in principle it is
possible to achieve similarity using two different liquids, it is in practice
difficult to select satisfactory values of v and a .
For these reasons it is possible to obtain only partial similarity in most
aerodynamic experiments, and we must select those c r i t e r i a on which the
phenomena of interest most strongly depend.
In practice, geometric similarity is fully maintained only when testing
full-scale prototypes under field conditions, o r when a full-scale model is
much s m a l l e r than the t e s t section of the wind tunnel. In most cases the
full-scale prototype is much l a r g e r than the tunnel, and t e s t s must be
made on a reduced scale, at which it is difficult t o reproduce faithfully the
shape of small projections and the surface finish of the prototype. This
unavoidably introduces inaccuracy, especially at high test velocities.
Dimensional tolerances in scale-model production a r e therefore sometimes
tenths o r hundredths of millimeters. Often, we model only the main
elements of a prototype: during comparative wing t e s t s the ailerons and
flaps a r e not modelled.
In current practice the orientation of bodies in space can be reproduced
with sufficiently high accuracy (0.1 to 0.2"). The Reynolds number is an
adequate c r i t e r i o n of similarity at low velocities. At Mach numbers above
0.3 or 0.4 (depending on the shape of the body and i t s orientation in the fluid)
compressibility becomes increasingly important, and the Mach number must
be reproduced in the model test. Aerodynamic characteristics will s t i l l ,
however, be considerably influenced by viscosity, and for accuracy in such
t e s t s it is necessary t o reproduce both Reynolds and Mach numbers.
When compressibility effects predominate (e. g., in a jet airplane o r
rocket) it is sufficient t o consider only the Mach number. In the s a m e
.. I
I
i
medium at equal temperatures, s i m i l a r i t y then r e q u i r e s only that
vz = VI .
The Reynolds number can be reproduced in a small-scale model by
increasing the velocity in inverse proportion t o the geometric s c a l e factor,
o r by increasing the density of the t e s t medium in inverse proportion t o the
product VI :::. It is technically difficult t o increase the velocity, since the
power required is proportional to V 3 . Even when adequate power is
available, it must be remembered that a s the velocity increases,
compressibility effects become increasingly important, s o that by
maintaining the Reynolds number constant we may cause changes in the Mach
number. It is therefore common practice t o reproduce the Reynolds number
by increasing the density, using variable-density wind tunnels, the flow
velocity being sufficient t o permit simultaneous reproduction of the Mach
number.
Reproduction of the Mach number requires reproduction of the r a t i o of the
flow velocity t o the velocity of sound. Since the velocity of sound is
a = V/wgRT it can be altered by varying either T o r the product x R .
The u s e of other gases instead of a i r 1 3 1 (e. g., Freon, which has a lower
value of x R , and requires much less power f o r a given M ) is technically
difficult.
In this discussion of similarity c r i t e r i a we have assumed that other things
being equal the s a m e velocities in Lhe two systems corresponded t o equal
f o r c e s . However, there a r e usually velocity fluctuations superimposed on the
mean velocities in a wind tunnel. The effect of these fluctuations on the flow
and on the forces acting on the model, is in many ways analogous t o the
effect of increasing the Reynolds number. The r a t i o of the r . m. s .
fluctuating velocitv t o the mean velocity of the undisturbed flow is the
turbulence level E of the undisturbed flow. It is necessary t o reproduce the
value of E a s closely a s possible in the model, since t h e r e is no p r a c t i c a l
way of calculating i t s effect on the aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . In few
wind tunnels a r e the values of E a s low a s in nature. Wind tunnels in which
E exceeds 0.5 t o 19'0 a r e unsuitable f o r physical aerodynamic research'"'" and
f o r these purposes it is usual t o build special low-turbulence tunnels.
When studying the flow of rarified gases, an important c r i t e r i o n of
s i m i l a r i t y is the Knudsen number 6 , which is the r a t i o of the molecular
mean f r e e path L to a representative length of the body o r the thickness of
the boundary layer. Molecular motion is important to a decreasing extent
/ 4 / in f r e e molecule flow and slip flow, and can be ignored generally in
gas dynamics (Figure 1. 1 ) .
Other characteristics of the gas or body, which may play an important
p a r t in the motion, will each involve new c r i t e r i a and s i m i l a r i t y conditions,
For instance, in the study of a vibrating wing in a gas s t r e a m , dynamic
s i m i l a r i t y depends on the dimensionless p a r a m e t e r s p V 2 / E ; GJE and n i / p 1 3
where E is Young's modulus, G the s h e a r modulus, and nz, the m a s s of the
wing.
In experimental work our problem is t o s e l e c t those s i m i l a r i t y c r i t e r i a
which most 'influence the t e s t r e s u l t s . Imperfect s i m i l a r i t y will lead t o
' I t should be remembered that r h e coefficient of dynamic viscosity 11 is independent of density, and there
fore of pressure. The coefficient of kinematic viscosity v = }i/p depends on cleiislty. and thus on pressure.
** Investigations of the structure of the boundary layer, the position of the transition point from laminar to
turbulant flow. ctc.
7
e r r o r s which must be evaluated when making predictions of prototype
behavior f r o m r e s u l t s of t e s t s on models, This is a particular case of the
basic problem of aerodynamics, i. e., t o determine the c r i t e r i a and
similarity conditions relevant to particular aerodynamic characteristics;
methods, instruments, and technology of a l l aeromechanical measurements
depend on the solution of this problem.
. .---. ..... 1
.1
1....1
.. m ... ..
" ,I .,..,,.I ...I
I..,
~~ I
In wind-tunnel t e s t s of fixed models, the f r e e - s t r e a m velocity is
opposed to the velocity of f r e e flight; to avoid having negative d r a g f o r c e s
we sometimes use a flow coordinate s y s t e m in which we replace the'n -axis
of the velocity s y s t e m by a n axis OQ in the opposite direction. The
directions of positive rotations in the flow s y s t e m of coordinates a r e the
s a m e a s in the velocity system. In the l i t e r a t u r e the OQ axis is often
denoted by Ox f o r simplicity; the r e a d e r should be aware of this.
9
A positive moment
angle of attack
X=-c&p 7 s, (1. 4)
The components of the moments, due to the total aerodynamic force, w ith
r e s p e c t to the coordinate axes a r e :
The heeling moment (m, is the coefficient of heel)
v,
M, =m,p -y SL,
10
The pitching moment ('mz is the coefficient of pitching)
VZ
M, = m,p 7 SL. (1.8)
o r drag
(1.10)
Normal force
(1.11)
and t r a n s v e r s e f o r c e
BIBLIOGRAPHY
12
- - --- . . .. .
Chapter 11
WIND TUNNELS AND INSTALLATIONS
13
14
The fan is installed at the end of the diffuser. The flow velocity in th2
tunnel is changed by adjusting the rotational speed of the fan.
The tunnel shown in Figure 2. 2 operates on the open-circuit principle
with closed t e s t section. In this tunnel the flow around the model is
confined between solid walls.
If i n such a tunnel w e increase the diffuser
length, providing a r e t u r n duct, and connect it t o the nozzle, w e
Already invented a t the end of the 19th century, wind tunnels are nowsdays
widely used in developed countries. The dimensions of existing tunnels vary
over a wide range - f r o m tunnels with t e s t sections whose cross-sectional
a r e a s a r e a few em2, t o tunnels which enable modern bombers t o be tested in
full-scale s i z e . The power, necessary t o operate such a tunnel, may attain
hundreds of thousands of kw. However, despite the great variety of types,
dimensions, and designs of wind tunnels, their principal c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
a r e the s a m e ; and differences a r e due only t o the specific requirements
which a given wind tunnel must fulfil.
The main requirement of a wind tunnel is the possibility of obtaining a
translational uniform r e c t i l i n e a r a i r flow.
The fulfillment of this
requirement is very difficult. To a f i r s t approximation linearity and flow
Special attention should be paid to tlie shape of tlie n o ~ z l e ,test section. and diffuser.
T h e linear
dimensions of transonic tunnels should be accurate t o within t 1/200 to lAOO0, whilethestraightnesaofthe
tunnel axis and the hlade angles of t h e fan, should be exact to within t 0.25" to t 0.5".
In supersonic wind tunnels the contour coordinates of the nozzles are practically accurate to withln
f 0.05 turn. Especially in the case of a high-speed tunnel, the inner walls must be not only smooth (the
permissible roirghness is i- 0.01 t o 0.31nm). but also sufficiently strong and elastic to withstand
damage by broken parts of t h e model and its supports in t h e test section and a t t h e leading edges o f the
blades of high-speed fans and coniprcssors. For this reason. in closed-circuit high-speed runnels,
provision inus; be m a d e for systematic dust removal.
.
I
T h e flow conditions in other parts of [he runnel are important only in as much as they affect the flow
conditions in the test section and rhe operation of the fan.
mean value by m o r e than f0.5 to 0.7570, while the flow direction in the
horizontal o r vertical plane should not deviate f r o m the axial direction
by m o r e than f. 0.25".
speed tunnels
3
FIGURE 2 . 3 . Velocity distribution in the test section of a wind runnel.
In tunnels with closed test sections, steps are also taken t o reduce the pressure gradient (see below).
16
\ 1 1 TSAGI-T5 0-2.251
Is with
2St
17
and c o r n e r s , A s a rule, such Xluctuations do not cause considerable
changes in the aerodynamic characteristics of the t e s t body, but lengthen
the t i m e required f o r measuring the aerodynamic forces, and cause
damage t o the tunnel.
whence
3
A=+-%.
2
19
II I I I Ill I 111 I II II I
The accuracy of experiments depends not only on the accuracy of the
instruments but a l s o on the degree t o which s i m i l a r i t y conditions a r e
maintained in the experiment, the exactness of boundary-layer corrections,
the allowance made f o r the interference between the model and i t s
supports, etc.
Types of wind-tunnel t e s t s
High- and low-speed tunnels require models of different strengths and designs.
1. Effect of flow quality. This is the effect of nonuniformities of
velocity distribution and of flow direction in the empty tunnel, i. e., when its
test section contains no model and is devoid of obstructions to the flow.
After determining the characteristics of the tunnel, we can introduce a
correction for the nonuniformity of flow velocity, using for processing the
experimental r e s u l t s the arithmetic mean velocity a t the point where the
model has its maximum span. Flow inclinations s m a l l e r than 0.25" can
be neglected since the relevant correction will be only 1 to 1.570of the
measured value. However, if the total flow inclination in the tunnel is a s
high a s f 1 the correction for the inclination must take into account the
O,
Axis of drag
c, =c; +ac;,
where a is measured in radians. F o r modern airfoils, which have
smalldrag, ac; i s small (of the order 2 to 370 of the value of c ; ) ; the
magnitude of a c i is comparable with that of c:. For instance, the
correction in cx when a = 1" and cy = 0.25 (corresponding to an angle of
attack of about 2") is approximately 0.0045, whereas the t r u e magnitude
of cX under these conditions is 0.015.
2. The effect of the model supports and s t r u t s . The components used to
support the model obstruct the flow, and cause a general change in velocity
and p r e s s u r e distributions around them; this, in turn, affects the magnitude
of the aerodyhamic forces acting on the model. The supports also cause
interference with nearby components of the model. Furthermore, the
aerodynamic f o r c e s acting on the supports a r e partially transmitted to
the wind-tunnel balance used for measuring the aerodynamic forces acting
21
on the model. A l l these effects must be taken into account and eliminated
f r o m the t e s t r e s u l t s . Methods f o r eliminating the effects on the supports,
and deriving test r e s u l t s r e f e r r i n g to the "clean" model a r e described below
(Chapter VIII).
3. Wall effects. Under actual conditions of t e s t s in wind tunnels the flow
boundaries have an important influence on the experimental r e s u l t s , In
general, this effect consists in that the model is surrounded by air moving
at a different velocity than that in a tunnel of infinite dimensions o r in f r e e
space, while the streamlines near the model a r e distorted.
FIGURE 2.7. Wall effects in a closed test section of a wind tunnel. T h e solid
lines show t h e streamlines corresponding to infinite flow; t h e broken lines te
present :he tunnel walls which constrain t h e flow.
22
at l a r g e subsonic velocities, when supersonic regions of flow and shocks
appear in the vicinity of the model.
In low-speed tunnels, the permissible degree of blockage by the model and
i t s supports is 5 to 6%. In transonic tunnels the permissible degree of
I blockage is only 2 t o 3%.
Figure 2 . 8 i l l u s t r a t e s the blockage effect i n a tunnel at l a r g e subsonic
velocities. The data have been calculated assuming M = 1 at the model
and i t s supports, although the velocity of the undisturbed flow is
considerably l e s s than the speed of sound. Figure 2 . 8 shows that the
permissible dimensions of the model and supports (their c r o s s -sectional
a r e a F ) rapidly d e c r e a s e with increasingfree-streamvelocity; a t M = 0.9
F is only about 1%of the cross-sectional area
of the t e s t section 1 2 1 . Additional effects a r e
due to the increasing thickness of the boundary
l a y e r , s o that it is very difficult t o c o r r e c t
adequately the r e s u l t s of t e s t s made a t n e a r -
sonic flow velocities.
In addition t o flow blockage by the model, the
blockage effect of wakes in closed-section wind
tunnels is a l s o important. Because of p r e s s u r e
l o s s e s in the flow around a model the total
p r e s s u r e in the wake is s m a l l e r than the total
p r e s s u r e outside it, while the s t a t i c p r e s s u r e s
in and outside the wake a r e practically the s a m e :
thus, by Bernoulli's Law, the velocity head and
the velocity in the wake will be l e s s than outside
the wake. Because the m a s s flow r a t e remains
local supersonic flow occurs. constant, the wake causes a local increase in
velocity near the model.
FIGURE 2.8. The influence of the
Wakes appear in the t e s t section not only
blockage effect in [lie lest section on
the onsc't ofsupc.rsonic flow. F, is the downstream of the model, but a l s o downstream
cross-sectional area of the test section; of s t r u c t u r a l tunnel elements situated upstream
P IS the cross-sectional area of the of the test section. Such elements include air
model and supports. coolers, supports, vanes, etc.
Static -pressure - g r a d i e n t . Because
of the velocity increase near the model, the static p r e s s u r e in the flow
decreases and a horizontal buoyancy force appears, giving rise to spurious
drag in measurements with wind-tunnel balances o r with manometers used
f o r measuring the s t a t i c - p r e s s u r e distribution on the s u r f a c e of the model>:.
If, however, the forrr, drag is determined by measuring the total p r e s s u r e s
upstream and downstream of the model, the static - p r e s s u r e gradient in
the t e s t section has no effect.
An axial s t a t i c - p r e s s u r e gradient can a l s o be caused by a n increase in
boundary-layer thickness along the walls of the t e s t sections o r the nozzles
since this causes a reduction in the effective c r o s s section of the tunnel;
the resulting velocity increase in the flow c o r e leads t o a decrease in s t a t i c
p r e s s u r e . This effect can be greatly reduced by gradually increasing the
c r o s s section of the tunnel by amounts calculated t o compensate f o r the
gradual increase in boundary-layer thickness. For this purpose the t e s t
section is slightly conical (diverging a t an angle of 0.5 t o 0.75").
' When the static pressure increases toward the diffuser, the horizontal buoyancy force will reduce the
value of the drag as measured by the wind tunnel,
23
L i f t e f f e c t . Lift effect is due t o the constraints t o flow around
a lift-producing airfoil, caused by the boundary l a y e r . The resulting
i n c r e a s e in velocity, and thus in lift, is apparent even in models whose
dimensions a r e very s m a l l in relation t o those of the tunnel. The effect
disappears completely f o r airfoils of z e r o lift.
It is necessary to reduce the dimensions of models in wind tunnels
operated a t near-sonic velocities in o r d e r t o avoid local velocity i n c r e a s e s
and shocks. This reduction in s i z e causes a corresponding reduction
in the corrections f o r the lift effect.
where p is the density and V the flow velocity of the a i r in the t e s t section
whose cross-sectional a r e a is F . The energy r a t i o is thus
-1 pFV3
A=- 2
N .
24
,,. ...., , ... ..._......--- -
Figure 2.9 shows schematically the layout of the TsAGI-T1;2 tunnel /3/, built
in 1926. The tunnel has two octagonal closed t e s t sections whose widths
a r e 3 and 6 m , and in which maximum flow velocities of 75 and 3 0 m / s e c
respectively a r e obtained with a 600h. p. fan.
In open-circuit tunnels with closed t e s t sections the p r e s s u r e is lower than
i n the surrounding medium. This makes it m o r e difficult t o c a r r y out t e s t s ,
and introduces inaccuracies into the determination of the f o r c e s acting on
the model, since atmospheric a i r leaks through the glands where the model
supports p a s s through the w a l l s of the t e s t section. F o r t h e s e r e a s o n s ,
Eiffel chamber
/
25
If the tunnel-house c r o s s section is l a r g e compared with the c r o s s
section of the tunnel (e. g., a tunnel-house width of about 5 o r 6 times
the tunnel diameter), the velocity distribution in the tunnel will be
satisfactory. A i r should not be drawn directly f r o m atmosphere into
an open-circuit tunnel, since this leads t o instability and nonuniformity
of flow in the t e s t section.
The T s A G I - T I ; ~tunnel (Figure 2.9) is of a type, intermediate between
the open-circuit and the closed-circuit type, which is most widely $sed.
A c h a r a c t e r i s t i c feature of the T-1;2 tunnel is the fact that the tunnel
house f o r m s a r e v e r s e diffuser, s o that the flow velocity in this tunnel is
uniform t o within 1 % ; the energy r a t i o is 3.5, whenahoneycomb is provided.
Closed-Circuit-Tunnels
In this type of tunnel a gradually widening diffuser leads the a i r back
into the nozzle, s o that the a i r continually r e c i r c u l a t e s in a closed loop.
Typical closed-circuit tunnels with open and closed t e s t sections a r e
shown in Figures 2 . 1 1 and 2 . 1 2 .
Figure 2 . 13 shows the test section of a closed-circuit full-size tunnel
(NASA, U . S. A . ) . The main elements of such tunnels a r e : nozzle, t e s t
fans vent
1680
26
FIGURE 2.13. Test section of large NASA tunnel. Dimensions 18" 9.1 m;
V = 53 m/sec; N= 8000 h . p .
Nozzle
27
If the frrctional velocity variation at the nozzle inlet is a, = 3,
and that
I
'Ab
Y,+AV,
Flow direction
------c -r Nozzle 4
-
28
measurements of the r . m. s . longitudinal component (w) and t r a n s v e r s e
component (I/F)of the velocity fluctuation expressed as fractions of the
velocity Vo upstream of the nozzle and plotted a s functions of the distance f r o m
the nozzle inlet. The contraction r a t i o n of this nozzle was 1 0 : 1, and the
a i r had f i r s t t o pass through a honeycomb and a gauze s c r e e n . Figure 2.16
shows the c r i t i c a l Reynolds number for a sphere as a function of t h e
contraction r a t i o n (as measured by Horner) 141.
10'
3
29
The nozzle profile is usually designed t o follow the curve (due t o
Vitoshinskii)
ro
r=
(1 +32'/a')3
where r is the radius of the nozzle c r o s s section a t a distance z along the
axis f r o m the inlet, and the inlet and outlet r a d i i a r e denoted by r ; and
ro respectively (when Z = Zr=r,). The values of rl and ro a r e given,
vz
and a is usually taken a s 4r0.
Since the settling chamber is often of s q u a r e or rectangular c r o s s
section, and the nozzle-outlet section(test-section inlet) is an ellipse,
transition pieces a r e provided between them in o r d e r t o ensure s t r e a m
line flow. If the settling chamber is rectangular and the nozzle is of
eliptical section it is sufficient t o havz erght such pieces f o r each quarter
of the ellipse. The shape of the nozzle
walls thus obtained is usually corrected
73
for the effect of boundary-layer thickening>:.
Frequently, the nozzles a r e not axi
symmetric. Either the two vertical walls
a r e plane and the upper and lower walls
1 curved, or all four walls may be curved,
a s shown in Figure 2 . 1 7 . This shape is
dictated by production considerations,
FIGURE 2.17. Nozzle with four curved since it is difficult to manufacture a l a r g e
walls. (axisymmetrical) nozzle with a high
degree of accuracy, and also because of the
general layout of the tunnel. The side r a t i o of the nozzle is governed by
the intended function of the tunnel. If, f o r instance, the tunnel is intended
f o r testing airfoils at s m a l l angles of attack, it is best t o have a wide t e s t
section and thus to remove the central c r o s s section of the airfoil, which is the
sectionmost frequently tested, from the tunnel walls which might otherwise
affect the experiment. In wind tunnels f o r testing models of complete
a i r c r a f t , the t e s t section should be wider than its height (usually
1.5 times a s much), s o as to permit testing a i r c r a f t of large wing span
in a tunnel of given cross-sectional a r e a , thus improving the conditions
of similarity .
In tunnels for l a r g e subsonic veloctties, the nozzle outlet is made s q u a r e
or round, t o facilitate three-dimensional studies.
If t e s t s at l a r g e angles of attack a r e intended, the model should be
installedat some distance f r o m the upper and lower walls of the t e s t section.
In such cases the height of the nozzle is much l a r g e r than the width, s i d e
ratios of 3 : 1 being common.
Before building l a r g e and expensive wind tunnels, models of the tunnels
a r e tested for nozzle-outlet flow quality, s o that the design may be
corrected.
Particularly in supersonic tunnels, since a quite small change in t h e effective cross section of the nozzle
( d u e t o boundary layer thickening) causes a considerable change in velocity. For instance, a 1%
reduction in the nozzle cross section near the rhroat will cause a velocity increase of 9%at M = 1.
30
.. .. ..
T e s t section -
The test section has t h e same c r o s s section as the nozzle outlet, and
may be' either open or closed.
An open test section has the great advantage of providing freer access
to test models and instruments. Open test-section tunnels a r e s o m e t i m e s
subject to s e v e r e low-frequency flow pulsation which can endanger the
tunnel s t r u c t u r e ; they arise f r o m eddies at the nozzle outlet and at the
free j e t boundaries. Pulsations c a n be damped out b y providing the diffuser
inlet with s e v e r a l rows of vents, and by mounting triangular o r parabolic
tabs, bent outward f r o m the flow axis at a n angle of 20" (Figure 2.18),
slightly into the jet. In spite of these drawbacks, m o s t modern wind tunnels
section.
At higher maximum flow velocities i n the tunnel the required fan power
may be reduced by enclosing the �est section. The length of the closed
section is designed t o permit tests of different types of models. F o r tunnels
31
designedfortestingmodels of wings, a i r c r a f t , etc., a 1.5 to 2 diameters longtest
section is sufficient. Intunnels intended f o r testing elongated bodies, such a s
rockets and hulls of submarines and ships, the length of the t e s t section is
2 t o 4 diameters. To maintain a constant axial flow velocity, the c r o s s -
sectional a r e a of a closed t e s t section should gradually i n c r e a s e in the flow
/ 5 / the taper should be between 0.1 and 0.25" for l a r g e Reynolds number
Dif f u se r
32
Thus :
.-.___.
I
vd
PIS
Pd
Pa t S
POd
FIGURE 2 . 2 0 . A diffuser.
33
The resistance coefficient of the diffuser is virtually constant above
Re= lo7 (Figure 2. 22). It has been shown experimentally that the Mach
number of the diffuser inlet has little influence at subsonic flow velocities.
-
v
'a-6'
I I
1.00
0.96
1-
092 9
0
2
0.2
u -
04 0.6 0.8 , 1.0
34
Fan installation
The fitting of a collar to the inlet of the diffuser (Figure 2. 11) rcdiices the static-pressure gradient i n
the test section.
35
Intermediate
Compressor guide>V
blades /
flaps
FIGURE 2. 24. Two-stage compressor for rhe ARA (Great Britain) runnel
36
Corners
@
-_ -.
1 R ,,'
should not cause uneven or turbulent
flow. Rounded c o r n e r s a r e aerodynamic-
ally better than s h a r p right angles. It i s ,
however, structurally e a s i e r t o make
c o r n e r s of s m a l l curvature.
The resistance coefficient of c o r n e r s
and thus, the flow uniformity, depend on
c the ratios R f W and RIH, where R is the
radius of curvature, W the width, and H
1.4 the height of the c o r n e r . The higher
these ratios (up to certain limits ), the
1.2 s m a l l e r the l o s s e s . Figure 2.25 shows
the r e s i s t a n c e coefficient 5 of c o r n e r s
1.0
a s a function of R / H :
C=A!?L
08 pvy2 .
Here Apo is the t o t a l - p r e s s u r e loss in
0.6 the c o r n e r and pV2/2 i s the velocity head
a t the inlet. Low flow velocities a r e
37
internal b r a c e s inside them whose surfaces can be used t o cool the
air.
Figure 2.26 shows c o r n e r vanes and bends f o r the A-6MGU closed-
circuit wind tunnel which has a rated flow velocity of 1 0 0 m / s e c . To
reduce turbulence the number of vanes in the fourth corner is l a r g e r ,
' and t h e i r chord length is l e s s than in other c o r n e r s .
In o r d e r t o adjust the flow direction downstream, vanes with adjustable
flaps a r e sometimes fitted a t the corners.(in particular the fourth), the
axes of the flaps being perpendicular to the vane chords. In l a r g e tunnels
these flaps also provide s t r u c t u r a l support for the vanes, it being difficult
t o manufacture and mount vanes of very l a r g e span. The effect of c o r n e r
vanes is illustrated in Figures 2 . 2 7 and 2. 28. When vanes of airfoil
section a r e fitted, the velocity distribution becomes approximately uniform
a t a distance of 1 t o 1.5 widths f r o m the c o r n e r , whereas without vanes
the velocity distribution is still nonuniform at a distance of about 4 widths
downstream,
Settling chambers
38
A honeycomb consists of a grid with cells of 0.5 to 2mrrA:>wall thickness,
the thickness of the honeycomb being some 5 to 1 0 times the mean cell
width. The honeycomb straightens the flow by breaking up l a r g e eddies,
and also reduces the spread of longitudinal velocities. A t the s a m e time,
the honeycomb itself causes a certain turbulence due t o the wake formed
by the cell walls. In settling chambers, therefore, where the honeycomb
is the only fitting, the overall length of the chamber must be increased
s o that this turbulence decays before the nozzle inlet.
Yl4
' T h e mean c e l l width is normally between 1To and 270 of the mean width of the settling chamber.
39
The smoothing action of s c r e e n s is based on the fact that l o s s e s a r e
proportional t o the s q u a r e of the velocity [ s o that the relative velocity
reduction of the faster moving particles is much greater]. Theory
suggests that a velocity perturbation AV, u p s t r e a m of the s c r e e n will
produce a corresponding perturbation AV2 downstream, where
AV -%AV,, and is the resistance coefficient of the screen. When
2- 2+c
6 = 2,, the perturbation downstream should be zero. Tunnel experiments
amply confirm this prediction.
A s c r e e n , fitted over the whole c r o s s section of the tunnel, acts a s
a distributed [nonlinear] hydraulic r e s i s t a n c e , and completely smooths
out flow irregularities.
To minimize the turbulence caused by the screen, it is necessary
t o use a net made f r o m wire of v e r y light gage, and t o install it a t the
section of minimum velocity. The Reynolds number with thus be low
---
(Re - dvv -50) and turbulence a r i s i n g f r o m the s c r e e n will be s o slight
that it will decay completely, upstream of the t e s t section. The
complex p a r a m e t e r
T = E D( ~'I2) ,
40
and 2. 2, and should be installed a s far as possible f r o m t h e t e s t section.
In selecting s c r e e n s the following expression / 1 2 / obtained f r o m
t e s t s of s c r e e n s a t Reynolds numbers between 500 and 2000 may be used:
‘;=(l-T)+ (T)
1-7 2,
F , -F_.1 Fz
--
PI F, ’
06
Re
FIGURE 2 . 3 1 . Influence of Reynolds n u n ~ b e ron [hydraulic] resistance of screcI1.
41
the coefficient 5 being determined f r o m Figure 2.31. The Reynolds number
a t the s c r e e n should be calculated f r o m the f r e e - s t r e a m velocity and the
mean wire diameter.
Re=: VI,
Raising the tunnel p r e s s u r e complicates its design and adds to the difficulty
of experimental work because of the need f o r remote measurements and
monitoring. However, this is compensated by increased accuracy and lower
power requirements.
The e a r l i e s t variable-density tunnels operated at comparatively high
p r e s s u r e s ; the contraction ratios of the nozzles were small, s o that the
velocity distribution was very nonuniform. Later, t u n i e l s with initial
p r e s s u r e of 4 t o 8 a t m and high nozzle-contraction ratios were increasingly
used, Figure 2 . 3 2 shows a variable-density tunnel a t the California Institute
of Technology"" .
This tunnel features a decompression s p h e r e containing the t e s t rig.
Entry t o the tunnel t o a l t e r or adjust the model is through airlocks which
isolate the decompression sphere f r o m the r e s t the tunnel, whose p r e s s u r e
need not be released.
T h e properties and temperature of the medium are assumed constant,
** T h e tunnel has now been modernized. Its power has been increased from 12,000 h.p. to 40,000 h. p.
a t M = 1.8. [See Millikan. C. B, High Speed Testing in t h e Southern California Co-operative Wind
Tunnel. Aeromechanical Conference, London 1947, p. 131.-Roy. Aero. S. 1948.1 T h e tunnel
is equipped with 3 test sections, for subsonic, transonic and supersonic velocities.
42
Variable-density wind tunnels can be operated at p r e s s u r e s either above
or below atmospheric. The maximum f r e e - s t r e a m velocity can thus be
obtained i n the tunnel f o r any given power. This facility is useful when
Adjustable Twin 16-blade
guide vanes impellers
trolley
Main
door Test
sphere
FIGURE 2.32. California Institute of Technology variable density wind tunnel ( p = 0.2 to 4 atm,
M =0.7 to 1.3; dimensions of test cection 2 . 5 9 ~ 3.66mZ.
Airspin tunnels
43
Settling
chamber
Motor
I room
Test
section
with
model
Free-flight tunnels
44
45
mounted on the vertical side walls of the tunnel, s o that the flow at the
center line of the model closely approximates the flow around a wing of
infinite span. Low-turbulence tunnels a r e used mainly f o r studying the
boundary-layer s t r u c t u r e of the a i r flow around variously shaped bodies and
f o r investigating the influence of turbulence and the s t a t e of the surfaces of
bodies on their aerodynamic characteristics.
Ld
46
Thermal and altitude tunnels
47
In wind-tunnel t e s t s of radiosondes, the use of infrared and ultraviolet
radiation makes it possible to simulate s o l a r radiation and t o maintain
inside the probes a temperature of +40"C, despite ambient tunnel-air
temperatures of -60°C.
screens
r
11
+From
Nozzle
smoke generator
Honeycomb \ Smoke
nozzles
§ 5. TRANSONIC TUNNELS
48
v,CO
At M>D.8t h e shocks move t o
Formation of a shock on the t h e trailing edge of the airfoil
upper surface of the airfoil .em
without flow separation
M>l\ Mcl
5 c=o-
c 5-
M>I\M~I
Formation of a shock on the lower
At supersonic flow a detached
shock appears
of flow separation behind the shock / M 7i
- & =$<o c
M>l M.1
i:.
.”..’
M >I
M >I
/
+
>...’ !
\,~ 7 1
>>
’ Detached shock
Shock
49
Therefore, endeavors have been made t o work out methods for model
t e s t s at transonic velocities in conditions where tunnel choking is prevented.
One method is t o i n c r e a s e considerably the flow a r e a of the t e s t section or the
dimensions of the t e s t model, s o that blockage by the model will be less
than 1%. However, an enlargement of the t e s t section necessitates m o r e
power; thus, f o r instance, f o r testing an a i r c r a f t model having a wing
span of 1.5 t o 1 . 6 m , the diameter of the t e s t section would have t o be a t
l e a s t 4.5m and the required power t o obtain sonic flow in such a tunnel
would be 50,000 kw.
Another method of eliminating tunnel choking is to provide an open
t e s t section. Choking is f a r l e s s pronounced in such tunnels, and the
corrections f o r i t s effect a r e much s m a l l e r than in tunnels with closed
test sections, This method was used in s e v e r a l high-speed tunnels of
e a r l y design, but was abandoned l a t e r because of the l a r g e power
requirements, and the difficulties in obtaining a satisfactory velocity
distribution. A l l high -speed tunnels have at present closed test sections.
The best method t o prevent choking is to provide a t e s t section with
perforated walls. A steady flow, increasing in velocity from r e s t to
supersonic speed, can be obtained in a Laval nozzle which consists of a
converging (inlet) p a r t , a throat - t h e narrowest section of the nozzle,
where the f r e e - s t r e a m velocity is equal t o the local velocity of sound,
i. e., t o the c r i t i c a l velocity * - and a diverging p a r t in which the velocity
continues t o increase. However, a Laval nozzle is not the only device
f o r obtaining supersonic flow velocities, Supersonic flow can also be
obtained in a cylindrical duct 1131, i f we remove f r o m it p a r t of the
medium.
Supersonic wind tunnels generally have divergent nozzles provided with
extraction sections where p a r t of the medium is exhausted f r o m the t e s t
sections. Bypassing the medium, even when a conventional r a t h e r than a
Laval nozzle is used, p e r m i t s velocities close to, or even slightly in
excess of, the speed of sound t o be obtained in the t e s t section in the
p r e s e n c e of a model. The bypass consists of openings o r slots (Figure 2.42)
i n the walls of the t e s t section, through which the medium f r o m the nozzle
can expand, s o that sonic flow is preserved throughout almost the entire
length of the t e s t section provided that the p r e s s u r e drop is sufficient, The
bypassed medium may r e e n t e r the tunnel a t the end of the t e s t section, and
is mixed with the remainder flowing into the diffuser, However, the velocity
distribution in the test section is improved by forced extraction through
the walls of the test section,
In certain tunnels, a i r is extracted f r o m the t e s t section and reinjected
into the diffuser t o r e s t o r e the total p r e s s u r e in the boundary l a y e r . This
is done in the above-mentioned NASA low-turbulence tunnel (Figure 2.38).
Numerous t e s t s have shown that interference between model and tunnel in
the region of transonic flow can be reduced in t e s t sections with perforated
o r slotted walls.
Figure 2.43 shows comparative measurements of the r e s i s t a n c e
coefficient of a s y s t e m of wings and fuselage, obtained in f r e e flight (rocket
t e s t s ) and in a transonic tunnel of the Langley Laboratory (NASA, U.S.A.)
T h e critical velocity, which depends on t h e characteristics of t h e gas and its stagnation temperature T o , is
a, = {-& g RT,.
50
1
cz I - F r ee flight
A I I - 1 .-I
0.6 07-05 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
H
FIGURE 2.43. Comparative values of t h e
resistance of a system of wings and fuselage
obtained in free flight and in a transonic
tunnel with slotted test-section walls.
51
since the shock waves are not reflected f r o m the perforated walls toward
the model, as happens when the walls a r e solid (Figure 2.45).
M
FIGURE 2. 44. Variation with Mach number of the optimum
degree of perforation.
where M, is the Mach number a t the diffuser inlet, and p , and p2 a r e the
p r e s s u r e s at the inlet and outlet of the diffuser. The full line in
Figure 2.46 shows the dependence of the diffuser efficiency q d on
the Mach number; the relationship was obtained using the standard
equations f o r normal shocks. Such values of ?ld a r e impossible in practice
because of the p r e s s u r e l o s s e s due t o the interaction between shock and
boundary l a y e r a t the wall. The s a m e figure shows experimental values
of the efficiency of such diffusers. Despite the considerable s c a t t e r of the
experimental points, we s e e clearly that the l o s s e s in a normal-shock
diffuser a r e s t i l l very high. Nevertheless such low-divergence diffusers
(from 3 to 5") a r e used in most transonic wind tunnels.
52
.. I
In modern transonic continuous-operation tunnels the test sectionmay be
a s l a r g e as 5 mX 5 m, Very often the static p r e s s u r e can be varied in
such tunnels: underpressure is used f o r operating a t high Mach numbers,
Test section
53
3 5
FIGURE 2. 41. Test section of transonic tunnel (ARA-Great Britain). 1-Adjustable
nozzle; 2 -perforared test-section walls: 3 -observation windows: 4 - m o d e l
carriage; 5 -pipes for air extraction through test-section walls.
54
which maintains the tunnel air temperature below 50°C. An absorption-
type dryer reduces the water content t o a level of 1 g of water p e r kilogram
of a i r , which is equivalent t o a relative humidity of 10% at 50°C. The air
is impelled through the tunnel by two tandem-mounted 20-blade fans with
an impeller diameter of 6.5m, driven at a maximum speed of 485 r , p . m .
by a 25,000 h. p. motor. The guide vanes before the first fan stage and
between the s t a g e s , have flaps ( 2 5 % of the chord) which during tunnel
operation can be rotated t o angles between 1 0 and 20" from the normal
position, t o supplement velocity regulation by fan-speed adjustment.
The t e s t r e s u l t s a r e processed in an electronic computer.
Figure 2.48 shows a test section with slotted walls in a NASA transonic
tunnel, while Figure 2. 4 9 shows the H L L transonic tunnel (Netherlands).
Modern transonic (and supersonic) tunnels a r e equipped with sliding
test-beds for e a s y withdrawal of the model (Figure 2. 50). television
monitoring of model and tunnel, automatic t e s t equipment, and remotely
controlled tunnel facilities. The powers required a r e very large, and a
single drive unit may be designed to s e r v e s e v e r a l tunnels. For instance,
in t h e Moffett Field 1,aboratory (NASA) the 216,000 h. p. drive s e r v e s
3 tunnels (Figure 2. 51).
55
FIGURE 2. 49. HLL variable-density transonic tunnel (Netherlands): p = 0.125 t o 4 atm: M = 0 t o 1.3; test-section dimensions:
2 m x 1.6 m; power: N = 2000 h. p.
FIGURE 2. 50. Sliding test bed of t h e California
Institute of Technology wind tunnel ( M = 1.8);
test-section dimensism: 2.6 mX3.4m).
57
To obtain velocities up to M = 1.4 in the test section of such a tunnel,
its settling-chamber p r e s s u r e inust be between 1.5 and 1.7atm. To
extend the duration of tunnel operation the r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e should be
much higher. A butterfly control valve is installed between the r e s e r v o i r s
and the settling chamber; it is operated by a p r e s s u r e regulator to maintain
constant p r e s s u r e in the settling chamber, s o that t e s t s can be performed
a t constant Reynolds numbers, The designed operating duration of the
tunnel depends on the measuring facilities available and on the kind of t e s t
undertaken, If an automatic wind-tunnel balance is used, a minimum of
15 to 30 seconds will be required for equilibrium conditions to be attained
before each observation, Several readings could be made within this
interval with a strain-gage balance, but a high-speed attitude cradle would
be required.
Compressor
The design m a s s flow through the test section depends on the dimensions
of the latter, the flow velocity, and the flow deceleration, and can be
calculated f r o m the formula for m a s s flow r a t e through unit a r e a
1680
58
operation of the equipment. It is therefore usual t o operate this type of
wind tunnel a t a maximum p r e s s u r e in the bottle of 8 t o 20 atm,
p, a t a
FIGURE 2. 53. Mach-number dependence of FIGURE 2. 54. Pressure dependence of
operating duration of wind tunnels supplied t h e reservoir volume a t M = 1 . t = 1 sec.
with compressed air from storage bottles. now area of test section = 1 m2.
59
l"l111111lll1lll l11ll l l l Il 1 l l l Ill II Il 1 Il
High-pressure a i r
.I
w
Ew Exhaust
valve
Safetv valves
I
U
4
I I
I I
FIGURE 2. 55. NPL induced-flow transonic tunnel: M = 0 to 1.8; test section dimension%
0.23111x 0,077 m.
60
-.- - .. , -..
.........-I--.I.....II 11.11. ....m I
.
. I...,I. I .. , ,I ..., ,,... .......... . I
I
Flow area of injection slot
Flow area of test section Flow area of test section
FlGURE 2. 57. Dependence of induction coefficient on flow areas FIGURE 2. 58. Dependence of the ratio of total pressure of injected
of ejector slot and test section, and Mach number. air to total pressure of induced air on flow aieas of ejector slot and
test section at various Mach numbers.
Vacuum-powered tunnels
Flexible
nozzle Test Rapid-action \ Evacuated reservoir
U
lLlotor Vacuum pump
f.5
t
-
t'
1.0
a5
mmHg 0 1 2 3 4 5
62
I 6. SUPERSONIC WIND T U N N E L S
Nozzle
63
Inserts
64
tunnels have been equipped with adjustable nozzles, in which the profile
needed is obtained through elastic deformation of tunnel floor and roof.
T h e r e a r e many designs of adjustable nozzles differing in the degree
t o which the flexible wall can be made to approximate the required nozzle
profile. The perfection depends mainly on the number of adjusting jacks
used to determine the profile (Figure 2 . 6 4 ) . Modern tunnels may have
as many a s 25 t o 30 jacking points. In the supersonic wind tunnel of the
Lewis laboratory, whichhas a t e s t section measuring 3.05 mX3.05m, the
adjustable nozzle has 27 jacks and Mach numbers ranging f r o m 2 t o 3.5
can be obtained.
Although at the s a m e Mach number, rigid interchangeable nozzles
produce a b e t t e r velocity distribution than the corresponding adjustable
nozzles, the l a t t e r are being increasingly used, since with careful design
they do produce a sufficiently uniform velocity distribution while their u s e
considerably reduces the cost of t e s t s and i n c r e a s e s the testing capacity
of the tunnel.
Plane nozzles a r e only adequate up t o M = 7. Beyond this t h e i r critical
c r o s s section becomes very small, s o that they a r e difficult to manufacture,
and the slot is subject to appreciable t h e r m a l deformation, with resulting
deterioration in the flow uniformity. Axisymmetric o r t h r e e -dimensional
nozzles should t h e r e f o r e be used a t high Mach numbers. It is common
p r a c t i c e t o u s e nozzles whose shapes can be automatically adjusted by
r e m o t e control during tunnel operation, s o that the Mach number can be
varied swiftly. This is especially important in t e s t s of fixed models at
different flow velocities in intermittent-operation tunnels, and recent designs
p e r m i t adjustment f o r s m a l l Mach-number changes t o be completed in a
few seconds. This is achieved with a programming mechanism at the
control panel, consisting, f o r example, of a s e r i e s of templates reproducing
the nozzle profile, appropriate t o e a c h Mach number, very accurately to a
s m a l l s c a l e . Push-button selection of a template causes depression of a
s e r i e s of spring-loaded cordinate rods, equal in number t o the jacking
points. A selsyn s y s t e m operates each jack so that it follows the movements
of i t s cordinate rod, thereby setting up the desired tunnel profile.
Recent designs employ digital control of the nozzle profile, using either
punched c a r d s o r tapes on which the nozzle profiles f o r various Mach
numbers a r e programmed.
When t h e p r o g r a m c a r d is inserted, the control device automatically
moves the adjusting jacks into the appropriate positions.
A s i m p l e r s y s t e m of nozzle control i s used in c e r t a i n tunnels to permit
Mach-number changes of 0.05 to 0.10, e . g., f r o m M = 1.5 to M = 1 . 6 .
Such a change can be achieved without seriously impairing the quality of
f l o w in the t e s t section by adjusting the throat section and suitably
deforming nearby p a r t s of the nozzle.
In the design of adjustable nozzles careful attention must be paid t o the
rigidity of the adjustable w a l l s , and to hermetical sealing between the walls
and the housing of the nozzle ("nozzle box").
If the adjustable wall is not sufficiently rigid, i t w i l l "flap" and the
distortion of the nozzle profile will impair the flow in the t e s t section.
Hermetical sealing of the space behind the flexible wall of the nozzle is
very important t o prevent l a r g e loads on the w a l l when the tunnel is
s t a r t e d up or when operating conditions a r e changed; the position of the
65
shock m a y change s o rapidly that the p r e s s u r e s inside and outside the wall
do not have time to become equalized. In designing supersonic tunnels
special attention must also be paid to the connection between the nozzle and
the t e s t section. The slightest projections give rise not only t o nonuniform
velocity distributions, but a l s o t o s e r i o u s inclinations of the flow in the
t e s t section. For example, a 1.5" projection a t the inlet to a
lOOOmmX1000mm test section operating at Mach numbers between 1.5
and 3 will cause a flow inclination of up t o f3".
The optimum r e s u l t s in t e r m s of uniform supersonic flow with a thin
boundary layer may be obtained by using porous nozzle walls, so that
boundary-layer thickening can be abated by controlling the flow through
the walls, and a m o r e uniform p r e s s u r e distribution obtained at the t e s t -
section inlet.
Porous nozzle walls a r e used in high-vacuum supersonic tunnels where
the boundary layer would otherwise occupy a considerable p a r t of the t e s t
s e ct i on,
Test section
a practice enforced by the need to place the model in the t e s t section in such
a way that the shock f r o m its nose will not be reflected f r o m the tunnel walls
onto either the tail itself o r the wake immediately downstream. The t e s t
section of a modern high-speed tunnel is a complicated structure equipped
with a variety of mechanisms and devices. Its inner surface must be
polished and the l i n e r s , f r a m e s of optical g l a s s p o r t s , etc., must be made
of stamped p a r t s polished flush with the tunnel walls. Figures 2.66 t o 2. 68
show test sections of different supersonic wind tunnels.
66
4
Safety valves
/ Supersonic
Protection nets diffuser
..
Jacks
Diffuser-throat ad7usting
0 6M mechanism
FIGURE 2. 66. Test section of an R A E tunnel (Great Britain). Dlmenslons 1 . 2 m x 0.9m; p = 5 to 14atm; M=2.5 to 5; H=88,000h. p.
FI?URE 2.67. 'rest section of t h e FFA supersonic vacuum-
powered tunnel (Stockholm), Test-section dimensions
x 1.15m:
0 . 9 ~
M = 1 t o 2.5; Vacuum-reservoir volume =
9,000 m3: Operating duration = 30 sec.
68
Diffuser f o r supersonic tunnels
1.0
1-7- 1.5
Pressure loss
in normal
shock I _
2.0
M
FIGURE 2. 69. 1he influence of Mach number and FIGURE 2. 70. Mach nilmber dependence of
divergence angle on the effectiveness of flow decelera- pressures in diffuser without contraction .
tion by shocks.
69
section by widening the diffuser throat during s t a r t - u p so as t o e n s u r e that
the shock travels the full length of the t e s t section and is swallowed by the
diffuser as the inlet Mach number is gradually increased. After start-up,
1 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 78910
1D
M
FIGURE 2.71. T h e Mach-number dependence
of pressures in diffuser with fixed contraction
ratio. Experimental points refer t o divergence
angles between 3 and 20. at R e = 3 . 0 X 10'.
the throat area is reduced s o that the shock is stabilized at the diffuser
throat; a high pressure-recovery coefficient can be obtained in this way.
Adjust
able
super
sonic
diffuse1
FIGURE 2. 72. Test section of tunnel with adjustable supersonic diffuser. M =4.5 to 8.5:
test section dimensions 0.53 III x 0.53 m . (California Institute of Technology).
70
Figure 2.73 shows the Mach-number dependence of the r a t i o of throat area
t o inlet area of the diffuser, for s t a r t - u p and f o r operation of the tunnel.
M
FIGURE 2.73. Mach-number dependence of
relative throat area, required for start-up (1) and
operation (2).
71
At M = 3 the corresponding p r e s s u r e r a t i o s are 5 t o 6, 3.5, and 2.5.
Thus, adjustable diffusers a r e preferable even a t s m a l l supersonic
velocities.
However, a b e t t e r method of decelerating supersonic flow in the
diffuser is by means of s e v e r a l oblique shocks. It has been shown both
theoretically and experimentally that this method is m o r e efficient than
the u s e of a single normal shock. Deceleration by oblique shocks is
successfully employed a t the inlet t o j e t engines, in which the flow velocity
must be subsonic although the flight speed is supersonic,
The s a m e principle is used f o r supersonic diffusers in wind tunnels,
and consists of fitting a wedge into an ordinary diffuser. Figure 2. 74 shows
the values of the isentropic efficiency of a diffuser in which deceleration
f r o m supersonic t o subsonic velocities was c a r r i e d out in different ways
/ 1 4 / . This was done most efficiently by means of oblique shocks. The
diffuser wedge is a l s o sometimes used a s a base f o r the model, which in
t h i s c a s e is installed on a telescopic support connected to the wedge.
Reduction gear
72
possible in such tunnels without any f u r t h e r devices i n the diffuser if two
e j e c t o r s a r e installed. In such a diffuser shocks form, as a rule, behind
the second ejector, where the supersonic velocity is not l a r g e .
Despite many theoretical and experimental studies, t h e r e r e m a i n s a
paucity of design data and methods on diffusers f o r high-speed tunnels;
the power consumption of supersonic tunnels could be reduced by a m o r e
rational design of diffusers in which the main operating l o s s e s of the tunnel
occur.
The design of a supersonic diffuser is considerably s i m p l e r than that of
a n adjustable nozzle, since the aerodynamic requirements for diffusers a r e
less severe.
It is s i m p l e r in practice to design diffusers with adjustable walls than
with adjustable wedges, s o that the l a t e s t designs of supersonic tunnels favor
the principles of diffuser regulation by altering the geometry of successive
diffuser c r o s s sections in the manner illustrated i n Figure 2. 7 5 . The
position of the wall sections of such a diffuser is usually adjusted by r e m o t e
control. E l e c t r i c motors, installed outside the tunnel and remotely controlled,
adjust the wall sections through hinged lead s c r e w s . The positions of the
wall sections and the geometry of the adjustable diffuser a r e determined
with the a i d of limit switches, which de-energise the e l e c t r i c m o t o r s when
the programmed position of the lead s c r e w s , appropriate t o p r e s e t operating
conditions, has been reached.
The hermetic sealing of the joints between the w a l l sections of the
diffuser and the vertical walls of the tunnel is v e r y important when the
supply of air is limited. Unless the joints a r e properly sealed leaks will
occur, and high settling-chamber p r e s s u r e s will be required to obtain the
designed supersonic velocities in the t e s t section.
73
Figure 2.77 gives the r e s u l t s of t e s t s of the Mach-number distribution
along the half-section of a thick symmetrical airfoil in a tunnel at
a f r e e - s t r e a m Mach number of 0.72 and with a relative humidity
r = 61 70 1 1 91. The shocks shown in the diagram changed their position,
and one of them disappeared, when the relative humidity decreased,
demonstrating the pronounced effect of condensation on the aerodynamic
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the airfoil. The a i m in modern supersonic tunnels is
therefore to prevent moisture condensation and limit the absolute humidity.
w 20
Relative humidity a t inlet, To
FIGURE 2.16. Dependence of Mach number a t which saturation occurs on relative humidity
a t tunnel inlet. p' is the partial pressure of water vapor: pr is t h e saturation water-vapor
pressure; to is t h e dry-bulb temperature at t h e inlet.
thereby reducing the maximum amount of heat that can be liberated during
condensation. If the quantity of water vapor in the a i r is limited to
0.5 g r a m s p e r kilogram':' of vapor-air mixture, the effects of condensation
become negligible below M = 4.
Since the saturation vapor p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e s with temperature,
condensation can be prevented by heating the a i r s o that its relative
humidity is reduced. Although this p r o c e s s does not remove m o i s t i r e ,
and leaves the absolute humidity unchanged, it does reduce the effects
of condensation, should it still occur, by virtue of the increased heat
content of a i r . Increase of the stagnation temperature is particularly
n e c e s s a r y t o prevent condensation a t high Mach numbers (M > 4 ) of other
g a s e s in the a i r . In continuous -operation tunnels, however, the stagnation
* Current practice is t o reduce t h e inlet humidity even further down to 0.1 grams water vapor per kilogram
of air-vapor mixture in order t o ensure uniform air flow at t h e outlet of supersonic tunnels.
74
Ad justable
1.0
0.5
/ \ ,z,nrr
Condensation Compression
shock shock
FIGURE 2.77. Mach-number distribution along FIGURE 2.78. Wind-tunnel dehumidifier. T h e dash
half-section of a n airfoil in t h e presence of a and-dot lines and arrows show the circuit used for dry-
condensation shock. ing the tunnel air, and the broken lines, the circuit
for desiccant regeneration.
75
...... .. ... .-
Drying the air in vacuum-powered intermittent -operation is very
difficult, s i n c e the e n t i r e a i r drawn in through the tunnel in each t e s t
must f i r s t p a s s through absorption-type d r y e r s . This i s one reason why
such tunnels have comparatively s m a l l t e s t sections which r e q u i r e only
s m a l l m a s s f l o w r a t e s and hence, small d r y e r s . A tunnel of this type with
a t e s t section measuring 1.8 m X 1.8 m would r e q u i r e a d r y e r having a
s u r f a c e a r e a of about 1700m2, the weight of desiccant (aluminagel) being
410,000kg. With such a d r y e r the tunnel could be operated t h r e e times
p e r hour f o r 20 s e c . The dimensions and weight of the d r y e r can be
reduced by collecting the used dried a i r in a special r e s e r v o i r . How-
.ever, the capacity of the l a t t e r would not be much l e s s than the volume
of the vacuum r e s e r v o i r , amounting to about 200m3 p e r s q u a r e m e t e r of
test-section flow a r e a in a tunnel operating a t M = 1 f o r 1 s e c , (assuming
the d r y - a i r r e s e r v o i r t o be a t atmospheric m e a s u r e ) .
It is no l e s s difficult t o dry the a i r in tunnels for testing jet engines,
where clean dry a i r must be supplied to the engine in v e r y l a r g e quantities.
The d r y e r s needed a r e l a r g e and r a t h e r complicated in design. Thus,
f o r instance, the drying installation of a continuous-operation tunnel for
testing jet engines (see below) is 25m high, and its desiccant charge of
1200 tons can absorb up to 1500 kg/min of moisture. The installation is
equipped with heaters and fans for regeneration of the alumina gel.
Tunnel air-cooling s y s t e m s
This method is also used to replace the air conraminated by the combustion products of engines being
tested i n special tunnels.
76
of the fan or compressor, but the heat content of the tunnel s h e l l and
heat t r a n s f e r through the walls should be neglected, because the inside
and outside of the tunnel a r e usually coated with s e v e r a l l a y e r s of oil-
i bound or nitro-cellulose paint, which has negligible heat conductivity.
Thus, f o r instance, in a special test a t a tunnel stagnation temperature
of +60"C, and an ambient air temperature of +lO"C, the external
temperature of the tunnel shell was found t o b e +2O"C. The temperature
rise during an experiment should preferably not exceed 10 to 20°C.
155 a
FIGURE 2.79. Air cooling system of the ONERA tunnel ( M = 0.95, N = 100.000 h.p.1.
77
FIGURE 2.80. Variable-density supersonic wind tunnel of Armstrong-Whitworth Ltd. (U.K. ). T h e tunnel has six interchangeable test sections
(0.5 m x 0 . 5 m): h' = 10,000 h. p. M = 1t o 3. 1- safety valve: 2-expansion joint: 3-radiator; 4-air intake for motor-coolingsystem;
5 - 10.000 h.p. motor: 6 - reduction gear; 7 - movable bend; 8 - small compressor: 9 -large compressor; 10 - adjustable vanes;
11- gate valve; 12 - screen; 1 3 - protection net: 14 - diffuser: 1 5 - expansion point: 16 - control cabin; 17 - nozzle: 18
turbulencescreens; 19-uansfer section; 20 -corner.
Supersonic velocities in a closed-circuit tunnel with closed t e s t section
demand p r e s s u r e r a t i o s beyond the capabilities of normal fans, and multi
stage c o m p r e s s o r s a r e therefore used. The AEDC supersonic tunnel (U.S.A.)
is equipped with four tandem axial-flow compressors, three having two
s t a g e s , and the fourth having s i x stages, to a total power of 216,000h. p.
Such an arrangement of the c o m p r e s s o r s provides f o r flexibility and
effective operation of the c o m p r e s s o r
plant over a wide range of compression
r a t i o s and air flow r a t e s , the l a t t e r
changing with test-section Mach number
f r o m 37,000m3/min a t M = 1.4 to
20,000m3/min a t M = 3.5. This
c o m p r e s s o r is a r a t h e r complicated
engineering structure with a r o t o r
weighing 5000 tons. The rated shaft
end-thrust is 1100 tons, while the
temperature in the final compression
stages is 350 to 370°C. The centrifugal
force on the blades is 800 tons. Such a
machine r e q u i r e s special s t a r t i n g and
braking systems. This tunnel h a s two
asynchronous 25,000 kv starting motors,
which bring the c o m p r e s s o r up to the
synchronous speed of the two main
83,000 kw motors, and a r e then
switched out. After the required out
put of 166,000h.p., has been reached
the s t a r t i n g motors may be switched
in again to increase the total power
of the tunnel to 2 1 6,000 h.p. Start-up
FIGURE 2.81. Multi-stage compressor of t h e super-
sonic tunnel of the NASA Ames Research Center,
of motors and tunnel r e q u i r e s about
Moffett Field, California. Rotor diameter = 6.6 m; 1 0 minutes. Figure 2.81 shows the
delivery = 90 tons/min; compression ratio = 3 . 5 ; compressor of the NASA supersonic
n = 720 rpm; N = 216,000h.p. tunnel.
79
may be as much as 100 o r ZOOatm, although the settling-chamber p r e s s u r e
is only 30 o r 40atm. Large wind tunnels a r e , a s a rule, supplied with a i r
through manifolds f r o m batteries of standard industrial gas cylinders, which
a r e recharged by powerful (up to 500 m 3 / m i n ) compressors. C o m p r e s s o r s
designed f o r metallurgical industries lend themselves well to this type of
continuous duty; highrpressure compregsors a r e needed, however, for the
charging of high-pressure r e s e r v o i r s . Figure 2 . 8 2 shows the flowsheet of
a c o m p r e s s o r plant for charging a cylinder storage unit. In both transonic
and supersonic tunnels it is very important to maintain p o and To constant at
the tunnel inlet (settling chamber). Current types of p r e s s u r e regulators,
acting through special control valves, permit stabilization of settling-
chamber p r e s s u r e t o an accuracy of about 10" Hg; this ensures adequate
constancy of Reynolds number and minimum expenditure of a i r to establish
the required conditions in the t e s t section.
Cold ai r
- intake Turbo-
. . . ,
Dryers
@ R ap i d act i o n valve
Shutoff v al v e
a Throttle v al v e
0 Nonreturn valve
T o wind tunnel
B
80
T h e operating duration of a pressure-powered tunnel depends on the
dimensions of the t e s t section, the flow velocity, and the r e s e r v e of air.
Most tunnels of this type, used f o r model testing, can operate for periods
ranging between 112 or 1 minute and 3 or 4 minutes.
L a r g e r p r e s s u r e drops, and often longer operating durations, can
be achieved in pressure-powered tunnels by injecting air a t the diffuser
inlet, permitting a reduction in the r a t e d settling-chamber p r e s s u r e .
Supersonic vacuum-powered intermittent-operation
t u n n e 1s. The principle of this type of tunnels is shown in Figure 2. 5 9;
nozzle, t e s t section, and diffuser a r e s i m i l a r to those i n other types of
supersonic wind tunnel, and a d r y e r is usually installed before the settling
chamber.
81
r e s e r v o i r . The vacuum pumps a r e driven by motors of 300 h.p. total output.
The principle of a combination vacuum-pressure tunnel is illustrated
in Figure 2.84. The flow throu h the 0.28 m X 0 . 2 5 m t e s t section is created
5
l
by compressed a i r f r o m an 11m , 5 0 a t m r e s e r v o i r . A f t e r t r a v e r s i n g
the test section and the supersonic diffuser the a i r is collected in a 340m3
r e s e r v o i r at about 0.01 ata, S O that p r e s s u r e ratios of 5000 a r e possible.
Using a i r as the working fluid, test-section velocities corresponding to
M = 7 can be attained, but l a r g e r Mach numbers a r e possible by using
gases having s m a l l e r velocities of sound; M = 11 is possible with xenon,
and M = 17 with krypton. The a i r is heated to 425°C before reaching the
t e s t section in which its temperature decreases t o - 180°C. Without
supersonic diffuser the tunnel can be operated f o r up t o 25 seconds; i f
a supersonic diffuser and a radiator a r e installed a t the inlet of the
evacuated r e s e r v o i r , the operating duration i n c r e a s e s t o 1 o r 1.5 minutes.
82
4000 kw c o m p r e s s o r charging a 4000 to 5000m3 b a t t e r y of cylinders
can provide one s t a r t - u p every 2 o r 3 hours f o r a tunnel having a 0.4 t o
0.5 m2 t e s t - s e c t i o n and operating a t M = 4.
Although intermittent-operation tunnels r e q u i r e far l e s s installed power
(Figure 2.85) than continuous-operation tunnels 1 2 0 1 , t h e i r capital cost
has tended to i n c r e a s e a s l a r g e r t e s t sections
have become n e c e s s a r y to meet t h e
requirements of even l a r g e r models and
even lower Reynolds numbers, adding t o
the complexity and s i z e of the installation.
It is becoming standard practice, however,
to compensate f o r the increased s i z e of the
t e s t section by reducing the operating
duration in such tunnels to 3 0 or 40 seconds
FIGURE 2.85. Power requirements ofcon- o r l e s s , and t o u s e high-speed automatic t e s t
nels at equal Reynolds numbers. 1-ratio over a considerable range of model attitudes
83
in altitude, the number of molecules p e r unit volume of a gas d e c r e a s e s
and the distance mean f r e e path - t h e average distance travelled by a n
individual molecule before colliding with another - i n c r e a s e s . F o r instance,
at a height of 12Okm, the mean f r e e path is about 0.3 m; f o r bodies whose
M
3
0
-2052-152.4 -101.6 -5g8 Q 508 101.6 1521 2022
Radial distance fiom flow axis, (mm)
84
85
The design, construction, and operation of low-density wind tunnels
demand special techniques, and many unusual features a r e involved in
both their construction and their instrumentation. The high-vacuum technology
86
After the onset of gas dissociation the air can no longer be considered
as a perfect gas, f o r which the equation of s t a t e p v = R T holds t r u e and the
r a t i o x of the specific heats is constant. Typical changes i n the properties
of air a r e shown in Figure 2 . 8 9 , where the r a t i o pvlRT (which can be
considered as the degree of dissociation) is shown a s a function of velocity
f o r the conditions behind normal and oblique shocks at s e a level and at
75 km altitude. The value of x at a velocity of 7 km/ s e c and at altitudes of
30 t o 6 0 k m d e c r e a s e s / 2 2 / f r o m 1 . 4 t o 1 . 1 3 .
PU
iT
1.6
1.4
1.2
blique shock
8 =ZD'
0 30 60
v. k m h e c
FIGURE 2.89. Change of air properties behind normal and
oblique shocks at an altitude of 15 km and at sea level.
87
A t velocities g r e a t e r than 1500 m / s e c the curve f o r isentropic compression
of the r e a l gas diverges considerably f r o m the curve f o r x = 1.4 (curve 2 ) .
Curve 3 illustrates the t e m p e r a t u r e
i n c r e a s e a c r o s s the nose shock in front
of a thermally insulated body f r o m which
t h e r e is no radiation. Compression in the
nose shock is followed by isentropic
compression a t the stagnation point of the
body. Because of the shock, the total
p r e s s u r e is l e s s than with isentropic
compression, while the degree of
dissociation is higher and the temperature
is lower a t a given heat content of the gas.
Curve 4 shows the temperature on the
surface of a flat plate having a perfectly
s h a r p leading edge when t h e r e is no heat
exchange and the coefficient of temperature
a ) Height 30.5 km
' km'sec
r e c o v e r y i s unity. In this c a s e the p r e s s u r e
a t the surface of the plate equals the
surrounding p r e s s u r e and the temperature
is much lower [than with isentropic
compression]. We s e e that when d i s
sociation occurs the stagnation temperature
depends strongly on the p r e s s u r e , and thus
on the altitude. The f i r s t inflexion point of
curve 4, corresponding t o a velocity of
about 3 k m / s e c , is the r e s u l t of the
dissociation of oxygen, which is completed
before the next inflexion point (4.5 to
6 k m / s e c ) , which is caused by the
dissociation of nitrogen.
These considerations a r e important
in the design of wind tunnels. To provide
the necessary conditions in the t e s t section
b) Height 61 km Y,-km'sec the gas must expand isentropically from
r e s t in the settling chamber t o full flow
FIGURE 2.90. Variation of stagnation in the t e s t section. Thus, f o r instance,
temperature with conditions of compres
if the density and temperature in the test
sion a t altitudes of 30.5 km and 6 1 k m .
section a r e to correspond t o flight at
1 -isentropic compression of air ~ ~ 1 . 4 ;
2-isentropic compression of r eal gas;
4 . 5 k m / s e c a t altitudes of 30 and 60km,
3-temperature at stagnation point of a the stagnation t e m p e r a t u r e should be
blunt-nose body; 4 - temperature on about 7500 and 6500"1(, and the total
the surface of a plate. p r e s s u r e s lo4 and lo3 a t m respectively.
The changes in the properties of the
gas make it difficult t o simulate the flow around bodies a t hypersonic
velocities. In aerodynamics of steady flow at velocities above M = 7 o r 8,
similarity is achieved by reproducing the Reynolds and Mach numbers,
corresponding t o natural conditions (similiarity for x is maintained
automatically if the t e s t s a r e made in a i r ) . In hypersonic t e s t s new
s i m i l a r i t y c r i t e r i a have t o be introduced because the r a t i o of specific
heats and other properties of the a i r change a t high t e m p e r a t u r e s ,
88
In addition to measuring f o r c e s and p r e s s u r e distributions, i t becomes
n e c e s s a r y to study the heat exchange between the medium and the body,
so that the relevant p r o c e s s in the model must be exactly s i m i l a r t o the
natural phenomena. Special installations and experimental techniques
a r e used f o r the investigation of heat exchange in the boundary l a y e r .
In many c a s e s reliable r e s u l t s can be achieved by testing at the natural
values of stagnation t e m p e r a t u r e and total p r e s s u r e , while carefully
maintaining the thermodynamic equilibrium.
1; However, it is in practice impossible t o achieve full s i m i l a r i t y of a l l
I'
the conditions in the laboratory, s o that in the installations described below
full s i m i l a r i t y conditions a r e observed only f o r the phenomena most strongly
affecting the p a r a m e t e r s of immediate interest, the influence of each
s e p a r a t e p a r a m e t e r being studied in turn. Thus, heat t r a n s f e r depends
strongly on the flow r e g i m e in the boundary l a y e r , whose transition f r o m
l a m i n a r to turbulent flow depends on the Reynolds number; hence, in heat-
t r a n s f e r studies at hypersonic velocities a wide range of Reynolds
numbers must be obtainable. This is possible in wind tunnels, where
hypersonic velocities a r e achieved by isentropic expansion of the gas
in a Lavalnozzle, a t comparatively s m a l l Mach-numbers changes by
adjustment of the nozzle divergence (or the a r e a of the tunnel). Thus,
f o r a test-section velocity of 4.5 k m / s e c (corresponding t o M = 15 a t an
altitude of 60 km) a 32-fold i n c r e a s e of the divergence angle of the nozzle
will i n c r e a s e the 60 km-altitude Reynolds number by a factor of 10;
the Mach number w i l l be reduced only to about 1 / 2 of i t s previous value,
while the change in flow velocity is only 470 because the total-heat content
of the air is very l a r g e in comparison with i t s static-heat content.
New types of wind tunnels have been developed during the past ten y e a r s
f o r high-temperature hypersonic t e s t s . These include:
1) hypersonic wind tunnels with air h e a t e r s ;
2 ) installations with adiabatic compression;
3 ) shock tubes of various types;
4 ) e l e c t r i c plasma wind tunnels;
5) installations for f r e e flight of the model (ballistic ranges).
Of these devices only the installations of the f i r s t type a r e capable of
providing steady flow lasting seconds or minutes. A l l the others enable
high-temperature high-speed flow to be obtained only f o r periods of m i c r o -
or milliseconds.
89
monatomic gas precludes its u s e in the study
'b.'K of phenomena associated with the properties
of a i r a t high t e m p e r a t u r e s . A further draw-
TABLE 1
-
T h02 zQ + % CaO MgO A1203
1680
90
/
I,.
i
91
Table 2
Medium
Type of Hearer High voltage Low VoIta g e
voltage
I
230 1 250 56 90
7 & 6
93
4
3 257 -~‘-q 20
,- I I
1 2 F
FIGURE 2.94. AEDC hypersonic wind tunnel with heater. 1 - electric heater: 2 -m i x i n g section; 3 - annulus with pressure and temperature
pointst 4 - radial cradle for adjustment of angle of attack.
A m o r e uniform flow is obtained if the j e t is led initially into a settling
chamber where flow fluctuations a r e damped out. The gas then p a s s e s
into a second nozzle. (Figure 2. 96), i n which it expands and is accelerated
t o a high speed.
Graphite
Water f
Wate?
c
vacuum pump
1 Cooling
water
RGURE 2.96. Wind tunnel with electric-arc heater.
95
The gas is s o m e t i m e s accelerated in the test section by evacuating the
latter, the gas being cooled in a heat exchanger before passing to the
vacuum pump.
T e m p e r a t u r e s of 6000 t o 10,000”K can be obtained with plasma
generators, the main operational difficulties being rapid nozzle erosion and
burning away of the electrodes, which limits the period f o r which the
installation can be continuously operated and contaminates the j e t with
combustion products. The contaminants themselves may abrade o r corrode
the model.
The electrodes a r e made of graphite, copper, steel, o r tungsten.
Graphite can withstand very high temperatures f o r brief periods. However,
at very high powers, particles tend to become detached f r o m the graphite
m a s s , contaminating the plasma. The flow velocity can be increased by
reducing the c r o s s section of the nozzle throat; however, the smaller the
throat, the m o r e is it subject t o erosion and t o blockage by electrode
fragments.
Contamination is l e s s s e r i o u s i f metal electrodes a r e employed. Thus, a
1 2.7 m m graphite cathode rod and a hollow thin-walled water-cooled anode
a r e used in the AVCO tunnel I23 1 . The walls of the second nozzle and the
chamber a r e similarly water cooled, The AVCO tunnel has an installed
power of 130kw. The throat diameters of the f i r s t and second nozzles a r e
15.2 and 7.6” respectively. The chamber is spherical with a diameter
of 76.2”. The diameter of the test section is 152.4”. The nose of the
model is 6 . 5 m m u p s t r e a m of the nozzle outlet.
P l a s m a tunnels a r e chiefly used for the study of heat-exchange problems
of blunt axisymmetrical bodies, and f o r the investigation of surface fusion
and m a s s removal f r o m bodies in hypersonic flight. Studies of m a s s
removal f r o m bodies re-entering the earth‘s atmosphere can only be c a r r i e d
out i n plasma tunnels because shock-tube tunnels can be operated only for
brief periods.
F r e e - s t r e a m velocities up t o 3 6 0 0 m / s e c can be attained in plasma
tunnels with Lava1 nozzles; the maximum velocity is limited chiefly by
erosion of the nozzle throat. Although the a r c is comparatively small, its
power may be many thousands of kw. The specific power in the nozzle
throat may be of the o r d e r of tens of kilowatts p e r square millimeter, which
is many times the specific power of the heat flow of a liquid-fuel jet engine.
Ionized gas
96
It is proposed t o increase the flow velocity in plasma tunnels still
f u r t h e r , up t o between 5000 and 9000 m/sec, by accelerating the plasma,
as shown in Figure 2. 97, through the interaction of a c u r r e n t passing
through it and an applied magnetic field.
A voltage E is applied between the two electrodes forming opposite
walls of a rectangular duct, s o that a c u r r e n t I flows through the plasma
in the direction shown by an a r r o w in Figure 2.97. A magnetic field of
strength H i s applied in a direction perpendicular both t o the direction
of plasma flow and t o that of the e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t , so that a f o r c e
(Lorentz force), proportional t o H and t o I a c t s on the plasma, accelerating
it along the tunnel axis f r o m the initial velocity 1/ t o a velocity V + A V .
The nozzle throat of a hypersonic tunnel is the most highly s t r e s s e d p a r t
and is most difficult t o make. At free-stream velocities corresponding t o
M = 3 t o 5, the simplest s t r u c t u r a l solution is a plane-parallel nozzle.
When M exceeds 10, however, even in a l a r g e wind tunnel, the throat
height of a plane nozzle is only tenths or hundredths of a millimeter, being
s e v e r a l thousand times s m a l l e r than the nozzle width. In such a narrow
nozzle heat t r a n s f e r f r o m the gas t o the walls is very high, and i t becomes
difficult t o maintain the height uniform over the full nozzle width because of
the high thermal stresses.
Axisymmetric nozzles a r e of the optimum shape f r o m the viewpoint of
heat transfer and dimensional stability, and can be efficiently water-cooled.
The axisymmetric nozzles can be formed by turning, precision casting, or
electroforming in d i e s previously machined t o the required nozzle profile.
Shock tubes
91
The propagation velocity ii, of the shock wave is higher than the particle
velocity V1 of the gas, which equals the velocity with which the contact
discontinuitymoves along the tube. The duration At of steady flow past point A
of the tube where the t e s t model is installed can be calculated approximately
f r o m the difference between these velocities; At l ( l / V 2 - l / u s ) , where 1
is the distance f r o m the diaphragm t o point A (Figure 2.98~).
Diaphragm Model
t I
discontinuity
fl Shock
(2. 2)
Knowing M, we can find the flow velocity and Mach number behind the
shock:
(2.3)
98
The p r e s s u r e r a t i o a c r o s s the shock is
(2.4)
(2. 5)
where p is the molecular weight of the gas. F r o m (2. 5) we can see, that
a t a given propellant-gas temperature, the temperature of the working gas
can be increased by using a heavy working gas and a lighter propellant gas.
The force of the shock and the temperature of the moving gas can be
r a i s e d f u r t h e r by increasing the r a t i o of the velocities of sound atlal through
heating the propellant gas. The most widely applied method is t o u s e a s
propellant gas a combustible mixture of oxygen and hydrogen, t o which
helium is added t o reduce the r i s k of detonation. After igniting the mixture
electrically (for instance, by an ordinary automobile s p a r k plug), the
temperature in the chamber r i s e s to 1500-2000°C. In some shock tubes
maximum shock-propagation velocities of 18 k m / s e c have been observed
after rupture of the diaphragm, with t e m p e r a t u r e s behind the shock
of 1 6,00O0K. Another method of increasing the shock-propagation velocity
a t a given p r e s s u r e r a t i o is t o u s e a shock tube with m o r e than one
diaphragm. The rupture of the f i r s t diaphragm causes propagation of a
shock through an intermediate chamber filled with argon; a f t e r rupturing
a second diaphragm the shock reaches the working gas. Shock-propagation
velocity is increased in this c a s e a t the expense of a reduction in the duration
of steady flow.
Since the shock-propagation velocity exceeds the velocity a t which the
contact discontinuity moves, the region of steady flow between the shock and the
contact discontinuity i n c r e a s e s with tube length. In fact, viscosity causes
an i n c r e a s e in the velocity a t which the contact discontinuity moves, often to
a degree where any further i n c r e a s e in tube length i n c r e a s e s the region of
steady flow only slightly. Usually, the duration of steady flow is a few
milliseconds. The p a r a m e t e r s of the steady flow a r e determined f r o m
the shock-propagation velocity and the initial s t a t e s of the propellant and
working gases.
This type of shock tube cannot be used for complete simulation of
atmospheric-re-entry conditions of rockets o r space craft. The r a t i o of
sound velocities in front and behind the shock is
Substituting this value into (2. 3), we obtain for high shock-propagation
veloci ti e s
99
For a i r the Mach number of the flow cannot thus exceed 1.89, s o that shock
tubes of this simple type a r e only used when it is not very important t o
reproduce M , but high temperatures corresponding to the actual conditions
must be achieved (for instance, when studying heat exchange a t the nose of a
blunt body).
Vacuum
Distance --L-
increased. A t the end of the chamber containing the working gas, which
f o r m s the inlet of a converging-diverging [Laval] nozzle, a second, low-
strength diaphragm is installed. After bursting the first diaphragm, the
shock reaches the nozzle inlet and is reflected f r o m it, leaving between
the nozzle i q e t and the reflected shock a region of almost stationary hot
gas which, after rupturing the second diaphragm, flows through the nozzle
into the partially evacuated t e s t section.
When the reflected shock reaches the contact discontinuity, it is
reflected a s a secondary shock moving towards the nozzle. The velocity,
100
at which the contact discontinuity moves, is sharply decreased s o that the
duration of steady flow, which ends a t the instant when the contact
discontinuity r e a c h e s the nozzle inlet, is increased considerably
(Figure 2.100b). The perturbations caused by the secondary reflected
shock must be attenuated in o r d e r to obtain uniform flow a t the nozzle inlet.
Vacuum
High Intermediate
pressure pressure
Mdin
diaphragm
Auxiliary
t Secondary
reflected
diaphragm
I
/
Duration of steady
flow a t nozzle in
o) shock I let when n o reflec
tion occurs a t con
tact discontinuity
Durdtion of steady
flow d t noLzle in
let when reflection
Primary occurs a t contdct
reflected shock discoilrinuit~
101
of tens, and even hundredths, of kilometers p e r second. This shock is
employed i n electromagnetic shock tunnels in exactly the s a m e way a s
i n pneumatic shock tunnels; but the t r a n s i t time of the steady flow behind
the shock wave is usually no m o r e than 20 or 30 microseconds, while the
Mach number is not m o r e than 3 or 4 because of the high velocity of sound
in a v e r y hot gas.
The high levels of ionization of the very hot gases in such tunnels a r e
suitable f o r experiments in magnetohydrodynamics. Figure 2.101 shows
an installation of this type / 27/. The tunnel is a glass tube of 76 m m
inside diameter with the s p a r k generator fitted at one end which f o r m s a
truncated cone; the t e s t model is installed, with test probes, at the
other flat end. The central spark-gap electrode is mounted at the
narrowest p a r t of the truncated cone, the other, annular electrode is
placed a t the intersection of the conical and cylindrical sections of the tube.
To vacuum
I02
f r o m discharging t o the annular electrode until a 15 kv t r i g g e r pulse is
applied to the auxiliary gap. A s soon a s this gap is ionized the main
capacitor (formed a bank of 6 ~ ~ F c a p a c i t o rdischarges
s) through the
auxiliary gap and the main gap in s e r i e s , the r e t u r n path f r o m the annular
electrode of the main gap being provided by s i x copper s t r i p s equally
spaced around the outside of the truncated cone.
High-speed movie c a m e r a s can be used f o r observing the shock; the
c a m e r a s available in Soviet laboratories p e r m i t speeds of 2.5 million
f r a m e s p e r second 1 3 3 1 .
Test models, and probes f o r measuring ionization intensity and air
conductivity a r e placed in the t e s t section of the'tunnel. Figure 2 . 1 0 2
shows a model used f o r studying the interaction between a n a i r s t r e a m
and a magnetic field. A solenoid is placed inside a 20"-diameter
cylinder having a blunt nose of 1 mm-thick P y r e x glass. A 40,000 gauss
magnetic field can be instantaneously created in front of the model by d i s
charging a ~ O O I J F , 1500 volt capacitor bank through the solenoid. The field
is timed to synchronize with the passage of the shock, and photographs
demonstrate how the shock moves further away f r o m t h e nose a s the
magnetic -field intensity i n c r e a s e s .
I03
Evacuated
tion chamber
- I
/
First diaphragm /
Second
diaphragm
Working section
Diaphragm
I \
High- pressure chamber Evacuared
chamber
I04
3 4 ,5
FIGURE 2.106. Discharge chamber of spark-operated wind tunnel. 1-pneumatic cylinder for
advancing of electrode; 2-tungsten electrode; 3- Plexiglas screen; 4-graphite screen;
5 -tungsten nozzle-throat liner: 6 -diaphragm: 7 - beryllium-bronze electrode.
105
The lo6 joule discharge (lo5 kg . m ) of a bank of one thousand 225 I . ~ F
capacitors raised t o 4000 volts is initiated by means of an auxiliary
circuit, whereby a very much s m a l l e r capacitor is discharged through
a [fusible] thin wire joining one of the principal electrodes to an
auxiliary electrode.
The inductive storage s y s t e m employs a very l a r g e coil fed f r o m the
rotor of a single-pole generator with a high-inertia flywheel mounted on
i t s shaft, which is driven by an electric motor. The coil s t o r e s an energy
amounting t o tens of millions of joules, a substantial proportion of which is
liberated in the a r c formed when the coil is switched over f r o m the
generator to the s p a r k gap in the chamber.
Figure 2 . 1 0 6 shows the design of a 700cm3 chamber intended for the
AEDC wind tunnel with a 1270"-diameter test section. The chamber
p r e s s u r e during discharge is 3400 atm. The chamber is a cylindrical
p r e s s u r e vessel into which a cartridge, containing the electrodes, p r e s s u r e
and temperature transducers, a metal or plastic diaphragm, and a hard-
metal interchangeable nozzle-throat liner, is inserted. The electrodes
a r e supported externally by the tunnel, S O that their insulators do not have
to bear the full p r e s s u r e load. Although the nozzle i s made of tungsten,
it burns out after a v e r y few experiments, and the cartridge arrangement
permits its rapid replacement.
Spark-operated wind tunnels have slightly longer operating periods than
shock tunnels of comparable dimensions; steady conditions can be main
tained f o r s e v e r a l tens of milliseconds. Spark-operated tunnels have the
further advantage of reproducing natural conditions m o r e closely, s i n c e the
operating p r e s s u r e , and therefore the Reynolds number, can be higher.
Ballistic ranges
106
1
.. ..
\ Model
catcher Gun
/
FIGURE 2.108. Ballistic rdnge with air flow.
107
flight at hypersonic velocities. To find the drag, it is necessary to
m e a s u r e the time of flight of the body between several points.
Figure 2.109 shows the CARDE ballistic installation / 3 5 / . It consists
of a gas gun and a long vacuum chamber whose wall has windows f o r the
schlieren photography of the model and f o r measuring its flight velocity
with photomultipliers and oscillographs. Pulses f r o m the photomultipliers
a r e also used to t r i g g e r the schlieren a r c s at the instant the model p a s s e s
the window. The photographs thus obtained provide data not only on the
position of the model during flight, but also on the flow in the boundary
layer of the model and on the shape of the shock, s o that the p r e s s u r e
and density distributions near the model can be calculated.
108
M e a s u r e m e n t of f o r c e s . In air-heated hypersonic tunnels, where
the flow durations a r e measured in seconds o r minutes and the stagnation
temperature may obtain 800"K, the technique of measuring forces is
practically the s a m e as in supersonic tunnels. Aerodynamic forces can be
measured by wind-tunnel balances of the mechanical and strain-gage type.
The influence of temperature on the s t r a i n gages is reduced by cooling the
sensitive elements with water or a i r .
In spark-operated wind tunnels and adiabatic shock tunnels, which
permit test durations f r o m 1 0 t o 100 m s e c , it is possible to m e a s u r e the
aerodynamic forces with the aid of strain-gage transducers if the rigidity
of t h e i r elastic members is high and the m a s s of the model small. The
natural frequency of the measuring elements of the balances must be of the
o r d e r of 1000 cycles/sec.
Tra
b=vt+$,
I09
10
FIGURE 2.112. Measurement of h eat transfer from a heated c o n e . 1 - voltage-measurement
points; 2 - current-measurement transformer; 3 - power transformer; 4 - autotransformer;
5 - electron-tube voltmeter; 6 - am m et er ; 7 - voltage-point selector switch; & thermo
couple-selector switch; 9 - potentiometer; 1 0 - galvanometer; 11 - thermocouple cold
junction
112
installed for this purpose on telescopic mountings attached to the walls of
the test section. The model is held within these shrouds at z e r o angle
of attack and is air-cooled t o the required temperature until the tunnel
flow is established. The shrouds a r e then hydraulically retracted into
the walls of the test section (Figure 2 . 1 1 4 ) , the model is turned to the
required attitude, and the temperature of the model wall is measured at
0.25 second intervals by 100 thermocouples. Heat conduction parallel
to the surface can be neglected in a thin-walled model, and the local
coefficientof heat t r a n s f e r can be found f r o m the thermal capacity of the
wall and the r a t e of change of its temperature.
a=--- me d T , 1
F dt T,-TT, '
where m is the m a s s of the wall, c its specific heat, and f denotes time.
The shrouds s e r v e also to protect the model f r o m overloads caused by
shocks during start-up and shut-down of the tunnel.
In both shock and conventional wind tunnels, surface heat exchange
at the model nose can be investigated with film-resistance t h e r m o m e t e r s
which have very small time constants. On the surface of the model, which
is made f r o m quartz or r e f r a c t o r y g l a s s , a 0.01 to 0 . 1 thickfilm
~ of platinum,
gold, or rhodium, is applied by evaporation or sintering. After deposition
the metal film is heat-treated at a temperature of 610 to 670°C, and then
slowly cooled to ensure better penetration of the metal into the surface of
the model and to increase the wear resistance of the film. The electric
resistance of the film is
1 I3
where Ri is the r e s i s t a n c e of the film at initial temperature T = Tf,and
k is a constant. F o r platinum or gold films k lies between 0.0015 and
0.002 degree-'. The r e s i s t a n c e will be about 4 t o 40 ohm, depending on
the dimensions of the thermometer, A c u r r e n t of the o r d e r of 20 t o
50 ma is passed through the thermometer to generate an output signal
(usually measured by an oscillograph) of 1.5 to 2 . 5 m V p e r degree; the
time constant is about 1 microsecond.
1 I4
I
b
where Ri is the electrical resistance of the film and I is the c u r r e n t flowing
through it.
Thus, t o determine f r o m the time-voltage oscillogram we must
know the constant
A=- V G,
k
115
0
One of the l a r g e s t tunnels for testing the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of j e t engines
in a i r c r a f t or rockets is the high-speed AEDC wind tunnel mentioned on
p. 7 9 .
Exhaust shaft
A t
.
Section A - A I ' ~ -,
~-
The jet engines tested in this tunnel have high fuel consumptions, and
a powerful s y s t e m of c o m p r e s s o r s and extractors is required t o supply
the tunnel with f r e s h dry a i r and remove contaminated air a t r a t e s up to
210 k g / s e c , meanwhile maintaining a tunnel p r e s s u r e appropriate t o flight
a t altitudes of about 30km.
The l a r g e dimensions of the t e s t section of this tunnel (4.8 8 m X 4 . 8 8 m )
permit investigations of the flows both around the jet engines and,
simultaneously, within it. The flow r a t e of a i r through the engine is S O
great a s t o influence substantially the external r e s i s t a n c e and stability of
the a i r c r a f t o r m i s s i l e .
A modern continuous -operation wind tunnel f o r jet-engine testing exists
a t the Lewis Laboratory of NASA (Figure 2.117).
This tunnel has a t e s t section of 3.05mX3.05m flow a r e a in which a
maximum velocity corresponding t o M = 3.5 can be obtained. The total
electric drive power of the tunnel is about 250,000 h. p. (or 300,000 h. p.
when the booster is used). The main c o m p r e s s o r of the tunnel is an eight-
stage unit with a diameter of 6.1 m of 131,000 m3/min capacity, with a
compression r a t i o of 2.8 and requiring 150,000 h.p. With this compressor
Mach numbers of 2.5 can be obtained. A booster compressor, used when
higher Mach numbers (up to M = 3.5) a r e needed, has ten stages; it has a
compression ratio of 2.8, a capacity of 38,200m3/min, and r e q u i r e s
100,000 h. p.
The turibel can be operated either a s closed-circuit tunnel, o r a s open-
circuit tunnel, exhausting to atmosphere. The ranges of tunnel p r e s s u r e s
and velocities possible in either case a r e shown in Figure 2.118 (shaded
a r e a s ) . The tunnel has an adjustable nozzle, a supersonic diffuser, an
installation for a i r cooling and drying, extractors t o reduce the initial
I I6
p r e s s u r e , automatic instrumentation, and a remote-control system f o r the
model and f o r tunnel operation. Data processing is fully automatic,
employing computers and automatic curve-plotting equipment.
Meters I I I
01 b)
I I7
Conventional test r i g s permit t e s t s under ground conditions or under
conditions of flight a t low altitudes, s i n c e the rarefaction from flow
acceleration in the nozzle up t o M = 0.85 t o 0.95 is not high.
For simulating conditions a t higher altitudes a diffuser can be connected
t o the engine exhaust. It is better, however, t o exhaust the engine into a
s e p a r a t e diffuser, S O that the jet thrust can a l s o be measured. The
equivalent altitude of such t e s t r i g s can be f u r t h e r increased by fitting
one or m o r e e x t r a c t o r s . Using a diffuser and two extractors the p r e s s u r e
a t the nozzle inlet is substantially reduced, S O that by changing the p r e s s u r e
in the settling chamber, the internal gas dynamics of the engine and the
combustion conditions at different densities and Reynolds numbers can be
investigated .
FIGURE 2.119. Turbo-jet engine test facility (AEDC test rig T-1)
-- . . ..
With the i n c r e a s e of jet-engine power, velocity, and altitude of flight
it has become necessary t o build t e s t r i g s , in which full-scale engines
a r e supplied with clean, dry, and heated a i r in the s t a t e and velocity
corresponding t o flight conditions. The t e s t r i g s constructed in recent
y e a r s for studying jet engines and t h e i r equipment a r e not, therefore,
very different f r o m supersonic tunnels for engine testing. The power of
the c o m p r e s s o r s supplying a i r t o the engines and removing the exhaust
gases may attain 50,000 t o 100,000 h.p., and jet-intake Mach numbers of
4 t o 5 a r e obtained.
FIGURE 2.121. Adjustable nozzle system used in the AEDC jet-engine rest rig.
Bibliography 11.
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Moskva. 1959.
2. H o w a r t h , L. (Editor) (Modern State of High-speed Aerodynamics,
Vol. 2). [Russian translation. 19561.
3. Spravochnik aviakonstruktora Vol. I. Aerodinamika samoleta (Hand
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I I9
4. H o e r n e r , S. Versuche mit Kugeln betreffend Kennzahl, Turbulenzund
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Kanalov (Turbulent Flow of Viscous Liquids i n the Initial Length of
Axisymmetrical and Plane Ducts). - Trudy TsAGI, Vol. 701. 1957.
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zhidkosti i gazov (The Smoothing Effect of S c r e e n s Inserted in
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fil'trov (Smoothing of Turbulence with the Aid of Screens).-
Tekhnicheskie zametki TsAGI, No. 63. 1946.
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(Handbook of Hydraulic Resistances). - Gosenergoizdat. 1960.
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AN SSSR, Vol. 54, No. 8.1946.
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"Mekhanica", No. 5 (28).- IL. 1954.
.
18. G e r m a n , R Sverkhzvukovye vkhodnye diffuzory (Supersonic Intake
Diffusers).- Fizmatgiz. 1960.
19. A n d r e e v , V.A. and S. Z. B e l e n k i i . Vliyanie kondensatsii parov
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OperationWind Tunnels). - Collection of translations and reviews
of foreign periodical literature "Mekhanica", No. 6 (34).- IL. 1955.
I20
21. T s i e n , H. S. Problemy issledovanii PO aerodinamike
razrezhennykh gazov v trubakh (Investigation of the Aerodynamics
of Rarefied G a s e s in Wind Tunnels). Collection of p a p e r s "Gas
Dynamics".- IL. 1950.
2 2 . L u k a s i e w i c z , J . Experimental Investigations in Hypervelocity
Flight. - Advances in Aeronautical Sciences, Vol. 11, Pergamon
Press, London, N.Y. 1959.
.
23. B r o g a n , T.R. The E l e c t r i c Arc Wind Tunnel A Tool for
Atmospheric Reentry Research. - ARS J . , Vol. 29. No. 9. 1959.
24. R e s 1e r , E. L. The Production of High Temperature G a s e s in Shock
Tubes.- J . Appl. Phys.. Vol. 23, No. 1 2 . 1952.
-
25. W i t t 1 i f f , C. F. The Tailored Interface Hypersonic Shock Tunnel.-
J . AeroISpace Sciences, Vol. 26, No. 4.1959.
26. M o n o g h a n , R . J. F e a t u r e s of Hypersonic Heat T r a n s f e r . - Advances
in Aeronautical Sciences, Vol. I. Pergamon Press, London,
N . Y . 1959.
27. Z i e m e r , R . W. Experimental Investigations in Magneto - Aerodyna
mics.- ARS J., Vol. 29, No. 9. 1959.
28. S c h e r r e r , J . R . Comparison of Theoretical and Experimental
Heat - T r a n s f e r C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Bodies of Revolution at
Supersonic Speeds.- NACA Rept. N o . 1055. 1951.
2 9 . H a 11, J . and A . H e r t z b e r g . Recent Advances in Transient
Surface T e m p e r a t u r e Thermometry. - J e t Propulsion, Vol. 28,
No. 11. 1958.
30. B 1o x o m , D. E . Supersonic Aerodynamic Experiments Using Very
High T e m p e r a t u r e A i r Wind Tunnels.- J e t Propulsion, Vol. 28,
N o . 9. 1958.
3 1, B 1o o m , M. H. A High T e m p e r a t u r e - P r e s s u r e A i r Heater. -ASME
Paper, No. 59 - A - 233. 1959.
32. M a r r o n e , P. V. Thin - F i l m Thermometer Measurements in
Partially Ionised Shock- Tube Flows.- Phys. of Fluids, Vol. 2,
N o . 6 . 1959.
33. B o r z u n o v , N.A., D.V. O r l i n s k i i and S . M . O s o v e t s .
Issledovanie moshchnogo impul'snogo razryuda v konicheskikh
kamerakh (Investigation of Intense Pulse Discharges in Conical
Chambers). - Zhurnal Eksperimental'noi i Teoreticheskoi Fiziki,
Vo1.36, No.3. 1959.
34. P o 1y a k o v , Yu. A. and E. A. M i t I k i n a . Tonkoplenochnyi
t e r m o m e t r soprotivleniya (Film - Resistance Thermometers). -
P r i b o r y i Tekhnika Eksperimenta, No. 4. 1961.
35. B u l l , G . V . Reentry 3 u d i e s in F r e e Flight Ranges. - JAS P a p e r ,
No. 143. 1959.
36. Udarnye truby (Shock Tubes). Collection of translated papers. -
IL. 1962.
Chapter III
Or the required pressure gradients and air flow rates for intermittent-operation tunnels,
1680 122
C= the coefficient of local resistance;
AH1ocis AH
- fr is the coefficient
p VZlT - pPJ2 fr
of frictional r e s i s t a n c e s and V is the mean velocity in the section considered,
Thus, the first stage @faerodynamic design c o n s i s t s of determining
the magnitudes of the coefficients j and jfr,f o r each tunnel element.
To facilitate calculations and comparisons of l o s s e s in each element
of the tunnel, the values of 5 and Cfr are expressed i n t e r m s of the velocity
head in the t e s t section, by multiplying the calculated values of the
coefficients j and gfr by the factor
(-
Fbs? where F is the cross-sectional
a r e a of the tunnel element considered, and F f , S ,t hat of the t e s t section.
The magnitudes of 5 and jfra r e estimated f r o m measured data f o r the local
and frictional resistances of various tunnel elements of different shapes**.
The hydraulic resistance of p a r t s of ducts depends not only on t h e i r
geometry, but a l s o on c e r t a i n external factors, including:
1 ) The velocity distribution a t the inlet to the element considered, which in
turn is related t o the flow conditions, the shape of the inlet, the influence
of upstream elements of the tunnel, and the length of straight duct
immediately preceding the element considered.
Design handbooks generally give the hydraulic- resistance data f o r
elements through which a i r flows a t uniform velocity, except where the
contrary is stated.
2 ) The Reynolds number (Re = “p), which affects the frictional-
resistance coefficient, and a l s o the local-resistance coefficient at
compnrati~relylowvalues( R e < (0.1 -0.2). 106), though only slightly at l a r g e
values; when the Reynolds number a t which the measurement was made
is not quoted in the handbook, i t can be assumed that the value of 5 is
independent of Re even at small Reynolds numbers.
V
4 A s distinct from the coefficient h= o f t h e frictional resistance per t i n i f length of duct of constant
( P V W )( [ / D )
cross section.
* * T h e data below for local and frictional resistances are due to Idelchik, I. E. Spravochnik Po gidravlicheskim
soprotivlenam (Handbook of Hydraulic Resistances) .- Gosenergoizdat M. -L. 1960. [English rranslation.
IPST. Cat. No. 1505; AEC ir-6ti:jO. 1
I23
Frictional r e s ist anc e
where U , i s the p e r i m e t e r .
The coefficient h depends mainly on the Reynolds number and the
roughness. The roughness is characterized by the average height k of the
surface i r r e g u l a r i t i e s (projections), called the absolute geometrical
roughness; the r a t i o of the average projection height t o the hydraulic
diameter E = k is the relative geometrical roughness
Dh
Since the geometrical roughness c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e an inadequate
m e a s u r e of the resistance of the tunnel, we introduce the concept of
hydraulic roughness, based on resistance measurements. The presence
of a laminar sub-layer determines the effect of surface roughness on the
hydraulic r e s i s t a n c e . When the thickness of the laminar sub-layer exceeds
the height of the projections, a i r flows uniformly over them a t the low
velocities c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the sub-layer, and the height of the projections
has no influence. The frictional-resistance coefficient h therefore
decreases as Re increases. However, a s Re increases the thickness of
the laminar sub-layer d e c r e a s e s , until it is s m a l l e r than the l a r g e s t
projections, which thus intensify the turbulence. The consequent i n c r e a s e
in p r e s s u r e loss is reflected in the increasing value of h a s R e r i s e s f u r t h e r ,
Tunnels can be considered smooth (both hydraulically and technically),
if the height of the projections is l e s s than the thickness of the laminar sub-
l a y e r . The corresponding limiting value of the relative [geometrical]
roughness is
I24
D e t e r m i n a t i o n of h f o r l a m i n a r f l o w (Re<2000)
1) Circular section:
h= -
64
Re ’
A 1 =A?,,
lag R e
FIGURE 3.1. Friction coefficient h as function of Reynolds number lor tunnels of
-
uniform roughness. Regime no. 1 laminar; regime no. 2 - transirlonal. regime
-
no. 3 turbulent.
D e t e r m i n a t i o n of h f o r t u n n e l s w i t h s m o o t h w a l l s
( Re > 2000).
1 ) Circular section:
0.3164
4000 < Re < 100,000 A= ~ (Figure 3. 3a),
0.303
Re > 4000 i=(IgRe-o0.y)2 (Figure 3. 3b).
1 = )“p2,
125
FIGURE 3 2 Correctioii coefficient for rectangular
iunnel section (Re < 2000).
a
0.040
0.034
0.030
0.024
a020
0.016
0.014
0.012
11.010
11.009
0.006
0007
0DO6
0.005
IOf 2 4 6 IO6 2 4 6 IO7 2 4 6 roo
Re
1, = ).h,
where 93 =PZ (Figure 3 . 4 ) .
I
i
D e t e r m i n a t i o n of h f o r t u n n e l s w i t h r o u g h w a l l s
(turbulent regime).
1) Circular section:
h= ~~ (Figure 3 . 6).
(2Ig 3.7b
; j2
where v
value of
-
v
p/p depends on the temperature and p r e s s u r e (for p = 1 atm, the
is found f r o m Figure 3 . 7 ) . The temperature dependence of p is
106p= 1.712 1 / 1 + 0 . 0 ~ 3 ~ ( l + 0 . 0 0 0 8 t ) 2 ,
where t is in "C.
c R e 6 I
I
a, 1
I
b, 1
I
e,
I27
2 3 4 5 b 8 1 0 4 2 3 4 5 b 8 i 0 5 2 3 4 5 6 d 1 0 6 2 3456810’ 2 3456810’
Re
FIGURE 3.5. Variation of fricrion coefficient with Reynolds number for runnels of uniform
wall roughness: rransirional regime (Re >2000).
128
FIGURE 3.6. Variation of resistance coefficient of tunnel
with wall roughness i n turbulent regime.
I29
while e and f a r e coefficients by which allowance is made f o r the contraction
ratio.
cf, =
A
R1--l
1 1 a
a, (2n2 +
n'-1
-,T)
4 ns-1
f o r a plane nozzle and
4 I nu"- 1
C - A- for a nozzle of c i r c u l a r o r rectangular section.
'1-9 Dhn'/'(n-l)
L o s s e s in the t e s t section
Open t e s t section:
1 ) c i r c u l a r o r rectangular c r o s s section
Clot = 0 . 0 8 4 5 ~ - 0 . 0 0 5 3 (1t.S.
~) (Figure 3 . 8);
Dh
2 ) elliptical c r o s s section
Lt.sl/Dh
FIGURE 3 . 8 , Resistance coefficient of open circular or rectangular teSI sections as
function of rhe test-section dimensions.
T h e angle a is the convergence angle of a conical nozzle equivalent t o the given curvilinear nozzle.
130
In a closed t e s t section the frictional l o s s e s can be determined from
the values of Re and E .
The resistance of the model and its supports in the test section forms
a considerable p a r t of the total resistance of the wind tunnel, and depends
on the degree of blockage 'ad
by the model and the supports, and their
FLS.
streamlining, The resistance can be found f r o m the expression
I 1 1 I
~
-
of t h e ellipse
c r- I
44 4
D h- -
1.5(ac+bc) -a
131
the friction coefficient, i. e.,
V , and VI a r e the mean velocities in the inlet and exit sections respectively;
k is a correction factor for the nonuniformity of the veIocity distribution at
the diffuser inlet o r f o r the boundary-layer regime; and ( 1
. - -)Fo ?
=d is
F,
a coefficient which takes into account the effect of the diffuser divergence.
132
,
h
"kea 1% Behind straight duct
1.8
1.6
0 6 16 24 32 40 46 I
vm,, lv, Behind free jet Dh I.4
30
25
20
12
L5
I.0
IDO ad 1.6 24 33 4.0 48 L (0 1.04 1.08 1.12
Dh "I0,lVO
Resistance of c o r n e r s
The resistance .of the fan installation (motor casing, shaft bearings, etc.)
can be determined in the s a m e way a s the resistance of the model in the
t e s t section, using the expression
I34
.**.-
TABLE 4. Resistance coefficients for corners of different types (Re>- 0.2 lo6; I= 0.0003).
90' square varying 1.3 0.8 0.5 0.36 0.3 0.27 0.25
90' rectangular airfoil section 0.33 0.23 0.17 0.16 0.17 0.22 0.31
b
9'0 1.4 2- 0.33 0.23 0.15 0.11 0.13 0.19 0.30
e
w 90' thin, curved t o subtend ar? 5 -7 To 0.15 ad=45 50'
wl
t
- =0.25
90" circular airfoil section, 300 r Do
-- -= 0.lX 0.26 t - vane chord
uniform gap width t
ad= 48'
I i
Resistance of r a d i a t o r s
A =0.375 ( R ~ * ) - ’ ” E ~ ~ .
1 = 0.214~O.‘.
where +
=I * is the r a t i o of the difference of the a i r temperatures a t the
outlet and inlet t o the absolute a i r temperature a t the inlet. For the
136
r a d i a t o r s shown in Figures 3 . 1 5 and 3 . 1 6 , the r e s i s t a n c e coefficient is
FO is the total projected a r e a of the gaps between the radiator tubes at the
point where the gap is narrowest, F i is the total projected flow a r e a
between two adjacent plates, F , is the overall a r e a of the radiator front,
and n is the number of rows of radiator tubes.
I37
1. 0.77
(3,000 < Re <25,000)
=- ( s e e Figure 3. 15)
~ R G
A
a05
004
~ a 3
aoz
F o r ribbed-tube radiators :
A=- 0.98
(4,000 < Re < 10,000)
$-Re
I38
and
A= :
A for R e > 10,OOO ( s e e Figure 3.16).
1/6
Q = FI,s,V m3/sec
I39
TABLE 5
. -. .- . . _ -
Tunnel element
- __ .~
.
Nozzle
___- -~
..... - . ... . .
Slotted diffuser
0.15
Slotted diffuser
0.10
Diffuser
0.10
Diffuser
0.10
’.
’ Referred to velocity head i n the rest section: C = Ci
(-d Ft,s.
The energy r a t i o A of the tunnel (see p. 24), which depends on the tunnel
resistance and the fan efficiency, is
i=.l
x i .
Calculation of velocities, p r e s s u r e s ,
and temperatures
I40
--
- -.I--
-
-.- -.
141
the calculations a r e best begun with the fan outlet for tunnels with closed
test sections. Figure 3.18 shows the distribution of velocities and p r e s s u r e s
f o r the tunnel shown in Figure 3.17.
The t e m p e r a t u r e s in low-speed closed-circuit tunnels can be calculated
by assuming that the entire power of the drive is converted into heat. In
tunnels with open t e s t sections and slots in the diffuser it should be
assumed that about 10% of the tunnel a i r will be drawn f r o m the room which
surrounds the tunnel.
Compressor
142
of the total p r e s s u r e pol and stagnation temperature in the settling
chamber, which, in tunnels of this type, approximate the p r e s s u r e and
temperature respectively of the still a i r in the tunnel when the fan is a t
r e s t . The values of the velocity hz [ r e f e r r e d t o the c r i t i c a l speed] at the
test-section inlet, and of the corresponding Mach number M = M Z r a r e
assumed t o be given.
W e designate the r a t i o of total p r e s s u r e s at the inlet and outlet of any
tunnel element a s i t s coefficient of p r e s s u r e recovery vi = EWL while the
Poi
corresponding r a t i o of stagnation temperatures is 0; = k
Tor
,
The velocities a t the inlet section Fi and outlet section Fi + I of any tunnel
element a r e related to each other by the equation of continuity
where
I 1
z-1
q(Ai)=(xi-!)=Ai(, -
.+ 1 q 1 - y
The function 9 = f ( h )is given in Figure 3 . 20 and in Table 6 (for x = 1.4).
Table V a l u e s of q (1)
I
0
0.05
0
0.0787
0.65
0.70
0.8541
0.8920
1.25
1.30
1.85
1.90 I
I R.3527
0.2999
0.10 0.1570 0.75 0.9246 1.35 1.95 0.2494
0.15 0.2343 0.80 0.9515 1.40 2.00 02021
0.20 0.3101 0.85 0.9726 1.45 2.05 0.1586
0.25 0.3841 0.90 0.9877 1.50 2.10 0.1196
0.30 0.4555 0.95 0.9967 1.55 9.15 0.0854
0.35 0.5242 1.00 1.oooo 1.60 2.10 0.0569
0.40 0.5895 1.05 0.9965 1.65 2.25 0.0342
0.45 0.6512 1.10 0.9877 1.70 2.30 0.0174
0.50 0.7088 1.15 0.9728 1.75 2.35 0.0065
0.60 0.8105
ll I
I43
Let u s now consider the changes in velocity, p r e s s u r e , and a i r
temperature in different p a r t s of the tunnel.
S e t t l i n g c h a m b e r a n d n o z z I e (VI). The air flow i n the settling
chamber and nozzle is approximately adiabatic. The l o s s e s in the nozzle
are relatively s m a l l in comparison with those in other tunnel elements,
and a r e due mainly to friction. A t supersonic velocities, the nozzle
l o s s e s a = 1 - v a r e less than 0.01 t o 0.02, i. e., the t o t a l - p r e s s u r e loss is
about 1 t o 270. It is s a f e t o a s s u m e in calculations that VI = 0. 98.
Since heat t r a n s f e r through the walls of the settling chamber and nozzle
(as well as of other tunnel elements) is negligible, we can write
T e s t s e c t i o n a n d m o d e 1 (vP). T o t a l - p r e s s u r e l o s s e s in the t e s t
section a r e due t o friction a t the rigid walls and to the resistance of the
model and its supports. In an open t e s t section, a l a r g e resistance is
caused by the intense turbulence a t the f r e e jet boundary.
The coefficient of p r e s s u r e recovery in a closed cylindrical t e s t section
can be c a k u l a t e d f r o m the r a t i o of the velocities a t i t s inlet and outlet:
144
where A is found f r o m hz = h3(l - A ) . The relation between the ?.3 and A is
given approximately by the expression
F o r given values of *, 1 .S .
52 and cx we obtain the relationships between
andA(or, which is the same, between h3 and h 2 ) and can find q ( h 2 ) , q ( h 3 ) and
VZ.. In supersonic tunnels, =.=
't.S.
1 to 3. The r e s i s t a n c e coefficient of the
t e s t section is calculated in the same way as f o r subsonic tunnels. For a
closed test section 5 2 = 0.014, while f o r an open t e s t section c2= 0.1.
Thus, the p a r a m e t e r C2-'t.S. v a r i e s between 0.014 and 0.042 (0.03 on the
D1.S.
average). T h e d r a g coefficient c, of the model and supports is maximum
at velocities close t o M = 1 ( c x = 0.2). The r a t i o hd=
Fts,
'Ed is
Fz
generally
between 0.1 and 0.15. In designing the t e s t sections of supersonic tunnels,
we can a s s u m e
where i = l r . s / D t ~ s . .
If the walls have perforations o r slots, the resistance of the t e s t section is
higher. The i n c r e a s e in resistance depends on the degree of perforation, i. e . ,
the ratio of the a r e a of the perforations to the total wall a r e a of the t e s t
section; this ratio v a r i e s f r o m about 0.10 f o r M = 1.2 -1.3 to about 0.40
f o r M = 1.7-1.8. The resistance of a t e s t section with perforated
walls can be assumed t o be about 5070 higher than that of a t e s t section with
unperforated walls (1.'
P
"L=0.045). The range of the transonic velocities
D1.S.
obtainable at the inlet of a closed t e s t section is limited because the model
and i t s supports block the tunnel and thus i n c r e a s e the velocities.
Using the continuity equation, the dependence of the t e s t -section inlet
velocity ( h ~on
) the cross-sectional a r e a ( F m o d ) of the model can be found by
assuming that the velocity a t the median section of the model is sonic
( A = 1). In this case,
3
1
q (A2) = q (1 - A)
x+
1 - Fsd= 1 -- A2.
Fts. 2
145
It thus follows that the r e f e r r e d velocity a t the test-section inlet will
be l e s s than unity by an amount
AM=1.1 e d .
[
L3 = Az 1 - ; $,"+
(c, &I)] ,
when h2 = I
' T h e value A M IS called the velocii) illduction ~01rec1iotiof the tiintiel. and should he taken into account
when testing models at transonic velocities i n a closed test section
*" For cylindrical closed test sections the outlet velocity is
I46
or
-
For 52 = 0.1;c Fmod= 0.02; 1 = 2 , we obtain
* Ft.s.
v2=0.846 (model i n t e s t section)
y2=0.86 (no model in t e s t section).
L o s s e s in the r e t u r n duct
147
or
But
1.4
vq= 1 -Oo.75~0.152=0.99.
by assuming that
I
Assuming that the air cooler removes all the heat generated f r o m the
mechanical-energy output of the c o m p r e s s o r , we have
I49
where W is the volume of the tunnel, and Wi the volume of the i-th
element of the tunnel where the density is p i .
Figure 3.22 shows the c o m p r e s s o r power required per square m e t e r
of the test-section flow a r e a a s a function of the r e f e r r e d velocityinthe t e s t
section. It is assumed that p o l = 1 a t m and To, = 288"K, and examples a r e
given of different s y s t e m s of p r e s s u r e recovery in the diffuser.
N. kw
I
15000
10000
1 -
I I
1.0 1.5 2.0 0' 100 zoo 300
a2 Q, 1n3/sec
FIGURE 3.22. Variation of rated conipres FIGUKE 3 23 Theoretical variation of com
sor power with referred velocity In the test pression ratio with mass flow rare at comprec
section of a wing tunnel ( F ~ . =~ l,m 2 ) . sor inlet for differeni systems of pressure IC
1 - normal+ oblique shock; behind the covery in the diffuser.
shocks v = 0 . 9 3 ; 2 - normal shock;
behind t h e shock y = 0.93
F o r the s a m e initial conditions Figure 3. 23 shows the variation of
compression r a t i o E with m a s s flow r a t e a t the c o m p r e s s o r inlet f o r
different systems of p r e s s u r e recovery in the diffuser (at T = 288°K).
Figure 3.24 shows how the minimum required compression ratio v a r i e s with
the m a s s flow r a t e and the Mach number of a continuous -operation tunnel /1/':.
Figure 3. 25 shows comparative values of the Ioss coefficients (si = 1 - vi)
in different p a r t s of the tunnel. A s can be seen, at high test-section
velocities the l o s s e s a r e mainly concentrated in the diffuser. The l o s s e s
throughout the r e t u r n circuit a r e negligible; the l o s s e s in the t e s t section
(or the model-resistance l o s s e s in a closed t e s t section) a r e s e v e r a l times
a s great a s the l o s s e s ( 8 6 ) in the r e t u r n circuit . Thus, in supersonic tunnels
attention should be paid t o the c o r r e c t design of the diffuser and the t e s t
s ect ion.
The relationship between M and R e in the t e s t section is the main
c r i t e r i o n of the testing capacity of the tunnel. The determination of this
* Experimental values for the minimum required compression ratio are given for fixed-geometry diffusers up to
M = 2.5, and for variable-geometry diffusers at M > 2.5 (see /2/).
150
relationship is the final stage in the tunnel design. The Mach number
in the t e s t section is
&='-vi
I
* Here p is the viscosity coefficient of [ h e air temperature i n the test section (see p. 5).
section, and b) the volume W required for given operating duration t and
initial p r e s s u r e pin.
When Re is given
pomln=24.4- Re
4 d)
bvavi
VFn.
The operating duration of the tunnel is
I52
, where
-
V a c u u m - p o w e r e d t u n n e l (Figure 3 . 2 7 ) . I n t h i s c a s e the a i r m a s s
flow r a t e is constant:
where pPmln=pav;~, .
. . v , ( l -$Ai)l-l is the final, and ppintheinitial p r e s s u r e
in the evacuated r e s e r v o i r [whose volume is W 1.
I n d u c e d - f l o w t u n n e l (Figure 3 . 2 8 ) . A i r f r o m high-pressure
cylinders (PO, TO)is supplied to an ejector provided with a mixing chamber
at whose outlet the total p r e s s u r e of the compressed a i r is p i and its
stagnation temperature is Ti. The inlet a r e a of the mixing chamber is F'.
Tunnel-operatingduration 1 to 2 min
* * Tunnel-operatingduration 10 i o 15 min
153
The values of POIand To,of the low-pressure a i r flowing through the
t e s t section a r e known f r o m the design calculations for the tunnel (from
its inlet to the locationof the ejector). The total p r e s s u r e ~ O Zat the mixing-
chamber outlet (i.e., diffuser inlet in the considered s y s t e m ) is determined
f r o m the t o t a l - p r e s s u r e recovery factor of the diffuser.
A i r lroni storage
I cylinders (po8G)
The operating duration of a tunnel in which the a r e a F' (and thus the
a r e a F ) is adjustable, S O that the compressed-air p r e s s u r e is variable,
is in the c a s e of adiabatic expansion:::
1
2
(z~)'-'
where Q=Fq(X,)F+t: is the m a s s flow r a t e of a i r through the t e s t
1680
BIBLIOGR A P H Y
Chapter IV
p =pgRT, (4.1)
(4. 2)
a*=xgRT , (4.3a)
also
R =J ( c p- cv).
To - 1 + 7X -M
- 1 Z .
(4.4)
T-
(4. 5)
157
The change of velocity in passing through the shock wave is given by
where
k=-. V (4.11)
a*
_
V
-
v, -kZ. (4.12)
(4.13)
(4.14)
(4.15)
(4.17)
(4.18)
(4.19)
158
The Mach number downstream of an oblique shock wave is
(4.20)
Shock /I
159
Measurement methods not requiring the insertion of probes into the
medium a r e commonly used. Thus, for instance, if the flow between the
settling chamber and the test section of a tunnel is isentropic, the velocity,
p r e s s u r e , and temperature of the flow in the t e s t section can often be
calculated f r o m the initial data (stagnation p r e s s u r e and temperature in
the settling chamber), supplemented by measurements of the p r e s s u r e a t
the wall. If the nature of the gas flow (e. g., possible heat t r a n s f e r to the
gas) is uncertain, it will be n e c e s s a r y t o m e a s u r e the temperature or
density in addition t o the p r e s s u r e . The density is commonly determined
by optical methods, which a r e very important in the study of compressible
gas flow in boundary l a y e r s where the insertion of probes might substantially
distort the flow pattern.
11. P R E S S U R E MEASUREMENT;::
Measurement of static p r e s s u r e
160
--...
.. . ___ .... .,. ,. I I , I I, I '
The static p r e s s u r e in a flow can only v a r y between points in a plane,
normal t o the undisturbed flow, if the streamlines a r e curved. If the
s t r e a m l i n e s a r e straight, t r a n s v e r s e velocity gradients do not affect the
static p r e s s u r e . It is therefore best t o m e a s u r e the static p r e s s u r e in a n
undisturbed flow at a point where the medium moves parallel t o a wall
(Figure 4. 3a), and all the s t r e a m l i n e s a r e straight (neglecting boundary-
l a y e r disturbances). The (effectively constant) p r e s s u r e difference a c r o s s
a thin boundary layer a t a curved wall does not affect the static p r e s s u r e
acting a t the s e n s o r orifice.
1 To t h e
manometer 3 To the
manometer
a b
161
The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a s t a t i c - p r e s s u r e s e n s o r a r e expressed in
t e r m s of the p a r a m e t e r (determined by calibration)
I
A -P
_
FIGURE 4.4. Pressure distribution on the FIGURE 4.5. Pressure distribution on the
surface of a cylinder placed transversely surface of acylinderwithafairednose.
t o the flow. aligned parallel to the stream.
162
. .
semispherical noses. The tube is inserted into the s t r e a m s o that its axis
l i e s in the direction of the undisturbed flow. The static p r e s s u r e is
transmitted into the tube through openings o r slots located between the
nose and the s t e m used f o r mounting the tube and connecting it t o a
manometer. The s t e m disturbs the flow [stem effect], and causes a
local increase in the static p r e s s u r e near the orifices. On the other hand,
the disturbances at the nose cause a local velocity i n c r e a s e and a p r e s s u r e
decrease. Figure 4.7 shows theinfluence of the position of nose and s t e m
of a Prandtl tube on the e r r o r in measuring the static p r e s s u r e . The
difference between the indicated p r e s s u r e pi and the t r u e p r e s s u r e p ,
C d
163
Disc tubes (Figure 4 . 6b), have orifices drilled in the center of one
s i d e of the disc, and a r e inserted into the s t r e a m s o that the s u r f a c e of
the disc is parallel t o the flow direction
These tubes a r e v e r y sensitive t o
the orientation of the disc in the s t r e a m .
The orifices in the walls of the tube
o r tunnel cause c e r t a i n disturbances in
the flow close to the wall; the medium
flowing past the orifices is partially
mixed with the stagnant medium inside
them, This and the centrifugal forces
acting on the fluid, causes the s t r e a m
lines adjacent t o the orifices to become
curved, S O that the p r e s s u r e inside the
tube is not exactly equal t o the static
p r e s s u r e in the flow. The principal
e r r o r s in s t a t i c - p r e s s u r e measurements
by means of orifices a r i s e f r o m the
viscosity of the fluid which manifests
itself in the boundary l a y e r . The
p r e s s u r e in fairly deep orifices exceeds
the t r u e p r e s s u r e , the e r r o r decreasing
a s the diameter of the orifice is reduced.
If the orifice diameter is small
compared with the thickness 6 of the
FIGURE 4. I. Influence of nose and stem
boundary l a y e r , the difference between
on errors in measuring static pressure. the orifice p r e s s u r e and the t r u e static
p r e s s u r e can be expressed a s follows
in dimensionless f o r m 1 2 1 :
-1
*=cRe 4 .
TO
To Ip (dE )
y y=O'
Re=----pV,d - dV dl
P dy v '
v2 P
The coefficient c depends on the r a t i o of the orifice depth 1 t o the diameter
164
- .. - -- ... , .
Figure 4.8 shows the values of this e r r o r determined in dimensionless
f o r m a s a function of Reynolds number f r o m turbulent-flow measurements
121. For orifices drilled perpendicular to the wall and connected t o the
manometer through a tube of diameter 2 d , the e r r o r is independent of lld
I
when 1.5 < ;T < 6 . The orifice diameter is generally between 0.25 and 2 mm,
the r a t i o lld being not l e s s than 2.
165
FIGURE 4.9. Effect of orifice dimensions on indicated static pressure
m
l?3 a4 a5 0.6 07 0.8
166
Good r e s u l t s a r e a l s o obtained with ogival tubes (Figure 4 . 6d). The
tube shown in Figure 4.11 has a systematic e r r o r not exceeding 1%141.
t
FIGURE 4.11. Ogival tube.
167
measurements become inaccurate. The dependence of its calibration
;//,v;h
coefficient on yaw ( a ) is therefore an important characteristic of a tube.
Orifice
Reflected
Figure 4.23 shows this dependence f o r a Prandtl tube (curve 1). The
effect of yaw is reduced by arranging s e v e r a l orifices s o that the p r e s s u r e
inside the tube is an average value. Usually the tube has f r o m 4 t o 8
orifices whose diameters a r e about 1110th of the outside diameter of the tube.
I /A
Shock
FIGURE 4.14.
a'
Figure 4.14 shows the effect of yaw on the indications of a tube with
a long ogival nose a t M = 1 . 6 / 5 1 . The different curves correspond to
different orientations of the orifices. The e r r o r is leasx f o r a tube with
two openings situated in the plane of yaw, since the p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e a t
one orifice is then compensated by the p r e s s u r e decrease a t the other.
The static p r e s s u r e a t transonic o r supersonic velocities may be
measured with a wedge-shaped tube (Figure 4.15). The orifice should
be inside the triangle ABC formed by the leading edge A B and the shock
waves propagated f r o m the c o r n e r s .4 and B .
168
Measurement of total p r e s s u r e
169
above 200 1 6 1 ; in measuring p o the e r r o r is only 2 or 370when R e = 100.
Total-pressure tubes a r e less sensitive to yaw than static - p r e s s u r e
tubes. The influence of yaw on the readings of tubes of various nose
shapes is shown i n Figures 4.17 through 4.19, where poi-po is the e r r o r
due t o yaw.
170
Blunt-nosed tubes a r e l e s s sensitive t o yaw than tubes with rounded-off
noses. Comparison between tubes with conical noses and tubes with
orifices conical inward ( F i g u r e 4 . 1 9 ) shows that the l a t t e r a r e l e s s
affected by yaw
M-1.62
r II'
-2
-20' U
-32'
29'
t 17'
-+ 14'
a --+Z4'
4L
051D C &ID d
a=-+15' 0=24/.5"
the air flow t o the orifice (Figure 4. 20). The sensitivity t o yaw of such
tubes depends on the t a p e r of t h e inlet cone of the shield and on the
171
cross-sectional a r e a of the openings through which the a i r leaves the shield.
Best r e s u l t s a r e obtained withshields whose outlet c r o s s sections a r e equal to
o r slightly exceed the inlet c r o s s sections. Iftheinlet t a p e r angle is l a r g e
the angle of yaw may attain f 64" before the e r r o r in measuring the total
p r e s s u r e exceeds 1%of the velocity head. Simplified shielded miniature
tubes f o r measuring the total p r e s s u r e s in turbo-machines a r e shown in
Figure 4.21. The orifices of total-pressure tubes a r e placed n e a r the
apex of the shield cone. At subsonic flow such tubes 141, 1'71, / 8 / show
e r r o r s of less than 0 . 5 % a t yaw angles of f 3 0 t o 40".
V
-t
applicable for
;2
-- =0.1 to 1.2,
172
-- ---- ..........
--- ..--- .___. ,.. I. I. .... I1..11 I...,, .,I1 1.11.1, ...... ."
I,. I .... .........
I
where
173
of heat with the surroundings u p s t r e a m of the point where the flow velocity
o r Mach number is to be determined the local value of po can be found with
the aid of a total-pressure tube, while the local value of To can be determined
by a s t a t i c - p r e s s u r e tube, a s described in 14. A t present nomethod exists f o r
direct measurement of the static temperature T of the gas. It can be
determined indirectly by measuring the velocity of sound in the fluid; f o r
a given gas, the velocity of sound depends only on temperature (a2 = x g R T ) .
However, there must be a finite distance between the sound source and the
receiver used f o r this measurement, SO that an average, rather than a
local, temperature value is obtained.
Measurement of the density p in a s t r e a m of compressible fluid is
considerably e a s i e r , using indirect methods based on the relationships
between the density and the coefficients of refraction, absorption, and
radiation of the medium. The refraction method (described in S 18) p e r m i t s
density measurements even in regions where the flow is not isentropic.
By measuring p at differentpoints we can determine the local Machnumber at
these points f r o m the known value of PO, using (4. 6).
Ofthe three static p a r a m e t e r s , T , p , and p , only the static p r e s s u r e
can generally be measured directly. Hence the "pneumometric" method,
based on the measurement of p r e s s u r e s , has become the principal, and the
most accurate, method of Mach-number determination, and is used up to
hypersonic velocities. Mach number in an isentropic flow can be calculated
f r o m (4.5), which may be rewritten in the f o r m
F r o m this expression we can also find the local flow velocity, Expressing
the local velocity of sound in t e r m s of the temperature, and r e m e m b e r i n g
that V = aM, we obtain
B
P =I+~M~(I+E), (4. 25)
174
where
- + ..
E=- 4 + (2--x)M'
24-+
(2 X) (3 - 2%)hV
I92 ___ (4. 26)
Since
175
In general, f o r measuring the f r e e - s t r e a m velocity, orifices at two
points on the surface of a streamlined body a r e connected to a differential
manometer. One of these orifices is usually arranged at the stagnation
point of the body s o that the total p r e s s u r e a c t s on the corresponding leg
of the manometer. The p r e s s u r e difference between these two points is
expressed through the f r e e - s t r e a m velocity head
pv2 -
Ap. =- 1
.
1 2 E (4.31)
882 -10u
1-1
-
section
30 0
4. a'
176
F o r velocity measurements in wind tunnels, dual-purpose tubes a r e
used. They a r e shaped in such a way a s t o provide a coefficient a s close t o
unity a s possible. Such a tube consists of a s t a t i c - p r e s s u r e tube which
m e a s u r e s p , and a total-pressure tube which m e a s u r e s p o , combined a s a
single device.
Figure 4.23 shows the Pitot-Prandtl and NPL tubes. The NPL tube has
c i r c u l a r orifices t o sense the static p r e s s u r e , while the Pitot-Prandtl tube
has slots.
Slots a r e l e s s liable t o clogging, but the measured static p r e s s u r e is
m o r e sensitive t o the geometry of the slot. C i r c u l a r orifices a r e t h e r e
f o r e generally used in hemispherical-nose tubes (Figure 4.23~).
There is a simple relationship between the p r e s s u r e difference Api,
measured by a differential manometer connected a c r o s s the dual-purpose
tube, and the t r u e value Ap :
4i 'Poi -P i = T1 (PO-PI= 1
T APp (4.32)
SO that if we know E, the velocity can be determined f r o m
0.98
1
V. m/sec
FIGURE 4.24. Variation of the tube coefficient at
small free-stream velocities. 1-NPL tube; 2 -
Pitot-Prandtl tube.
177
The velocity is sometimes measured with tubes f o r which 5 is not unity,
e. g., when using dual-purpose tubes for yaw measurements. Usually,
variations in Re and M considerably affect the value of 5 of such tubes,
and they a r e l e s s accurate than standard tubes.
The advantage of dual-purpose tubes is that the value of 5 can be
reproduced in a new tube if its geometry is a good replica of the original.
However, calibration against a reference tube is recommended if accuracies
better than 1 or 270 a r e required. Reference tubes a r e calibrated on a
r o t a r y - a r m machine (see S 3). A reference tube which has been carefully
calibrated on a r o t a r y - a r m m a c h i n e is thenused for the secondary calibration
of other tubes in a special wind tunnel havinguniformflow in the test sections.
178
Eliminating the velocity head , we obtain an expression for the tube
coefficient of the tube being calibrated.
APstatav
E-=-* 'Pav
where
Withthe aid of this l a s t equation we can obtain the velocity head in the test
section of the tunnel, by measuring the s t a t i c - p r e s s u r e drop between
sections A and B. For this purpose we must a l s o know the value of 5.
This is determined by calibrating the empty tunnel with a dual-purpose
tube. At different flow velocities the average value of the velocity head
in section C is determined simultaneously with the p r e s s u r e drop pA - pB.
The value of 5 can be found f r o m these measurements. Setting 1/5 = p
we obtain
179
where kt is the p r e s s u r e - d r o p coefficient. For m o r e accurate measurement
of the p r e s s u r e - d r o p , sections A and B a r e provided with s e v e r a l openings
(usually f r o m 4 t o 81, which a r e interconnected by tubes, thus forming
"piezometric " rings .
The operational flow velocity of a wind tunnel is usually specified a s the
average fIow velocity in the empty tunnel, a t the point in the t e s t section where
models a r e installed, and a t the s a m e m a s s flow r a t e a s when a model is
present. This condition ensures equal p r e s s u r e drops p.4 -ps with and
without the model.
180
181
I-1
Expanding (B)"
P
as a s e r i e s in powers of 2
P
, and writing
Ef=L!E-*
2% p 6x2 ....
we obtain
(4.36)
(4.37)
+
Values of 'E = E/( 1 E) a s function of ApIp a r e given in Table 7.
During experiments it is not good practice t o u s e measuring tubes
mounted i n l t h e t e s t section, since they considerably affect the flow
around the model. The average values of the operational f r e e -
s t r e a m velocity and of the operational Mach number in the t e s t section
a r e usually found by substituting in (4.36) and (4.37) the difference
between the total p r e s s u r e PO in the settling chamber of the tunnel and
the s t a t i c p r e s s u r e p at t h e wall of the test section; p is measured
Table I
0
0.1
0
0.0070
0
0.0025
1.1
1.2
1.1349
1.4248
0.2537
0.2925
'
2.1
2.2
8.1491
9.6952
0.G212
o.ti506
0.2 0.0283 0.m9 1.3 1.7716 0.3323 2.3 11.315 0.6780
0.3 0.0644 0.0222 1.4 2.1827 0.3714 2.4 13.620 0.7040
0.4 0.1 166 0.0395 1.5 2.6711 0.4104 2.5 16.094 0.7282
0.5 0.1862 0.0602 1.6 3.2517 0.4489 2.6 18.960 0.7504
0.6 0.2753 0.0846 1.7 3.9383 0.4863 2.7 22.310 0.7712
0.7 0.3872 0.1141 1.8 4.7471 0.5222 2.8 26.100 0.7897
0.8 0.5244 0.1457 1.9 5.7024 0.5568 2.9 30.646 0.8079
0.9 0.6915 0.1800 2.0 6.8247 0.5897 3.0 35.765 0.8'239
1.0 0 8932 0.2163
-
FIGURE 4.30. Layout for measuring the operational velocity and Mach
number in wind tunnels.
183
can be found f r o m
AV
-=-- AF 1
V F Mz-I'
7.-1
AM
-=-- AF *$-TMM,
M F M2-I I
Thus for M = 0.95 the e r r o r in measuring the velocity and the Mach
number, due to the presence of a tube whose cross-sectional a r e a is 0.1%
of that of the t e s t section, is about 1 % .
184
For a wedge we have
Maximum value of 8’
FIGURE 4.32. Variation with Mach number of angle FIGURE 4 . 3 3 . Conditions for detachment of
of inclination of the shock wave at a cone apex. the shock wave i n from of a wedge.
185
In o r d e r t o find the Mach-number distribution a c r o s s the t e s t section
of the wind tunnel (i. e,, t o calibrate the test section), it is necessary t o
u s e a tube in t u r n a t each t e s t point. In principle, we can use f o r this
purpose a Pitot-Prandtl tube and m e a s u r e with s e p a r a t e manometers the
total p r e s s u r e p i a t a given point behind the normal shock and the static
p r e s s u r e p of the undisturbed flow. The Mach number can then be found
from Rayleigh’s formula, obtained from (4.5) and (4.15):
(4.39)
However, this formula is reliable only when the nose orifice of the tube
is in its entirety behind the shock. The tube with which the total p r e s s u r e
pb is measured must therefore have a blunt nose. On the other hand,
considerable e r r o r s a r i s e in measuring the static p r e s s u r e p with a
blunt-nose tube; these e r r o r s cannot always be eliminated by locating the
side orifices away f r o m the tube nose. Hence, total and static p r e s s u r e s
in supersonic flow a r e usually measured by s e p a r a t e tubes:pA with a tube
having a blunt nose, and p with a tube having a s h a r p conical o r ogival tip.
When calibrating the t e s t section we can a l s o u s e (4. 5); it is then
n e c e s s a r y t o m e a s u r e the total p r e s s u r e in the settling chamber, and the
static p r e s s u r e in the t e s t section separately (Figure 4.34a).
FIGURE 4.34. Measuring the Mach number in the test section of a supersonic wind
tunnel by determining the total pressure p, in the settling chamber and thefollowing
in t h e test section: a - s t a t i c pressure p ; b - total pressure P ; ; c - static pres
sure p, on the surface of a wedge: d - toral pressure poem in inclined f l o r ~ ~ .
1680
186
F r o m t h e r a t i o of the total p r e s s u r e s in front of and behind the shock, given
by(4.15), we then find the Mach number. Equations ( 4 . 5 ) , ( 4 . 1 5 ) , and
( 4 . 3 9 ) enable us t o determine the Mach number by various methods with
the aid of total-pressure and s t a t i c - p r e s s u r e tubes. Rayleigh's formula
( 4 . 3 9 ) is t o be p r e f e r r e d when measuring the distribution of M in the
boundary l a y e r of a supersonic flow. In this c a s e ( 4 . 5 ) cannot be used
because due to friction l o s s e s , the total p r e s s u r e in the boundary l a y e r
is not equal to the total p r e s s u r e in the settling chamber. The total
p r e s s u r e pi in the boundary layer is therefore measured by means of a
miniature t o t a l - p r e s s u r e tube, and the s t a t i c p r e s s u r e with the aid of an
orifice in the wall (Figure 4 . 3 5 ) or a pointed probe.
Further methods of determining the Mach number in supersonic flow
consist i n measuring the static p r e s s u r e P I at the s u r f a c e of a wedge and
the total p r e s s u r e p i o behind the oblique shock, formed a t the s h a r p c o r n e r
of a wedge (Figure 4 . 3 6 ) . For an oblique shock M is determined directly
f r o m the angle p between the shock wave and the flow direction. The
relationship between p and the Mach number in the undisturbed flow is given
by ( 4 . 3 8 ) f o r different taper angles of the wedge, while the relationships
between the p r e s s u r e s in front of, and behind an oblique shock a r e given
by (4, 17) and (4. 19).
V M
-7
FIGURE 4.35. Determining FIGURE 4.36. Wedge-shaped obstacle for measur
boundary layer.
Thus the Mach number can be found by measuring any two of the
following p r e s s u r e s : p". p . p,', p' p;, and p , . The accuracy of determination
depends on which different p r e s s u r e s a r e chosen, and we can u s e the
e r r o r theory 1101 t o select those p r e s s u r e s p I and p2, which will give the
l e a s t e r r o r in the calculated value of M. When x = const, the r a t i o of any
of these p r e s s u r e s must be a function of M only,
If the standard deviations ap, and oP, of the p r e s s u r e s p , and p,are governed
by the Gaussian law of random e r r o r distributions we may u s e the
187
e r r o r summation formula to determine the standard deviation of the
pressure ratio
whence
where
188
settling chamber and p at the wall of the test section:
(4.42)
where the coefficient 61, whose values a r e shown in Figure 4.39, depends
on the wedge angle 0 .
I
II
II
I
1 I
-I
I1
1 I
\I I 1
\I jT I
\I I
Y -1 I
t" -1 I
*I
I 1
4-
& =!=
FIGURE 4.38. Relative error in determination of hlach number by measuring p0 and P .
189
... . .....,,, .. . .... ..__ ..
91
190
downstream of an oblique shock a s a function of the angle 0 has a maximum
f o r each value of M. Near this maximum pol is almost independent of B .
Wedge-shaped tubes should be used at the optimum value of e (i.e., the
angle which corresponds to the indicated maximum) so that no
great accuracy is required in measuring the angle 8 . For instance,
when M = 3.5 an e r r o r of *0.5% in the measurement of e causes an e r r o r in M of
about f 0.001.
The t r u e flow velocity in a high-speed wind tunnel is a l e s s important
parameter than the Mach number, but it is necessary to determine it, for
instance, for calculating the operational Reynolds number. When
determining aerodynamic coefficients we use the velocity head, and no
direct determination of V is required. The velocity is related to the Mach
number by
I/= M vxm.
Instead of the temperature in the flow we m e a s u r e the total temperature
in the settling chamber of the tunnel and determine 7' f r o m (4.4). Thus,
the velocity can be expressed in t e r m s of the Mach number and the total
temperature:
(4.44)
(4.45)
(4. 46)
(4.47)
191
The hot-wire anemometer method of
measuring the flow velocity
Ik
Wire lag]. Except at resonance, the amplitude of
p r e s s u r e oscillations will be underestimated in
manometer m e a s u r e m e n t s ; the e r r o r w i l l depend
on the amplitude and frequency of the pulsations
and on the geometry of the tube (primarily on the
dimensions of the orifices and on the diameters of
the connecting pipes). Considerable difficulty is
experienced in measuring the amplitudes of p r e s s u r e
and velocity fluctuations at frequencies higher than
a few cycles per second. A m o r e exact knowledge of
Holder the complex laws of gas flow depends on the
instantaneous measurement of velocities. The hot -
wire anemometer is thus the principle instrument
FIGURE 4.40. Hot-wire f o r measuring turbulence.
Another important advantage of the hot-wire
anemometer. anemometer is its high sensitivity. Whereas the
sensitivity of the pneumometric method of velocity
measurement decreases with velocity decrease,
that of the hot-wire anemometer increases, S O that the latter is m o r e
suitable for measuring velocities below 5 to 10 m / s e c in spite of the m o r e
complicated measuring equipment required.
A f u r t h e r important advantage of hot-wire anemometers is that they
can be incorporated in very small probes for the study of the boundary layer
at a solid wall.
The design of a hot-wire anemometer is shown schematically in Figure
4.40. The wire, of a pure, chemically inert metal (platinum, tungsten,
or nickel) is s i l v e r - s o l d e r e d o r welded to two electrodes which f o r m a fork.
The wire has a diameter of 0.005 to 0.15mm, and is f r o m 3 t o 12" long.
It is installed at right angles to the direction of flow,
The r a t e of heat loss per unit length of wire and p e r degree of the
temperature difference between the surrounding medium and the wire is
according to King 1 2 1 ,
Q =B I/v+ C,
192
. ... ,.
where B and C a r e functions of the temperature difference and of the
properties of medium and wire. For a wire of given dimensions and
with a constant excess temperature above that of a particular medium
(e. g., a i r ) . B and C a r e constants which can be determined for the
particular conditions. The above equation a g r e e s well with the experimental
data for velocities up t o about 3 0 m / s e c , and down t o about 0.1 m / s e c , which
i s comparable t o the velocity of convection c u r r e n t s around the hot wire.
At equilibrium the wire will t r a n s m i t heat t o the surrounding medium at
the r a t e of PRIJ c a l / s e c , w h e r e J is the mechanical equivalent of heat in
joules/cal. Hence
l2= k v+ Io,
I
’
Y
C
Platinum wire.
diameter = 0.025 mm
length = 35.6 m m
0 2 4 6 6 IO
Flow velocity, m/sec
193
jq---
P
'5
1.5
Platinum w i r e
$ O f Z h m I =fU m m
0.118 amp
l.Oo
IO 20 30
Velocity, m/sec
FIGURE 4.42. Circuitsand calibration curves for hot-
wire anemometers. a - by the constant-resistance
method; b - by the constant-currem merhod
194
placed in one of the bores of a twin-bore c e r a m i c tube of 0.8 t o 1 mm
outside diameter:::. A copper -constantan thermocouple in the other bore
s e r v e s t o m e a s u r e the temperature of the hot tube. The heater current
is held constant, s o that the temperature of the
n
Hot wire c e r a m i c tube depends on the flow velocity. By
measuring the thermoelectric emf of the thermo
couple with a potentiometer o r galvometer we can
determine the temperature of t h e tube, and thus
the flow velocity.
Figure 4 . 4 5 shows a circuit f o r maintaining a
constant current in the heater wire. An auxiliary
hot-wire anemometer B , which is an exact replica
of the principal anemometer A , is placed in an
enclosure in which the velocity is z e r o and the
temperature is constant, The heaters of the
anemometers a r e connected in s e r i e s . Under
these conditions, the thermal emf �,developed
a c c r o s s the thermocouple of B depends only on the
c u r r e n t I passing through both h e a t e r s . A rheostat
R is used to maintain this current constant in
accordance with the indications of the thermo
couple B . [For Figures 4.44 and 4.45 see p. 196. ]
[Simmons, I..F. G. A Shielded Hot-wire Anemometer for Low Speeds. - J. S. I. Vol. 26, p. 407. 1949.1
195
A t o t a l - p r e s s u r e tube cut at a right angle t o its axis is not
v e r y sensitive t o variations of the yaw angle a between its axis
Enclosure
Principal
dthermoanemometer A
To t h e galvanometer
FlGURE 4. 44. Shielded hot-wire anemometer. FIGURE 4. 45. Circuit diagram of shielded
hot-wire anemometer.
196
The second group includes devices based on measuring the p r e s s u r e
difference between two points on the surface of a streamlined s y m m e t r i c a l
body (sphere, cylinder, wedge, or cone). When the axis (or the plane of
s y m m e t r y ) of the body coincides with the direction of flow, the p r e s s u r e
at symmetrically located points is equal.
The orifices a r e situated on the body (or t h e direction of the tubes is
chosen) in such a way that s m a l l changes in flow direction cause l a r g e
p r e s s u r e differences between the orifices which are connected t o a
differential manometer.
The sensitivity p, of the tube is determined by the change in p r e s s u r e a t
one of the orifices, due to a change in yaw:
The sensitivity is thus defined as the slope of the tangent t o the curve
6 = f ( 3 ) The p r e s s u r e
a t an orifice in a c i r c u l a r cylinder, whose axis is
perpendicular to the flow, is most affected by the flow direction if the
radius through the orifice makes an angle of 4 0 t o 50" with the flow
direction (see Figure 4 . 4 ) .
A differential manometer connected t o the yawmeter m e a s u r e s the
p r e s s u r e difference between two such orifices (1 and 2 ) s o that the
t r u e sensitivity of the nozzle
must be twice the value of dp/da, obtained f r o m the slope of the curves in
Figure 4.4. The value of k v a r i e s between 0.04 and 0.08 p e r degree f o r
different types of tubes.
The yawmeters a r e sensitive to t r a n s v e r s e velocity gradients, which
cause the p r e s s u r e s at two points situated symmetrically about the axis of
the tube to be unequal, even when the tube axis coincides with the direction
of flow. In this c a s e the p r e s s u r e difference between the orifices is z e r o
a t an angle which depends on the magnitude of the gradient, the distance
between the orifices, their s i z e , and the sensitivity of the tube [to p r e s s u r e
changes], The best method to reduce the e r r o r due to t r a n s v e r s e velocity
gradients i s t o d e c r e a s e the distance between the orifices. This, however,
causes a d e c r e a s e in the diameter of the orifices and of the tubes between
the orifices and the manometer, which, in turn, i n c r e a s e s the lag of the
manometer indications because of the high flow impedance of the tubes.
This should be taken into account when choosing the tube and manometer.
Yawmeters can be used directly o r as null instruments. In the null
method the yawmeter is rotated on a c r a d l e until i t s axis coincides with
the direction of the flow, as indicated by z e r o p r e s s u r e difference in the
differential manometer connected to the orifices. The direction of flow
is then indicated by graduations on the cradle.
In the direct method the tube is held a t a constant angle to the tunnel
wall, and the yaw is determined in t e r m s of the p r e s s u r e drop between the
orifices, measured by a differential manometer. The relationship between
yaw and manometer indication is established by calibrating the tube in a
wind tunnel of negligibly s m a l l t r a n s v e r s e velocity gradients and flow
197
inclination. The direct measuring method requires l e s s complicated
equipment and less time than the null method, but is l e s s accurate,
especially a t l a r g e angles of yaw. Because of i t s simplicity, and because
it is possible t o obtain simultaneous readings f r o m an a r r a y of tubes, the
d i r e c t method is usually employed in the calibration of wind tunnels, where
normally the flow inclination is s m a l l . In the direct method the tubes can
be easily adapted f o r measuring the velocity and direction of the flow in two
planes,
The advantage of the null method of yaw measurement l i e s in the
independence of the measurements on M and R e . It is a l s o less important
t o locate the orifices very accurately on the tube in this method, since t h e i r
positions merely affect the relationship between yaw and p r e s s u r e drop,
The null method is usually chosen f o r measuring flow angles in wakes, e , g.,
in experiments with blade cascades.
The combination of a direct and a null method is sometimes used in
studying three -dimensional flow,
a)
FIGURE 4. 4;. Tubular ya*'merrrs cur ar right angles. a 2 n d b -for two-dimensional flow;
c - for three-dimensional flow.
I98
I
Recently, tubular yawmeters with beveled ends a r e increasingly being
used f o r the study of blade cascades. Such tubes have external d i a m e t e r s
of 0.5 t o 2". The tubes a r e mounted parallel t o each other, s o that the
distance between their orifices is v e r y s m a l l . In two-dimensional flow
the influence of velocity gradients can be almost completely eliminated by
locating the tube axes not in the plane of flow inclination but in a plane
perpendicular t o it, as shown in F i g u r e 4.48d.
Figure 4.46 shows that in o r d e r t o obtain maximum sensitivity t o yaw,
the tubes should be cut at an angle between 30 and 45". Figure 4.48a gives
the sensitivity c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a two-tube yawmeter designed f o r s m a l l
flow velocities. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of three-tube yawmeters f o r the
direct method of measurement a r e usually expressed a s a graph showing x.
as a function of a , where
x =
where
whence
199
N
0
0
b
u
FIGURE 4.48. Tubular yawnieters with beveled ends. a-two-rube arrangement; b - three-tube arrangernent: c - four-tube arrangement
for three-dimensional flow: d -tube for two-dimensional flow with zero vertical distance between tube centers.
i
Cylindrical yawmet e r s
Spherical yawmeters
20 1
'oss section A-A
!6
1.2
06
a4
0 02 04 06 08 1.0
A
Y' C d
Hemispherical yawmeters
203
of the Reynolds number on their characteristics is much s m a l l e r . The
sensitivity of hemispherical yawmeters decreases at l a r g e Mach n u m b e r s ,
Figure 4.51 shows the TsAGI six-bore yawmeter 1 2 2 1 . In addition
to the five openings in the hemispherical nose for measuring total p r e s s u r e
and flow direction, the yawmeter has an opening on its cylindrical s t e m
f o r measuring the static p r e s s u r e ,
T
ti
1.
where p , . p 3 and p,. p s a r e the p r e s s u r e s in the orifices located in the vertical and
horizontal planes respectively. At small yaw angles the yaw measurements
in one plane a r e independent of the yaw in the other. Corrections must,
however, be made when the yaw exceeds 5’, and these a r e determined by
calibration a s o = f(a)and x = f ( j 3 ) .
204
I
in Figure 4 . 5 2 show that with wedge-type yawmeters the p r e s s u r e
measurement is f a r l e s s sensitive t o the location of the orifices than
with cylindrical yawmeters s o that manufacturing tolerances can be f a r
r.'
wider. Either a separate orifice on the leading edge of the wedge, o r a
k
FIGURE 4. 52. Wedge-type yawmeter and its characteristics ( t h e pressure
distribution on the surface of a cylindrical yawmeter is shown for comparison).
m m W. G.
0.IS
IIO 500
005 250
0 0
-0.u -250
-0. IO -500
-PW
-3' -2' -/' fl 1' 2' 3'
Yaw angle of the wedge
At M-1.4.po-la -M-1.4
_ _ _ M =!.6
FlGURE 4. 53. Wedge-type yawmeter for measuring
the direction of supersonic flow.
205
Wedge-type and conical yawmeters with s m a l l included angles a r e
among the most reliable instruments f o r investigating supersonic
flow. Figure 4.53 shows the characteristic of a wedge-type yawmeter
designed by the NAE Laboratory (Great Britain) f o r calibrating the
0.9 mX0.9 m test section of a continuous-operati& supersonic wind tunnel 1171.
The wedge yawmeter is installed on
a spherical cradle so that it can be
used for null-method m e a s u r e m e n t s
of the flow inclination.
Figure 4. 54 shows the character
istics of conical and pyramidal RAE
yawmeters f o r the direct-method
measurement in three-dimensional
supersonic flow. The sensitivity of
conical yawmeters increases with the
cone angle, but an included angle of
15" provides sufficient sensitivity,
since an e r r o r of 1 m m W. G. in the
measured p r e s s u r e causes an e r r o r
of only 0.02" in the yaw determination.
Yawmeters can therefore be designed
with other (e. g., production)
considerations in mind. If the nose is
pyramidal (Figure 4 . 5 4 ~ t)he exact
location of the orifices is much l e s s
critical than for circular cones (where
they must l i e exactly in two mutually
perpendicular planes) because flow
FIGURE 4. 54. Characrerisrics of yawmeters for
round a pyramid is much l e s s precisely
three-dimensional supersonic now. a and b -
conical yawmeters; c -pyramidal yawmeters.
defined. The calibration curves for
these yawmeters r e m a i n linear even
when the shock has become detached.
A l l measurements in a s e r i e s must, however, be c a r r i e d out with the shock
either attached o r detached, since the calibration differs in these two
cases 1181.
Heated wires
Galvanometer
V
Z I
206
Measurements of flow direction with
a hot-wire yawmeter
207
a r e adiabatic) can be determined f r o m
Since shocks do not affect the enthalpy of a gas, this equation is t r u e both
f o r subsonic and supersonic flow.
A thermally insulated surface will be heated by a gas flowing past it
t o a temperature called the recovery temperature T, . The recovery
temperature depends on the local Mach number (or on the static temperature)
a t the outside limit of the boundary l a y e r , on the dissipation of kinetic
energy by friction in the boundary layer, and on the r a t e of heat exchange.
The difference between the recovery temperature and the static
temperature is a fraction r of the adiabatic temperature r i s e :
V2
T a - T = r - 2gJcp . (4.48)
r = - TT,o-
-T
T
'
(4.49)
(4.50)
208
than unity. With increasing supersonic f r e e - s t r e a m velocity, the strength
of the shock increases, the Mach number d e c r e a s e s , and therefore the
value of T, r i s e s .
In the absence of heat t r a n s f e r , a thermometer on the wall of a tube
inserted into a gas s t r e a m would indicate a recovery temperature T ,
dependent only on the flow c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in the boundary layer around
the tube. When r = 1.0, T, = TO.However, an actual thermometer, in which
heat exchange with the surrounding medium cannot be prevented, will
indicate a temperature Tn differing f r o m the recovery temperature T a .
The principal characteristic of a thermometer is therefore the
dimensionless quantity
FIGURE 4. 56. Ratio rolro as a function of the Mach number for a thermometer
of finite dimensions in subsonic flow, and in supersonic flow with a shock.
209
210
- .
.. .- . , .. .. . ... .
mounted i n relatively narrow channels; in o r d e r t o reduce the disturbances
caused by them, the s e n s o r s should be small, f o r which the best sensing
element is a thermocouple with wires of 0.1 t o 0.2" diameter. For the
range of temperatures considered iron-constantan o r copper-constantan
thermocouples a r e generally employed; they have sensitivities of 5 and
4 millivolts p e r 100°C respectively. The thermal capacity of the junction
of the thermocouple is very small, s o that it responds rapidly and
measurement c a n b e made a t rapidly changing temperatures.
Temperature
sensor
Re, in diffuser
throat
Electronic
bridge
I%:syn
b o the recording
console /
i~ter
for measuring the temperature in the iiivasuring the tcnipcrdture 111 the settling-
settling-chamber of a wind tunnel. chamber of a wind tiitinel.
21 1
The gas upstream of the junction can be slowed down t o a certain optimum
velocity, where heat gained by the junction due t o thermal convection in the
g a s is balanced by the heat lost from the junction due t o the heat conduction of the
supports. In low-velocity flow the temperature and velocity gradients a r e
small, s o that heat exchange and friction in the boundary layer at the junction
of the thermocouple a r e insignificant. T h e medium is brought to r e s t adiabati
cally in a total-pressure tube, and the best temperature s e n s o r s s o f a r developed
a r e based on such tubes of modified shape. A f u r t h e r advantage of this
design is that the tube can a l s o be used a s a radiation shield t o prevent
radiant-heat exchange with the surrounding medium. In o r d e r t o prevent
the gas f r o m coming t o r e s t completely, and t o maintain a c e r t a i n convective
heat t r a n s f e r t o the junction in o r d e r to balance the loss through t h e r m a l
conduction, the tube has outlet orifices whose a r e a is 114 t o 118 of the a r e a
of the inlet orifice. The dimensions and shape of a s e n s o r within the
stagnation zone inside a tube a r e l e s s critical, and measurement
reproducibility is b e t t e r than if the thermometer were placed on the s u r f a c e ,
where the recovery coefficient would depend on the flow conditions around
the body. Thus, it has been possible t o design s e n s o r s with recovery
coefficients of the o r d e r of 0.99 f o r 0.2 < M < 3.0.
Y a w angle
Free-stream velocity
FIGURE 4. 59. Section and characteristics of the Pratt and
and Whitney Pitot thermocouple .
212
In one of the e a r l i e s t designs of shielded temperature s e n s o r s used at
high velocities, the thermocouple was placed in the stagnation chamber
of a round-nosed tube. A i r entered into the chamber through a diffuser
and s m a l l ventilating holes were drilled in the chamber walls to make up
the heat l o s s e s f r o m conduction and radiation. F i g u r e 4.58 shows the design
and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a s e n s o r of this type, having an external diameter
of 4.7" [20]. Such a s e n s o r is highly sensitive t o yaw; t h e r e is a l a r g e ,
random e r r o r in its calibration curve, caused by flow instability in the
diffuser. The reason for the abrupt change in recovery coefficient at a velocity
of about 9 0 m / s e c is the transition f r o m laminar t o turbulent flow a t the
diffuser inlet, where R e = 2000 t o 3000.
Subsequent investigations of Pitot thermocouples have shown that b e t t e r
reproducibility and reduced sensitivity t o yaw is obtained by placing the
thermocouple in a cylindrical stagnation chamber. F i g u r e 4. 59 shows the
design and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of such a s e n s o r . T h e s e s e n s o r s a r e v e r y
widely used because of t h e i r simple design. T h e i r recovery coefficients
vary between 0.95 and 0 , 9 9 9 .
Insulation
Brass
cV
Aluminum
213
respectively. Yaws of 5 to 10" have practically no effect on the recovery
coefficients, which have a l s o been found to remain practically constant a t
temperatures of up to 250°C 1211.
Sensors for measuring the stagnation t e m p e r a t u r e s between the stages
of turbocompressors and gas turbines must be a s s m a l l as possible both
in diameter and length. The designs of two such instruments a r e shown in
Figures 4. 61 and 4. 62.
Boundary-layer temperature measurements a r e made with miniature
instruments, s i m i l a r t o that shown in Figure 4. 59. Medical hypodermic
needles, whose diameters a r e fractions of millimeters, a r e used f o r the
external tubes.
The value of j tends to d e c r e a s e a t low velocities, at which heat input
by convection t o the thermocouple no longer balances l o s s e s by conduction
through the supports.
High -temperatur e s e n s o r s
( M = 1 , c = 0.98).
recovery coefficient of the s e n s o r is s i m i l a r to
s c r e e n s of heat - r e s i s t a n t steel.
214
I
215
t e m p e r a t u r e Tn of themainthermocouple. Figure 4.65 shows the values of the
recovery coefficients c&, , and 5 obtained by inserting the corresponding
t - - - I - - A
.__-
values of Ts, Th and Tn into (4. 51). In the absence of heating, and 5 ch
depend on boththe Reynolds number and the stagnation t e m p e r a t u r e T I , .
216
If we heat the thermocouple holder in such a way that T , = Tn , i. e . , if we
eliminate the heat l o s s e s due t o conduction, then the recovery coefficient
511=Gh will be higher. If both the holder and the shield a r e heated, s o that
Th = T s = T,. t h e r e will be no temperature gradients and the temperature of
the main thermocouple w i l l be exactly equal t o the stagnation temperature
( f = 1).
Calibration of temperature s e n s o r s
217
.. _.. . ......, . ..
equal values at the outlet and in the centre of the chamber. The walls of
the port a r e lagged in order to reduce heat exchange through them.
Radiation effects a r e studied using an electrically heated radiation
shield (4). A further electrical h e a t e r (5) is provided a t the wind-tunnel
inlet, f o r studying the performance of the s e n s o r at high temperatures.
The cold junctions of the thermocouples a r e brought out to ice-water
baths placed close to the lead-through of each s e n s o r . The thermal emf
of the s e n s o r s is measured with a high-accuracy potentiometer connected
to a center-zero galvanometer. T e m p e r a t u r e s can be measured with an
accuracy of 0.05"C at a galvanometer sensitivity of lo-' amps.
The proportionality constants k , and k2 of emf v e r s u s temperature
f o r the thermocouples in the reference s e n s o r and the s e n s o r being
calibrated a r e determined beforehand by static calibration against a standard
thermometer.
Before each test, the s e n s o r to be calibrated is mounted in the chamber next
to the reference s e n s o r in steady flow conditions. The difference between the
indications (thermal emfs of the sensors, in this c a s e a t the s a m e
temperature to ) is due only to the difference A 0 between their calibration
coefficients. This difference
1680
218
Inserting into this the value for the density determined f r o m the equation of
state, we obtain
"ql+LM*)*
P 2
219
and the water vapor in the air condenses. The onset of condensation may
be sharply defined. Condensation shocks a r e s i m i l a r t o ordinary shocks,
and cause sudden changes in the flow p a r a m e t e r s in the test section. For
these r e a s o n s condensation shocks should be eliminated, either by drying
the air or by increasing the initial stagnation t e m p e r a t u r e (see Chapter 11).
In the absence of condensation the presence of moisture does not affect the
flow, but a l t e r s the density p .
In determining the density of moist a i r , we must take into account
changes in the g a s constant. The value Rmixofthe gas constant for a
mixture of air and water vapor can be found by measuring the partial vapor
pressurep', which is related to the saturation vapor p r e s s u r e p i by
P' = QP:.
where q, is the relative humidity.
Knowing the value of p', the value of Rmkcan be found f r o m the
following equation based on Dalton's law, which states that the p r e s s u r e
of a mixture is equal to the sum of the partial p r e s s u r e s of i t s components
220
where p i is the saturation water-vapor p r e s s u r e at the temperature t'
measured by the wet-bulb thermometer, pa is the a i r p r e s s u r e at which
the measurement was made, t is the temperature measured by the dry-
bulb thermometer, and a is a calibration constant whose magnitude
depends on the design of the psychrometer. The saturation water-vapor
TABLE 8. Saturation v
I, 'C
-
22 1
For measuring the relative humidity of air in a wind tunnel, the
psychrometer is placed in a s m a l l container, through which a fan circulates
a i r drawn f r o m the tunnel. The circulation must be sufficient t o prevent the
moisture, evaporated f r o m the wet cloth, f r o m affecting the humidity of the
a i r in the container. In o r d e r t o avoid moisture condensation in the
container, the temperature in it must not b e l e s s than the tunnel temperature
The readings of the psychrometer must be corrected f o r temperature and
p r e s s u r e differences between the a i r in the wind tunnel and that in the
container. In the absence of moisture condensation in the container, the gas
constant of the a i r in it and in the tunnel a r e equal, and we may write
222
Figure 4. 68 shows an instrument of this type, which is used in an RAE
supersonic wind tunnel. The a i r f r o m the settling chamber is l e d into a
hermetically sealed chamber (A) containing a copper disk (1) whose polished
surface can be viewed through a glass window (2). The a i r p r e s s u r e pa
i n the chamber is m e a s u r e d by a p r e s s u r e gage (3). Through tube ( 6 ) ,
whose internal diameter is 0.5mm, CO, is fed f r o m the bottle (7) into a
second sealed chamber (B) on the opposite side of the disk, As the gas
flows f r o m the tube into chamber (B) it expands, thus cooling the disk.
A precise relationship exists between the p r e s s u r e and the temperature
of the expanding C Q , s o that by controlling the gas flow r a t e with a needle
valve (8), connecting (B) to atmosphere, we can change the temperature of
the disk (1); this temperature can b e determined f r o m the p r e s s u r e
measured by agage (4). The exact temperature of the disk is determined
with the millivoltmeter (5), which m e a s u r e s the emf of a copper-constantan
thermocouple welded t o the disk (1).
Dew-point instruments m e a s u r e relative humidity accurately to 0.0570
and determine the water-vapor p r e s s u r e to *l%.
5 1 6 . BOUNDARY-LAYER MEASUREMENTS
Measurements of the flow parameters in the boundary layer around
streamlined bodies a r e necessary mainly in studies of drag. The
p a r a m e t e r s depend almost entirely on skin friction. The skin friction of a
body can be determined by subtracting f r o m the total drag (determined,
f o r instance, by wake t r a v e r s e ) the value of the f o r m drag, obtained by
measuring the p r e s s u r e distribution over the surface (Chapter W),
Since both quantities, especially the f o r m drag, a r e very difficult to
measure accurately, skin friction, in practice, is determined by other
means. It is better to determine the distribution over the surface of the
body of the frictional shearing s t r e s s
where u is the velocity component parallel to the wall in the boundary layer
a t a distance I/ f r o m the wall, and 11 is the viscosity coefficient of the fluid at
the wall temperature.
Boundary-layer investigations involve the determination of certain
a r b i t r a r i l y defined characteristics, namely, the boundary-layer thickness 8 ,
the displacement thick.iess .'6 and the momentum thickness a * * . The
boundary l a y e r thickness is understood a s the distance f r o m the wall at
which the velocity is 0.99 of the undisturbed flow. The magnitudes of the
displacement and momentum thicknesses a r e defined a s
223
1.1. I ........
.....I..m .
. I
where p, and vo0 a r e the density and flow velocity a t the outer
Velocity-profile determinations
224
schematically in Figure 4.70 1241. This distortion results in the
displacement of the whole of the boundary-layer profile (sometimes
accompanied by changes i n the velocity gradient), i n changes of the shape
of the velocity profile n e a r the wall, and in the appearance of a peak on
the velocity profile close to the outer limit of the boundary l a y e r . This
displacement of the whole profile is caused by the displacement of the
"effective center" of the tube. In supersonic flow this displacement may
be toward lower velocities, i. e., in the direction which is opposite to the
displacement in noncompressible flow (see 11). Close to the wall the
Distortion close t o
boundary-layer limit
/
,--.
' \
Distortion close
i tn wall
i ._ . -
Y
FIGURE 4. 69. Miniature total-pressure tuhe. FIGURE 4. 70. Effect of total-pressure tube
a -flattened m e t a l tube; b -quartz tube. dimensions on t h e velocity distribution in t h e
boundary layer.
e r r o r is due also to the influence of the Reynolds number, since at Re < 200,
small.
The appearance of a peak on the velocity profile close to the outer limit
of the boundary layer can affect the determination of the displacement
and momentum thicknesses. In supersonic flow, the actual values of these
quantities can be determined by multiplying with a correction coefficient,
due to Davis, the respective values determined f r o m velocity-profile
measurements 1 241,
225
transmission lag than the flattened metal tube, because of the
smoothness of its walls and thin conical shape (Figure 4. 69b). F u r t h e r ,
Laminar
boundary
layer layer
I
' u -
V
FIGURE 4. 71. Velocity profiles in t h e boundary layer
any condensed moisture in the orifice or dust which may have entered it,
a r e m o r e easily observed in a transparent tube.
F o r investigating the velocity distributions in boundary l a y e r s , special
t r a v e r s i n g cradles a r e used, having m i c r o m e t e r s c r e w s which permit
the distance of the tube f r o m the wall to be
measured accurately t o 0.02 mm. Contact
by the tube nose with the surface of the
body is detected electrically. To prevent
a r c i n g which might otherwise occur a t
v e r y s m a l l clearances, the applied voltage
is sometimes reduced by inserting the
contacts into the grid circuit of an electron
tube,
When the surface of the model has a l a r g e
curvature, the s t a t i c p r e s s u r e along a
normal to the wall is not constant; it is then
necessary to use s t a t i c - p r e s s u r e m i c r o -
probes. The s t a t i c - and total-pressure
tubes a r e then fixed on a common t r a v e r s i n g
c r a d l e and a r e moved simultaneously.
The r e s u l t s of measurements of the
velocity distribution in the boundary layer
a r e presented in the f o r m of curves
u/V = f(y/6) (Figure 4. 71) o r in the f o r m of
velocity isolines. These a r e families of
curves, each of which joins the points at
which the ratio of local to f r e e - s t r e a m
velocity is the s a m e .
Lately, low-speed wind tunnels have
been used for intensive r e s e a r c h on the
f l o w around sweptback and delta wings.
For a detailed study of three-dimensional
boundary l a y e r s , we require exact and
FIGURE 4. 72. hlicrotraversing cradle simultaneous measurements of the
226
-... ... I. I
.
magnitude and direction of the velocity in a t r a v e r s e of a given c r o s s
section of the boundary l a y e r . Figure 4 . 7 2 shows a microtraversing
cradle which p e r m i t s such measurements t o be made with the aid of double
or t r i p l e tubes (Figure 4. 48). Difficulties in the u s e of pneumometric
microprobes (due to clogging of the orifices, or the necessity to c o r r e c t for
the displacement of the effective c e n t e r ) have encouraged use of miniature
hot-wire anemometers f o r velocity measurement in the boundary-layer.
However, because of the fragility of such instruments, and the complication
of using it, most experimental studies of boundary-layer conditions a r e
still ma.de with pneumometric probes.
where I is the chord length, and b the width of the body; c, is the local
coefficient of skin friction:
c - r ,
f - p,v&/2 '
221
- V Disk
/
To manomet
Displacement
Electromagnei
b)
2 003
'z E
EO.08
+
L
OJ
c_c
Sa07
8006
o c
E
:: 2 005
2 004
Lb JO 42 64 66
Velocity as measured by the
0. m m
tube, m h e c
228
i. e., TO = p / y , where y is the distance of the "effective center" of the
tube f r o m the wall.
Figure 4.74 illustrates two types of s u r f a c e tubes used by Stanton and
F a g e f o r determining T ~ . The Stanton tube is rectangular, its inner s u r f a c e
being formed by the wall. The Fage tube consists of a thin rectangular
plate, t h r e e edges of which are bent over and soldered t o a c i r c u l a r rod
l e t into the surface. The inlet orifice of the tube is formed by the straight
leading edge of theplate and the butt end of the rod. The graphs show the
distance of the "effective center" f r o m the wall as a function of the width of
the inlet port; this dimension can be adjusted with a m i c r o m e t e r screw.
The relationship is determined f r o m calibrations of the instrument in a
laminar-flow boundary l a y e r of khown profile, but may a l s o be used when
interpreting measurements in turbulent boundary l a y e r s .
It is v e r y difficult t o p r e p a r e s u r f a c e tubes s o short that the inlet port
(Figure 4.74) is entirely within the viscous sublayer, and TO is m o r e simply
estimated f r o m measurements in the turbulent l a y e r , as suggested by
Preston. In this method 70 is measured with the a i d of c i r c u l a r total-
p r e s s u r e tubes held against the wall 1 2 5 1 . The method is based on the
observation, that t h e r e is a region close to the wall in which
where 11- =%is called friction velocity (dynamic velocity). This region
is much thicker than the viscous sublayer, s o that a tube of comparatively
large section can be placed in it. In the viscous sublayer the above equation
becomes u / o , = y i T / v , and the u s e of the Fage and Stanton surface tubes is
based on this. The above equation can be rewritten
Ap = 2.90 7 =2.90~~.
where u is the flow velocity at the level of the upper edge of the projection
where y = h . This equation is of the f o r m Ap = kTo in which the value of the
coefficient k depends only on the height of the projection 1 2 6 1 .
229
M e t h o d s b a s e d o n m e a s u r i n g v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s . The
frictional s t r e s s 40 on the wall of a body can be found in principle by
determining the value of duldy at the wall f r o m the velocity distribution
in the boundary layer a s determined with a miniature total-pressure tube and
an orifice in the wall. Since the minimum distance of the "effective center"
of the tube from the wall is limited by the tube dimensions, the curve
u = f ( u ) I / , must be extrapolated t o I/ = 0 ; values of T~ found by this manner
a r e not sufficiently accurate.
However, if the velocity profile is known, a m o r e accurate value of T~
can be found f r o m calculating the change of momentum in the boundary
l a y e r . The relevant equation f o r the momentum is / 1 /
where the x coordinate i s taken along the surface of the body. T o determine
T~ f r o m this equation it is thus necessary t o find the variables f o r s e v e r a l
values of x . The mean value of T~ over a certain region of the surface can
be found simply by measuring the p a r a m e t e r s at the boundaries x, and x2
of the region and integrating the momentum equation between the l i m i t s
x1 and x2.
In the case of infinite flow around a flat plate, the momentum equation
takes the f o r m (when the velocity V does not depend on x ) of
L
" ='$d x P(V---1L)UdY.
0
230
Boundary-layer transition is accompanied by a m o r e rapid i n c r e a s e of
velocity with distance f r o m the s u r f a c e and by f a s t e r thickening of the
boundary l a y e r . These phenomena f o r m the b a s i s of s e v e r a l experimental
methods f o r transition-point determination. The principal methods a r e :
1. Method based on measuring the velocity profiles. The velocity
profile is determined in s e v e r a l sections along a chord. The transition
point (or m o r e exactly the transition zone) is established f r o m the change
in shape of the velocity profile, which has a very steep slope in the
turbulent region (Figure 4 . 71).
2. Method based on detection of turbulent velocity fluctuations. T h e
transition f r o m l a m i n a r t o turbulent flow is accompanied by velocity
fluctuations, whose onset indicates the position of the transition point.
Velocity fluctuations a r e detected most easily with a hot-wire anemometer
o r a t o t a l - p r e s s u r e tube connected by a s h o r t pipe to a low-inertia
p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r (Chapter V). The tube o r the hot-wire anemo
m e t e r is moved in a t r a v e r s i n g cradle along the surface. The
oscillogram of the pulses received at various distances f r o m the stagnation
point indicates the transition position (or zone) c l e a r l y by the s h a r p
i n c r e a s e in pulsation amplitude associated with i t .
3 . Method of total measurement. A miniature t o t a l - p r e s s u r e tube is
moved along the wall in contact with the s u r f a c e of the body parallel to
the flow direction. In the transition zone t h e r e i s a marked i n c r e a s e in
total p r e s s u r e , since a t a given distance f r o m the wall the velocity i s
higher i n a turbulent boundary l a y e r than in a l a m i n a r boundary l a y e r .
However, if the tube is moved a t a constant distance f r o m the surface which
is slightly g r e a t e r than the boundary-layer thickness u p s t r e a m of the
transition point, then the rapid growth of the l a y e r behind the transition
point will give r i s e t o a sudden d e c r e a s e of the total p r e s s u r e indicated by
the tube, a s it e n t e r s the thicker turbulent boundary l a y e r .
4. Visualization methods at velocities up t o 3 0 m l s e c . Wing-profile
boundary l a y e r s a r e observed by injecting smoke filaments into the flow
through openings drilled 5 to 10% of the chord length f r o m the leading edge.
In laminar flow the smoke has a well-defined stratified appearance and
the point of flow separation i s easy found since at it the smoke filaments
leave the surface. In the turbulent boundary l a y e r the smoke filaments
merge.
Chemical methods a r e used nowadays f o r higher velocities. In
one of t h e s e the body is coated with a thin l a y e r of m a t e r i a l which r e a c t s
chemically with a n active gas added t o the wind-tunnel a i r o r injected
directly into the boundary layer. The r a t e of mixing, and the r a t e at which
visible reaction products appear in the turbulent region is higher than in
the l a m i n a r region, s o that the transition between the two is readily
observed.
Other chemical methods (the sublimation method, Kaolin method, and
fluid-film method) do not r e q u i r e the u s e of an active gas and a r e therefore
m o r e widely used i n wind tunnels. These methods make u s e of the increased
diffusion r a t e in the turbulent boundary layer, which causes m o r e rapid
evaporation o r sublimation of the active m a t e r i a l f r o m the s u r f a c e of the
body in that region 1 2 7 1 .
23 1
.:§ 17. INSTRUMENTS FOR MAPPING DISTRIBUTIONS
, i , ,
232
In strongly inclined flow this indirect method of yaw measurement is
often insufficiently accurate; in such c a s e s the t r a v e r s i n g c r a d l e is fitted
with a goniometer, s o that yaw can be m e a s u r e d by the null method.
In small, low-speed wind tunnels the t r a v e r s i n g c r a d l e is adjusted
manually, and the coordinates a r e shown on a s c a l e attached t b it.
8
1
c
I 1
I I
u -
FIGURE 4. 76. Remote control of a traversing cradle. 1 -main motor; 2-traversing cradle:
3 and 3 ' -reduction gear boxes with equal transmission ratios; 4 -displacement register; 5 -
recording or integrating device; 6 -control panel; st-selsyn transmitter; sr-selsyn receiver
a -amplifier; stf - selsyn-transformer.
233
through a reduction g e a r box. System B is used if l a r g e torques are needed
to drive the control shaft of the t r a v e r s i n g c r a d l e . The motor (which may
be of any power) is connected through a reduction g e a r box directly to the
t r a v e r s i n g cradle, and the selsyns drive the r e g i s t e r and the recording
instruments. System C is used when considerable power is needed f o r
driving both the t r a v e r s i n g c r a d l e and the recording g e a r . It is a s e r v o
s y s t e m in which the s e l s y n r e c e i v e r operates a s a t r a n s f o r m e r to produce
a noncoincidence signal which is amplified and controls the s e r v o drive.
An example of the design of a remotely-controlled t r a v e r s i n g c r a d l e ,
used in a high-speed tunnel f o r testing blade cascades 1 2 8 1 , is shown
i n Figure 4 . 7 7 . The c a r r i a g e ( A ) , carrying a goniometer and tube X , is
moved with the aid of a s c r e w (C)alongtwo cylindrical guides ( E ) . The
guides a r e installed parallel to the axis of the cascade. The s c r e w can
be turned either through a reduction g e a r by the s e l s y n r e c e i v e r ( L ) , o r
by handwheel ( R ) . The tube is fixed to a special holder, mounted on a
worm wheel, whose worm is driven by another selsyn r e c e i v e r ( N ) or
handwheel (M). Springs t o take up backlash a r e inserted between the lead
s c r e w and the nut, which is fixed t o the c a r r i a g e , and a l s o between the
worm wheel and the worm. A nut ( V ) is turned in o r d e r to move the tube in planes
perpendicular to the blade edges: this causes the tube t o slide along a key
inside the worm gear. Limit switches(ll)cut the power to the servomotors
when the c a r r i a g e r e a c h e s its e x t r e m e positions.
Yaw m et e r s . Flow investigations a r e performed either by moving
the t r a v e r s i n g c r a d l e to a s e r i e s of chosen points or by continuous
movement. In the first c a s e the tube can be directed manually (by turning
a handwheel on the rotating mechanism o r by r e m o t e servocontrol). The
attitude of the tube is adjusted by equalizing the heights of the columns in
the legs of a U-tube manometer and the angles of the goniometer, r e a d
directly f r o m s c a l e s on the head, a r e used in the subsequent calculations.
For continuous displacement of the tube c a r r i e d , the equipment should include
recording o r integrating instruments, to determine the average value of
the quantities measured by the tube (see Chapter VII). In this c a s e
s e r v o s y s t e m s a r e needed f o r aligning the yawmeter in the flow
direction. Figure 4. 78 is a simplified diagram of an automatic yawmeter
fitted with a diaphragm-type differential-pressure transducer. The
diaphragm i s made of phosphorus-bronze; i t s diameter is 125mm, its
thickness is 0.06mm, and it is fixed between two hermetically sealed disks.
The p r e s s u r e s f r o m the yawmeter tube a r e transmitted to the two s i d e s of
the diaphragm to which platinum contacts a r e soldered. Each chamber
contains a fixed insulated contact. When the attitude of the tube differs f r o m
the flow direction, the diaphragm bends, closing one of the contacts; a n
intermediate r e l a y then switches on a servomotor which r o t a t e s the yaw-
m e t e r until the p r e s s u r e is equalized and the diaphragm r e t u r n s t o its
central position. Push buttons and signal lamps a r e fitted f o r overriding
manual control. The tendency of the s y s t e m to hunt is reduced by s m a l l a i r -
chambers in the differential-pressure transducer and s h o r t a i r pipes to
the tube. At a separation of 0.025" between the diaphragm and each of
the contacts, the t r a n s d u c e r i s actuated by a p r e s s u r e difference
of about 1.25" W.G.
234
N
W
VI
FIGURE 4.17. A remotely controlled traversing cradle. A -carriage: B -guides; C-lead screw; L -selsyn-receiver for
tube translation: R - handwheel for turning the lead screw; N-selsyn-receiver rotating tube: M-handwheel for rotating
tube; V -nut for raising the tube: U -limit switches: X- tube.
11l1l1lIl I l l l l I1
r-,,z--7 -,
3
device
236
Figure 4. 7 9 shows a n automatic yawmeter using a photoelectric s e r v o
system. The light source consists of an incandescent wire, placed
between the two g l a s s legs of a U-tube water manometer. TWOphotoelectric
cells a r e installed on the other s i d e s of the tubes. Any liquid in one of
t h e l e g s a c t s a s cylindrical lens and concentrates the light onto the
corresnonding photoelectric cell, In the empty tube the light is dispersed. Thus,
the photoelectric cell adjacent t o the l e g a t lower p r e s s u r e will be illuminated
m o r e strongly than the other. A corresponding e l e c t r i c a l
PI Pz imbalance signal is fed t o the amplifier in the supply
c i r c u i t of the goniometer servomotor, which turns
the yawmeter tube into the flow direction. This r e s t o r e s
the liquid in the manometer t o the null position.
This photoelectric s y s t e m r e a c t s t o a change in
water level of Zmm, which a t M = 0.2 and 0.6
corresponds t o changes i n yaw by 0.2" and 0.02"
respectively when a cylindrical yawmeter tube is used.
It may happen that when the wind tunnel is s t a r t e d up,
the yawmeter is not installed in the flow direction,
S O that a l a r g e p r e s s u r e difference will act on the
manometer before the automatic attitude-adjustment
FIGUIIE 3 80 .safety system becomes operative. A safety device, such a s
d e v l c t : 10 p r e v r n i loss o f that shown in Figure 4. 80, is installed t o prevent l o s s
w d i r r fronia U - i u h c
of water from the U-tube manometer in this eventuality.
nilinorti ei er .
At p r e s s u r e differences above a predetermined value Ah
the legs of the U-tube a r e automatically interconnected.
F o r simultaneous measurement of the flow p a r a m e t e r s a t s e v e r a l points
Pitot combs a r e used; they consist of streamlined supports carrying a r r a y s
of measuring tubes. The combs a r e suitable f o r measuring total p r e s s u r e ,
s t a t i c p r e s s u r e , and temperature over the height of blade cascades. In
addition to the total- and s t a t i c - p r e s s u r e combs, combined combs, fitted
alternatingly with total- and s t a t i c - p r e s s u r e tubes, a r e employed.
Figure 4 . 8 1 shows a comb f o r measuring the total p r e s s u r e over the pitch
of annular and flat blade cascades 141. To reduce the measuring e r r o r
caused by the downwash behind the cascade, the total-pressure tubes a r e
mounted a s nearly a s possible in the theoretical flow direction, The
tubes a r e sometimes spaced nonuniformly on the comb in o r d e r
t o increase the measuring accuracy in regions of l a r g e p r e s s u r e gradients.
To avoid interference between the tubes of a s t a t i c - p r e s s u r e comb, the
distance between individual tubes should not be too small. Interference is
especially pronounced at high subsonic velocities, a t which the distance
between the tube centers should not be less than 15 t o 2 0 tube diameters.
Total-pressure tubes a r e considerably less sensitive, and can even be
installed in contact with each other.
Combs of total- and s t a t i c - p r e s s u r e tubes are a l s o used f o r calibrating
the t e s t section in supersonic wind tunnels. Thus, Figure 4 . 8 2 shows a
c r o s s -shaped comb f o r p r e s s u r e measurements along two perpendicular
axes of the t e s t section. The comb can be moved along the axis of the t e s t
section,
231
f7Probe tubes (diameter 0.5x0.8)
Probe tubes ( d i am et er
238
I-
239
particles. Flow visualization involves giving different physical qualities to the
tested region, t o enable details of the flow to the discerned either directly,
o r with an instrument which amplifies the discriminating power of the
naked eye.
The most widely used method of visualization is that of injecting solid
liquid o r gas particles into the s t r e a m , and viewing them in reflected o r
dispersed light. It is implicitly assumed that the p a r t i c l e s have a very
low inertia and acquire the local direction of motion of the fluid, and
that they a r e of sufficiently small weight to obviate any disturbances due
t o gravity. Visualization techniques include smoke filaments, the
observation of very s m a l l particles which occur naturally in the s t r e a m
and can be s e e n with the aid of a microscope and an intense light s o u r c e ,
and the observation of fixed tufts, used widely f o r investigations n e a r
the surface of a body.
S m o k e m e t h o d , This method is widely applied a t low flow velocities
(up to 40 o r 5 0 m / s e c ) and consists in injecting smoke filaments into a
transparent gas s t r e a m through nozzles o r openings in the model. The
smoke is produced in special generators either by burning organic
substances (rotten wood, tobacco), o r by combining o r evaporating
different chemicals, such a s , titanium and stannic tetrachloride, mineral
oil, etc.
T h e t u f t m e t h o d consists in fixing light silk threads to thin wires
inside the s t r e a m . The threads remain in a definite position in steady flow,
but vibrate at points where the flow is nonsteady o r turbulent. It is thus
possible t o establish the flow direction and regime at the surface of a
model; quiescence of the tufts indicates a laminar boundary l a y e r . Behind
the point of boundary-layer separation the vibrations of the threads become
very intense. The tuft method is widely used in qualitative analyses of
flow around models, since the motion and location of the tufts can be easily
observed and photographed ( F i g u r e 7.13).
240
[Gladstoile-Dale] equation
n-1 -
--
P
e=
const.
Po
I t
-
Light r a y
Screen
In the neighborhood of the model the change in gas density causes a change
in the indpx of refraction, s o that the light beam i s refracted through an
angle 7 and f a l l s on the s c r e e n a t P z . The refraction due t o passage through
a gas layer of thicknrss 1 i s
-(=- - [
1 dn
n dx '
0 00235- -dC
r=I 1 + 0.00235 d x
The refraction angles 7 a r e usually very s m a l l . F o r example, if 1 = 1 m,
p= 0.125, and the density doubles along a light path of 1 m length, then
1 = 0.015". The refraction of the light beam can be detected by the shadow
method o r by schlieren photography.
T h e s h a d o w m e t h o d . The shadow method is l e s s sensitive than
other optical methods and it is therefore used only f o r detecting l a r g e
density gradients, for instance in shock waves in supersonic flow. It
has the advantage of simplicity. A shadowgraph of the flow around a model
can be obtained with the aid of a powerful point s o u r c e of light (Figure 4.84).
24 1
The diverging beam f r o m the s o u r c e is projected onto the s c r e e n . In each
region of optical inhomogeneity, the r a y s will be refracted, causing
corresponding shadows on the s c r e e n where t h e different a r e a s w i l l be
illuminated at different intensities.
The ratio of the brightness of t h e direct beam (solid lines) to that of t h e
r e f r a c t e d beam (broken lines) is expressed by
The above relationship between and p shows that the brightness ratio
depends on the seconcl derivative with r e s p e c t t o x of the density and we
must integrate twice to find p . It is v e r y difficult t o interpret the brightness
changes of shadowgraphs quantitatively, and this method is used in p r a c t i c e
Screen .
Region of 1
,, outical
inhomogeneity
I
I
,_
242
I
243
Wind tunnel
S
-1
$8
FIGURE 4. 87. w o d i f i e d ] schlieren instrument (according t o D. D. klaksutov)
244
Figure 4 . 8 8 shows the IAB-451 [Soviet Union] schlieren instrument,
designed according t o Maksutov's principle. The instrument has two main
p a r t s : a collimator I, designed t o project a parallel light beam of 2 3 0 mm
diameter through the field investigated, and an observation tube II, designed
f o r visual observation and photography of the schlieren picture.
1.11 5 I, .,,.,,, , ,
245
II1 I Il1Il1
The observation tube is fitted with a c a r r i a g e ( 7 ) for the knife edge and
f o r either interchangeable lenses (8), o r a c a m e r a adaptor (9). The
c a r r i a g e ( 7 ) s e r v e s f o r focusing the knife edge and for rotating it about
an axis parallel to the slot. In addition, the c a r r i a g e has a m i c r o m e t e r
s l i d e f o r adjusting the knife edge in a plane perpendicular t o the axis, for
t h e purpose of stopping the r a y s f r o m the lens. The position of the knife
edge is indicated on the s c a l e to an accuracy of 0.01 m m .
A drawback of schlieren instruments with l a r g e fields of view is that they
extend over a considerable distance outside the wind -tunnel perpendicular
to its axis. In the design of modern schlieren instruments with 500-mm
field diameters the collimator and observation tube a r e shortened by up
t o 1.5 m by repeatedly bending the optical axis with the aid of spherical
m i r r o r s and inclined lenses.
T h e i n t e r f e r o m e t r i c m e t h o d . The interferometric method
of flow investigation is based on the difference in the velocity of light in
media of different densities. The phenomenon of interference of light
can be understood by considering a light beam a s a t r a i n of waves. When
ever two light beams intersect, they reinforce each other at points where
the wave peaks of one t r a i n coincide with those of the other, but cancel
each other at points where the peaks of one t r a i n coincide with the
troughs of the other. If two coherent light beams (i. e., beams f r o m two
sources which oscillate i n phase or a t constant phase difference) converge
a t a point on a s c r e e n a f t e r traveling by different paths, t h e i r relative
phase w i l l be determined by the difference between t h e i r optical path
lengths. Depending on this difference, they will reinforce o r weaken one
another. [Two coherent parallel line s o u r c e s ] will thus project onto a
s c r e e n a sequence of dark and light fringes. If both light beams have
passed through a medium of the s a m e density, the interference fringes
will be parallel to each other. If the density of the medium is different over
part of the path of one beam, the light-propagation velocity (which depends on
density) in this beam will change, and the interference pattern will be
disturbed. Density gradients in the medium will a l s o distort the fringes.
The magnitude of the displacement and change of shape of the fringes
provide a m e a s u r e of the density changes within the field of view, The
optical interferometer can thus be used for quantitative and qualitative
investigations of the density and f o r determining the flow pattern around
a model.
The Mach-Zehnder interferometer is used for aerodynamic r e s e a r c h .
The schematic diagram of this instrument is shown in Figure 4 . 8 9 . An
image of the light s o u r c e (1) is focused on the slot ( 2 ) of the collimator (I),
situated at the focus of the lens (3). The parallel light beam f r o m the
lens (3) falls on the interferometer (11). of which the principal components
a r e the two half-silvered plates (4) and (5) and the two m i r r o r s ( 6 ) and ( 7 ) .
The plate (4) divides the light into two beams a1 and a ? . The beam (I, passes
through the glasses (10)and (11) on either side of the t e s t section of the
wind tunnel, and is reflected by the m i r r o r ( 6 ) and the half-silvered
plate (5) onto observation tube (111). The beam a2 is reflected by m i r r o r
(7) through the half-silvered plate (5) onto the observation tube. In this
way plate (4) divides the beam f r o m the collimator (I) into two p a r t s ,
which a r e reunited by plate (5) and focused by lens (8) onto the plane of the
photographic plate o r the s c r e e n .
246
L - ~~~ _..._ .... . .. ....
.-- . -- . ........ . - .. .. .. . ~~ ~ ~
Test
section
density. The distance between adjacent lines corresponds to one wave length,
241
interferometer f o r fringes of infinite width does not give high accuracy,
since the number of interference fringes is small, and this method is
used only f o r qualitative analysis.
To obtain data f r o m a l a r g e number of points in t h e field the plate (5)
of the i n t e r f e r o m e t e r is rotated s o that light b e a m s a l and a2 e m e r g e f r o m
i t at a small angle a t o each other. With undisturbed flow in the test
section, the different path lengths of the b e a m s give rise to a n interference
pattern consisting of alternately dark and light straight fringes, whose width
(the distance between the centers of adjacent d a r k and light regions) is
A
B = - ; t h e i r direction is perpendicular t o the plane containinp; the axes of the
beams a , , a2 . The width and direction of thefringes can b e changed by
adjusting the m i r r o r s of the interferometer. When the density of the
a i r in the t e s t section changes gradually and uniformly, the whole s y s t e m
of straight interference fringes becomes displaced parallel t o itself. A
density change causing a phase shift equivalent t o one wavelength h (for
the g r e e n s p e c t r u m line generally used, h can be taken as 5 . 5 X I O " mm),
will cause the pattern t o move by one fringe width. If different r a y s of
the beam aI c r o s s the t e s t section of the wind tunnel in regions of
different density, (i.e., of different index of refraction n ) , t h e r e will be
a corresponding shift of p a r t s of the interference pattern and deformation
of the fringes. We can m e a s u r e these shifts, and calculate the difference
of the indices of refraction A n = n2-n1 in the corresponding sections of the
tunnel t o determine the density changes Ap = p2 - pl in t h e s e sections,
assuming that the density along each light path a c r o s s the t e s t section is
constant, i. e., that the flow is two-dimensional.
In o r d e r t o calculate Ap for two-dimensional air flow we can use the
above relationship between the index of refraction and the density.
Differentiating, we obtain
dn =0.00235 dp
where subscript 1 denotes static conditions and subscript 2 , full flow in the
t e s t section, and f is the frequency of light, which is a constant for a
given color and depends on the filter used.
The difference between the transit times of the beams can be expressed
in terms of the change in the speed of light in the t e s t section
248
...
where 1 is the path length of the beam in the test section. Equating the
l a s t two expressions, we obtain
s o that
AvacS' y.
then
N ( x , y)A,,,=lAn(x, y ) = l . O.00235Ap(.c3y ) ,
and
If the density p, at zero flow in the tunnel is known, the density of the
flowing medium at a given point can be found f r o m
Pz (.c Y 1=PI + AP ( X ? Y ).
249
I1111111III I
where
k = - hac!??
0.001351 .
If the flow is isentropic up to the point where the p r e s s u r e is known,
then p,Ipo = ( p J p ~ ) whence
I.,
Po PO PO
--
PO PO
1680
250
I
Thus, in o r d e r to determine the p r e s s u r e a t any point (x. y), it is necessary
to m e a s u r e the stagnation temperature To, the total p r e s s u r e po, the
p r e s s u r e p r , and the relative fringe displacement N ( x , y). The p r e s s u r e s
determined in this way a r e in good agreement with the results of mano
m e t r i c measurements.
FIGURE 4. 91. Interferogram of a laminar boundary layer on a flat plate ( M =2.04; Re=200.000).
251
worker. It is much m o r e difficult to determine the density changes,
when the axis of flow s y m m e t r y is perpendicular t o the direction of the
light beams. Quantitative optical investigations a r e therefore largely
r e s t r i c t e d t o two-dimensional problems.
When comparing the u s e , in qualitative studies, of the interferometer,
shadowgraph, and schlieren instrument, the following should be noted.
The shift of the interference fringes is proportional to the changes in
density of the flowing medium, whereas the r e s u l t s obtained by schlieren
and shadow methods depend t o a f i r s t approximation respectively on the
first and second derivatives of the density with respect to distance.
252
Bibliography
253
254
Chapter V
INSTRUMENTS A N D A P P A R A T U S FOR
PRESSURE M E A S U R E M E N T
255
A negative gage p r e s s u r e is called rarefaction. The p r e s s u r e difference
is the difference between any two absolute p r e s s u r e s p , and p 2
4=PI -P2.
In most c a s e s a manometer is an instrument which m e a s u r e s the gage
p r e s s u r e . An instrument f o r measuring the p r e s s u r e difference is usually
called a differential manometer. This t e r m is to a certain degree a r b i t r a r y ,
since the gage p r e s s u r e also represents the difference between the p r e s s u r e ,
which is of interest to the r e s e a r c h e r , and the atmospheric p r e s s u r e .
In many aerodynamic experiments the most important magnitudes
measured a r e the p r e s s u r e differences f r o m which the flow velocity, the
m a s s flow, and the coefficients of p r e s s u r e a r e determined. In other
experiments the absolute p r e s s u r e s are most important, Thus, f o r
instance, absolute p r e s s u r e enters in many formulas of gas dynamics,
Most often the absolute p r e s s u r e is determined as the algebraic s u m of
the readings of a barometer and of a manometer showing the gage p r e s s u r e .
A barometer is an instrument which m e a s u r e s the atmospheric p r e s s u r e
r e f e r r e d t o perfect vacuum, and is an essential part of the equipment of
an aerodynamic laboratory.
In addition to manometers which m e a s u r e p r e s s u r e differences,
aerodynamic laboratories also use manometers which m e a s u r e directly
the absolute p r e s s u r e . The u s e of "absolute" manometers of special
design for aerodynamic r e s e a r c h prevents additional e r r o r s due to the
barometers, thus reducing the time needed f o r calculations,
The main characteristics of manometers a r e p r e s s u r e range, accuracy,
sensitivity, linearity, and speed of response.
The range of p r e s s u r e s which can be measured in aerodynamic t e s t s
extends f r o m almost perfect vacuum (for instance in wind tunnels f o r f r e e
molecular flow) up to several hundreds of atmospheres in supersonic
installations. In shock and pulse tunnels, steady and nonsteady p r e s s u r e s
attaining 3000 to 5000atm have to be measured. For any given wind tunnel
the p r e s s u r e range is narrower, but still cannot always be covered by a
single type of manometer.
The accuracy of a manometer can be improved by increasing its
sensitivity. However, an increase in sensitivity is usually concomitant
with a smaller p r e s s u r e range, since the s m a l l e r the permissible relative
e r r o r , the more complicated, expensive, and difficult to operate becomes
the manometer. The p r e s s u r e range can be reduced, for instance, by
choosing a comparison p r e s s u r e close to the measured p r e s s u r e .
Excessive sensitivity is undesirable in manometers, since a sensitive
manometer, reacting to s m a l l disturbances causes an increase in the time
needed for, and sometimes a reduced accuracy of, the measurements.
Maximum accuracy is required in measuring static and total p r e s s u r e s
in wind tunnels f o r continuous and intermittent operation, since the velocity,
the Mach number of the flow, and a l l aerodynamic coefficients a r e determined
f r o m these magnitudes. U-tube manometers a r e used for these
m e a s u r e m e n t s , providing measuring accuracies f r o m 0.02 to 0.1% of the
maximum measured value.
256
The accuracy requirements are lower f o r multiple manometers by
which the p r e s s u r e distributions on surfaces a r e determined, since with
a l a r g e number of experimental points, the p r e s s u r e distribution curve
can be drawn sufficiently accurately even i f it does not pass through a l l
points. It is difficult to provide a high measuring accuracy in each
s e p a r a t e tube of a multiple manometer because the absolute p r e s s u r e
a t different points of the body can differ considerably (at hypersonic
velocities by s e v e r a l o r d e r s of magnitude).
Linearity is also related to accuracy, because, when the instrument
s c a l e is nonlinear, we have to use approximate functional relationships
in o r d e r t o simplify the calculations. Therefore, we always t r y to ensure
proportionality between the measured p r e s s u r e and the readings of the
manometer, even if this leads to m o r e complicated instruments.
The instruments used for measuring p r e s s u r e s in aerodynamic r e s e a r c h
can be divided into the following groups:
1) liquid-column manometers,
2) p r e s s u r e gages with elastic sensing elements,
3 ) p r e s s u r e transducers,
4 ) manometers for measuring low absolute p r e s s u r e s .
The operating principle of manometers of the l a s t group is based on
the change of several physical properties of rarified gases when their
p r e s s u r e v a r i e s . A description of these manometers, used for measuring
p r e s s u r e s below 1m m Hg in special wind tunnels, can be found in the
l i t e r a t u r e on vacuum techniques / 11.
Manometric liquids
251
gravity of the manometric fluid, on which the manometric constant depends.
A high viscosity causes an increased transmission lag of the instrument.
Properties of manometric fluids a t t=20'C
TABLE 9
Boilin]
point
;pecif Surface Zoetficient I
'C a t ; Viscosity Physiological
Fluid gravii tension volumeuic e Remarks
iressur centipoise effects
g/cm dyn/cm pansionX 1
of 76G
rim Hi
~. - - _.
258
where 'I is the specific gravity of the liquid, d is the internal diameter
of the tube, 0 is the wetting angle. F o r a given fluid the coefficient of
surface tension a v a r i e s inversely with temperature. Tentatively, we can
write f o r water: Ah=$ ; f o r alcohol: A h = &d ; f o r m e r c u r y : Ah= -d8 .
When measuring low p r e s s u r e s , an important p a r a m e t e r of the liquid
is its vapor p r e s s u r e , since a t a p r e s s u r e equal to the vapor p r e s s u r e of
the liquid a t a given temperature, the liquid evaporates.
++-
a b
U-tube manometers
259
where 7 is the specific gravity of the manometric liquid.
This equation shows that the range of the measured p r e s s u r e differences can
be altered by changing the specific gravity of the liquid and the height of the tube.
260
I 111 I1 111 I1 I1 I II
a specially calibrated tube. Usually U-tube manometers a r e equipped with
sliding scales; before the experiment the z e r o graduation is adjusted to the
level of the liquid in both legs.
If the height of the column of liquid is read by the naked eye, the absolute
e r r o r in height may be about 0.5". Since two readings a r e required
f o r determining the height difference, the e r r o r may attain 1 to 2 mm.
When higher accuracy is required, the manometers a r e equipped with optical
reading devices.
Figure 5.3 shows a U-tube manometer with a device permitting the
difference in height in both legs t o be determined without intermediate
calculations. F o r this purpose the sighting devices (2) a r e located at the
level of the meniscuses with the aid of lead s c r e w s (1) which a r e connected
t o the differential g e a r (3). The l a t t e r is connected t o counter (4), on which
the height difference h is read off.
If the above precautions a r e taken to reduce the influence of surface
tension in the U-tube manometer, it can be used a s a p r i m a r y instrument
which r e q u i r e s no calibration by another [ r e f e r e n c e ] instrument. The only
correction necessary is f o r the influence of temperature. The t r u e
difference in the levels of the liquid, expressed through the specific gravity
of the liquid at temperatur: to, i s
(5.3)
(5.4)
a-Pe=uth< + n h z
FIGURE 5.4. Effect of liquid. present i n the FIGURE 5.5. Well-type mano
connecting tube on the manometer readings. meter.
26 1
where a is the coefficient of l i n e a r expansion of the m a t e r i a l f r o m which
the s c a l e is made.
In o r d e r t o prevent loss of liquid f r o m the manometer when the p r e s s u r e
v a r i e s abruptly, t r a p s in the f o r m of wells o r widenings in the upper p a r t s
of the tubes a r e provided. When liquid is present in the inclined connecting
tube (due t o overflowing or condensation), the actual p r e s s u r e difference
will exceed by ph2 the readings of the manometer (Figure 5 . 4 ) . In o r d e r t o
prevent the collection of liquid in the tube bends they a r e best a r r a n g e d i n
the manner shown i n Figure 5 . 4 by broken lines.
Well-type manometers
h = h, + h,.
Since the volume of the liquid displaced f r o m the well, whose c r o s s -
sectional a r e a is F z r is equal to the volume of the liquid which e n t e r s the
measuring tube, whose cross-sectional a r e a is F , , the measured p r e s s u r e
difference i s
262
accuracy of the alignment of the c a r r i a g e with the meniscus
(0.15 to 0.25"). Such a servo device simplifies the task of the
Liquid-column micromanometers
263
the stationary tube walls and by increasing the accuracy in measuring this
displacement with the aid of optical devices.
T w o - f l u i d m i c r o m a n o m e t e r s . If the legs of a U-tube manometer
a r e enlarged at the top to f o r m two wide vessels and a r e filled with two
immiscible liquids whose specific gravities a r e 71 and 72 (Figure 5. 7), we
can observe the displacement of the interface separating the two liquids,
Interface
We then have
(5.7)
of the tube and the well, which for simplicity a r e assumed t o be the s a m e
The immiscible liquids may be, f o r instance, ethyl alcohol and kerosene.
l a r g e temperature e r r o r s .
264
The designs of many sensitive micromanometers intended f o r measuring
very s m a l l p r e s s u r e differences a r e based on this principle, e , g., the
Chattock gage, which is widely used in Great Britain and the U. S. A. 151.
p , - p2= y l sina
( +2
F
F2)
(5.10)
265
266
instrument. When the p r e s s u r e difference changes, the inclined tube is
moved until the meniscus is again aligned with the null. This is done
with the aid of a micrometric screw. The meniscus is observed with the
aid of a sighting device which moves together with the inclined tube.
The second type of null micromanometer (5. l l b ) d i f f e r s f r o m the f o r m e r
in that the inclined tube is stationary; in o r d e r to r e t u r n the meniscus to the
null position the well has to be moved. Because of this, the meniscus can
be observed with the aid of a stationary microscope, while the eye of the
observer is always at constant level. Such a device p e r m i t s the measured
p r e s s u r e difference to be increased up t o 500 o r 600" W.G. The reading
accuracy of the column of liquid depends mainly on the manufacturing
accuracy of the micrometric screw, and attains 0.03 to 0.05".
In experiments requiring accurate measurements of p r e s s u r e , attention
must be paid to reducing the transmission lag of manometers, F o r instance,
when determining the velocity profile in a boundary l a y e r by a tube having an
internal diameter of 0.2 to 0.4 mm, the transmission lag of the manometer
amounts to tens of seconds and sometimes to minutes. The e r r o r s caused
by the lag a r e not only due to the fact that readings a r e made before the
p r e s s u r e in the tube orifice is in equilibrium with the p r e s s u r e in the well,
but because during the time required for the complete s e r i e s of m e a s u r e m e n t s ,
the temperature of the surroundings can change (for instance, due to heat
t r a n s f e r through the walls of the wind tunnel). The volume of liquid in both
legs of a liquid-column null micromanometer at the instance of reading
remains the same, irrespective of the measured p r e s s u r e difference. The lag,
due to the flow of liquid f r o m one leg to the other, therefore depends only on
the s k i l l of the experimenter (or on the response of the automatic device
used) in realigning the meniscus with the null line.
Increasing the sensitivity of a null micromanometer by increasing the
inclination of the capillary tube increases the lag (the volume of displaced
liquid increases for a given p r e s s u r e difference).
A temperature change of the liquid in a well-type micromanometer
causes a change in the z e r o reading; for this t h e r e a r e two r e a s o n s :
1) the change in volume of the liquid due to thermal expansion;
2) the change of the surface tension of the liquid in the capillary tube,
These factors act in opposition, and thus may compensate mutually.
The relationship between the geometrical p a r a m e t e r s of the manometer,
necessary for the compensation of temperature changes, is when the well
is made of steel and is filled with alcohol I S / :
267
Figure 5 . 1 2 shows a float -type micromanometer which enables
differences up to 200" W.G. to be measured. The difference in level of
the liquid between the annular well (2) and the cylinder (1) is m e a s u r e d
with the aid of s c a l e (3) which is attached to a body floating on the surface
of the liquid in the cylinder. The s c a l e can be observed and the difference
in level read off through window (4) and microscope (5). The micrometric
device (6) s e r v e s f o r aligning the sighting line of the microscope with the
null line of the scale.
Springs ) Wires
FIGURE 5.12 Float-type micromanometer with FIGURE 5.13. Float-type micromanometer with
3 - s c a l e ; 4 -window; 5 - microscope; 6 -
aligning device.
268
B a l a n c e - t y p e m i c r o m a n o m e t e r s . Very high sensitivity and
accuracy can be obtained with micromanometers in which measuring
the height of a column of liquid is replaced by measuring forces with the
aid of balances.
In the instrument shown in Figure 5.14 the p r e s s u r e s p , and pz act via
elastic metal tubes on the liquid in communicating vessels mounted on the
a r m s of a balance. If the right-hand v e s s e l is at a higher p r e s s u r e ,
some liquid will flow from it into the left-hand vessel. Equilibrium is
r e s t o r e d either manually o r automatically by moving a counterweight. The
sensitivity of this instrument is independent of the specific gravity of the
manometric liquid. F o r v e s s e l s of given height, a change in the liquid is
only reflected in the range of measured p r e s s u r e differences.
269
which a r e suspended f r o m a balance lever (3). The open ends of the bells
a r e i m m e r s e d in the liquid contained in vessels (4). Under t h e action of the
p r e s s u r e difference some liquid is forced out f r o m one bell into the other, and
the lever tilts by a s m a l l angle which is proportional t o the p r e s s u r e
difference and depends on the sensitivity of the balance. This angle can be
measured by different methods, f o r instance, with the a i d of a n optical
systern which projects an enlarged image of the transparent s c a l e (5) onto
the s c r e e n (6).
In compensated bell-type manometers (Figure 5.14) the lever is returned
to the null position with the aid of a movable counterweight, whose t r a v e l
is proportional t o the measured p r e s s u r e difference.
2 70
lag i n such manometers is determined mainly by the t i m e required for
the equalization of the p r e s s u r e in the chamber of the elastic element with
the p r e s s u r e t o be measured, whereas in liquid-column manometers a n
additional lag is caused by the displacement of the liquid. Using e l a s t i c
elements, and keeping the volume of the p r e s s u r e chamber small, we can
reduce the dimensions of the manometer and install it n e a r the place where
the p r e s s u r e is being measured. When the volume of the chamber and the
length of the connecting tube a r e reduced, the t r a n s m i s s i o n l a g of the
manometer d e c r e a s e s .
Due t o t h e i r high natural frequency, elastic elements c a n be used f o r
measuring not only steady but a l s o fluctuating p r e s s u r e s . P r e s s u r e s a r e
measured by means of elastic elements by determining either the
deformation of an elastic element o r the force required to prevent the
deformation (force -compensation method).
The deformation of the elastic elements is m e a s u r e d with the aid of
kinematic, optical, o r electric s y s t e m s . Kinematic pointer -type o r
recording instruments and optical devices a r e used mainly in spring-type
manometers, while e l e c t r i c s y s t e m s a r e found i n p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s .
In comparison with the method of determining the p r e s s u r e f r o m the
deformation of elastic elements, the force-compensation method is m o r e
exact since it enables the effects of elastic h y s t e r e s i s to be reduced. How
ever, the force-compensation method r e q u i r e s m o r e time. When measuring
rapidly fluctuating p r e s s u r e s , only the f i r s t method is therefore used. The
force-compensation method is used f o r measuring steady o r slowly varying
p r e s s u r e s when the e r r o r must not exceed 0.1 t o 0.570 of the upper limit
of the measured value.
n
C
a ‘t d e
27 1
I
IIII II 111 I I l l II I I 1111 I 11111 1111 I I I I I II I I I I 111111111111111
The action of a s p i r a l tube (Figure 5.16b) is based on the s a m e principle.
Flat diaphragms (Figure 5 . 1 6 ~ 1 ,which have higher natural frequencies
than Bourdon tubes, can be used f o r measuring high-frequency p r e s s u r e
pulsations. Flat diaphragms can be installed flush with the surface of a
body. The p r e s s u r e to be measured acts directly on the diaphragm, hence
t h e r e is no transmission lag. due to the resistance of the connecting tubes
and the volume of a i r in the system.
The sensitivity of a flat diaphragm, which can be considered a s a plate
fixed along a c i r c u l a r contour, can be defined a s the ratio of the deformation
8 at the center of the diaphragm to the p r e s s u r e p
where r and h a r e respectively the radius and the thickness of the diaphragm,
while E , p, and p a r e respectively the modulus of elasticity, Poisson's ratio,
and the density of the diaphragm material. Thus, the sensitivity and the
natural frequency a r e related by the equation
272
The gage p r e s s u r e a c t s inside the bellows o r the vessel which surrounds
it. The movable bottom of the bellows, which is connected with the
measuring mechanism of the manometer, can be considered a s a piston
moving without friction in a cylinder under the action of the p r e s s u r e
f o r c e s , and loaded by a spring which, in this c a s e , i s formed by the folds
of the bellows.
The bellows is made of b r a s s , phosphorus-bronze, beryllium-bronze,
o r s t a i n l e s s steel. B r a s s bellows a r e most widely used, but t h e i r hysteresis
is high (up t o 370 of the full t r a v e l ) . The hysteresis of bellows made of
beryllium-bronze o r phosphorus-bronze is lower.
The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a bellows as a measuring element depend on two
f a c t o r s : the rigidity c , and the effective a r e a F,f . The rigidity is the
r a t i o of the force acting on the moving bottom of the bellows to i t s t r a v e l 6.
The effective a r e a of the bellows is the r a t i o of the force N t o the gage
p r e s s u r e p required t o r e s t o r e the bottom of the bellows t o i t s original
position:
F e f = pN.
Spring-type manometers
273
An example of a frictionless spring-type manometer is the manometer
in which the deflection of the Bourdon tube is measured with the aid of an
accurate m i c r o m e t r i c mechanism o r a dial indicator (5) (Figure 5.17). The
m i c r o m e t r i c mechanism is isolated f r o m the tube (l), t o which the flexible
contact plate (2) is soldered. A second flexible plate (3) is soldered t o the
m i c r o m e t e r s c r e w . E l e c t r i c contact between the plates is sensed by a s o -
called "magic eye'' electronic tube normally used in radio r e c e i v e r s . The
wiring diagram is shown in Figure 5.17. To m e a s u r e the p r e s s u r e , contact
between the screw and tube is first broken. P l a t e (3) is then slowly brought
back into contact with plate (2); this is sensed by the "magic eye. I ' Such a
device permits the e r r o r to be reduced t o 112 o r 113 of the e r r o r of a
reference manometer with pointer, but this is accompanied by an i n c r e a s e
in time required.
5
-
FIGURE 5.17. Spring-type manometer with contacts, FIGURE 5.18. Pendulum-t)pe manometer. 1
1-Bourdon tube; 2 and 3 - contact plares; 4 - pendulum; 2 - l a m p ; 3 - lens, 4 - transparenr
micrometric device; 5 - dial indicator. scale; 5 -screen.
214
I, .I I, I" I. I.
I I. 111.
I
being expressed as follows with a n accuracy better than 3'70:
Force-compensation manometers
5 6 6 4
275
~p2Fef2-a,PlFef1=Gx~
alFei,=a2Fef, =aF.
4 =PZ-P I =
276
2 4
277
Figure 5.21 shows the connections between the aneroid boxes and the
l e v e r s in the automatic self-balancing capsule manometer of the R A E
laboratory 191. The lever is mounted on a cross-shaped hinge and linked
t o the aneroid boxes, which a r e rigidly interconnected, by a flexible s t r i p .
The drawback of this design is the requirement that the aneroid boxes have
exactly equal effective a r e a s .
The accuracy of such a manometer is mainly determined by two f a c t o r s :
the insensitivity of t r a n s d u c e r s to displacements and the rigidity of the
bellows. If the insensitivity range of the transducer corresponds t o a bellows
displacement &a, the random e r r o r of p r e s s u r e measurement, due to the
unbalanced residua.1 electric force, will not exceed
278
is connected t o l e v e r (3) fixed t o a n elastic hinge (4). A rod with counter
weight (5) i s fixed to the l e v e r . In o r d e r to r e t u r n to i t s initial relative position
the l e v e r (3), which is deflected by the action of the difference of p r e s s u r e
on the movable bottom of the bellows, the chamber is turned about hinge
(11) by an angle u . This is controlled with the aid of contacts (6) and signal
lamps (7) which go out when the initial position is reached. The value of the
angle a is related t o the measured p r e s s u r e difference as follows:
( p z--pJ F e f a = Q1 sin I ,
2
3, I I I C
279
coil and the magnet balances the p r e s s u r e f o r c e . The p r e s s u r e is
determined f r o m the c u r r e n t intensity I , indicated by milliammeter ( 6 ) ,
or f r o m the voltage U a c r o s s a n output resistance R . When the voltage
is measured, this circuit provides f o r a sufficiently strong signal, and
the measurements can be automatically recorded. Thus, at a maximum
current intensity I = 30 m a and with a resistance R = 2500 ohm the voltage
U = 75v. The e r r o r of such an electromagnetic manometer is only 0.1%;
f o r measuring p r e s s u r e differences f r o m s e v e r a l millimeters t o several
hundreds of millimeters Hg, it can compete with liquid-column
manometers.
280
' manomerer
FlGURE 5 25 Wiring diagram of a c a p a c i t i v e
compelisarion-type nianomeier
28 1
flutter, we sometimes determine transient aerodynamic f o r c e s by
investigating the p r e s s u r e distribution on a vibrating wing. The
measurements a r e made by special miniature p r e s s u r e transducers,
(of 5 to 6 mm diameter),, which a r e placed directly on the s u r f a c e of the
model or inside i t s body, close to the orifices. The nature of the
investigated problems does not demand a high measuring accuracy.
Good transducers p e r m i t the e r r o r in measuring the amplitude of p r e s s u r e
pulsations t o be reduced t o between 1 and 27'0, but often transducers a r e
acceptable which p e r m i t the p r e s s u r e to be measured with an accuracy of
f r o m 5 t o 1 0 % of the maximum amplitude.
Quite different requirements apply t o high-sensitivity transducers, used
f o r measuring steady o r slowly-varying p r e s s u r e s . Such t r a n s d u c e r s a r e
used in intermittently-operated supersonic wind tunnels where measurement
by liquid-column manometers is not always possible because of high lag.
Such t r a n s d u c e r s can have comparatively low natural frequencies, but must
have much s m a l l e r e r r o r s than transducers for measuring dynamic
p r o c e s s e s . High sensitivity is usually obtained with transducers of
relatively l a r g e dimensions.
If the transducer is connected by a tube t o an orifice in the wall, then,
with high-frequency pulsations the p r e s s u r e close t o the elastic p r e s s u r e -
sensing element of the transducer may differ in phase and amplitude from
the p r e s s u r e on the wall. To reduce dynamic distortions, the lowest
a =
a
4L '
1680
282
Inductive t r a n s d u c e r s
L14
1 31
1
FIGURE 5.27. Circuits for inductive pressure rransducers.
28 3
Figure 5.27 shows t h r e e arrangements f o r connecting inductive
t r a n s d u c e r s in a measuring bridge fed f r o m a t r a n s f o r m e r T , . In
Figure 5.27a, t h r e e a r m s of the bridge a r e fixed inductors. The fourth a r m L ,
is a variable inductor, One of the p r e s s u r e s whose difference is being
m e a s u r e d a c t s directly on the outer s u r f a c e of the diaphragm, while
the other p r e s s u r e a c t s upon the internal a r e a of the t r a n s d u c e r . A
differential circuit (Figure 5.27b) is ordinarily used f o r increased
sensitivity. The diaphragm i s placed between two inductive coils Lr and L p .
t E
E
284
points. A simple and sensitive bridge circuit in which one half of the
bridge is formed by semiconductor r e c t i f i e r s is shown in Figure 5.29.
To r e c o r d low-frequency p r e s s u r e pulsations (up t o 4 t o 5 cycles), balanced
measuring circuits with fast-acting electronic bridges can be used
(Figure 5 . 3 0 ) .
285
consists of four bellows connected to lever (1) which is supported on an
elastic cross-shaped hinge (2). Bellows (3)’and (4) a r e acted upon by the
p r e s s u r e s whose difference has t o be measured; the other two bellows (5)
and (6), interconnected by channel (7), a r e filled with oil and s e r v e a s
d a m p e r s . One end of lever (1) c a r r i e s a soft-iron plate (8), balanced by
counterweight (9) on the other end of the l e v e r , When the lever is displaced
due t o the p r e s s u r e difference p , -pP2inbellows (3) and (4), the a i r gap
between plate (8) and the induction coil L , changes. This causes an
imbalance in the inductive bridge ( F i g u r e 5. 3 2 ) . The rectified imbalance
c u r r e n t causes the pointer of galvanometer (6) to be deflected.
Balancing and
counting device
Capacitive transducers
286
. ..... ..
287
k- 6.35 4
I PI
'P .
FIGURE 5 . 3 4 . Differential capacitive
pressure transducer. 1 - diaphragm ;
2 - electrodes; 3 - electric leads.
288
The capacitors a r e connected t o adjacent arms of an a . c . bridge whose
other two a r m s a r e formed by mutually coupled induction coils (Figure 5. 35).
The coils a r e wound in opposite directions; when the bridge is balanced
equal currents pass through them, and the resulting field equals z e r o . The
output signal of the bridge is taken from a third winding inductively coupled
t o the first two. The capacitor C s e r v e s f o r noise suppression. The bridge
is fed f r o m a 2 0 kc carrier-frequency oscillator, which permits frequencies
up t o about 3000 cycles t o be recorded. The output voltage of the bridge,
which is about 100mV a t a maximum p r e s s u r e difference of 0.3 kg/cm2, is
fed via an amplifier t o an oscillograph.
PN
289
A peculiarity of this manometer is the low t e m p e r a t u r e dependence of the
capacitance, which a t r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e is about 0.1% per 1°C 1141.
T o m e a s u r e the frequency signals of capacitive t r a n s d u c e r s , resonance
c i r c u i t s a r e used in addition to bridge s y s t e m s . A simple resonance
c i r c u i t of an electronic amplifier, used i n measuring v e r y low steady
p r e s s u r e s , is shown in Figure 5. 37 / I s / . The circuit contains only one
electronic tube, which operates as an oscillator. The frequency of
oscillations is determined by the capacitance of the condenser c,, which
changes when the p r e s s u r e acting on the diaphragm v a r i e s .
The resonant circuit used f o r measuring this frequency consists of
inductance L2 and capacitor C s . The shaft of the l a t t e r is connected to an
indicating pointer and to a handle, with the aid of which the capacitor is
tuned into resonance with the second harmonic frequency of the oscillator.
The point of resonance is determined approximately when minimum plate
c u r r e n t , measured by milliammeter M I , flows through the tube. Final
tuning of the capacitor Cs is c a r r i e d out using the fine-adjustment galvano
m e t e r M P.
290
Strain-gage t r a n s d u c e r s
291
292
highest load t o be taken up. F o r bellows and for diaphragms these loads
a r e respectively
where c, and c5, a r e respectively the rigidities of the bellows and the
diaphragm when acted upon by a concentrated load, cb is the rigidity
of the beam, rc is the effective radius of the bellows and r, is the
radius a t which the diaphragm is fixed. When r c = r, ch, is much l a r g e r than
cc at the s a m e p r e s s u r e s , hence N , > N , , i. e., considerably higher loads
c a n be transmitted t o the beam by means of a bellows than by means of a
diaphragm ,
1 7
+Pf
+Pf +PI
Diaphragm Aneroid box Bellows
)Transition
b
I -P
FIGURE 5.42. Transducers for measuring
absolute pressures. 1 and 2 -bellows;
3 - elastic element; 4 -
hermetically
sealed casing.
293
I
*
instead of metal tubes are employed, such transducers can be used f o r
1
much lower p r e s s u r e s .
Surface of
the w i n g
W ire strain
294
Plexiglas
Glass tubes
295
the s c a l e and the tubes to be illuminated f r o m the r e a r for photographing.
The upper p a r t of the instrument contains a numerator, which enables
the number of the experiment, the number of the model, and the date of
the experiment t o be photographed.
The lower ends of the g l a s s tubes a r e connected through gaskets or
rubber tubes to a common auxiliary tube which p a s s e s along the width of
the manometer f r a m e and is connected a t the center to a well by means of
a rubber tube. The height of the well can be adjusted t o align the lower
m a r k on the s c a l e t o z e r o level. The upper p a r t s of the glass tubes a r e
connected t o rubber tubes with metal nipples, to which tubes f r o m the tested
object a r e connected.
296
I
--
entry of air into the glass tube. When liquid is suddenly ejected f r o m the
g l a s s tube, the ball is forced upward and closes an opening i n the upper
297
Multiple manometers designed f o r wide measuring ranges, which a r e very
heavy, a r e mounted on c a r r i a g e s which facilitate removal f r o m the room
where the experiments a r e made.
The manometer indications can be recorded by any photographic camera,
but f o r e a s e of analysis of the negatives, wide-film c a m e r a s should be used.
298
In o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e the reading accuracy, inclined multiple manometers
with 600 t o 700 mm long tubes are sometimes used i n low-speed wind
tunnels (Figure 5. 50). The manometric liquid is usually alcohol. Glass tubes
and the connecting metal tube a r e mounted on a common table which can be
pivoted together with the c a m e r a about a horizontal axis. A multiple
3
------------
299
Figure 5 . 5 1 shows a Gottingen Aerodynamic Institute multiple manometer
with automatic recording of the indications in numerical f o r m / 20/. Vertical
tubes, whose lower ends a r e connected t o a common vessel, a r e placed in a
ring. The heights of the columns of liquid in the tubes a r e read with the aid
of photoelectric cells, which a r e moved on a common annular c a r r i a g e by a
lead s c r e w (Figure 5.52). Counting mechanisms f o r each tube a r e switched
on when the c a r r i a g e p a s s e s through a z e r o level while moving upward.
A I B
A t the instant when the light beam f r o m a lamp (also installed on the
c a r r i a g e ) falls on the meniscus in a tube, the counter sends a pulse t o
a relay installation which r e c o r d s the height of the meniscus. After a
s e r i e s of measurements has been taken the values recorded by the relay
installation a r e f e d to punch-cards. The punch c a r d s a r e sent to a
computing office, where the recorded values a r e automatically decoded
and fed t o a plotter which r e c o r d s on paper the coordinates of the points
through which the p r e s s u r e distribution curve can be drawn.
Wall of chamber
FIGURE 5.53. Wiring diagram for a multiple manometer with measuring orifices
in the model and on the wind-tunnel walls.
300
above atmospheric, the tubes a r e secured t o the nipples by soft i r o n o r
copper wire. When the p r e s s u r e in the tubes is below atmospheric,
special thick-walled rubber tubes a r e used, since thin-walled tubes m a y
be forced in under the action of 'the external p r e s s u r e .
In supersonic tunnels it is not always possible t o connect the multiple
manometer directly by flexible tubes t o the metal tubes in the model. A
good outlet f r o m the variable-pressure chamber is shown i n Figure 5. 5 3 .
Two s i m i l a r metal panels (1) and (2) are installed respectively in the
chamber and close t o the multiple manometer. The shields are rigidly
fixed together by copper tubes. The tubes a r e led out through the chamber
wall by means of a copper bushing t o which all tubes are soldered. The
coupling elements of panel (1) are connected before the experiment by
rubber tubes t o the metal tubes in the model, while the coupling elements
of panel ( 2 ) a r e connected t o the multiple manometer.
The orifices in the walls of the wind tunnel a r e permanently connected
by metal tubes t o panel ( 3 ) which is located outside the chamber.
30 1
S i m u l t a n e o u s r e c o r d i n g of p r e s s u r e s. Lever -type mano
m e t e r s with moving counterweights can be u s e d f o r simultaneous multipoint
p r e s s u r e measurements. The main difficulty in using such manometers is
their s i z e and complexity. The reduction of the dimensions of R A E
manometers (Figure 5.21) is achieved by connecting the bellows to
the vertical lever a r m . In a supersonic RAE wind tunnel a group of fifty
such manometers is used f o r measuring the distribution of p r e s s u r e s
varying f r o m z e r o to 1800 a m Hg / 9 / . The indications of the manometers
a r e printed on a diagram in the console of the observation cabin of the
tunnel. For visual observation of the p r e s s u r e distribution on the surface
of the model and for discovering faults in the manometers, a vertical panel
is provided on which the s e r v o systems of the manometers move
colored ribbons. Externally, such a panel looks like a liquid-column
multiple manometer.
Lever-type manometers of simpler design a r e those in which the f o r c e s
due to the p r e s s u r e on the bellows bottom a r e not balanced by a counter
weight but by a spring [spring-opposed bellows], one end of which is
connected to the lever, and the other to a tensioning device. The tensioning
device is located on a fixed base; hence, the dimensions of spring-type
balances a r e considerably l e s s than those of balances with movable counter -
weights, In GRM group manometers produced by the Soviet industry
(Figure 5. 54), twenty l e v e r t y p e manometers a r e equilibrated with the aid
of one motor. When any one of the l e v e r s is moved out of its equilibrium
position, the circuit of a corresponding electromagnetic reversing clutch,
whose drive shaft is continuously rotated by the motor, is closed. The
clutch connects the shaft to a micrometric screw, which changes the
tension of the spring and r e s t o r e s the lever to its equilibrium position.
The p r e s s u r e s a r e determined f r o m the turning angles of the micrometric
screws each of which is connected to a digital printing counter. When a
button is pressed, the indications of all twenty counters a r e printed on a
paper tape with the a i d of an electromagnetic mechanism. Vertical s c a l e s
f o r visual observation a r e provided on the front wall of the instrument.
The pointers on the s c a l e s a r e kinematically linked with the micrometric
screws. The maximum e r r o r of the GRM manometer is about 0.5% of the
maximum p r e s s u r e measured .
C o n s e c u t i v e ( c y c l i c ) r e c o r d i n g of p r e s s u r e s . Figure5.55
shows a multipoint recording manometer, based on the consecutive
measurement of the deformation of ten o r m o r e Bourdon tubes grouped
together / 2 1 / , Carriage (1) has flexible contacts (3) and the Bourdon tubes
(7) have flat contacts (5). Carriage (1) is periodically moved by a lead
s c r e w toward the Bourdon tubes in such a way that contacts (3) a r e
consecutively closed with a l l contacts (5). Synchronously with c a r r i a g e (1 ),
but a t a speed a hundred times higher, travels c a r r i a g e (2), which has
sharp-tipped metal electrodes (4) moving above a paper tape. When contacts
(3) and (5) touch the circuit of sparking device ( 8 ) is closed which causes
a spark to be discharged f r o m electrodes ( 4 ) through the paper to ground.
This f o r m s a pinhole in the paper. When c a r r i a g e (1) moves farther,
contacts ( 3 ' ) , also on it, close with fixed rigid contacts (6) in positions
corresponding to the z e r o position of the springs. This causes a second
hole on the tape. Thus, the deformation of each Bourdon tube, which is
302
proportional to the measured p r e s s u r e , is determined by the distance
between two pinholes on the tape.
arrangement
FIGL'RE 5.55. Multipoint Bourdon manometer. 1 -carriage with contacts; 2 -car
riage with electrodes; 3 - 3 ' contacts; 4 -electrodes; 5 -flat c o n t a c u on Bourdon
tubes; 6 -fixed contacts; I - Bourdon tubes; 8 - sparking device.
303
The strain-gage manometers and p r e s s u r e transducers described in
$ 2 0 can be used f o r multipoint measurements if they a r e combined with
automatic compensation (for instance by means of an automatic bridge).
With the aid of a commutation arrangement, the transducers a r e
consecutively connected in a given o r d e r to a single automatic compensator.
-
Compensating
pressure
_.
Pressure to be meLasued
v
FIGURE 5.56. Diaphragm contact- type pressure rransducer .
304
The electromagnetic manometer shown in Figure 5. 23 can a l s o be used
f o r multipoint measurements by the dynamic -compensation method. The
wiring diagram of a multipoint electromagnetic manometer is shown in
Figure 5. 57. The movable coils (3) of a l l manometers a r e fed f r o m a
common generator (5), whose c u r r e n t v a r i e s linearly f r o m z e r o to maximum
(or vice v e r s a ) . The coils convert the c u r r e n t into compensating forces
simultaneously at all measuring points. A highly accurate linear
relationship exists between the c u r r e n t and the force. Knowing the
instantaneous c u r r e n t intensity at which the elastic element (bellows or
diaphragm) connected to the coil r e t u r n s to i t s z e r o position, we can
determine the compensating force, and thus the magnitude of the measured
I7
I
FIGITRE 5. 57. hlulripoinr electromagnetic manumeter. 1 -bellows; 2 - zero-position
transducers. '3 - movable coils. 4 - permdnenr magnets, 5 - generator of linearly
var)ing current; b - cuuIiters, 7 - recording device.
305
In the multipoint manometer shown in Figure 5, 58, the compensating
p r e s s u r e s e r v e s at the s a m e time to measure the p r e s s u r e 1 2 2 1 , The
manometer consists of a number of contact transducers (l), a recording
device (2), a compensating-pressure regulator (3), and a i r pumps (4)
306
relatively small p r e s s u r e ranges (from 650 t o 900" W. G . ) , p e r m i t s
in one minute thirty p r e s s u r e s t o be recorded with a maximum e r r o r of 0.4%
of the maximum measured value.
Selector valves
12,
Synchronizing
5
FIGLIRE 5.59. Selector valve with uancmission of pressure
through one tube. 1 - 1 ' - stdtlondry discs, 2
2 ' - rotJting discs; 9 - 3 ' - reduction gears; 4 - 4 ' -
synchronized electric motors; 5 - multiple manometer.
307
wires or a rigid support. There a r e two synchronized selector valves
one of which, consisting of a stationary disc (1) and a rotating disc (2), is
located inside the model. The other valve, which consists of a stationary
disc (1') and a rotating disc (2l), is located in the observation cabin of the
tunnel. The openings on the periphery of the stationary discs (1) and (1')
a r e connected respectively to the orifices on the surface of the model and to
the tubes of the multiple manometer. The central openings in the discs
(1) and (1') are interconnected by the outlet tube. When the discs (2) and
(2') a r e rotated by the synchronized electric motors (4) and (4') through
reduction g e a r s (3) and (3l). the channels in these discs successively
connect each orifice with a corresponding tube of the multiple manometer.
I
i
i
i
i.-.-
FIGURE 5.60. Selector valve with electric transmission of
signals. 1 - stationary disc; 2 - rotating disc; 3 - reduction
gear; 4-miniature motor; 5-pressure transducer; 6-electro
nic bridge or oscillograph; I -recording tape.
308
strain-gage transducer which is installed inside the model. The transducer
(5) is directly connected t o the central opening of stationary disc (1). Due
t o the s h o r t connecting tube and s m a l l volume of the transducer chamber,
the device permits p r e s s u r e s to be recorded a t the r a t e of up to three points
p e r second. A quick-acting electronic bridge o r oscillograph ( 6 )
s e r v e s f o r recording. The movement of the recording tape (7) is
synchronized by a s e r v o s y s t e m with miniature motor ( 4 ) which rotates
disc (2) through reduction gear (3). The p r e s s u r e distribution is recorded
a s a s e r i e s of equidistant peaks whose heights a r e proportional t o the
p r e s s u r e s a t the corresponding points of the model. The obvious advantage
of locating the selector valve inside the model is the complete absence of
outlet tubes, which in conventional designs pass through the supports of the
model.
=44
Trd
309
by puncher (10) on tape (11). Data recorded on the tape can be read off
a t any time with the aid of read-off device (12) which is connected t o the
print-out device (13) and the c h a r t r e c o r d e r (14).
Such selector devices a r e widely used outside the USSR. F o r instance, the
A R A Aerodynamic Laboratory uses a system of s i x 48 -channel "Scanivalve"
valves, each of which is connected to a nonglued s t r a i n gage having a flat
12.7 mm-diameter diaphragm (as i n F i g u r e 5.40). The accuracy of these t r a n s
d u c e r s amounts t o 0.1% of the measurement range (0.1 5 t o 1 a t m ) . The s m a l l
air space i n t h e transducers (0.08 cm3 ) p e r m i t s all 288 p r e s s u r e s t o be recorded
within about one minute. Together with the p r e s s u r e s , the punched tape a l s o
r e c o r d s t h e moments and f o r c e s , measured on awind -tunnel balance /26 /.
310
made by tubes having internal diameters l e s s than 1 to 1.5 mm, and the
orifices on the surface of the model have diameters of 0.2 t o 0.5". TO
reduce the transmission lag, optimum dimensions of the connecting
tubing must be selected. Usually, the pneumatic system for measuring
the p r e s s u r e on the surface of the model consists of a metal tube fixed to
the model, a flexible connecting tube, and a manometer (Figure 5. 62).
31 1
effect when its diameter is s m a l l . Capillary tubes should therefore have
diameters as l a r g e a s possible and be as s h o r t as possible.
The influence of the connecting tube is twofold. F i r s t l y , the connecting
tube has the l a r g e s t volume in the system, and secondly, it offers r e s i s t a n c e
to the gas flow. When d, is small, the t r a n s m i s s i o n
lag is, as in a capillary tube, increased due to this
r e s i s t a n c e . When d, is l a r g e , the lag i n c r e a s e s
due to the volume increase. The connecting tubes
P should therefore be as s h o r t as possible. The
optimum diameter is between 1 . 2 5 d and 1 . 5 0 d .
A t very low p r e s s u r e s , f o r instance, in wind
tunnels with f r e e molecular flow, where the mean
free-path length of the molecules is l a r g e in
fa comparison with the c r o s s section of the orifice
f o r the tube leading to the manometer, the
t r a n s m i s s i o n lag can be considerable. F o r d = d,
the lag can be determined according t o t h e
following approximate formula / 3 1 / :
FIGURE 5.64. Determination
of manometer transmission lag.
(-y+ - - + -
32v
3di
Bad21
xd; ::)
+- I
I/2aRT '
= k In Pfin- Pinit
where Pfin-Pt '
( p = pinJ at the orifice; ir, is the volume of the air a f t e r the final p r e s s u r e
fin
equalization.
Le q= L , + L , ( y + ... +L"(2)1,
312
where LI is the length of the tube whose diameter is d , .
The time-averaged p r e s s u r e in the manometer is
General case
(rubes of different diameters)
313
S 24. MANOMETRIC INSTRTUMENTS FOR DETERMINING
DIMENSIONLESS CHARACTERISTICS
At low flow velocities, any of the aerodynamic coefficients cz, cy, cz, m,,
my,m, a r e proportional to the ratio of the force or moment to the difference
between total and static p r e s s u r e , e. g.,
cy = const P W 2 = const L
AP .
1680
314
I
by the moment due t o p r e s s u r e on the bellows, which is proportional to A p .
It is e a s y to s e e that the distance x f r o m the fulcrum of beam (2) to
link (5), a t the instant when equilibrium is attained, is
/--
I
I
!
-
Figure 5. 67 i l l u s t r a t e s how the dimensionless t o t a l - p r e s s u r e coefficient
H of a fan is determined. Here,
315
x = const H
316
during the experiment. The u s e of a Machmeter (as instruments f o r
measuring the Mach number a r e called) simplifies experiments at high
subsonic velocities, where models are v e r y often tested by varying the flow
velocity at constant angle of attack. This instrument is a l s o suitable
f o r modern supersonic wind tunnels with adjustable nozzles. The Mach
number in the t e s t section of such a tun?el is changed gradually by adjusting
the shape of the nozzle, and the direct measurement of M p e r m i t s control
of the flow conditions in the tunnel.
The Mach number is a function of the r a t i o of two selected p r e s s u r e s p ,
and p 2 i n t h e g a s ( s e e c h a p t e r IV). Therefore, any instrument which m e a s u r e s
the ratio of p I and p 2 can be used as
P - Machmeter. The s c a l e of such an
Vacuum
instrument need not be linear, since
the functional relationship M = f ( p 1 1 p 2 )
is not linear. The Mach number c a n
be determined from the ratio of the
total p r e s s u r e p o (or the p r e s s u r e
difference A p = p o - p ) to the s t a t i c
p r e s s u r e p i n the undisturbed flow.
The simplest device f o r measuring
the Mach number is shown in Figure
danomer er 5. 68. It consists of a well-type mano
m e t e r with m e a s u r e s A p , and a mano
I!
C m e t e r which m e a s u r e s the absolute
s t a t i c p r e s s u r e p . The z e r o markings
of the s c a l e s of both instruments a r e
interconnected by a diagonal line A B .
A s t r i n g is stretched between the
moving v e r n i e r s c and D . When the
v e r n i e r s a r e aligned with the meniscuses
v4"
9 in the manometric tubes, the i n t e r
section of lines A B and C D divides the
f o r m e r into two p a r t s whose r a t i o is
1
A p J p . Thus, the divisions marked on
line A B correspond t o values of the
Mach number, which i s r e a d off with
the aid of s t r i n g CD.
FIGURE 5.68. Liauid-column Machmeter
Figure 5. 6 9 shows another device,
which p e r m i t s control of the Mach
number when the p r e s s u r e s a r e measured with the aid of two pendulum-
type manometers. When the p r e s s u r e p1 changes, the angle of inclination
of pendulum (l), to which a curved m i r r o r (3) is fixed, a l s o changes. A
light beam falls on m i r r o r ( 3 ) from light s o u r c e (4) and is reflected onto
plane m i r r o r (5). The l a t t e r is turned around a v e r t i c a l axis 00 when
pendulum (2) is inclined by the action of p r e s s u r e p 2 . The beam is
reflected f r o m m i r r o r (5) onto s c r e e n ( 6 ) . The vertical displacement of
the beam is proportional to pl and its horizontal displacement t o p2-pI.
The Mach number is determined f r o m t h e lines M = const, drawn on the
screen.
Automatic instruments f o r measuring M can be divided into two
groups. The f i r s t group includes instruments which are simple e l e c t r i c a l
317
analog computers, while the second group includes instruments which a r e
based on force-balancing principles. In instruments of the f i r s t group, the
318
balanced bridge, in which the resistances of two a r m s a r e changed in
proportion to the indications p and A p of the manometers. The other two
bridge a r m s a r e formed by a constant resistance Rn and a variable
resistance R,. The bridge is balanced by varying the resistance R+ with the
aid of a balancing servomotor which moves the contact of the r e s i s t o r into
the position which corresponds to the balancing of the bridge, SO that
whence
02 04 06 0.8 1.0
N
FIGURE 5.72. Output voltage of potentiometric system as function of Mach number.
319
r e s i s t a n c e R , and Rz change with the p r e s s u r e i n such a way that
dp
- 'I
e r) "P
i/
L;.
I
-I
I Flow-velocity m e a
320
simultaneously. The s y s t e m consists of two electromagnetic lever -type
manometers and a computing device in the f o r m of an automatic measuring
bridge. One manometer s e r v e s f o r measuring the absolute static p r e s s u r e
p. When p changes, the equilibrium of lever (1) is disturbed, and transducer
(2), through amplifier Y!, switches on servomotor CM, which, with the aid
of variable rheostat P I , changes the current intensity il in coil ( 3 ) . The
latter is fixed to the lever, and the variation in current intensity causes the
force of interaction between the magnetic fields of the coil and the permanent
magnet (4) to change in such a way that lever (1) returns to its equilibrium
position. The current, which is proportional to p , can be measured by the
position of the shaft of the servomotor CMl o r of the slider of the rheostat P I .
A second manometer differs f r o m the first only in that its balancing coil
( 3 ! ) , connected to lever (l!), is acted upon by electromagnet (4!), whose
winding is connected in s e r i e s with coil (3). Hence, the force of interaction
between coil (3') and electromagnet ( 4 ' ) is proportional to the product of the
current intensities i, and i2. Lever (1') is acted upon by a moment which is
proportional to the p r e s s u r e difference A p . When Ap changes, transducer
(2!), through amplifier (Yz), switches on servomotor CM2, which moves the
slider of the variable rheostat P2. This a l t e r s the current intensity iz i n
the circuit of coil ( 3 ' ) , and r e s t o r e s lever (1') to its equilibrium position.
Since il is proportional to p , the current intensity iz at the instant whenlever
(1) returns to its equilibrium position depends only on the p r e s s u r e r a t i o :
M2 and I + e M 2 .
32 1
The bridge is balanced by servomotor CM3 which is fed f r o m amplifier
(null indicator) Y3. When the bridge is balanced,
whence
ur,ToMz
R, =
I+X-lM*
2
The actual flow velocity is expressed through the Mach number and the
stagnation t e m p e r a t u r e :
322
of bellows, acted upon by the total p r e s s u r e , static p r e s s u r e , and vacuum
in such a way that the moments of the p r e s s u r e f o r c e s , about the fulcrums
of l e v e r s (1) and ( 2 ) are proportionalto A p and p respectively. These moments
are balanced by the moment of the reaction N of movable knife edge (5), which
connects l e v e r s (1) and ( 2 ) . The positionof knife edge (5) can be changed with
the aid of lead s c r e w (6),which is rotated by servomotor (7). The change in the
moment about the fulcrum of lever (Z), of the weight of knife edge (5) when the
latter is displaced, is compensated by moving counterweight (10).in the
opposite direction.
F o r this purpose p a r t of l e a d s c r e w (6) has a left-hand thread. When
the equilibrium of the l e v e r s is disturbed by a p r e s s u r e variation, the
servomotor is switched on by transducer (8) and moves knife edge (5) into
a new position at which the equilibrium of the l e v e r s is r e s t o r e d . The
equilibrium condition is given by
Nx = ApF,a, =
"'i F,a,,
where L is the distance between knife edges (3) and (4), while F and (1
with corresponding subscripts a r e the effective areas of the bellows and
the distances between their center lines and knife edges ( 3 ) and (4),
respectively. When the static p r e s s u r e is equal t o the total p r e s s u r e ,
i. e., when the flow velocity is zero, lever (1) e x e r t s no force on lever ( 2 ) ,
because in this c a s e the reaction N p a s s e s through the fulcrum of lever (1).
The initial position of knife edge (5) is in line with knife edge ( 3 ) , its
displacement f r o m this initial position being
323
I I I I l1l11ll1lIlIIlI I I I Il l l Il 1 I
Bibliography
324
18. D e l m o n t e , J. A V e r s a t i l e Miniature Flush-Diaphragm P r e s s u r e
Transducer.- Proc, I n s t r . SOC. Am., Vol. 7.1952.
19. M o l y n e u x , W. Measurement of the Aerodynamical Forces on
Oscillating Aerofoils. - A i r c r a f t Engg. 28, 232.1956,
20. W u e s t , W. Vielfach-Registrier-Manometer f u r langsamverander
liche Drucke i n d e r Stromungsmesstechnik. - ATM, Lief. 271.
Aug., 1958.
21. T a u d l e r , W. S. Automatic Instument f o r Reading Bourdon Gages. -
Rev. Sci. Instr., Vol. 27, No. 2. 1956.
22. C a m p b e 11, P. J. A Multiple Recording Manometer. - J. Aero. Sci.,
Vol. 10, No. 8. 1943.
23. P a r k e r , W. E. and J. C. P e m p e r t o n . Scanning Valve Speeds Up
P r e s s u r e Plots. - Aviation Age, Vol. 26, No. 4.1956.
24. S h a r p , E. M. A Digital Automatic Multipoint Pressure-Recording
System.- Proc. I n s t r . SOC. Am., Vol. 7. 1952.
25. B a i n , M. and M. S e a m o n s . Economical On-Line Data-Reduction
System f o r Wind-Tunnel F o r c e and P r e s s u r e Tests. - IRE
T r a n s a c t . on Instrumentation, Vol. 1 - 7, No. 2. 1958.
26. W o o d , M. B. and J. N. W. B a 1d w i n . Digital Recording i n Multipoint
P r e s s u r e Surveys. - Control, Vol. 3, No. 2 1 . 1960.
27. D y u k o v , A. Inertsiya i z m e r i t e l e i davleniya v sverkhzvukovykh
aerodinamicheskikh trubakh ( T r a n s m i s s i o n Lag of P r e s s u r e
Meters in Supersonic Wind Tunnels). - "Mekhanika" No, 1,IL. 1955.
28. B e n e d i c t , R . P. T h e Response of a Pressure-Sensing System. -
T r a n s . ASME, J. of B a s i c Engng., Vol. 82, No. 2. 1960.
29. U s h a k o v , K. A. Novyi metod izmereniya si1 p r i aerodinamicheskikh
ispytaniyakh (New Method f o r Measuring F o r c e s during Aero
dynamic Tests). - Trudy TsAGI, No. 5.1924.
30. U s h a k o v , K. A. Metod neposredstvennogo polucheniya bezrazmernykh
kharakteristik ventilyatorov (Method of Directly Determining
Nondimensional C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of F a n s ) . - In: Sbornik
"Promyshlennaya aerodinamika", No. 17, Oborongiz. 1960.
31. S c h a a f , S.A. and R.R. C y r . T i m e Constants for Vacuum Gage
Systems. - J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 20, No. 9. 1949.
32. M a n a 1d i , I. F. Mach Number Measurement. - ISA Journal, Vol. 2,
No. 4. 1955.
325
Chapter VI
326
I
327
I 11l1l 1lIl1I Il I Il I1 I I I I 1I
328
The aerodynamic f o r c e s and moments taken up by the model and
transmitted t o the floating f r a m e (or to elements replacing it), a r e measured
by determining the reactions n e c e s s a r y to prevent translational and r o t a r y
displacement of the model. This is done by force-measuring instruments
(balance elements o r dynamometers) in the links of the s y s t e m for resolving
the f o r c e into components, which usually consists of a multi-link articulated
mechanism. The links must be designed s o a s t o reduce to a minimum the
work done by friction during the displacments. A number of non-Soviet wind
tunnels a r e provided with hydraulic and pneumatic mechanisms for
resolving the f o r c e s into components; they consist of kinematic p a i r s with
v e r y low friction.
For better utilization of the wind tunnel and to speed up the t e s t s , i t i s
desirable that the f o r c e s be measured on the balance a s quickly as possible.
This is made possible in modern wind tunnels by using special halance
elements with automatic equilibration and recording of the indications.
In o r d e r to determine the dimensionless aerodynamic coefficients, it is
n e c e s s a r y to m e a s u r e , simultaneously with the f o r c e s acting on the model,
the p a r a m e t e r s f r o m which the velocity head can be determined (see
Chapter IV).
The simultaneous measurement of a l l f o r c e and moment components is
v e r y important f o r the accuracy of the experiment, In s e v e r a l old designs
of balances, which today have only historical interest, each component was
measured separately. The accuracy of determining dimensionless
coefficients by measuring f o r c e s a t different instants is reduced, for
instance, because of possible variations of the velocity head between
readings. The dynamical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a l l balance elements should
be uniform and close to those of the instruments used f o r measuring the
flow p a r a m e t e r s .
One of the most cumbersome operations when preparing the experiment
is the mounting of the model and i t s supports. In a modern wind tunnel
this takes f a r m o r e time than the m e a s u r e m e n t s . The tendency in
designing the supports is to provide maximum e a s e of model installation
and interchangeability of p a r t s and s u b - a s s e m b l i e s . In s e v e r a l industrial
wind tunnels, two or t h r e e s e t s of balances a r e provided to speed up
replacement of the model. While one s e t is used for the experiment,
different models a r e mounted on the other s e t s . In supersonic tunnels, each
s e t of balances i s installed in a s e p a r a t e t e s t section provided with wheels
and c a r r i e d on r a i l s . Replacing the test section r e q u i r e s l e s s work than
exchanging the model.
329
Balances of the f i r s t group have a simpler s y s t e m for resolving the
f o r c e s into components than those belonging t o the second group. In
balances of the first group the loads taken up by the elements a r e functions
of the s u m s o r differences of two o r m o r e components. Some calculations
a r e required to determine the separate components; this makes observation
of the experiment difficult. In some e a r l i e r designs of such balances,
s e v e r a l magnitudes were measured separately, while after each
measurement certain manipulations with the balance mechanism w e r e
necessary. Such were, for instance, the balances based on the t h r e e -
moment principle, used in N. E. Joukowski's laboratory at the University
of Moscow and in the Eiffel Laboratory in France. In these balances, the
moments about three points of the floating f r a m e to which the tested model
is secured a r e measured successively. Solving equatations of statics, the
drag Q , the lift Y , and the pitching moment hJza r e then determined.
In balances of the second group, each element is intended for measuring
a separate component. These balances r e q u i r e m o r e complicated
mechanisms for resolving the forces into components, hut their advantage
is the simplicity of processing the r e s u l t s of measurements and the
possibility of directly controlling the experiment. This is most important
in modern high-power wind tunnels, in which maximum reliability of
experimental results is aimed at.
To simplify the control of the experiment when using balances of the first
group, p r i m a r y automatic processing of the measurements is sometimes
employed. This processing consists of algebraically summimg up
indications of separate elements, resulting in "net" values of the components.
F o r all designs of mechanical wind-tunnel balances it i s possible to
deduce general conditions necessary for the independent measurement of
each component by one balance element. These conditions a r e that the
work done by the component of the total aerodynamic force o r moment
over the corresponding displacement of the model must be equal to the
work done by the force acting on the balance element over the measuring
distance of the latter. In the absence of friction in all kinematic p a i r s , and
of deformation of the links in the mechanism which resolves the forces
into components, we obtain
NQAq- QS, = 0, NM,AAf, - M,,g, = 0,
N y h y - Y6, 0, N M y A M , , - n/1,68=0,
N Z A Z - Z6, 0, Nhf,AMM,- M,Eo= 0.
330
If we disconnect the balance elements f r o m the mechanism resolving
the forces into components, the model will have a number of degrees of
freedom, equal to the number of the measured components. Each element
is connected to such a point of the mechanism that when the latter is fixed
the model is deprived of only one degree of freedom. Thus, i f all the scale
elements were absolutely rigid and fixed (i.e., the link taking up the force
did not move under the action of the force), the system f o r resolving
the forces into components would become a statically determined system.
I Y I! Y
331
o r the lift Y (Figure 6. 2b). In these displacements, work is done only b y t h e
f o r c e components Q and Y respectively; they a r e thus measured
independently of each other and of the pitching moment, If we m e a s u r e
the f o r c e s N , and N 2 acting i n the rods AC and B D by s e p a r a t e elements,
the indications of t h e s e elements enable us t o determine the moment M,
about any axis perpendicular to the x y plane. However, i f the hinges C
and D a r e displaced in the direction of the rods AC and B D , work is done
(by the f o r c e s Y and Q in Figure 6 . 2 a or the f o r c e Q in Figure 6.2b, and
the moment &I2 ); the balance elements connected with t h e s e r o d s would
thus m e a s u r e f o r c e s N , and N Pdepending both on the components of the
total f o r c e and on the moment, In this c a s e the values of Y (or Q ) andM,
can be determined f r o m the indications of two o r t h r e e balance elements
by solving the corresponding equations given in the figure.
By combining two parallelogram mechanisms, we obtain a mechanism
which p e r m i t s independent measurement of two orthogonal f o r c e s
(Figure 6 . 2c). This s y s t e m employs, in addition to the main floating
f r a m e to which the model is secured, a rigid auxiliary floating f r a m e to
which the rods a r e hinged.
When measuring the horizontal f o r c e s with the a i d of parallelogram
mechanisms, a s m a l l r a t i o of the horizontal f o r c e AQ t o the horizontal
displacement 8Q of the floating frame, caused by it, is important; ( 64 is
reckoned f r o m the z e r o position a t which the rods AC and BD a r e vertical
and perpendicular t o A B (Figure 6. 2a). The f o r c e A Q r e p r e s e n t s the
horizontal components of the f o r c e s N , and N 2 induced by the weight of the
floating f r a m e in rods which a r e inclined a t an angle of aQ/a. If the
weight of the floating f r a m e is G while the length of the rods AC and BD
is a , then when aQ is small,
whence
AQ
-= G
Q' a'
332
where a , and a2 a r e respectively the length of r o d s (1) and (2) (or (1') and
(21)). If rods (1) and (2) are of equal length the sensitivity is infinitely l a r g e .
.
FIGURE 6 . 3 . Measurement of drag Q a - with the aid of antiparallelograms; b -
.
with the aid o f Chebishev mechanisms
BEr BE,,
99
tv
Iff
a) 6)
FIGURE 6.4. Three-component wind-tunnel balance with lever adding system.
a -balancingelements for measuring MZ, on a floating frame; b - balancing
element for measuring M, , o n "ground".
333
For measuring the lift, a lever adding s y s t e m is mostly used, which
p e r m i t s translational displacement of the floating f r a m e parallel to the vertical
y-axis. Figure 6 . 4 shows a three-component wind-tunnel balance, in
which the l i f t is measured with the aid of l e v e r s P , and P p , at whose fulcrums
C and D the floating f r a m e is suspended by rods AC and B D . T h e
l e v e r s a r e hinged t o fixed supports a t O1 and O2 a n d connected a t their f r e e
ends by a pull rod t o the balance element B E y . The f o r c e s which a r e
proportional to the forces acting i n r o d s AC and B D a r e added in the pull r o d .
The l e v e r s P I and Pz have the s a m e a r m r a t i o i = al/bl = a 2 / b z ; hence, the
load taken up by the pull rod and the balance element B E y is equal t o iY,
i r r e s p e c t i v e of the point where the f o r c e Y is applied, i. e , , of the pitching
moment M,.
The d r a g Q is measured with the aid of a hinged parallelogram, which
consists of a floating f r a m e , rods AC and BD, and c r a n k lever P3 through
which the force acting in rod E A , which is equal to Q , is transmitted t o the
balance element BE,. Crank l e v e r s a r e used whenever the balance elements
can take up o n l y v e r t i c a l loads.
334
the f r a m e f r o m rotating about any axis parallel t o Oy. Translational
displacement of the f r a m e in the direction p a r a l l e l to the z-axis is
prevented by a hinged rod OG which connects the f r a m e t o a fixed support.
M e c h a n i s m s f o r m e a s u r i n g m o m e n t s . The t r a n s v e r s e axis
Oz of wind-tunnel balances is usually the axis about which the model rotates
when its angle of attack is altered. Hence, at a l l angles of attack, the
origin of the balance coordinate s y s t e m r e m a i n s fixed in relation to the
model. When the model is sufficiently l a r g e it can be hinged along the
z-axis to the fixed p a r t of the support. The tail section of the model has
hinged t o it a movable streamlined s t r u t by means of which the angle of
attack is a l t e r e d .
Mechanisms f o r measuring moments can be divided into two groups :
mechanisms with measuring hinges on the model and mechanisms without
measuring hinges. Measuring hinges a r e bearings on the supports with
whose a i d the angle of attack of the model can be altered, while at the s a m e
time a slight rotation of the model, a t low friction, enables a force to be
transmitted through the t a i l s t r u t to a balance element which m e a s u r e s the
pitching moment MI. An example of a three-component balance with a
measuring hinge on the model i s shown in F i g u r e 6 . 4 a . The pitching
moment Mz is measured with the aid of l e v e r P1 and balance element BEJ,
supported on the floating f r a m e A B .
0
335
I I l11l1l1l1l1l111ll1l1lIl I I l l l Il
If, in addition to the pitching moment M,, the components M, and M, have
to be determined, the measuring hinges have two O r t h r e e steps. The
model, which is fixed to the supports at three points, can in this case be
considered a s a three-dimensional statically determined beam supported
a t three points (Figure 6 . 6 ) . The components of the total aerodynamic
moment cause reactions at the hinge supports 0, and 02, which can be
geometrically added to the reactions at these supports, caused by the
components of the total force.
A six-component balance / 2 / with measuring hinges on the model is
shown in Figure 6 . 7. The model is supported at points 0, and 02,w h i c h a r e
located at a distance a f r o m each other ( t r a n s v e r s ebase) in the wings of the
model, b y m e a n s o f wires o r tapes connected to two separate floating f r a m e s
F , and F 2 . The tail hinge OB, located at a distance 1 (longitudinal base) f r o m
336
the line 0,O p (the z -axis), is connected by a w i r e o r tape to the lever P I
whose rotation in relation to a lever P2 indicates the angle of attack of
the model. Levers P , and P2 a r e connected by means of a worm gear.
Lever P1 transmits the load due to the pitching moment M,, to the balance
element B E S ; .
Allvertical components acting a t O,, Cz and O3 a r e transmitted to balance
elements B E y , , B E y , and B E y , respectively through l e v e r s having equal
transmission ratios i , . The horizontal components acting at 0 , and O p ,
which a r e parallel to the x-axis, a r e transmitted to balance elements RE,,
and BEQ,through crank levers whose transmission ratio is i p , while the s i d e
f o r c e 2 is transmitted to balance element BE, through a crank lever having
a transmission ratio iz . If we denote the loads taken up by the balance
elements by N with the corresponding subscript, the different components
of forces and moments a r e :
I .
‘Y
FIGURE 6.8.
’K ,.‘6
“Pyramidal” support for floating frame.
337
The design of this balance does not p e r m i t independent m e a s u r e m e n t s of
t h e components. The above formulas show that only Z and M , a r e
determined a s the indications of a single balance element. The other
f o r c e components a r e determined as s u m s , and the other moment
components, as differences of the indications of balance elements.
Measuring hinges a r e comparatively easily installed on models of wings
tested in subsonic wind tunnels. When models a r e tested at high flow
velocities, it is extremely difficult t o install the measuring hinges, because
of the s m a l l dimensions of the model and the l a r g e loads .
Transonic and
supersonic wind tunnels often have, therefore, balances in which the
instantaneous axes of rotation of the model coincide with the coordinate
axes of the balances without measuring hinges being provided on the model.
Differing in design f r o m balances with measuring hinges, where
displacements of the balance elements measuring the moments a r e caused
by displacements of the model in relation to its supports, in balances with
out measuring hinges, displacements of the balance elements a r e caused
by displacements of the model together with i t s supports. An example
of such a design, the so-called "pyramidal" support ( F i g u r e 6 - 8 1 , is
used i n s e v e r a l types of wind-tunnel balances in the U. S. A . and Britain
l 3 f , 141.
338
I
BE, 6E,
a)
339
The s y s t e m shown i n Figure 6.10a consists of a beam P3 supported on a
fixed hinge, and two adding l e v e r s PI and P 2 , whose outer ends a r e suspended
by rods f r o m beam P a , their inner ends being connected by a rod to balance
element B E y Beam P 3 is connected to scale element BEnl. The lengths of
these m e m b e r s a r e shown in the figure.
Let the link A B , connected by vertical rods to l e v e r s P , and P o , be acted
upon by a vertical f o r c e Y passing through 0 and a couple M . The loads
acting on the l e v e r s a r e then respectively
L = -1
_
L1 1,
is satisfied.
In this case, when link A B rotates about 0, the inner ends of levers P ,
and P P I which a r e connected to balance element B E y , r e m a i n stationary and
340
I
Figure 6 . 1 2 shows a six-component wind-tunnel balance consisting
of three-dimensional l e v e r s with two-step hinges 1 6 1 . The three-
dimensional element (Figure 6.12a), like the two-dimensional mechanisms
described above, makes possible measurements of the vertical f o r c e
passing through a given point and the moment about this point. It consists
of two plane l e v e r s : the equal-arm front lever P I and the one-arm
back l e v e r P2, both rigidly interconnected. The axis of rotation of the
three-dimensional lever p a s s e s through the fixed support O2 and the hinge
O1 which is connected by rod T I to balance element BEY. Rod 1'7 l i e s i n the
vertical plane of r o d s AC and B D through which the f o r c e Y and the couple M
a r e transmitted t o l e v e r P I .
341
between two solid s u r f a c e s is thus replaced by friction between a
liquid and a solid s u r f a c e . Surfaces of suitable shape can provide
342
Figure 6.13 shows kinematic p a i r s providing two degrees of freedom
(translation along, and rotation about a n axis perpendicular t o the plane of
the paper), and t h r e e degrees of freedom (rotation about t h r e e coordinate
axes passing through 0 ) . In the pair shown in F i g u r e 6.13a only
translational displacement is normally used f o r measuring the f o r c e
component parallel to the cylinder axis.
a) b)
FIGURE 6.13. "Hydrostatic" pairs. a - wi t h two degrees of freedom ;
b - with three degrees of freedom.
343
installed on the "ground", the external forces acting on floating f r a m e F I
consist, in addition to the aerodynamic forces, also of the force MJI in
the horizontal rod EF connecting the "moment" f r a m e F z to balance
element BE,,, .
Y
FIGURE 6.14. Removing t h e reaction moment from t h e balance e l e m e n t B E M z .
344
is connected t o the fIoating f r a m e at a distance h f r o m the x-axis. Hence,
in addition to the moment M, the f r a m e is also acted upon by a counter
clockwise moment due to the couple Qh. The lower hinge of the rod
connecting lever P3 to balance element B E M , is loaded by the force
L
NH=(M, - Q h -1T- / - i.
NQ=(l -G)Q .
If the direction of rod T coincides with the x-axis, a s shown in
Figure 6 . 1 1 by the broken line, then h = 0, m/n = 0 , and no compensating
lever is necessary.
345
In the s y s t e m shown in Figure 6.11, the influence of the reaction
moment Qh is eliminated by adding a load t o balance element BEnr,. An
alternative method is t o apply t o the floating f r a m e a moment opposed to
the reaction moment (Figure 6.15). The floating f r a m e is suspended
at A and 6 f r o m a l e v e r s y s t e m (not shown) which m e a s u r e s the v e r t i c a l
load and the moment while at A'and B'it is connected by r o d s to l e v e r s P2
and p3 which have the s a m e a r m r a t i o alb. L e v e r P3 takes up p a r t
of the load due to the f o r c e Q , which is transmitted by means of
l e v e r P A , having a t r a n s m i s s i o n r a t i o m/n, and equal-arm c r a n k l e v e r Ps .
This load, equal t o Qmln, causes equal and opposite forces in rods A'C'
+
and B'D'which cause a moment Qm(a h ) L / b n t o act on the floating f r a m e .
This moment is opposed t o the reaction moment Qh. Hence, if the
t r a n s m i s s i o n r a t i o s of l e v e r s Pz,Ps, and Pk a r e such that
1680
346
---- --- -. - - C.. I.I. 1-1 ...I m. ,.IC, en, I .,I 1. II 111
I
a r e provided by r a d i a l and t r a n s v e r s e clearances e , and e2 of 0.2 to 0.3".
To prevent l a t e r a l friction between knife edge and pad, the l a t e r a l s u r f a c e s of
the l a t t e r have conical protrusions whose peaks p r e s s against the knife
edge, while the end s u r f a c e s of the latter a r e milled a t right angles t o the
edge (Figure 6.16a). Alternatively the l a t e r a l s u r f a c e s of the pad a r e flat
while those of the knife edge a r e formed by two planes each, whose
intersections a r e coplanar with the edge and iticlined to it at angles of
6 0 t o 75" (Figure 6.16b).
3
4 I
Lever support
I
/
b)
FIGURE 6 . 1 6 . Knife edges. a - for m a i n support of lever; b - for con
necting lever and rod.
347
a r o l l e r (6) on which pad (3) can turn. Rotation of the pad about an axis,
perpendicular t o the axis of knife edge (1) and r o l l e r (6), is made possible
by the cylindrical tail of p a r t (4) being inserted into a hole in support (7).
Axial displacement of the knife edge beyond the permitted clearance e3 is
prevented by plate (8), fixed by s c r e w s t o pad (3).
348
T o prevent the knife edges f r o m leaving m a r k s on the pad surfaces, the
hardness of the f o r m e r is 2 to 4 degrees l e s s than that of the pads. The
case-hardened layer has a thickness of 0.8 to 1 m m . Pads and knife edges
can a l s o be made f r o m noncarburized s t e e l and have equal hardness. The
load acting on hardened knife edges is usually 200 to 400 kgs p e r c m of
edge length.
The drawback of knife edges is that they can take up only positive loads
which f o r c e the edge onto the pad. When negative loads have also t o be
"
measured, the balances a r e preloaded by counterweights. These counter
weights a r e calculated in such a way that a t the maximum possible negative
aerodynamic f o r c e s the loads on all hinges will s t i l l be positive.
T r a n s v e r s e loads on the knife edges a r e permitted only within s m a l l l i m i t s
(of the o r d e r of a few 70 of the normal load).
E 1a s t i c h i n g e s . Elastic hinges a r e plates which have low bending
rigidity in one plane but a considerable rigidity in a plane perpendicular
to the f i r s t .
The advantages of elastic hinges over knife edges a r e : 1) simplicity
of manufacture, 2) high reliability in operation and e a s e of obtaining
hinges with two degrees of freedom, required f o r three-dimensional
measurement s y s t e m s , 3 ) complete absence of friction, 4 ) capability
of taking up loads of different s i g n s .
349
Hinges with fixed centers consist of two o r m o r e plates intersecting
a t right angles (Figure 6.18b and c ) , The hinge shown in Figure 6 . 1 8 ~
is made by milling side openings into a hollow cylinder. Under the action
of the moment applied t o it, the frontal p a r t of the cylinder t u r n s , in
relation to the r e a r part, by a s m a l l angle about the axis of the cylinder,
Hinges with fixed centers a r e used a s principal supports of l e v e r s and can
take up considerable t r a n s v e r s e loads.
of rotation in the two planes do not coincide, but this is usually not important.
Rods with such two-step hinges a t both ends a r e suitable f o r interconnecting
350
35 1
The principle of measuring forces, used when the model is flexibly
supported, is illustrated in Figure 6 . 2 3 . The vertical force Y is directly
Balance lever
' Chamber
352
support, which moves i n the flow direction when the angle of attack of
the model is altered, has a l a r g e clearance in relation to the s t r u t or is
moved with the aid of a s e r v o mechanism along the tunnel wall in such
a way that the clearance between the support and the shroud r e m a i n s
constant .
The degree of tunnel blockage, the additional drag, ant the effec of
the s t r u t s on the flow around the model can be reduced by the u s e of a r r o w -
type s t r u t s (Figure 6 . 25) or arrow-type tape supports.
It is a l s o possible to fix models of rockets or airplanes with s h o r t wings
on single rigid arrow-type s t r u t s . The angle of attack of the model is in
this c a s e altered with the a i d of a rod inside the streamlined s t r u t
(Figure 6. 2 6 ) .
353
A s e r i o u s drawback of wind-tunnel balances with s t r u t supports is
the reduced accuracy of measuring side f o r c e s and heeling moments.
-~
Floating frame o f tpalance
3 54
the flow in the test-section where the model is installed. This installation
is particularly suitable f o r models of modern rockets and airplanes having
blunt tails. In mechanical wind-tunnel balances, which a r e placed outside
the t e s t section, suppqrts and s t r u t s must
be shrouded.
L-L
8 8 T o balance
A good s y s t e m of supports in a s u p e r
sonic wind tunnel is shown in F i g u r e 6.28.
Model (1) is fixed at its tail t o cylindrical
cantilever support (2), which is installed i n
the central p a r t of s t r u t (3). The l a t t e r is
shaped like an a r c of a c i r c l e whose center
is at the origin of coordinates of the
balance . The tail support and the s t r u t
a r e covered by shroud (4), which turns
together with the s t r u t when the angle of
attack of the model is altered. A s e r v o
device, which synchronizes the rotation
of s t r u t and shroud, p e r m i t s a constant
s m a l l clearance t o be maintained between
the s t r u t , which is connected t o the
FIGURE 6 . 2 8 . Semicircular s t r u t . 1 balance , and the shroud, which is
model; 2 - cantilever support ; 3 - connected t o the tunnel walls. This design
semicircular strut; 4 -shroud.
p e r m i t s the c r o s s section of the shroud t o
be reduced to a minimum.
The minimum sections of s t r u t and tail
support a r e determined f r o m t h e i r deformations. Under no circumstances
must the deflected support touch the shroud since otherwise part of t h e
aerodynamic f o r c e s would be taken up by the shroud and the balance would
give false indications. In o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e the range of angles of attack,
supports curved in the x y-plane a r e sometimes used. Curved supports
s e r v e a l s o i n m o d e l t e s t s a t different slip angles. In this c a s e the plane
of bending is perpendicular to the plane in which the angle of attack
changes.
Figure 6 . 2 9 r e p r e s e n t s a simplified diagram of the balance f o r the
1 8 " X 2 0 " c r o s s -section supersonic wind tunnel of the Jet-Propulsion
Laboratory of the California Institute of Technology. The floating "moment"
f r a m e of the balance , to which an arc-shaped s t r u t is fixed, r e s t s on a
pyramidal r o d s y s t e m . The instantaneous axis of rotation of the floating
f r a m e coincides with the axis of the s t r u t , about which the l a t t e r can t u r n
on the floating f r a m e , and with the z -axis of the balance f 7 f .
F o r load t e s t s of airfoils in supersonic wind tunnels the model is
inserted with a s m a l l clearance through the tunnel walls which can be
rotated in o r d e r t o maintain the clearance constant a t different angles of
attack. When optical observations of the flow around the model a r e under
taken simultaneously with the f o r c e measurements, the rotating walls a r e
made f r o m ,optical g l a s s (Figure 6.30). Such designs a r e used a l s o f o r
measuring f o r c e s acting on half-models, i. e., three-dimensional models
of wings o r finned bodies which a r e installed on the tunnel wall in such
a way that the plane of s y m m e t r y of the model coincides with the plane
of the wall (Figure 6 . 31).
355
FIGURE 6.29. Six-component wind-runnel balance
tunnel.
To mechanism for
adjustment of angle
of atta
Ot
Air
with model
356
I
Balance
W i n d - t u n n e l b a l a n c e s f o r l o w - s p e e d t u n n e l s . Figure 6 . 3 3
is a simplified diagram of a six-component wind-tunnel balance with a
357
flexible tape suspension. Balances of this type are intended f o r tunnels
with open test sections, as a r e installed i n the subsonic tunnel of the
Moscow State University. The balance is mounted on a platform
supported by columns on a c a r r i a g e located outside the flow. The
c a r r i a g e with the balance and the suspended model (Figure 6.33) is rolled
onto a rotating table in the test-section floor; by turning this table about
a v e r t i c a l axis, the angle of yaw B of the model can be altered.
358
vertical forces acting on beam Ti, is equal to the moment M, measured
by balance element BEAIywith the aid of lever Ps. The l i f t is taken up
by tapes L 1 ,L p ,L 3 and L , ; the directions of tapes L , . L 2 and L31ie in the
s a m e vertical plane. Beam TP takes up that p a r t of the l i f t which acts
a t A . Since tapes L I and L p a r e inclined to the vertical, beam T P takes up
also the total side force Z .
In o r d e r to transmit these forces to the balance elements B E , and B E , ,
beam T2 is suspended f r o m rocking lever B I . This permits translational
motion of beam T2 in the y z plane. Rocking l e v e r BI takes up all moments
acting in the vertical plane on beam T2 and prevents its rotation. Tape L3
is fixed to beam T 3 which is suspended f r o m rocking lever B2 similarly a s
beam T2is suspended f r o m rocking lever B , .
By rearranging the points at which the tapes a r e fixed to beams TI and
T ~ we, can
vary the length 1 without affecting the equilibrium conditions of
the system. Beams T2 and T3 a r e connected by rods to l e v e r s P6, Ps and P ,
intended f o r measuring the l i f t Y and the heeling moment M,. The vertical
force acting on tape L , is proportional to the pitching moment M,. At C'
this tape i s fixed to a rotating lever of the mechanism f o r altering the angle
of attack (columnK). The length L can be varied by fixing hinge C' to
different holes in the lever. The mechanism for altering the angle of attack
is suspended f r o m lever P o , one endof which is connected to balance element
BEnr,. The other end is connected to lever PIo of the s y s t e m for measuring
the lift Y .
The load transmitted to lever P9 is equal to the vertical force in tape
CC'. since five horizontal rods, connecting column K to fixed points, prevent
its movement except f o r vertical translation. Heeling moments a r e
measured with the aid of lever P , which is connected by a rod to balance
element BEM,. The side force 2 is taken up by beam TPand transmitted to
balance element BE, with the aid of crank lever P I , and intermediate
lever P I * .
The loads on the balance elements a r e
N , = (Q +G~+ G;) i,,
N v = ( v t GI + 0i-t G3)iy,
N, =Zi,.
359
Here Q,, Ys, Z,, M,,, M,,, Mzs a r e the additional components of the
aerodynamic forces due to the supports, which a r e determined by operating
the tunnel without the model, while n with the corresponding subscript is
the indication of the balance element. The additional subscript 0
corresponds to the z e r o readings of the balance elements before the
experiment, when no aerodynamic forces act on the model.
The counterweights a r e selected not only for tightening the suspension
s y s t e m but also for pre-tensioning certain balance elements to enable
them to m e a s u r e negative loads. F o r this the following inequalities must
hold
GI+G;+G~>/--~,,I.
(GI - G ; ) f > i - M, max 1,
(G?- G;)I > I - M,max I,
~~~COS~>I-~~,,,I.
An example of a balance with rigid supports is the six-component wind-
tunnel balance of the University of Washington (Figure 6.34). T h i s balance,
360
361
The main floating f r a m e (2) r e s t s on t h r e e supports (dynamometers) (1).
Three hydraulic dynamometers a r e inserted between the supports and
the f r a m e in order to m e a s u r e the l i f t . Three flat pads ( 3 ) , resting on the
upper surface of the main frame, c a r r y an intermediate floating f r a m e (4).
The surfaces of the pads and the support plates of f r a m e (4) a r e polished.
During measurements oil (or a i r ) is constantly circulated between the pads
and the intermediate f r a m e , which is supported on a layer of liquid and can
slide over pads (3) with negligible friction. The intermediate f r a m e is
restrained in the longitudal direction by rod (12) which connects the f r a m e
to dynamometer (11) which is fixed to the main f r a m e and takes up the drag
Q of the model. F r a m e (4) is restrained in the t r a n s v e r s e direction by two
horizontal rods connecting it to f r a m e (2) via two dynamometers ( 1 0 ) . The
s u m of the loads on these dynamometers is equal to the side force 2 .
The upper part of the intermediate f r a m e c a r r i e s three pads (5) with
spherical surfaces whose center lies on the wind-tunnel axis and is the
origin of the balance coordinate system. The spherical pads c a r r y on oil
films the moment f r a m e (6), which takes up a l l moments and forces acting
on the model. The f o r c e s a r e transmitted through the intermediate f r a m e
to dynamometers ( l ) , (lo), and (11).
The moments tend to rotate f r a m e (6) which can slide with negligible
friction on pads (5). Rotation of the f r a m e in the vertical plane passing
through the tunnel axis is prevented by rod (8) which connects the moment
f r a m e to f r a m e (4) via the dynamometer ( 7 ) which s e r v e s to m e a s u r e
the pitching moment M,. Rotation of the f r a m e in a t r a n s v e r s e vertical
plane is prevented by two horizontal rods which connect f r a m e s (4) and (6)
via two dynamometers (9). The s u m of the forces acting on these
dynamometers is proportional to the heeling moment M,, while their
difference is proportional to the yawing moment M,. Adding and subtracting
is done outside of the balance with the aid of hydraulic measuring
instruments (Figure 6.42).
In wind-tunnel balances of this type the total weight of the floating f r a m e
can reach tens of tons, but the friction in the system is s o small that with
this high weight the system for drag measurement is sensitive to f o r c e s
of a few hundreds of g r a m s .
The model is usually installed in the normal position and positive lift
unloads the dynamometers.
362
I
the forces acting on the model may reach 10 t o 2 0 tons, the transmission
r a t i o s of the l e v e r s a r e very high (100 t o 200).
Rapidity of response i s very important in high-power wind tunnels.
Rapid-action balance elements permit the t e s t program of wind tunnels t o
be increased and the obtaining of experimental data t o be speeded up.
The loads taken up by the balance elements can be equilibrated by
counterweights, p r e s s u r e of a liquid o r a i r , elastic f o r c e s , e l e c t r o
magnetic o r electrostatic f o r c e s . Irrespective of the nature of the
equilibrating force, the balance -element indications can be either direct
o r by compensation, returning a movable link t o i t s null position.
Elements of the compensating type a r e most widely used in wind-tunnel
balances because they permit higher measurement accuracy. In addition,
outside energy sources a r e used in compensating instruments, which can be
easily used f o r operating remote-recording devices.
The required accuracy of the balance elements is determined by the
range of measured values. This range can be very wide, since the s a m e
balance may be used f o r testing well-streamlined bodies of revolution,
having s m a l l d r a g and lift, and transport c r a f t having l a r g e drag and lift
a t l a r g e angles of attack. At the s a m e time wind-tunnel balances must
enable us to determine relatively small advantages of one model over
another.
Experience shows that these requirements a r e best satisfied by balances
of the mechanical type, which under conditions of s t a t i c calibration have
limiting e r r o r s of between 1/400 and 1/2000 of the maximum load. Highest
accuracy is only required when measuring drag and lift. Since the system
f o r resolving forces i n t o components introduces by itself an e r r o r into the
measurement, mechanical wind-tunnel balances have balance elements with
limiting e r r o r s f r o m 1 / 5 0 0 t o 1/5000 of the maximum load.
363
where t is the pitch of the lead screw, G is the weight of the counterweight,
and a is the length of the left-hand lever a r m . The value of n is shown by
decimal counter (9), in which the digit on the extreme right usually
corresponds to one tenth of a revolution of the lead screw.
The measurement accuracy is increased by using a s c r e w with m i c r o -
m e t r i c thread and by taking up clearances with the aid of springs.
Oscillations of the lever a r e reduced by hydraulic shock absorber (8). The
electric supply to the motor on the lever is through flexible wires coiled
like s p i r a l s . Due to the small displacements of the points where the wires
a r e fixed to the panel, installed near the fulcrum of the lever, the influence
364
of the rigidity of the wires on the sensitivity of the lever is usually
negligible.
I I 11
i
365
366
a r e closed and the servomotor rotates slowly. At a large imbalance,
the flexible plate containing contact (1) is bent and contacts (3) and (4)
a r e closed. The winding of the brake stator is short-circuited, and the
servomotor begins to rotate rapidly,
-
FIGURE 6.39. Automatic-loading mechanism. 1 lever; 2 - counter
weight; 3, 4 - l i m i t switches; 5 - servomotor for loading; 6 -
moving platform; 7 - weights; 8 - change-over switch: 9- link for
load suspension,
361
The accuracy of measuring forces on wind-tunnel balances with lever
elements depends greatly on the degree of damping of the lever oscillations
caused by nonsteady loads on the model. Excessive damping causes delayed
opening of the "fine" contacts, especially if the contact plate i s not very rigid.
This causes hunting of the counterweight and leads to self-induced
oscillations. When damping is very weak a f t e r the "fine" contacts open,
the kinetic energy of the lever cannot be absorbed, and self-induced
oscillations can occur at very s m a l l inertial overtravel of the counter
weight. Hence, the damping should be chosen in such a way that after
contact (1) and one of contacts (2) a r e opened, the kinetic energy of the
lever is absorbed before it is able to close the opposite contact,
The amplitudes and frequencies of the force pulsations, caused by
oscillations of the tested model and by flow fluctuations, vary with the flow
velocity, the angle of attack of the model, the rigidity of the suspension
device and lever system, etc. Hence the capacity of hydraulic shock
absorbers of automatic balance elements is sometimes varied with the
aid of electric motors during the experiment, o r an electromagnetic damper
is used which is switched in only when the "fine" contacts a r e open; this
reduces the delay in contact breaking.
In o r d e r to increase the load capacity of the balance elements, the l a t t e r
a r e equipped with auxiliary mechanisms for automatic addition of weights.
A single weight balances a load corresponding to the full travel of the
counterweight between the limit switches. A simplified diagram of the
mechanism f o r weight addition is shown in Figure 6.39. Whet? the load P
on lever (1) exceeds apredetermined value, counterweight (2) moves to
the right and closes limit switch (3). Servomotor (5) is switched on and
lowers platform (6) with weight ( 7 ) to a predetermined height, after which
the current to the servomotor is cut off by change-over switch (8). which
interrupts the circuit of limit switch (3). When the platform is lowered
one of weights ( 7 ) becomes suspended on link (9). When the load is
reduced below a predetermined value counterweight (2) closes limit
switch (4); this causes the platform to r i s e and take off a weight f r o m
link (9).
368
in the bell and i n the manometer a r e respectively
v;
..
369
Figure 6.41 shows a s y s t e m of measuringforces withthe aid of a hydraulic
dynamometer with a manometric spring device I l l / . In contrast to other
force-measuring devices, hydraulic dynamometers permit loads of s e v e r a l
tons to be measured without intermediate lever systems of balance elements.
Such hydraulic dynamometers a r e used in U. S. balances, in which the f o r c e s
a r e resolved into components by means of hydrostatic p a i r s , In balances
of this type the vertical load, which includes the total weight of the floating
f r a m e , is usually taken up by t h r e e dynamometers which c a r r y the f r a m e .
The dynamometer consists of piston (11, inserted with a s m a l l clearance
in cylinder (2). The flat ends of the piston c a r r y diaphragms (3), which
s e a l the oil spaces in the upper and lower plates (4) and (5). The full t r a v e l
of the piston is about 0.05 mm. The lower oil space is connected by a metal
tube to a m e a s u r i n g device, while the upper oil space is under a constant
pressure po.
This design p e r m i t s measurement not only of positive but also of negative
loads acting on the piston through rods (6). The p r e s s u r e in the oil space
connected with the measuring s y s t e m depends only on this load and on the
p r e s s u r e p o . The p r e s s u r e in the wind tunnel a c t s on both s i d e s of the piston
and is therefore not transmitted to the measuring device. The dynamometer
is equipped with volumetric temperature compensation whose operating
principle is the s a m e a s in the system shown in Figure 6.44. When the p r e s s u r e
changes in the lower oil space, the Bourdon tube (14) of the measuring
device tends to bend and thus a l t e r the gap between baffle plate (7) and
nozzle ( 8 ) , through which a i r is discharged continuously f r o m a throttle
opening in chamber (9). The change in the gap also causes the p r e s s u r e
to vary in bellows ( l o ) , which is connected with the chamber. When this
happens, the upper surface of the bellows moves, thus altering the tension
of spring (11) in such a way that the position of the Bourdon tube remains
fixed at s m a l l displacements of the baffle plate. The tension of spring (11)
and thus, of rod (12) and pointer (13) connected to it, is proportionalto
the oil p r e s s u r e and therefore to the force P.
The spring is made of Elinvar which contains 3570 nickel and 8 7 0
chromium. The material has a s t r e s s - s t r a i n relationship which is linear
with an accuracy of 0.0570, and its properties vary very little with
t e m p e r a t u r e . In certain U . S . wind tunnels, where the balances a r e
equipped with such m e a s u r i n g devices, the angular motion of the
pointer is converted into electrical pulses which a r e fed t o a s y s t e m for
processing the measurement data.
Preliminary simplified processing of the data, in o r d e r to obtain net
values of the f o r c e and moment components, is c a r r i e d out according
to the s y s t e m shown i n Figure 6.42, which makes possible wind-tunnel
balances without l e v e r systems for resolving the forces into
components.
Figure 6.43 shows a hydraulic s y s t e m which is a combination of an
automatic lever-balance element with a certain type of hydraulic lever. Such a
s y s t e m is advantageous when, due to space limitations or f o r other reasons,
the balance elements have to be at a certain distance f r o m the wind tunnel.
The p r i m a r y instrument consists of bellows ( l ) , connected with bellows (2)
by a b r a s s tube of 2 to 4 m m diameter. Bellows and tube a r e filled with oil
or distilled water, The p r e s s u r e , caused by the load P I on bellows ( l ) ,
370
I
FIGURE 6 . 4 2 . Adding and subtractmg forces with the aid of a hydraulic force-
measuring device.
37 1
11ll111ll1l1IllIl1 Il1 I
n 0
A
‘I
FIGURE 6 4 4 . Volumetric temperature compensation for a hydraulic s)steni
1 - bellows to rake u p load; 2 -bellows connected to balance element: 3
compensaring bellows, 4 - l e a d screw and reduction gear, 5 - servoniotor.
6 - contact connected to movable parr of bellows: I - rrationary contacr
372
I
Lighr
4 1"
Focusing / ,/' \
Transparenr
screen
fl-
373
T h e r e is no necessity f o r temperature compensation in through-flow
hydraulic dynamometers. Such a s y s t e m is shown in Figure 6.45. Oil is forced
by pump (6)into a cylindrical vessel ( l ) , open at the top, after passing through
p r e s s u r e regulator (2)and throttle (3). Onthe v e s s e l t h e r e is a d i s c (4), which
takes up t h e f o r c e P whigh h a s t o be determined. Under the action of t h e oil
p r e s s u r e , a n annular slot is formed between vessel (1)and d i s c (4), through
which the oil is continuously discharged into a d r a i n . The d i s c thus floats on an
oilfilm. Afterbeing cleaned in filter (5), the oil is returned to pump (6).
When the disc floats up the f o r c e P is fully equilibrated by the f o r c e of the
oil p r e s s u r e on the disc. The oil p r e s s u r e in vessel ( l ) , which is
proportional t o the f o r c e P , can be m e a s u r e d by any type of manometer.
374
on these pistons; the indication of balance elements B E Y , which is connected
to lever (8), is thus proportional to the vertical f o r c e Y. The pistons of
manometers (5) and ( 6 ) a r e connected to equal-arm l e v e r (9), which s e r v e s
for measuring, by means of balance element BEhf, the moment about point 0
which is centrally located between dynamometers (1) and (2). Dynamometer
(11) takes up the horizontal component of the force, which is measured with
the aid of balance element BE,, connected by l e v e r (10) to the piston of
manometer (7), on which the p r e s s u r e in dynamometer (11) acts.
3 75
deformation into a change of inductance, capacitance, or resistance, which
is then measured by an appropriate electrical instrument.
Wide use is made of methods f o r measuring deformations of elastic
elements with the aid of glued resistance s t r a i n gages, which a r e
described in detail in the next section. A dynamometer with glued
wire transducers is shown in Figure 6. 64. Due to their s m a l l dimensions
in comparison with other types of balance elements, such dynamometers
a r e used in electric strain-gage balances located inside the model.
376
The connections of the strain-gage t r a n s d u c e r s , which a r e glued t o elastic
elements B and C and arranged in bridge s y s t e m s a s shown a t the bottom of the
drawing, permit Q, and M a , t o be measured independently. The stationary
p a r t s of the elastic parallelograms a r e fixed t o the shroud. In o r d e r t o
a l t e r the angle of attack of the model, the shroud is turned about the
origin of coordinates 0 of the balance together with the s t r u t , the elastic
elements, and the model.
sealed
fi U
377
The instrumentation used f o r this is described in the next section.
F = 2xrJnH,
1680
378
..... . . ..--...,, ,,, ....-... ..-..... .. .
I"
Ourput
voltage
b)
of 200 cycles /14/. The maximum current in the coil of such a balance
element is between 3 0 and 50ma a t a maximum load of 3 to 5 kg. Using
an appropriate circuit, an accuracy and linearity of the o r d e r of 0.1% can
be obtained. Balance elements of this type can be used in special wind-
tunnel balances serving, for instance, for measuring loads acting on
vibrating wings.
379
I 1111111lI1ll l Il Il
When the balance is installed inside the model, the forces acting on the
support a r e not measured and the support only causes certain perturbations
in the flow at the tail of the model. When the balance is installed in the
support, the l a t t e r is protected f r o m the flow by a cylindrical o r conical
shroud. The "ground" p r e s s u r e acting on the r e a r of the model is
measured with the aid of orifices through which the region behind the model
is connected to a manometer.
The possibility of installing the wind-tunnel balance inside the model i s
s o attractive, that in recent years balances of this type, called strain-gage
balances, have found very wide use in spite of the fact that their accuracy
and the reproducibility of their indications a r e still l e s s than those of
ordinary mechanical balances. A measuring e r r o r of the s e p a r a t e
components, equal to *l%(under conditions of static calibration), is
considered satisfactory, while ordinary balances have under the s a m e
conditions e r r o r s of about 0.1%. The latter a r e very reliable instruments
which maintain constant their characteristics f o r months. Internal
balances have to be calibrated and checked very often, sometimes before
and after each experiment, Particular c a r e should be taken to eliminate
o r take into account temperature e r r o r s .
A strain-gage balance forms an elastic system the deformations of
whose elements a r e proportional to the components o r the algebraic sums
of the components of the total aerodynamic force and moment acting on the
model. These deformations a r e measured a s electrical magnitudes with
the aid of electrical converters, Wind-tunnel balances employ almost
exclusively strain-gage resistance transducers which a r e based on the
conversion of the deformation of an elastic element into a change of the
electrical resistance, which can be measured by a instrument connected
to a corresponding measuring circuit.
380
Strain-gage r e s i s t a n c e t r a n s d u c e r s
-_-_--
Base length I- 4
FIGURE 6.53. Wirestrain-gage-transducer
38 1
F o r a monoaxial state of s t r e s s , the relationship between the s t r a i n E
and the s t r e s s CJ i s , within the proportionality limits of the material,
given b y e = o / E , where E is the modulus of elasticity of the material.
The s t r e s s at any point of an elastic element depends on the forces
and moments acting on this element. Hence, the relative change in the
resistance of the transducer, mounted on the elastic element, is
proportional to the components of the resultant force and moment,
causing the deformation of the element. The coefficient of proportionality
depends on the s t r a i n sensitivity of the transduer wire, on the elastic
characteristics of the material, and on the shape and s i z e of the elastic
element.
In the general c s s e , the state of s t r e s s on the surface of an elastic
element, to which a s t r a i n gage is glued, can vary f r o m point to point.
Hence, the change in the resistance of the transducer is proportional
to a certain mean s t r e s s over the base of the transducer. In order that
the transducer m e a s u r e the s t r e s s at a point (this is particularly important
due to the small dimensions of the elastic elements used in multi
component balances located inside models), its dimensions have to be
small. Wind-tunnel balances employ transducers having bases of 5
to 2 0 mm and resistances of 100 to 200 ohm. It is possible to obtain
transducers having even smaller bases (down to 2 m m ) , but a small base
causes the resistance of the strain-gage transducer to decrease; this
complicates the m e a s u r e m e n t s .
The m o s t commonly used material f o r wire transducers is constantan,
whose coefficient of strain sensitivity is s = 1 . 9 to 2.1. For approximative
calculations we a s s u m e s = 2.
B r i d g e m e a s u r i n g c i r c u i t s . The resistance of a strain-gage
transducer mounted on an elastic element changes very little when the
latter is deformed. Thus, at 0.1% s t r a i n
(which, for steel, corresponds to a s t r e s s
of about 2000kg/cm2), and at an [initial]
transducer resistance of 1 0 0 ohm, the change
in the resistance is
382
t r a n s d u c e r s a r e inserted into a l l four a r m s of the bridge; this i n c r e a s e s
the sensitivity and exploits the bridge c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o compensate the
different e r r o r s .
If the r a t i o s of the r e s i s t a n c e s of adjacentbridge a r m s a r e equal, i. e.,
383
T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e i m b a l a n c e v o l t a g e of
t h e b r i d g e a n d t h e s t r a i n i n t h e t r a n s d u c e r . Measuring
circuits of multi-component wind-tunnel balances employ bridges
consisting of 2, 4, 8, and sometimes 1 2 t r a n s d u c e r s . In addition t o the
increased sensitivity, bridges with l a r g e numbers of transducers permit
independent measurement of the s e p a r a t e components of the f o r c e s , It is
particularly important that the output signal of a bridge circuit have a linear
relationship to the measured magnitude. If the measuring diagonal of the
bridge constitutes a high input impedance f o r a tube amplifier, then, in
the c a s e of an equal-arm bridge, changes in the r e s i s t a n c e of the a r m s ,
amounting t o A R I , ..., ARq , cause an imbalance voltage at the extremities
of the measuring diagonal, which, f o r s m a l l values of AR, can be assumed
to be
AU us
-
=z
41
i l - c2 +c - EJ],
where c = Rjh/(Rsh+ R ) determines the attenuation of the signal of the lower
half-bridge, This method of attenuating the signal of one half-bridge in
strain-gage balances i s used for eliminating the mutual influences of the
components.
384
I
of the b a s e s of the transducers, and of the glue used t o fix the transducers
t o the elastic elements.
385
AR! I ae
E ---=d.
' - A s s
Et = 0.5 .
Since the maximum strain usually does not exceed 0 . 5 X 1 0 - 3 to l . 0 X 1 0 - 3 ,
the e r r o r per 1°C may attain 0.5 to 1% of the maximum value. This l a r g e
temperature e r r o r makes its compensation very important.
When transducers a r e inserted into all a r m s of the bridge, the i m
balance voltage due to the change in temperature of the transducers is
AO=R,-~~+~,-FJ~
386
I
Measuring equipment
387
advantage that they do not r e q u i r e rectification when they feed electro
magnetic instruments.
However, a considerable drawback of d. c. amplifiers is the instability
of their characteristics. In addition, a drawback of d . c. supply is the
potential difference caused by the welded joints between the copper
and the constantac wiresforming the thermocouples. In fact, at abridge supply
voltage of 6 v, a s t r a i n E = 10 in one of the t r a n s d u c e r s causes avoltage im
balance of 3 X 10-6v in the measuring diagonal. On the other hand, a temperature
difference of 1°C in the joints between the copper and the constantan
c r e a t e s an emf of 4 0 X 1 0 - 6 which corresponds t o a s t r a i n of 13x10-6
The values of the thermoelectric emf can be easily found by switching
off the supply source. However, taking into account temperature
changes during the experiment is r a t h e r difficult.
388
bridge is measured in this c a s e by a compensating method, while the
compensator scale is read off at the instant when the signal of the null
instrument is zero.
Wind -tunnel balances employ exclusively automatic bridges and
compensators in which the null instrument is replaced by an a . c . o r d. c .
amplifier.
The circuit of an automatic bridge with a . c . amplifier is shown in
Figure 6 . 5 7 . The bridge is supplied f r o m a transformer T A change .
in the resistance of the transducers causes a disturbance of the bridge
balance, causing an a . c. voltage, whose amplitude is proportional to the
measured strain, t o appear a c r o s s the measuring diagonal. The voltage
is amplified and f e d to the field winding of a miniature asynchronous
reversible motor which r e s t o r e s the bridge balance by moving the contact
of rheostat P . Many automatic bridges produced by Soviet industry work
on this principle. However, direct use of standard bridges in automatic
balances is difficult. In standard instruments the moving contact of the
rheostat is connected to a pen writing on a tape driven by a clockwork
mechanism. In wind-tunnel balances s e v e r a l magnitudes have t o be
recorded simultaneously, while standard multipoint instruments record
the indications at fixed time intervals. Standard bridges can be
used f o r automatic measurements i f the tapes a r e moved by the mechanism
which a l t e r s the angle of attack of the model, Wind-tunnel balances employ
special multi-channel automatic bridges permitting simultaneous recording
of several magnitudes in digital form, which is m o r e suitable f o r subsequent
decoding and processing (see Chapter MI. Because the digital device
is connected directly t o the rotor of the servomotor, the accuracy
of such compensators attains 0.1% of the scale maximum, while tape-
type recording instruments have an accuracy of only 0.5%.
389
Modern rapid -action automatic bridges with electronic amplifiers enable
values corresponding to the scale maximum to be measured during 0.1 to
0.5 seconds. Automatic bridges a r e suitable for measuring not only static
but also slowly varying loads, for instance, when the angle of attack of the
model is continuously altered.
Another a . c . compensator is the automatic measuring compensator with
decade resistances 1191, 1 2 0 1 . In this circuit the imbalance voltage of one
or several bridges with strain-gage transducers is balanced by the imbalance
voltage of bridges with known resistances. Each bridge of the circuit is fed
f r o m a separate winding of t r a n s f o r m e r T (Figure 6.58). The rheostat inthis
system i s replaced by a resistance box, the r e s i s t o r s of which a r e switched
over by a balancing motor M . The box has decades of ten (n/ 1 O), hundred
( n / 1O O ) , and thousand ( n /1000) divisions, assembled f r o m stable r e s i s t o r s .
The decades a r e connected to the c o r n e r s of two bridges. The decades of
FIGURE 6.58 Automatic compensator with box of decade resistors. H - zero set;
390
For this, the supply to the transducer bridge is periodically cut off by
switch S, and motor M connected to potentiometer Rh, instead of Rhl.
Since the bridge then c r e a t e s no potential difference induced by its
imbalance, the amplifier is fed only with the voltage of the thermoelectric
emf. The motor drives the slider of Rh, until the s u m of the thermo
electric emf and the voltage of the compensating circuit is equal to zero.
- I?
=E,
Y
FIGURE 6 . 5 9 . Circuit of ahtomatic d . c . bridge. 1
amplifier; E, - sohrce of d . c . voltage for feeding
transducer bridge; Ek - source of d . c . voltage for
compensation of thermoelectric e m f; U - source of
a . c . voltage for heating transducers of measuring
bridge during compensation of thermoelectric emf:
S - switches "measuring- compensation of thermo
electric emf".
After the motor is again connected with potentiometer Rh,, the adjustment
which was made when it was connected with Rh, is still in force and
compensates the thermoelectric emf during the measurements. The
duration of switch-over f o r compensation is about 1 second in every 6 seconds.
In o r d e r to prevent cooling of the strain-gage transducers during
compensation of the thermoelectric emf, switch S simultaneously connects
thebridge to an a . c . supply.
A. c. and d. c . supply circuits for transducer bridges have advantages and
disadvantages. A. c. systems a r e mostly used in the USSR; t h e i r advantage
l i e s in the absence of complicated devices for compensating the thermoelectric
emf. Their disadvantage is the necessity for balancing not only the active
(ohmic), but also the reactive (capacitive) component of the impedance of
the strain-gage transducers and the connecting wires.
C i r c u i t s f o r b r i d g e b a l a n c i n g . For accurate m e a s u r e m e n t s
of the aerodynamic forces by strain-gage balances, a c o r r e c t choice of the
measuring s y s t e m is very important. Account must be taken of the
operating characteristics of strain-gage transducers, and the possibility
of compensating the e r r o r s introduced must be provided. Manual initial
39 1
regulation (zero regulation) is provided in the measuring system in addition
t o the principal automatic bridge balancing. It is intended f o r compensating
the bridge asymmetry caused by the r e s i s t a n c e spread of the s e p a r a t e
strain-gage transducers, the weight of the model, the influence of the
resistance of the connecting wires, the initial temperature distribution
in the elastic elements, etc.
The rheostat of the automatic compensator is inserted into the bridge
circuit in different ways, providing a linear relationship between the
variation of the measured magnitude and the displacement of the sliding
contact of the rheostat. The rheostat of the automatic compensator can
be connected either in s e r i e s with the a r m s of a transducer half-bridge
(Figure 6 . 60a) o r parallel t o them (Figure 6 . 60b). The l a t t e r is possible
r r
Rheostat
servo-
-
tor
b)
FIGURE 6.60. Connections of rheostat and potentiometer for zero
regulation a - i n series, b - in parallel, n u - i n i t i a l l m b a l a n c e
voltage which is reduced to zero by the rheostat
392
When during s t r a i n measurements the rheostat contact reaches
either of the limits of its trave1, this switches in the shunting
r e s i s t o r r and the bridge is balanced at the strain attained by the
transducers. This corresponds t o a displacement of the s t r a i n readings
over the whole travel of the sliding contact. Using a number of r e s i s t o r s r
which a r e switched in automatically, we can expand the measuring range.
The initial balancing of the bridge is most often c a r r i e d out with the
aid of a rheostat connected in parallel to the supply diagonal (Figure 6. 60b).
Bridge a r m s (1) and (2) a r e shunted in such a way that the r a t i o s of t h e i r
equivalent resistances i s equal to the ratio of the equivalent resistances of
the other pair of a r m s when the slider of the rheostat is in a position which
corresponds t o z e r o s t r a i n . The shunting resistances a r e not mounted on
the elastic element; thus, when the s t r a i n o� the l a t t e r lis 5 , the relative
change of the equivalent resistance of the shunted a r m is
393
The principles of strain-gage balances
394
which a r e widely used in aerodynamic laboratories in the U. S. A , , U. K.,
and France 1 2 2 1 , 1 2 3 1 .
Balances in the f o r m of simple cantilever beams make it possible to
m e a s u r e a t a sufficiently high accuracy, forces and moments causing
bending strains in the beam (Y,,M , , , Z , , My,).The drag Q ,and the heeling
moment M,,usually cause in the beam only very small compressive and
torsional strains whose accurate measurement is practically impossible.
TOpermit measurement of these components and also to increase the
accuracy of measuring other components when the model is only slightly
loaded, the cantilever beam is machined in a complicated manner s o a s to
form a number of elastic elements. These elastic elements permit the
influence of any single component of the aerodynamic load to be separated
partially o r entirely f r o m those of the other components.
In a wind-tunnel balance located outside the model, the aerodynamic
load is resolved into components with the aid of kinematic mechanisms
consisting of links which a r e considered undeformable. Such kinematic
mechanisms cannot in practice be placed inside a small model whose breadth
varies between 2 and 20 cm, a s in most supersonic wind tunnels. However, if we
replace the usual kinematic hinges by elastic hinges, the model is converted
into a kind of floating f r a m e connected to the cantilever support by a
statically determined system of links. By measuring the reactions in these
links with the aid of elastic measuring elements, we can determine the
components of the aerodynamic load a s functions of the strain of one or
several elastic elements.
Direct resolution of the aerodynamic load into components can be c a r r i e d
out in a dynamometric cantilever with the aid of either elastic kinematic o r
elastic measuring elements. Elastic kinematic elements a r e used to permit
translational o r rotational motion (kinematic isolation) of any rigid element
of the balance , while elastic measuring elements a r e intended to prevent
such motion. The reaction between two elastic elements, of the f i r s t and
the second type respectively, is proportional to the measured component.
The higher the ratio of the rigidity of the elastic measuring element to the
rigidity of the elastic kinematic element, the more exact is this
proportionality. Strain-gage transducers mounted on the elastic measuring
element permit this reaction to be mensuredby calibrating the balancps, the
reactions a r e compared with the measured components. Thus, Figure 6. 62
shows an elastic element consisting of two parallel plates ( l ) , interconnected
by rigid elements (an elastic parallelogram) and serving for the kinematic
isolation of the force P ; the elastic hinge ( 2 ) is intended to isolate the
moment M . The elastic measuring elements ( 3 ) and (4) m e a s u r e
respectively P and M .
By suitably mounting the strain-gage transducers, the kinematic
element can at the s a m e time a c t a s measuring element. In this case the
entire measured force (or moment) is equilibrated by the elastic restoring
force, while the strain-gage transducers a r e located a t the points of
maximum strain. The s t r a i n s at these points a r e affected also by the
components which a r e not being measured.
By suitably selecting the shape of the elastic element the s t r a i n caused
by the component to be measured can be made to exceed that caused by
any other component. This can in particular be achieved when the
component to be measured induces bending s t r a i n s in the element, while the
395
I _. .
.. . ... __
. - _- ...--- .-- .. --- . .... . . .. . ..
other components cause compression or tension. The residual interference
v a r i e s directly with the absolute deformation (displacement) of the elastic
Strain-gage I To support
To model transducers I \
i tP I
396
F o r measuring the component R, along the beam axis (Figure 6. 63a),
the active t r a n s d u c e r s ( 1 ) and (3) a r e mounted on opposite s u r f a c e s of
the beam in such a way that their bases a r e p a r a l l e l to the direction of
the longitudinal s t r a i n s . Transducers (2) and (4), which s e r v e for
t e m p e r a t u r e compensation, a r e mounted perpendicular t o the longitudinal
direction. If the neutral s u r f a c e of the rod l i e s in the middle between the
wire grids of t r a n s d u c e r s ( 1 ) and ( 3 ) , t h e s t r a i n s of the l a t t e r , caused
by the bending of the beam, a r e equal and opposite ( � 1 b = -Eb ). Hence, when
t r a n s d u c e r s ( 1 ) and (3) a r e inserted into opposite a r m s of the bridge, the
vertical component R, does not cause an imbalance, and the l a t t e r i s
determined only by the axial component of the force.
For measuring the v e r t i c a l component RY (Figure 6. 63b), the t r a n s d u c e r s
a r e glued to opposite s i d e s of the beam and inserted into adjacent a r m s of
the bridge. The active t r a n s d u c e r s s e r v e at the s a m e time f o r compensation;
this i n c r e a s e s the sensitivity of the bridge. In contrast t o the arrangement
i n F i g u r e 6.63a, which p e r m i t s the axial component R, to be determined
i r r e s p e c t i v e of its point of application, the arrangement in Figure 6. 63b
p e r m i t s the component Rv t o be determined only i f i t s point of application 0
is known and if the axial component R , does not c a u s e bending of the beam,
i. e., causes no moment about the origin of coordinates 0 on the neutral
axis of the beam at a distance 1 f r o m the midpoints of the t r a n s d u c e r s .
If the point of application of the resultant f o r c e i s known and l i e s on the
intersection of the neutral planes of the beam, we can, with the aid of
three s e p a r a t e measuring bridges, m e a s u r e independently each of the
components R,, R,, and R,, by suitably mounting t r a n s d u c e r s on the s u r f a c e
of the beam (Figure 6 . 6 3 ~ ) . The accuracy of measuring the components
depends on the r a t i o s of t h e i r magnitudes, the accurate mounting of the
t r a n s d u c e r s , t h e i r individual s t r a i n sensitivities, the uniform stress
distribution a t the points where the t r a n s d u c e r s a r e mounted, and s e v e r a l
other f a c t o r s .
When a cantilever beam of height h is bent by a t r a n s v e r s e f o r c e , the
maximum signal voltage a t a distance 1 f r o m the point of f o r c e application
is 6r/h t i m e s higher than when a rod of equal c r o s s section is tensioned
or compressed by an equal f o r c e . Hence, axially s t r e s s e d rods a r e used
mainly f o r measuring l a r g e loads. However, f o r equal s t r a i n s , the dis
placement of the point of load application i s l a r g e r in bending than in axial
loading.
Large displacements in multi-component strain-gage balances should
be prevented, since they cause interaction between the components and
displacements of the points where the f o r c e s a r e applied. A compromise
design is therefore usually adopted, in which both sensitivity and
displacements a r e r e s t r i c t e d . Sensitivity is frequently m o r e important,
s o that strain-gage balances a r e mostly provided with elastic dynamometric
elements subjected t o bending. Only when the loads t o be measured a r e
l a r g e or when the natural frequency of the balance h a s t o be increased,
is r e c o u r s e had to e l a s t i c elements subjected to compression or tension.
This is necessary, f o r instance, in hypersonic wind tunnels with v e r y
s h o r t operating durations.
Elastic elements in the f o r m of eccentrically loaded rods (Figure 6.64a)
have the disadvantage that during bending the a r m of the f o r c e changes;
391
this causes nonlinearity of the force-strain relationship. This drawback
is eliminated in symmetrical elastic elements (Figure 6. 64b).
4#3
1
398
I
Plates
T o support l+&A 3 -8 To model
/
I upper
surface I
surface
Possible
c onnecr ions
Of transducers
component
a) b)
FIGURE 6.65. Force measurement with t h e a i d of an
elastic parallelogram.
To support To model
\
Bridee for
Y
I
measuring (Y,,Q) a)
To support
Bridge for
I \ I
\
measuring(Y,, Q) To model
b)
399
tO SUPPOK
to model
Transducers
Ball bearings
I
Transducers
FIGURE 6.69. Measuring drag with t h e aid of supports mounted o n ball bearings (a) and on
diaphragms (b).
400
Figure 6. 67 shows a slightly modified design of an elastic parallelogram
intended f o r measuring drag. The model is fixed to the rigid center link of
t h e elastic element, whose outermost links a r e rigidly connected t o the
support. The center link is the common moving link of the two elastic
parallelograms. This design p e r m i t s the influence of t r a n s v e r s e forces t o
be reduced, since the bending moments caused by them a r e mutually
compensated .
In the single-component balance f o r drag m e a s u r e m e n t s (Figure 6. 681,
the measuring element (1) is an eccentrically loaded bent rod, inserted
between model (2) and support ( 3 ) . Moving link (4) of the parallelogram
is rigidly connected with the model and elastically with the support,
whose front and back a r e connected by rigid walls (6).
The u s e of kinematic elements for measuring the d r a g reduces the
influence of the components Yi and Mz,. Hence, the d r a g c a n a l s o be
measured with the a i d of other devices which p e r m i t axial translation of
the model, such a s ball-bearing guides o r elastic diaphragms of s m a l l
rigidity i n the axial direction ( F i g u r e 6. 69).
Since the heeling moment M,, causes twisting of the cantilever support
(Figure 6. 61), M,, can be determined by measuring the s t r a i n s on the
s u r f a c e of a c i r c u l a r rod o r a tube. In a twisted c i r c u l a r rod the principal
s t r e s s e s a r e equal and opposite in directions inclined a t 45" t o the rod
axis. Transducers glued to the rod and connected t o the measuring bridge
40 1
as shown in Figure 6 . 7 0 undergo s t r a i n s equivalent to a s t a t e of pure s h e a r
us
- c4) = W,E (1 +p) M.
US
Au = 7 ( c 1 - c2+
In bending of the rod the s t r a i n s of the transducers connected to the
adjacent a r m s of the bridge a r e equal in sign and magnitude. The s a m e
402
reduce the influence of the components causing bending of the rod, due t o
nonsymmetrical mounting of the t r a n s d u c e r s , the l a t t e r a r e mounted a s
close a s possible t o the front of the rod. When the separate transducers
a r e a t the s a m e temperature, the bridge i s fully compensated.
A higher sensitivity to the moment M, than in a twisted rod can be
provided with the aid of elastic elements in which the torque causes
bending of one or m o r e p a i r s of beams or plates (Figure 6. 71). The
design of the elastic element (Figure 6. 71a) is s i m i l a r to that of an
elastic hinge with fixed center (Figure 6.18). The moment M,, causes
S-shaped bending of the plates. Strain-gage transducers for measuring
M,, a r e mounted on both sides of the plate roots. The influence of the
forces Y , and Z, and the moments M,, and M,, , which cause bending of the
plates in the radial directions, is very s m a l l when the r a t i o of the plate
height h to the thickness b i s large. The influences of the forces Yi and Z,
can be still further reduced i f the axis of the elastic element is formed by
a central rod taking up the g r e a t e r p a r t of these f o r c e s (Figure 6 . 7 1 ~ ) .
An elastic element (Figure 6, 71b) which externally is s i m i l a r t o an elastic
parallelogram, can, when h = b , be used for measuring not only M,, but
a l s o moments acting in longitudinal planes ( M yand % Mz,).The transducers
a r e then mounted and inserted into the measuring bridge in such a way that
the bridge responds to tension and compression of the r o d s (Figure 6. 71d).
To model
403
The moment M,, causes bending of the plate in a plane perpendicular t o
the axis of the support.
Transducers for
measuring force Y,
'
Auxiliary trans
of coordinates t o 0'
L--J
404
I.. I .. I I I I 1 I1 I 1
I
I
AU =k,Mz,-t-k2Y,,
+
AU = k , (Nz,aY,) = k,M:,,
measuring Y
FIGURE 6.15. Elastic el em en t for measuring force and
m o m en t . 1 - rod taking up transverse force; 2 - rods
taking up bending moment; 3 - rigid link.
405
is subjected to bending, a s in an elastic parallelogram (Figure 6. 66a),
t a k i n g u p t h e g r e a t e r p a r t of the force Y. The outer rods (2) f o r m the
links of an elastic parallelogram permitting translation of link (3) under
the action of this force. Strain-gage transducers mounted on central rod
(1) a r e inserted into a measuring bridge, which permits the force Y to be
m e a s u r e d independently of the couple. The couple, whose moment is M ,
is taken up almost entirely by the outer rods. These rods a r e eccentrically
loaded by axial forces of opposite signs, which cause bending. The central
beam f o r m s an elastic hinge (i.e., a kinematic element), about which link
(3) rotates. If we i n s e r t the strain-gage transducers mounted on the outer
rods into a measuring bridge which responds to the algebraic sums of their
bending s t r a i n s , the bridge will m e a s u r e the moment M about a point lying
on the axis of s y m m e t r y of the elastic element.
Section 11-11
Section 1-1
406
To model
I
To support
Connection of
transducers for
measuring RI
and R,
407
and couple. The design of beam-type strain-gage balances (Figure 6 . 7 8 )
is based on this principle.
2' '2'
. #' Siting of transducers
for measuring Y1 and M,
Secrion ,4 Seccion 8
a) b)
Measuring of signals
with subsequent cal
culation of Y1 and Mzl
0
1
I
Independenr
measuremenr
of Y1 amd MZ
408
f o r transducers (2) and ( 2 ' ) e2= - WMEA,
M
f o r transducers (4) and (4') sa=-&,
AuA - Au
Y,=k x B - x AE ,
Au x -AuBxA
M,,=k A ~__
x -x
B A
'
where k = WEIus.
The constants entering into these formulas, which depend on the elastic
properties of the beam, the characteristics of the transducers, and t h e i r
siting, a r e determined by calibration. If the origin of coordinates lies in
the section passing through the center of the transducer b a s e at A , then
X A = 0 and the indications of bridge a ) in Figure 6 . 78 will depend only
on A%,.
In o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e the measuring accuracy, strain-gage transducers
can be mounted in m o r e than two sections 1 2 2 1 . The number of equations
then exceeds the number of unknowns; and the moment and f o r c e a r e
determined by the method of l e a s t s q u a r e s . The unknowns Y , and Mz, a r e
found f r o m the following equations:
- n Z x , bur - Z x i Z Aul
~~
I- nEx;-(ZXl)2 '
Zx:Z Aul - Ex,Zx, A u ,
Mz,=k - - ~
nZx7 - ( Z X , ) ~ '
409
where
1680
410
I
41 1
412
Bending of the beam, due to the component Y 1 and M,,o r Z1 and My,,causes
changes in the attitude of the model, displacement of the point of force
application, and changes in the shapes of the elastic elements, which in
turn cause additional interaction between the m e a s u r e d components.
A B C
A B C
-
Y
14 16
413
displacements, tension and compression cause eccentric bending of the
plates (Figure 6. 82). This causes the components Yi and M,, to affect the
measurement of Q,.
414
The maximum loads which can be measured by the balance a r e : lift,
1100 kg, side force and drag, 225 kg, pitching moment, 70 kgm, heeling
and yawing moments, 55 kgm. The balance consists of an inner part and
two equal outer p a r t s above and below the inner part. The components
YI,Mz,,and Z I , My,a r e measured in p a i r s with the aid of strain-gage
transducers mounted on tension and compression plates formed by cuts
in the outer p a r t s (Figure 6. 79).
Section A A
4 I
I I
fv
h
la
c- L A
168
b)
415
the conical transition is between 3 and 5 diameters of the cylindrical p a r t
of the shroud, The cone angle should be a s small a s possible, and the
cylindrical part of the s t r u t must be located downstream of the test section
where it cannot affect the flow in the latter.
An example of a six-component strain-gage balance, i n which the device
f o r measuring the drag is contained inside the strut, is the balance in the
supersonic ONERA wind tunnel 1121 a t Courneuve (France), whose test
section m e a s u r e s 0.28mX0.28m (Figure 6.85). The drag is measured with
the aid of the kinematic suspension of support (1) on two diaphragms (2)
located in the cylindrical p a r t of s t r u t (4). The spiral-shaped cut-outs
reduce the rigidity of the diaphragms in the axial direction. The drag is
taken up by elastic element (3) forming an eccentrically loaded beam. The
rod in the leading p a r t of the support has mutually perpendicular cut-outs
which increase the sensitivity of the systems measuring the components
y , , zI,M y,, and Mz,. The sensitivity of heeling-moment measurements(M,)
is increased by the cross-shaped f o r m of the section in which the
transducers a r e glued. The 12 mm-diameter rod allows forces up to 5 kg
and moments up to 15kg c m to be measured.
416
the number of transducers and increase the rigidity of the support the s i x
components a r e measured in two stages by switching over the electrical
circuits. The lift Y , and the pitching moment M,,a r e measured by three
half-bridges located in three reduced sections of the leading p a r t of the
support. One half-bridge is used in common for measuring YI and Mz,.
Connected to
Connected to the strut
the support
The transducers for measuring the side force ZI and the yawing moment
M y , a r e mounted similarly. The origin of coordinates is a t 0. The heeling
moment and the drag a r e measured by elastic element (2). The l a t t e r is
connected by pins to the trailing p a r t of the support and to the cylindrical
part of s t r u t (3) in which support (1) is c a r r i e d on ball bearings (4) which
permit rotation and axial displacement of the support. Elastic element (2),
shown separately in Figure 6.86, is made integral f r o m beryllium bronze.
The drag Q1 is measured with the aid of an elastic parallelogram whose
beams a r e bent in the xlyl plane by the action of this force. The wide plate,
on which the transducers measuring AIx, a r e glued, is hent in the ylzl plane.
A simplified electrical diagram of the balance. (Figure 6. 86) is shown
in Figure 6.87. Two half-bridges Y' and Z', which consist of transducers
417
I I I Il1 Il11ll1lIlIlI Il1 l Il l l I I1 Il1
+I U
FIGURE 6.87. Simplified circuit diagram of balance
shown i n Figure 6.86.
carrying the model under test. The U.S. firm of T a s k Corporation developed
determined with the aid of annular elastic elements while the heeling
418
elastic elements which m e a s u r e the t r a n s v e r s e reactions (from which YI,
ZI, My,and M,, a r e determined) participate in the s t r a i n of the elastic
element measuring QI. These elastic elements m u s t therefore have a s m a l l
rigidity in the direction of the x-axis, since otherwise their temperature
influence on the measurement of QI may be large. The temperature
influence can also be reduced by siting the t r a n s v e r s e elastic elements
symmetrically in relation to the elastic element measuring QI. The axial
forces, due to temperature-induced displacements of the t r a n s v e r s e elastic
elements on either side of the elastic element measuring Q,, a r e then
mutually compensated.
FIGURE 6.88. Six-component strain-gage balance with floating frame. 1 and 5 - elements
for measuring Y,; 8 and 11 - elements for measuring 2,; 2-elements for measuring M ~ , 3 ;
hole for securing model: 4 - thermocouple: 6 - internal rod: I -connectiontosupport; 9
e l e m e n t for measuring Q , : 10 - external cylinder.
419
In the supersonic wind tunnel of Cornel1 University the mechanism
f o r adjusting the angle of attack (Figure 6.89) consists of two a r c s sliding
in guide slots in the s i d e walls of the tunnel. Between these a r c s a
horizontal streamlined carrying s t r u t is fixed, whose center has a
cylindrical element for securing the tail support with the balance and the
model. The a r c s a r e moved by an electric motor via a reduction gear.
The joints between the mechanism f o r angle-of -attack adjustment and the
wind-tunnel walls a r e sealed with rubber tubes into which a i r is blown
after each adjustment.
420
.-
8 I
42 1
Interaction between load components
where
422
then
where
cs =SI + s, + s3+ s,,
3s = s, -s2 $- s, -s4.
To measuting
7 circuit
423
a r e shown in Figure 6 . 9 4 . This method of eliminating interactions, used a t
the ONERA laboratory 1 2 3 1 , complicates the design of the balances, since
a large number of leads a r e required.
b U b
FIGURE 6.94. Circuit diagrams of compensated bridges for measuring Y , and Mq.
424
the component YI on the components ZI and M y , is compensated by connecting
the ends of half-bridge Y' to the c o r n e r s of bridges ZI and M y , . The
rheostats k,, and k,, allow the compensating corrections t o be adjusted.
Similarly, for compensating the influence of the component Z, on the
components YIand M,,,the ends of half-bridge 2' a r e connected to the
c o r n e r s of bridges Y I and M,,( s e e Figure 6 . 8 7 ) .
425
The main sources of intrinsic e r r o r s of the wind-tunnel balances a r e :
1 ) Inaccurate assembly of the s y s t e m for separating the forces into
components ;
2) Displacements and deformations of the links due to variations in load,
temperature, and p r e s s u r e ;
3 ) Inexact transmission r a t i o s of levers;
4 ) Deformation of the model supports.
These a r e systematic e r r o r s which can be found and eliminated when
calibrating the balance. In wind-tunnel balances the most characteristic
systematic e r r o r s are those expressed by the interaction of the components.
Random e r r o r s a r e caused mainly by friction in the hinges of the links and
can be found by processing the calibration data by the method explained
below.
For c o r r e c t calibration of the wind-tunnel balances the sources of
systematic e r r o r s must be known. Below, these sources a r e discussed
in the o r d e r in which they a r e best discovered during calibration. For
the sake of simplicity, we shall consider a two-dimensional s y s t e m of
f o r c e s (Q,Y and M z ) .
4
IY
FIGURE 6.96. Effect of initial inclination of
rods on drag measurement.
forces acting in these rods have horizontal components. Rod (4), which
connects the floating f r a m e to balance element BE,, will then take up,
426
I
I
I
AQ=(P+ Y)y,
42 I
coefficient of the balance element (i.e., the r a t i o between the force acting
on the measuring link of the balance element and the displacement of this link)
is k , then c2 = ki2, where i is the transmission ratio of the lever system.
The angle of inclination of the pendulum (Figure 6. 97), caused by the action
of force Q, is
+
‘ 9 =a1 = 812 ,
AQ=Q-N Q-
- P + VP?
where NQ i s the f o r c e acting in link A by which the horizontal rod is
connected to the balance element B E p . Expressing the deformations 81 and
6 2 through the compressive force and the spring r a t e s , we obtain
AQ=aQ+bW,
428
the pendulum effect. The pendulum effect, which influences a l s o
measurements of the side force 2 , causes the l a r g e s t systematic e r r o r s
in wind-tunnel balances and must be found by calibration.
The pendulum effect varies inversely with c, and c g . If the balance
element used f o r measuring Q is based on the null method, the pendulum
effect is caused only by the elasticity of the connecting links, since in
this c a s e & = 0. We can thus reduce the pendulum effect by using balance
elements of the compensating type and by increasing the rigidity of the
connecting links in the system for measuring the horizontal component.
The above relationships f o r evaluating the pendulum effect a r e a l s o
valid f o r any other mechanism of translational motion of the floating f r a m e .
It is only necessary t o replace the lengths 1 of the rods by the equivalent
length I,, . Thus, f o r the antiparallelogram mechanism (Figure 6.3a)
I,, = 01 -uzc - . When
au
UI and u2 a r e r e l i t i v e l y small and equal I , , = 00. Hence,
in this c a s e t h e r e is no pendulum effect and the s y s t e m is neutral with
respect to the lift. Adjustment of the balance is facilitated if the floating
f r a m e on antiparallelograms has a small positive stability, For this, we
take U I > a 2 , s o that I,, = 5 t o 1 0 m .
Sometimes the pendulum effect can be prevented with the aid of
devices which automatically return the floating f r a m e t o i t s initial
position by changing the length of the horizontal rod connecting the floating
f r a m e with the balance element.
Inexact transmission r a t i o s
2M
N,,= Yi- -Ai,
1 (a‘)
N M = M ,TI(]
1 -i)L+AiAL] + ~Y[ ( 1- i ) A L + A i L ] .
(b‘)
429
The influence of the pitching moment on the l i f t measurement is
2M -
- Ai
AY= Y - 1 i ’
tY
430
where CI and c p a r e the "spring r a t e s ' ' of the model suspension in the x -
and y -directions. Hence
43 I
experimental points on the graph G = f ( P ) where G is the load removed f r o m
plate (7) while P is the load placed on plate ( 6 ) . The number of
experimental points should be between 1 0 and 20. The transmission r a t i o is
432
Plates (9) and (lo), which a r e suspended f r o m these knife edges, c a r r y
at first equal weights which a r e then partly moved f r o m one plate t o the
other. The floating f r a m e is thus subjected to a pure moment which is
equal t o the product of the length I and the transferred weight. The
vertical load on the floating f r a m e remains unchanged.
yf Balance supports
433
instrument, we can determine their influence on the accuracy of the
experiment a s a whole,
The calibration constant is determined on the b a s i s of p m e a s u r e m e n t s
of ui corresponding t o standard values ti ( i v a r i e s f r o m 1 to p ) . The
maximum value of t i should be as close a s possible t o the limiting value
which can be measured by the instrument. If the values of ui and ti a r e
plotted (Figure 6.101), a straight line can be drawn through the experimental
points, whose equation is
1
where a = x , and a, is the null reading of the instrument.
z f p u , -Z t , 2 U i t ,
a, =-
p q -( E t $ .
These equations can also be written in the form
u. =at, +uo,
where a* and i', a r e the mean values of the variables u and: ' i
a.
-%;
-
I , = - . Zf
P
434
The equation of the most probable straight line passing through the
experimental points can be presented in the f o r m
u - u, = a ( I - t.),
435
Bibliography
436
.. . ..
19. T s a p e n k o , M. P. Avtomaticheskie kompensatory s dekadnym
magazinami soprotivleniya (Automatic Compensators with
Decade Resistance Boxes).- Priborostroenie, No. 1. 1957.
20. T s a p e n k o , M. P. Mnogomostovaya izmeritel'naya skhema
peremennogo toka (A. C . Multi - Bridge Measuring System).-
Izmeritel'naya Tekhnika, No. 6 . 1956.
21. T i f f a n y , A. P r e c i s i o n Strain Gauge Techniques.- Electronic
Engng., Vol. 30, No. 367. 1958.
22. H a n e m a n , V.S. Automatic Reduction of Wind- Tunnel Data.-
Aeron. Engng. Rev., Vol. 12, No. 2. 1953.
23. D e v a c h t , M. Balances dards a 6 composants.- L a Recherche
AGronautique, Vol. 52. 1956.
24. T i f f a n y , A. Wind Tunnel Instrumentation.- Electronic Engng.,
Vol. 29, No. 3. 1957.
25. M o t s i n g e r . R . N . Flexural Devices in Measurement Systems.-
. Strain Gage Readings, Vol. 5, No. 2. 1962.
26. G r a t z e r , L . B . Design of a New Balance System for the Kirsten
Wind Tunnel.- T r e n d s in Engineering in the University of
Washington, July. 1952.
43 7
C h a p t e r VII
TECHNIQUES A N D METHODS OF
AERODYNAMIC MEASUREMENTS
A d j u s t m e n t of t h e f l o w i n t h e t u n n e l . In subsonic wind-
tunnels the adjustment consists of determining the positions of vanes and
flaps, and the types and number of s c r e e n s in the t e s t section, in such a
way that the velocity nonuniformity, flow inclination, and turbulence remain
within permissible limits.
In transonic and supersonic tunnels the adjustment consists mainly
in the selection of nozzles providing uniform flow velocities, in determining
the position of the supersonic diffuser providing steady supersonic flow
in the t e s t section both in thepresence of, and without the model, and in
selecting the position of the perforated walls of the t e s t section. Experience
shows that the adjustment of the tunnel must be c a r r i e d out f o r each new
tunnel even when it was built according t o the plans of a s i m i l a r existing
tunnel. The adjustment of wind tunnels having complicated contours is
particularly difficult (e. g., a tunnel with two r e t u r n ducts leading into a
single common duct a t the nozzle inlet; Figure 2.116). In such a tunnel
the diffuser is usually divided by a partition into two p a r t s . Because
the elliptical section of the diffuser p a s s e s over into two c i r c l e s a t the fan,
the flow velocity at the outer walls is reduced, while at the return-duct inlet
the velocity distribution is highly nonuniform. (Figure 7 . 1 ) .
438
Measuring methods f o r determining and adjusting
the velocities in subsonic tunnels
439
manometer, the density of the liquid, and the temperature, a r e eliminated.
The random e r r o r of a single measurement of the angle of flow inclination
does not exceed *0.1" in this method.
The relative velocity head in the t e s t section is determined according
t o Figure 7 . 4 with the aid of
FIGURE 7.3. Connecting a six-barrel- FIGURE 1.4. Connections of tubes and mano
l e d tube to a five-barrelled manometer meters for determining the relative velocity
for calibrating the tube. head in a tunnel.
440
FIGURE 1.5. Distribution of angles of flow inclination. i n t h e vertical plane (distance from
nozzle I = 1500 mm z = transverse coordinate, y = vertical coordinate).
441
Recr.atm
- Re cr.tun
1680
442
Because the t e s t section of a wind tunnel has r e s t r i c t e d dimensions,
no regions exist in it in which the flow is not affected by the model,
-I
where a,; is the mean angle of vertical flow inclination, which very seldom
exceeds 0.5 t o 1’. Taking into account the smallness of a , < , and also the
smallness of cr in comparison with c y , we can write
cx=c;+CyaK~
cY =c’ Y ’
a=r’+aK.
T h e angle of inclination in t h e horizontal plane ( p ), which usually does not exceed 0.5 to 1‘. does not
greatly influence [he principal aerodynamic characteristics, and IS mually neglected.
443
The angle a,< is considered positive if it tends t o i n c r e a s e the angle of
attack. Vertical flow inclinations can necessitate considerable corrections
in the values of the drag coefficient.
The flow inclination is determined / 2 / by measuring the maximum airfoil
efficiency in both upright and inverse positions
in
kZix and k,,,.
Setting C' ,n
. =C' up = cy, we obtain
Knowing the polars f o r the upright and inverse positions, we find a,( f o r
s e v e r a l values of c y , and determine i t s mean value, which is sufficiently
accurate f o r correcting the values of the drag coefficients of different
airfoils, and a l s o of the angles of attack.
444
With perforated test-section walls, introduced in recent y e a r s in
transonic and supersonic tunnels, boundary-layer suction effected through
the tunnel walls, and other m e a s u r e s , permit the flow in the t e s t section
t o be uniform in magnitude and direction in the absence of a s t a t i c - p r e s s u r e
gradient along the t e s t section. In the best modern high-speed tunnels the
velocity nonuniformity does not exceed f (0.015 t o O.O2)M, the flow inclination
is l e s s than f(0.15 t o 0.2" ) , while the static p r e s s u r e along the test-section
axis usually v a r i e s within the limits of f 3 to 5%.
Thus, the flow adjustment in transonic and supersonic tunnels, while
maintaining the aerodynamic requirements for the subsonic p a r t of these
tunnels (settling chamber, r e t u r n duct, etc.), consists in selecting the
c o r r e c t shapes f o r nozzle and t e s t section.
445
In s o m e experiilients the influence of the ground is simulated by a ribbon
moving at the s a m e velocity a s the a i r . This method is m o r e accurate
(there is no boundary-layer thickening on the ribbon), and reproduces
the conditions in nature where the ground is stationary, while the airplane
moves in relation to it; however, because of its complexity, it is not
widely used. Another method, in which the boundary layer on the s c r e e n
simulating the ground is sucked off, can also be used in t e s t s for
investigating ground effects.
It is also possible t o test two similar models, one inupright, the other in
inverse position (wheel to wheel). In practice, despite its approximativeness,
the method of investigating ground effects with the aid of a stationary s c r e e n
is widely accepted.
446
The roughness-peak height is determined with the aid of special profilo
graphs, which p e r m i t roughness peaks m o r e than to 211 high t o be measured.
447
Technique of experimentation
448
dependence of the aerodynamic coefficients on the Reynolds number
(in variable-density tunnels) a r e c a r r i e d out at different p r e s s u r e s , beginning
a t the maximum.
F o r each p r e s s u r e the coefficients e,. cy, etc. a r e determined a s
functions of the angle of attack, a s for low velocities. Silk threads a r e
glued t o the model and the flow pattern is visualized only after the
balance measurements, in o r d e r to avoid damaging the surface and
affecting the balance indications by the glued-on silk t h r e a d s . Flow-
pattern visualization consists of drawing, and m o r e often of photographing
the positions of the silk threads f o r each flow condition determined by the
angle of attack, p r e s s u r e , velocity, etc. (Figure 7 . 1 2 ) .
449
interference between wings and supports. Sometimes additional t e s t s
a r e necessary f o r each combination (for instance, wing and engine nascelle)
in order to determine accurately the interference between wings and
modeI. This is particularly important with thin low-drag wings (swept
back and delta wings) which a r e tested at f r e e - s t r e a m velocities at which
zones of supersonic flow may occur near the model, causing a large increase
in drag of the supports and interferencebetween supports and the model,
Frequently, balance t e s t s a r e accompanied by simultaneous measurement
of the a i r flow r a t e and the velocity and p r e s s u r e distributions (for instance,
when testing models in large tunnels with the a i r flowing through intakes).
In o r d e r t o avoid increasing the number of t e s t s , the measuring tubes
should be inserted into special shrouds, which a r e not connected to the
balance and which insulate the tubes f r o m the effects of the a i r flow.
The influence of the elasticity of the measuring tubes on the indications
of the balance is taken inttl account by calibration. This effect is negligible
when the balance is equilibrated by the null method.
Optical measurements with the aid of the Topler instrument o r an
interferometer, which accompany balance t e s t s , a r e usually performed
either visually o r by photography,
The establishment of the required flow conditions in low-speed tunnels
is relatively simple, but is very difficult in supersonic tunnels. All
operations with adjustable nozzles, c o m p r e s s o r s , throttling valves,
supersonic-diffuser flaps, ejectors, etc. must be c a r r i e d out in a s t r i c t
o r d e r which is established during calibration and tunnel adjustment. This
is necessary both in o r d e r to obtain the necessary flow conditions and to
prevent damage to the equipment. During t e s t s at supersonic velocities,
special attention should be paid to the Reynolds number which, in practice,
v a r i e s slightly due to changes in p r e s s u r e and temperature in the settling
chamber, test section, etc. The range of variation of the Reynolds number
during and between experiments should be calculated, and its admissibility
verified before the experiments. When the Reynolds number cannot be
maintained constant, this should be taken into account in the analysis of
the results.
The effectiveness of ailerons (the influence of their chord length
and area, angle of deflection, etc. ) is, a s a rule, determined when the
complete model is tested. The control surfaces of m i s s i l e s and rockets
equipped with fins, in which problems of stability and control a r e
decisive and complex, a r e tested on wind-tunnel balances similarly a s
above. The hinge moments of the control surfaces of large models a r e
measured on the s a m e model on which the general aerodynamic
characteristics a r e determined. If tunnel and model a r e small, the
c o r r e c t Reynolds number can be obtained i f the hinge moments of the
control surfaces a r e determined on a separate l a r g e model of the tail.
The measurements a r e c a r r i e d out with the aid of the ordinary o r
additional balances which permit the hinge moments of the control
surfaces t o be determined a t various angles of deflection for different
angles of attack (and angles of tail slip) of the model or the fuselage,
corresponding to the conditions of take -off and landing, different
maneuvers, and maximum velocity. The test methods a r e s i m i l a r to
those used for models on wind-tunnel balances.
450
I
The angle of attack of the fuselage or of the t a i l is adjusted with the aid
of the balance, while the angles of deflection of the control surfaces are
adjusted manually; this r e q u i r e s interruption of the tunnel operation.
Such t e s t s a r e , therefore, performed by varying the angles of attack of
model, fuselage, and tail, the position of the control surfaces being kept
constant .
The optimum position of the t a i l on the model airplanes is best determined*
beforehand, using special combs with glued-on s i l k threads which are
installed in the t a i l zone.
By determining optically or visually the angle of downwash in the
t a i l zone (with an accuracy of up t o r t ( O . 5 t o lo)), we can find the region
where the downwash downstream of the wings o r body is minimum and
where the effectiveness of the control surfaces is maximum, and c a n then
proceed with the balance measurements. Sometimes the combs a r e
replaced by nets o r tightly stretched thin w i r e s t o which s i l k threads a r e
fixed. Such nets permit visual observation of the three-dimensional flow
pattern downstream of the wings o r body, determination of the zones of
turbulence, e t c .
§ 3 2 . DETERMINATION OF P R E S S U R E AND
VELOCITY DISTRIBUTIONS
45 I
Liquid-column manometers and their connection a r e selected s o a s to
be suitable for the entire range of p r e s s u r e s assumed in the experiment,
the liquid neither being ejected f r o m the tube, nor receding into the well.
The type and design of the tubes (Pitot-Prandtl tubes, Tees, etc.) and
the manner of t h e i r attachment shculd be sel.ected according t o their
dimensions and those of the channels o r the model, Steps should be taken
to prevent the tubes f r o m affecting the flow inside the channel o r in the
vicinity of the model, especially a t l a r g e velocities.
P r e s s u r e and velocity distributions a r e determined by successive recording
o r photographing:: of the manometer indications a t different flow velocities
and angles of attack. The p r e s s u r e distributions on the surfaces of
models a r e determined f r o m the forces acting on them and the nature of the flow
around them.
A knowledge of the p r e s s u r e distribution over the body (with a sufficient
number of properly chosen orifices) p e r m i t s the total p r e s s u r e force t o
be determined. However, this method is v e r y seldom used, since in most
aerodynamic problems, the total force acting on a body can be m o r e simply,
accurately, and rapidly determined by measurement on a balance. In
modern practice the p r e s s u r e distribution is therefore determined mainly
in o r d e r t o find the local distribution of the f o r c e s and the nature of the flow
a t the surface of the body.
Study of the p r e s s u r e distribution is particularly important f o r
determining the proper shapes of wings and fuselages intended for l a r g e
flight velocities, of blades for c o m p r e s s o r s of jet engines, etc. Such
investigations a r e also important for determining the load distributions in
the strength calculations of airplanes, rockets, etc., and for determining
the flow pattern around wings of finite span.
452
considered and q = p Tvi is the dynamic p r e s s u r e of the f r e e - s t r e a m velocity
(velocity head).
The velocity distribution on the surface of the body outside the boundary
layer is given by
v,= v,If-.
The p r e s s u r e f o r c e s acting on a wing element of unit width (Figure7.14),
f o r which the p r e s s u r e distributions on the lower and upper s u r f a c e s a r e
known (Figure 7.15), a r e found (for fixed coordinate axes) from the
following formulas / 3 / . The horizontal f o r c e acting on the given element is
Y2
X =q dy;
Y,
453
t 18 Y,
Xw=q dzjpdy,
-18 Y,
---.qs
c*-
X W
X,
Y =q J. dx.
XI
1234 5
- 0 IO I1 12 13 14 15
454
The drag and lift coefficients determined by the p r e s s u r e forces a r e
c,= C, +
sina c I c o s a ,
C y = c, cos II- cI sin a ,
The total drag Q consists of the profile drag Q P and the induced drag Qi.
A t s m a l l angles of attack andmaximum velocity, i.e.. at s m a l l l i f t coefficients,
the induced d r a g is small and the profile drag is decisive. The latter
consists of the form drag, caused by the normal components of the forces
acting on the surface of the body ( p r e s s u r e forces), and of the skin friction,
representing the tangential components of the forces acting on the surface
of the body (friction forces).
- ..
v, P, ti Outside of wake
v* vo
P *Po
v,=vo;p,-p~;
Within wake
5 <yo ;PrPo
FIGURE 7.16. Velocity profiles upstream and downstream of a wing.
455
through the plane 0-0 o r I-I in the flow direction is equal /3/ to the
profile d r a g of the wing element:
whence
FIGURE 7.17.
V
Intersecting t h e wake by a vertical
plane.
we obtain 131
456
A - -- /- =7
t----- b!
FIGURE 7.18. Connections of tubes t o FIGURE 7.19. Connection of a comb for determining
velocity; 2 - microtube; 3, 4, 5
microinanoineters.
v-
__c c-x IBuundary layer
457
coefficient is determined f r o m the Squire-Young formula
where :6 is the thickness of the wake at the trailing edge of the wing, b is
the wing-chord length, U,,is the velocity at the outer limit of the boundary
layer a t the trailing edge.
The pulse method can also be applied to compressible gas, a s long a s
no regions of supersonic flow appear on the body(M, < MCJ. In this case 161
QP
Cxp =_ _
pv2/2. s '
where
T h e i n s t a l l a t i o n s f o r t e s t i n g p r o p e l l e r s . Installations
f o r testing propellers a r e intended for determining the following propeller
characteristics which depend on the blade angle (the propeller pitch) and
the advance ratio
k = V :
ncD
458
or
q=';w, uz='tq
FIGURE 7.21. Velocity triangles for corresponding b l a d e
elements of geometrically similar propellers.
1 1'--f-
I 1 1
1I
I
I/==A ~
I'
FIGURE 7.22. Dependence of propeller efficiency
on Reynolds number a t A = 0.
459
the Reynolds number on the propeller efficiency is shown in Figure 7. 22.
Reynolds number,
460
P= Q + +
AQI (AQz t A Q 3 + *Q4)*
46 1
in o r d e r t o reduce its influence on the propeller operation, and, in high-
speed tunnels, t o i n c r e a s e the critical Mach number a t which blockage
of the wind tunnel o c c u r s .
The high power of electric motors installed in test sections is achieved
by increased length, higher supply frequency, and special cooling methods.
This permits the motor diameter to be greatly reduced. Motors of this
type a r e suspended in the t e s t section f r o m special s t r u t s o r b r a c e s , while
the measuring element of the propeller instrument is placed inside a casing
protecting the motor, o r is located outside the flow boundaries.
When a l a r g e electric motor which cannot be placed in the a i r
s t r e a m is used, then arm-type instruments a r e employed. In the
arm-type instrument the propeller shaft i s mounted in a special
body inside a casing shaped like a body of revolution and mounted on a
shroud which is perpendicular t o the flow direction. A shaft, which
connects the propeller shaft with the electric motor, p a s s e s through the
shroud. A l l measuring elements o r transducers for the t h r u s t and the
torque a r e placed inside the casing and the shroud.
P r o p e l l e r i n s t r u m e n t s o f t h e s u s p e n s i o n t y p e . An
example of such a s y s t e m is shown in Figure 7 . 2 5 . The body of electric
i I
7
462
casing i s suspended f r o m fixed supports by means of s t r u t s (4). The
reaction torque acting on the f r a m e of the e l e c t r i c motor, equal to the
torque on the propeller shaft, is transmitted by lever (5) and r o d (6)
t o balance element ( M ) which is preloaded by counterweight GM.
The s y s t e m of securing the b r a c e s (3) to the f r a m e of the motor is
shown a t the bottom of Figure 7 , 25. The b r a c e s a r e connected t o the
f r a m e through intermediate yokes (7), supporting the f r a m e by m e a n s of
pins c a r r i e d in ball bearings. The articulated parallelogram, formed
by the b r a c e s and the frame, p e r m i t s f r e e axial movement of the f r a m e in
o r d e r to t r a n s m i t the thrust P to point A where it is resolved into
components. The vertical component, which a t a = 45" equals the t h r u s t ,
is measured by balance element P . The b r a c e s a r e connected to the
yokes by means of hinges with ball bearings, The prolongations of the
b r a c e axes intersect the propeller shaft. The yokes togetherwith the f r a m e
of the motor can therefore rotate about this shaft within the limits of the
measuring displacements, in o r d e r t o t r a n s m i t a f o r c e to a balance
element which m e a s u r e s the reaction torque acting on the motor f r a m e .
The influence of friction in the bearings is taken into account when
calibrating the instrument with the propeller removed.
The drawbacks of a propeller instrument with b r a c e suspension a r e
the relatively low power, the necessity of frequent calibration due to
elongation of the b r a c e s , and also the need for frequent adjustment of
the clearances between the stationary p a r t s and those connected to the
balance.
Strain-gage transdiicers
for mea_suring thrust
.B
P
c
Strain-gage
transducers for
measuring torque
463
Direction of
n rl ?ow
FIGURE 1.27. The B-5 instrument. 1 - propeller; 2 - head of the front propeller instrument: 3 - thrust and torque ba
lances: 4 - platform for drag balance; 5 - drag balance: 6 - model of airfoil; 7 - lift balance; 8 - electric motor:
9 - rotating table: 1 0 - instrument carriage: 11 - vertical instrument frame.
The u s e of instruments with b r a c e suspensions in tunnels with closed
t e s t sections (and sometimes in tunnels with open t e s t sections) is v e r y
inconvenient because of the necessity to install and calibrate the
instrument before testing the propeller and to dismantle it a f t e r the
tests.
These drawbacks a r e mostly eliminated in instruments where the b r a c e
suspension is used only f o r fixing the instrument i n the tunnel while the
whole measuring s y s t e m is placed in one casing with the e l e c t r i c motor.
The design of such a propeller instrument, in which a strain-gage
measuring s y s t e m is used, is shown in F i g u r e 7. 2 6 . F a i r i n g (1) is rigidly
fixed in the t e s t section by tapes or wires which a l s o s e r v e a s e l e c t r i c leads
f o r the motor. T h e f r a m e of the m o t o r is mounted inside the fairing on
two elastic discs (2), whose design is shown a t the bottom of Figure 7 . 26.
The discs a r e made of single pieces of s t e e l . The thrust c a u s e s
deformation of the elastic element A of the disc, which has low rigidity in
the axial direction.
Wire strain-gage t r a n s d u c e r s a r e glued on the walls of these elements
i n one of the discs. The torque acting on the s t a t o r of the motor is taken
up in the s a m e way by strain-gage t r a n s d u c e r s glued on the radial elements
B which have low rigidity i n the tangential direction. The strain-gage
t r a n s d u c e r s a r e inserted into the circuits of two automatic balancing
bridges which m e a s u r e separately the torque and the t h r u s t .
P r o p e l l e r i n s t r u m e n t s o f t h e a r m t y p e . Propeller
instruments of a r m type make frequent reinstallation and calibration
unnecessary and permit quick change-over from the propeller t e s t s
to other types of experiments. F o r this purpose arm-type instruments
a r e mounted o n c a r r i a g e s o r other devices for transport from and to the t e s t
section. The typical example of such an instrument f o r a tunnel with
open t e s t section is the 13.5 propeller instrument / 7 / of the T-5 TsAGI tunnel
(Figure 7 . 2 7 ) . The layout f o r measuring the thrust of a propeller is shown
in Figure 7 . 28, and that for measuring the torque in Figure 7. 29.
Jnstruments of the a r m type a r e used also in high-speed tunnels for
test.ing propellers having l a r g e values of k while maintaining equality of
Mach numbers. The power required for driving the propeller can be
considerably reduced by lowering the p r e s s u r e in the tunnel. The resultant
reduction in Reynolds number i s not v e r y important, since t h e influence
of the l a t t e r on the propeller c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s is insignificant at l a r g e
velocities. An example of a n instrument f o r testing p r o p e l l e r s in tunnels
with closed t e s t sections a t high subsonic and transonic f r e e - s t r e a m
velocities is shown i n F i g u r e 7 . 30 of the NASA tunnel a t Langley Field.
The power of the instrument is 2000 h . p . The diameter of the closed
t e s t section is 4.88 m, and the flow velocity, M = 1.2.
P r o p e l l e r s tested a t high rotational speeds must be carefully balanced.
Inadequate balancing causes vibrations of the propeller and of the
instrument elements and reduces the measuring accuracy. F o r the s a k e
of safety, the p r o p e l l e r s a r e f i r s t tested for t h e i r s t r e n g t h on a special
stand where they a r e rotated at a speed which exceeds by 1 0 t o 15%their
maximum rotational speed in the wind tunnel.
465
A simple device f o r balancing propellers is shown schematically in
Figure 7 . 3 1 . The device consists of a l e v e r resting on a knife edge.
n
- V
Spring dynamometer
466
The correction d u e t o velocity reduction does not c x c e e d 0.5% of the measured thrust.
467
The thrust is measured by a wind-tunnel balance o r dynamometric
installation located inside a false fuselage. The torque applied t o the
propeller shaft is measured by different methods depending mainly on the
type of engine driving the propeller. When an electric motor is used, the
power absorbed by the propeller can be measured very simply but not
accurately, because it is difficult to determine the efficiency of the motor and
the effects on it of temperature changes in the winding during the t e s t s .
When an a i r c r a f t engine is used the power taken up by the propeller
can be determined by calibrating the engine. This method too is l e s s
a c c u r a t e than torque measurements by special dynamometric devices
operating on the weighing principle. The torque applied t o the propeller
shaft can be determined with the aid of devices in which the angle of twist
of a known length of the elastic shaft is measured with the aid of s t r a i n -
gage, inductive, capacitive, or optical transducers. Determination of the
power by the electric method, f r o m the engine c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o r f r o m the
shaft torsion, enables the torque t o be found with an accuracy of f 3 to 4%.
The f i e l d of application of these methods is therefore limited mainly t o
comparative t e s t s and t o flight t e s t s where the u s e of other types of
equipment is difficult.
T h e operation of individual blade sections is sometimes analyzed with the aid of measuring tubes by deter
mining the momentum and the moment of momentum of the air upstream and downstream of the blade
section considered.
468
T e s t i n g s i n g l e p r o p e l l e r s . Arm instruments a r e most
suitable f o r testing single propellers. The t e s t s a r e performed at constant
blade angles (cp= constant) and different values of the coefficient A , which is
varied by changing the f r e e - s t r e a m velocity f r o m V=O t o V = V,,lax at different
rotational speeds. The minimum number of revolutions of the propeller
is chosen i n such a way that the Reynolds number does not become too
s m a l l (Figure 7. 22). When this condition is satisfied the number of
revolutions is selected by taking into account the range of possible
measurements of t h r u s t and propeller torque, and the limiting velocity in
the t e s t section of the tunnel.
Excessive rotational speeds at a limited flow velocity in the tunnel do
not p e r m i t the full c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the propellers to be determined at
l a r g e blade angles ( l a r g e values of h ) . Reducing the number of revolutions
p e r m i t s the propeller c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s to be obtained f o r a l l blade angles.
However, due to the s m a l l n e s s of the loads acting on t h e balance devices,
the accuracy of determining the efficiency, and particularly its maximum
value, is reduced. T e s t s of propellers of a given s e r i e s (type and number
of blades, propeller d i a m e t e r ) must therefore be preceded by a n analysis
of the experimental conditions and by the selection of the rotational speed of
the propeller and of the flow velocity.
The velocity intervals a r e chosen in such a way that the intervals of the
coefficient a a r e equal to 0.1, and, in theneighborhood of q ms r , t o 0.05. The
highest velocities should correspond to a value of a at which the coefficients
a and p a s s u m e s m a l l negative values (0.05 to 0.01). This p e r m i t s the point
of z e r o thrust to be fixed m o r e definitely.
T e s t s of single propellers in the presence of the fuselage o r engine
nascelle with wing a r e performed in the s a m e way as t e s t s of isolated
propellers, but in addition the aerodynamic f o r c e s acting on t h e s e elements
a r e measured with and without the propeller. This p e r m i t s the influence
of the propeller wake to be taken into account and the effective t h r u s t and
propeller efficiency (ae, qe) to be determined.
In such t e s t s the instruments must he located inside the model and
attention should be paid t o providing sufficient c l e a r a n c e s between moving
and stationary p a r t s . The r e s u l t s of propeller t e s t s a r e usually given in
the f o r m of " s e r i e s " c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , i. e., of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a given
type of propeller f o r different blade angles and operating conditions
( a = f(h),'p = / ( A ) ) , with lines of constant efficiency (Figure 7. 32). If the
f r e e - s t r e a m velocity exceeds 70 t o 80 m / s e c , a correction f o r
compressibility effects h a s to be introduced.
Several countries p o s s e s s l a r g e wind tunnels mainly intended f o r testing
full-size p r o p e l l e r s . These tunnels a r e characterized by c i r c u l a r t e s t
sections, usually of the open type, having diameters of 6 to 8 m and
comparatively high flow velocities (up t o 100 to 1 5 0 m / s e c ) . The installed
powers of such tunnels attain f r o m 20,000 to 30,000 kw, In such tunnels it
is possible to obtain with propeller instruments c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s like those
shown in Figure 7 . 3 2 . When only wind tunnel balances and devices f o r
torque m e k u r e m e n t s o r engine calibration a r e used, c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s like
those shown i n F i g u r e 7.33 a r e obtained.
It was shown by many t e s t s that with the a i d of the engine c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,
the thrust of the propeller at take-off conditions at maximum airplane speed
can be determined with an accuracy of f l 0 kg, and the maximum airplane
speed, with a n a c c u r a c y of rt 1%.
469
Testing of coaxial propellers
410
I
47 1
In o r d e r t o investigate p r o c e s s e s connected with the reduction of the
rotational speed of the propeller t o values close t o z e r o (for instance,
the feathering of the propellers to reduce the d r a g after sudden engine
shut-down in flight, or the r e s t a r t i n g of the engine in flight), the propeller
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e given a s coefficients c p , c,,, and +=f n D
(cp,h). These
FlGURE 1.35. Forces measured by thrust balances when testing coaxial propellers.
f=Pi+Pt-APh -App .
Here PI and Pt a r e the forces measured respectively on the thrust balances
of the leading and trailing a r m s of the instrument, A P h is the drag of the
hub without blades. measured on the thrust balance, A P ~is the total force of the
p r e s s u r e in the clearances transmitted t o the instrument balance: A P p =
AP1.p. - A p t a p . .The f o r c e of the p r e s s u r e between the hubs does not
472
p. 1 =
1
hy 2I
(hb - hko)r
n
1 7
Aftape = ;iShyh(hk-hbo),
I
PI
-- 9
Pbal=(Pm.p.-P1.h.-P1.p. ).( 'm.p. -'t.h. +'t.p. j
FlGURE 7.36. Forces measured by the thrust balance when the hubs are
tested without blades.
where
M=M 1+ 4.
where MI is the torque of the leading propeller and Mt is the torque of
the trailing propeller.
We introduce dimensionless coefficients
413
while cm = c , + e, where
I I
1680
474
a:
a
04
0.3
0.2
0.1
cm
0.04
0.03
a02
a01
-001
-002
-003 _ _ L _ ~ I - I I
FIGURE 7.39. Total torque characteristics of coaxial propellers.
415
I I I I I
476
where V2 and p2 a r e respectively the flow velocity and density at the
cascade outlet, while Q is the m a s s flow r a t e p e r unit a r e a . The efficiency
of a cascade element is
where V?, is the outlet velocity at isentropic flow through the cascade, p2 is
the a i r outlet angle, and x is measured along the blade pitch.
(7.3)
(7.4)
471
I 1l 1l 1l 1l 11II Il1 Il Il1 Il
(7.5)
(7. 6 )
(7. 7)
( 7 . 9)
478
we obtain
(7.10)
(7.11)
(7.12)
479
wind tunnels is the provision of operating conditions in the central p a r t of
the cascade, approaching those in an infinite cascade. The number of
blades in the cascade usually v a r i e s f r o m 7 t o 14. Adjustment of the
magnitude and direction of the inlet velocity m u s t be possible. The lay
outs and designs of the wind tunnels differ according t o the velocities
obtained in them.
'1
480
If a back p r e s s u r e is required in o r d e r to i n c r e a s e the Reynolds number,
a throttling device is inserted between the tunnel outlet and the tested
cascade. The air f r o m the c o m p r e s s o r is supplied t o the tunnel through
a regulating valve. This can be an ordinary valve actuated manually by a
FIGURE 7 . 4 3 NGTE wind tunnel lor testing cascades a t large flow velocities. 1 -
throttling valve for accurare inlet-pressure regulation; 2 - circular section; 3-
rectangular section; 4 - corner; 5 - cascades; 6 - honeycomb; I - air discharge to
atmoiphere through settling clianiber.
48 1
The inlet angle is adjusted either by rotating the entire test section,
as shown i n Figure 7 . 4 4 , or by turning the cascade. In the f o r m e r case,
FIGURE 7.44. Ejecror runnel for cascade tesrs. Tunnel elements: 1 - settling chamber and nozzle;
2 - intermediate-pressure chamber; 3 - segments serving for changing the blade inler angle; 4 -
mixing chamber; 5 - diffusor; 6 - hlgh-pressure air pipe; 'I-tubes t o m u l t i p l e m a n o m e t e r ; 8-inlet
for additional aspirated ai r ; 9 - injector throat. Orifices and rubes: A- static pressure in settling
-
chamber; B - staric and toral pressures; C sraric pressure ar cascade inlet; D - static and total
pressures downstream of cascade; E - static pressure and temperature of high-pressure a i r; F - tubes
for measuring the flow direction downsrream of t h e cascade.
482
6
FIGURE 7.45. High-speed wind tunnel for testing cascades. 1 - steam turbine; 2 - a x i a l
compressor; 3 -cooler; 4 - n o z z l e ; 5 - Eiffel chamber; 6 - schlieren instrument; I
diffusor; 8 - bend; 9 - bypass; 10 -control panel.
M e a s u r e m e n t m e t h o d s a n d e q u i p m e n t . The total p r e s s u r e
a t the blade inlet is easily determined with the aid of stationary tubes.
FIGURE 1 . 4 6 . Test section of high-speed wind tunnel for testing cascades ( s e e Figure
7.43). 1 - turntable for installing the cascade; 2 - vertical adjustable wall; 3 -
nozzle flange for attaching the test section; 4 - s c a l e for read-off of blade angle; 5
static-pressure tap: 6 - tumtable guides: I -bracket for coordinating d e v i c e ,
483
The flow p a r a m e t e r s at the blade outlet a r e usually determined by tubes
of the type described in Chapter IV, for instance, cylindrical tubes with
central orifices for measuring the total p r e s s u r e and l a t e r a l orifices for
measuring the flow inclination. Since the flow downstream of the cascade
is nonuniform, the values of Ap02i and p2<, a r e measured at points whose
coordinates a r e xi with the a i d of the traversing cradle. The static
p r e s s u r e is usually determined with a s e p a r a t e tube. F r o m the measured
values of Apo2{ and we obtain by numerical integration the values of q ,sin
j%av and E.
R e c o r d i n g a n d i n t e g r a t i n g i n s t r u m e n t s . In o r d e r to
determine the influence of different p a r a m e t e r s on the characteristics of
the cascade, and to compare cascade t e s t s , a l a r g e number of t e s t s a r e
required, each of which consists of multiple m e a s u r e m e n t s .
Visual recording of a l a r g e number of readings and the subsequent
mathematical processing r e q u i r e s much effort and time. Large-scale
cascade t e s t s necessitate, therefore, automatic recording of the
m e a s u r e m e n t s , together with r e m o t e controi of the tubes with the aid of
automatic devices described in I 17. The advantages of automatic control
and measurement systems a r e :
1) increased accuracy, because the p a r a m e t e r s a r e recorded not a t
distinct points but continuously over the whole pitch;
2) speed-up of experiments and computation of final results;
3) improved work conditions due to distance f r o m sources of noise,
Automation permits processing of the measurement results during
the experiment. For this purpose special computing devices a r e used,
which integrate and average the measured magnitudes over the pitch.
An automatic continuous -measurement s y s t e m f o r testing cascades in
low-speed wind tunnels is shown in Figure 7 . 4 7 1111. This system
p e r m i t s simultaneous recording on a tape of the total-pressure loss
(pol- p p o z ) and of the angle p ~ , and determination of the mean values over
the pitch of these magnitudes, with the aid of mechanical integrating
mechanisms. The cylindrical tube (l), which m e a s u r e s the total p r e s s u r e
and the flow direction downstream of the cascade, is installed on the head
of the traversing cradle. During the experiment the head with the tube
is continuously moved along the cascade by motorhf,. The maximum
t r a v e l x 2 - x , , which is usually a multiple of the pitch, is determined by
limit switches (2) and (2'). Drum ( 3 ) of the recordingdevice is turned in
proportion to the displacement of the tube with the aid of a s e r v o system
which consists of a selsyn t r a n s m i t t e r STl and the selsyn receiver SR1.
Tube (1) is continuously turned into the flow direction by servomotor Mz
which is controlled by an automatic angle-measuring device and by
manometer A according to the system shown in Figure 4.79. Carriage (7).
with pen (51, is moved in proportion to the turning angle of the tube by a
lead s c r e w which is rotated by selsyn p a i r ST, and SR,. This pefimarks off
on tape (4), parallel to the drum axis, the value of angle p 2 . The total-
p r e s s u r e loss is measured by manometer B with the aid of a s e r v o
device consisting of a photoelectric cell, amplifier Y 2 , and servo
motor M3 which moves the light source and the photoelectric cell along
the column of liquid (such a manometer is shown in Figure 5. 6 ) . The
measured p r e s s u r e difference is recorded on the tape by pen (6), secured
t o c a r r i a g e (8), which is moved by a lead s c r e w rotated by selsyn pair
ST3 and SR3.
484
The integrating device which s e r v e s t o m e a s u r e the mean values of
the angle p 2 and the l o s s in total p r e s s u r e consists of discs (11) and (12),
and integrating friction r o l l e r s (9) and (10). The discs a r e rotated by the
selsyn pair STland SR, at a velocity dq2/dl = k l d x j d t where k, is a constant.
Coordinating
device
I
1 I 1 I
r2=kzf ( x )
P-7
485
the mechanism. When the disc turns through a small angle dqz = kldx the
angle through which the r o l l e r is rotated is
(7.13)
( 7 . 14)
( 7 . 15)
Thus the indications of counter (13) in Figure 7 . 4 7 a r e proportional
to the mean air-outlet angle:
(7. 16)
while the indications of counter (14)a r e proportional to the mean loss in total
pres sure:
(7. 17)
c=”’
i’ (POI- PO?) d x
(Po,-P,) (Xt-X,) ’
.ri=l--C.
486
counter (14), a r e proportional to the mean total gage p r e s s u r e downstream
of the cascade:
nE= k
i'(PO?-Pa) d x
k (POZ -Pala,
(X2-Xd
487
Connections between the separate units in the s y s t e m a r e provided by
selsyn p a i r s each consisting of a transducer and a receiver which operate
as control t r a n s f o r m e r s (Figure 4.76).
When the tube is moved by the traversing device, the angle through
which the motor G has rotated is repeated with the aid of selsyns in the
excitation unit whose duty is to transmit to the integrating device a signal
which is proportional to the tube velocity, The shaft of servomotor D
c a r r i e s a small d. c . signal generator (I), cam disc (2) of a stroboscopic
contact device for calibration of the integrating instrument, and a selsyn
t r a n s m i t t e r . The corresponding selsyn receiver is c a r r i e d on the shaft
of a second servomotor Di, which rotates the drum of the recording
instrument.
Generator (1) in the excitation unit c r e a t e s a voltage which is
proportional to the tube velocity dx/dl and to the excitation voltage U:
e, =k,u d x .
488
I
489
be taken to be equal to e2, and therefore
Thus, the angle through which the shaft of counter (5) rotates when the
tube moves a distance xz-x1 is
490
sections 111 and I V downstream of the fan, we obtain
v;
p a = p 2 + p ~ + C s U c(for sections 1-11),
v; v:
p2 t p ~ = p , + p T - H , (for sections I l - l l ~ ) ,
where p z , ps, p4, VI. Vs, and Vout a r e respectively the static p r e s s u r e and
velocity in the corresponding sections, and e,,
a r e the p r e s s u r e l o s s e s
caused by the r e s i s t a n c e s of the suction and discharge ducts respectively,
and H t is the total head created by the fan. After adding these equations
we obtain an expression f o r the total head created by the fan:
%ut
T
Ht = C s u c+ C d i s + P
[when P ~ = P ~ I .
The total head created by the fan is thus used t o overcome the
r e s i s t a n c e s in the suction and discharge ducts and f o r creating a velocity
head at the duct outlet. F r o m the viewpoint of the r e s u l t s obtained, the
r a t i o between the l o s s e s csUc and c d i s is immaterial, but their s u m is
important. During experiments it is better to i n s e r t a resistance only in
the suction duct, assuming the discharge section of the fan t o be the
discharge section of the duct.
The fundamental equation then becomes
or
Ht= Hst f Hd*
where H s t = ,c, is the static head created bythe fan, Hd=p% is the velocity
head created by the fan.
FIGURE 7.50. Operation of a fan i n a duct. FIGURE 7.51. Operation of a fan installed
downstream of a n expansion chamber.
49 1
I 1ll11l11l11111l11l Il II Il Il Il1 Il1I1
Vi
&-PP,= - ( c s u c t PJ.
Pz -P a = -,,c, = - H,,,
492
Such a chamber is shown in Figure 7 . 5 3 , in which the measuring points a r e
indicated, Atmospheric a i r enters the chamber through a cylindrical
measuring pipe with a smooth input collector, A s c r e e n s before the
collector prevents objects near the collector f r o m affecting the velocity
distribution in the pipe and eliminates any turbulence i n the a i r s t r e a m .
The cylindrical pipe is connected to a diffuser at whose end there is a
butterfly valve, by means of which the resistance to flow is altered.
Behind the butterfly valve, which also s e r v e s as guide vane, there is a
centrifugal blower intended to overcome partially or fully the resistance
of the duct.
I Q, ms/sec
493
where k, is the calibration coefficient, whose value is usually between
0.96 and 0.98, which characterizes the uniformity of the velocity
distribution in the pipe, p a is the atmospheric p r e s s u r e , and p,, is the static
S ome installations ar e equipped with instruments which permit the dimensionless coefficients to be
determined directly during tests. These instruments /E/ a r e based on the s a m e principles as those
for Mach-number determination (see § 24).
494
Expressing the t e s t r e s u l t s in dimensionless f o r m is very convenient,
since geometrically s i m i l a r fans have the s a m e dimensionless
characteristics irrespective of rotational speed, diameter, and a i r density*.
When the fan is tested in a duct (Figure 7. 54), the delivery can be
measured with the aid of orifice plates. The static p r e s s u r e can be
measured with the aid of either orifices in the duct walls o r tubes
installed on the duct axis. In either case the measurement must be made
at a distance not l e s s than 8 diameters f r o m the orifice plate, but up
s t r e a m of the protective net placed directly in front of the fan. In the
f o r m e r method, several orifices located in a plane perpendicular to the
duct axis a r e connected by a common tube to a manometer. The mano
m e t e r thus indicates the static p r e s s u r e , to which the velocity head in
the section of said plane has to be added in o r d e r to obtain the total head
created by the fan.
* When U R > 80-100 m/sec a correction for compressibility effects has t o b e introduced.
495
* D a t a onf r i c t i ona l resistance. its dependence on Reynolds numher and degree of roughness for straight pipes
and channels are given in /16/.
496
-- __ .... . .. .
,,
resistance 51 is defined a s t h e r a t i o of the t o t a l - p r e s s u r e l o s s AH1 t o the
velocity head -!&
2g
in the section considered:
whence
497
measurements a t the wall, or with the aid of a Pitot-Prandtl tube. The
mean velocity a t the diffuser inlet is determined f r o m the velocity
head H, = p,,-pI behind the collector.
4 5 1 2 3
I
I
T o fan
----.
Cd=-$(6-; 82).
where
Test
Diffuser
498
Sometimes it is advisable to average over the m a s s flow instead of
over the a r e a . The measuring r e s u l t s a r e usually given in the
f o r m of dependences of the r e s i s t a n c e coefficients Ld on the Reynolds
and Mach numbers and on the geometrical p a r a m e t e r s ( a r e a ratio, etc.).
PI =P, + P VZ +AH,
Wind- tunnel
499
I I I II I I
I
( k n = 0.96 t o 0.98).
D e t e r m i n i n g t h e r e s i s t a n c e of a r a i l c a r v e n t i l a t i n g
h o o d . The layout of an installation f o r determining the r e s i s t a n c e of a
ventilating hood is shown in Figure 7 . 60 1191. The resistance coefficient i s
500
defined a s
t.0
0.6
06
04
01
0.92 0.96 1.0
Y
FIGUKE 7.59. Dependence of toral-pres
sure ratio on coeflicient 'p.
Determining p r e s s u r e l o s s e s in pipes
A H = h -d1 p-. vz
2
or
where h is the friction coefficient which has different values for laminar
and turbulent flow. In o r d e r to determine h , AH has to be measured by a
501
II I I II Ill I Ill II I I Ill111 IIIIIIIIIII III.I I Ill 1111111 11111III.111111IIIIIII
A=64 Vd
Re (Re=Y)
f o r Re< 2000.
Tested ventilating
Pressure chamber
0.3164
A=-
?@
etc.
D e t e r m i n i n g t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of l o c a l r e s i s t a n c e of
b e n d s . The coefficient of local resistance is
502
.. . . .
D e t e r m i n i n g t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of l o c a l r e s i s t a n c e s i n
p i p e l i n e s . F o r orifice plates, cocks, o r s i m i l a r elements, the
coefficient of local resistance is
To differential To differential
manometer manometer
503
Axis
7U of rotation 5
torque coefficient
& =2MX
pp
- 2 4
M Y =-p ~ ~ ’n ~ 3
p r e s s u r e coefficient
At a given blade geometry and fixed blade angles, all these coefficients
a r e functions of the advance r a t i o
Z=-. WVR
T h e 3KTsP-M instrument and the method of its use were developed by G . I . Sholomovich from the
3KTsP instrument designed by I. D. Mogilnirskii /20/.
504
I . I I I I1 I
(about t h e y1 -axis) is measured, whence
o r in dimensionless f o r m
can be found.
In o r d e r t o reduce e r r o r s a r i s i n g f r o m the determination of the difference
between two a l m o s t equal magnitudes, thevalueof ;,=% i n the 3KTsP-M
instrument is l a r g e r than in full-scale wind turbines. Experiments show
that the m e a s u r e d values of and mv, depend considerably on the instrument
mg
support. In a full-scale wind turbine the supporting s t r u c t u r e ( m a s t , tower,
etc.) h a s relatively s m a l l e r dimensions than the instrument support. Hence,
505
c o r r e c t i o n s f o r the interference of the supports are necessary, particularly
i n wind turbines causing considerable deflections of the flow.
The base of the instrument is column (l), s e c u r e d by stays to the t e s t -
section floor o r to a platform (in a tunnel with open test-section). The
top of the instrument can, with the aid of worm g e a r (21, be turned about
the column in o r d e r to change the angle of flow inclination.. u p p e r plate (1O),
fixed to tubular stand (8), can t u r n on ball bearings about rod (91, rigidly
fixed to intermediate plate (6). The latter can turn on ball bearings about the
lower tubular stand (3).
The instrument is designed in such a way that the axis of rod (4) l i e s in
the plane of rotation of the model. The moment M y , which tends to t u r n the
upper plate in relation t o the intermediate plate, and My,, which tends t o t u r n
the l a t t e r about stand (31, are taken up by bellows ( 7 ) and (51, t h e p r e s s u r e s
in which a r e usually measured by standard manometers (not shown). The
upper plate of the instrument c a r r i e s generator (19) on whose shaft model
(20) is mounted. The generator is supported on plain bearings (15) which
p e r m i t axial displacement of the generator shaft. These bearings are
connected to the generator body by means of followers (17) and pins (18).
1680 506
the aid of bellows (13) and (12), the p r e s s u r e s in which a r e m e a s u r e d
as in bellows (5) and (7).
A l l f o r c e - m e a s u r i n g s y s t e m s of the instrument a r e filled with water.
The presence of even s m a l l air bubbles can cause considerable deformations
of the bellows, and thus alter the position of the model during the experiment.
The rotational speed of the model is m e a s u r e d either by e l e c t r i c tacho
m e t e r (14), o r by determining the t i m e elapsing between pulses emitted
a f t e r e v e r y 100 revolutions of the model by a special contact device installed
instead of the tachometer. In o r d e r t o include all moments, the tachometer
or contact device is fixed t o the generator body.
The entire instrument top is covered by fairing (111, fixed to stand ( 3 )
in o r d e r t o avoid t r a n s m i s s i o n of aerodynamic f o r c e s , caused by the flow
around the instrument, t o the force-measuring s y s t e m s . An external view
of the instrument installed in a tunnel is shown in F i g u r e 7 . 64. Figure 7. 65
is an experimental c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a wind-turbine wheel f o r a flow
inclination angle 7 = 45".
-
MY
6 Mxjf Y = 45"
0.06 06
0.04 04
a02 0.2
507
S 38. TESTING OF EJECTORS
I
I
\. I r I
508
The operating principle of an ejector is a s follows : Low-pressure
(ejected)gas is sucked into mixing chamber D f r o m r e s e r v o i r A in which
the p r e s s u r e is p o , thedensity, PO, and the temperature, To. High-pressure
(ejecting)gasflows fromannular chamber C through slot B also into mixing
chamber D. The p r e s s u r e in the annular chamber is p i , the density, ph, and
the temperature, Ti. In order to increase the compression efficiency, a
diffuser with a s m a l l divergence angle (6 to 8") is usually placed downstream Of
the mixing chamber. The p r e s s u r e at the diffuser exit is p:.
509
The theory of ejectors (cf. e. g., /18/) shows that f r o m the experimental
viewpoint, determination of the ejector c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s is reduced t o finding
the p r e s s u r e s po, p i , and p:, the loss coefficient p of the suction system, and
the p r e s s u r e - r e s t o r a t i o n coefficient E of the diffuser. The coefficients p
and f a r e i n practice a l s o determined by p r e s s u r e measurements.
Figure 7. 68 shows schematically an installation for investigating the
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of ejectors. The installation consists of an ejector (or its
model) whose walls have orifices connected t o manometers. If necessary,
the velocities in different sections of the ejector can be measured with the
a i d of Pitot-Prandtl tubes when the dimensions of the sections a r e suitable
The mixing p r o c e s s of two s t r e a m s (determination of the velocity
distributions over the length of the mixing chamber, of the boundaries of the
ejecting s t r e a m , etc.) is studied a t subsonic velocities with ordinary tubes
mounted on a t r a v e r s i n g device, or (particularly at supersonic velocities)
by optical methods with the aid of a Topler instrument or an interferometer
The fact that various flying apparatus and objects (rockets, airplanes,
m i s s i l e s , torpedoes, etc.) undergo, during certain periods of t h e i r motion,
l a r g e accelerations and considerable vibrations, while the t r a j e c t o r i e s
of their c e n t e r s of m a s s a r e curved, necessitates special experimental
methods. The difficulties which a r i s e a r e both technical and of principle.
Technically it is very difficult t o m e a s u r e instantaneous values of forces and
moments when the model vibrates; in principle it is almost impossible t o
reproduce in the experiments the surroundings and the conditions
corresponding t o the r e a l flight or motion. This requires great caution in
the application of experimental r e s u l t s .
The flow pattern around an aerodynamic surface (the shape of the wake,
its position in relation to the body, the shape, number, and disposition
of shocks a t l a r g e velocities, e t c . ) and thus its aerodynamic properties
depend considerably on the Reynolds number, the Strouhal number.
and the Mach number, In addition, the aerodynamic properties of a body
in a nonsteady flow also depend on the motion of the body during the period
preceding the instant a t which the kinetic p a r a m e t e r s were measured, i. e.,
on the motion a s a whole.
*
Modern methods permit the aerodynamic properties of bodies in non
steady motion to be determined experimentally, This is done by considering
a s e t of p a r a m e t e r s which determine the laws of nonsteady motion a s a
whole, and by expressing the coefficients of the aerodynamic f o r c e s and
moments a s functions of the coefficients of the rotational derivatives.
The dimensionless coefficients of the rotational derivative of the f i r s t orderZ:*
510
take into account, with an accuracy sufficient in practice, the main factors
caused by the nonsteady flow around the tested body.
When considering the nonsteady motion of an aerodynamic surface, it is
assumed that:
a ) The mean translational velocity has a finite value, while the other
kinetic parameters (e. g., the angular velocity of the body) have relatively
small values.
b ) The body moves in an infinite space which is at r e s t in infinity in
front of the body; t h e r e a r e no sources of disturbance except the body and
its wake.
Under these assumptions, the action of the medium on a body moving
in it is completely determined by the motion of the body in relation to the
stationary coordinate s y s t e m xyz (Figure 7 . 69). We introduce a coordinate
s y s t e m Olxlylzl moving with the body and project on its axes the vector
characteristics of motion, r e f e r r e d to the stationary coordinate system
(absolute translational velocity Uo and absolute angular velocity Q,,). We
denote the projections of Qo in the moving system by Q,, Q, Q,, and write
Uo(l)= (I+ A U ( t ) , where the mean velocity LI does not depend on the time t .
We also introduce the dimensionless magnitudes:
51 1
derivatives*, and also on the whole s y s t e m of factors which characterize
velocity etc.).
512
The dimensionless coefficients of a, a, oz and J, have to be determined
experimentally by the different methods discussed below.
B a 1a n c e t e s t s a r e usually undertaken in wind tunnels at constant velocity
and different angles of attack. The coefficients c; and In; a r e determined
f r o m the slopes of the curves cy = f ( a ) , mz= f ( a ) . In addition, cy, and mz0
a r e determined in the balance tests.
T h e w h i r l i n g - a r m m a c h i n e i s u s e d f o r m e a s u r i n g the aerodynimic
f o r c e s and moments acting on the model during its uniform rotation at an
angular velocity o. and at constant angle of attack. The aerodynamic forces
and moments can be expressed a s follows :
UZ
M, = (mzo +m>+ m> w), p b3.
whence
The model must thus be bent along the a r c of a parabola. The forces and
moments acting on the deformed and on the undeformed model a r e found
f r o m t e s t s in the tunnel. The differences between these f o r c e s and
moments enables the coefficients m p and .,”I to be determined.
T h e m e t h o d of s m a l l o s c i l l a t i o n s permits, i n c o n t r a s t t o a l l the
above methods, all coefficients of the rotational derivatives to be determined.
F o r instance, those entering into the expressions for Y and M, a r e found by
subjecting the model in a wind tunnel to small harmonic translational (along
the y-axis*<*)o r rotational (about the 2- axis) oscillaticns. and measuring
the aerodynamic force and moment, o r several p a r a m e t e r s of the motion.
In the f o r m e r case the method is called dynamic, in the latter, kinematic.
513
T h e d y n a m i c m e t h o d of s m a l l o s c i l l a t i o n . Let the model
be subjected to forced translational oscillations along the y-axis:
a=---- ;- ;p sinpt=yp*sinpt,
RGURE 7.70. Velociry vector of rotating RGURE 7.71. Velocity vector of a deformed [ s a
undeformed model. rionary] model.
a=ypcospt.
When O J ~= w: = 0, we obtain
The f o r c e and the moment thus also vary harmonically, with phase shifts
E,,and E ~ ,in relation to the motion of the model.
The coefficients of the rotational derivatives a r e found by equating
the coefficients of the trigonometric functions:
514
The coefficients of the rotational derivatives (cf, cf, m2, m?) can be
determined by measuring the aerodynamic forces and moments during
rotational oscillations of the model about the z -axis. Let the model
undergo harmonic oscillations about the z-axis. The angle of attack is
then
and therefore
a=w,=--POPbinpt=-aop*sinpt,
U
iz=-aop*2cospt.
Substituting at a = ozand AZ i n the expressions f o r the l i f t and the
pitching moment, we obtain
M, = mg
- u2
b3 cos ( p t + E,,).
T h e centering instrument is a device which consists of a vertical shaft, carried in bearings. to whose upper
end the model is fixed. T h e lower end of t h e shaft is connected t o a dynamometric mechanism. T h e model
c a n thus oscillate in t h e horizontal plane (Figure 7.72) or, when hinged, about other axes (for instance,
th e x - a x i s (Figure 7.81).
515
The r e s u l t s of the measurements a r e processed by equating the general
expression for the moment in the f o r m of a Taylor s e r i e s with an expression
f o r the moment in the f o r m of a Fourier s e r i e s whose coefficients a r e
Drive
2x
where P = y is the circular frequencey while T is the oscillation period
when the angle of attack varies according to the law
a=a*sinpt .
F o r pure rotation
we obtain
516
by compensating the imbalance of the model and the inertia forces;
the sensitivity of the amplifier and the recording range of the oscilloscope
a r e then chosen. For dynamic calibration the aerodynamic load is replaced
by a spring which connects the model to the stationary base. This permits
conversion f r o m the f i r s t harmonic of the recording to the f i r s t harmonic
of the effect (amplitude sensitivity 3% and time shift A t ) (Figure 7. 73).
=dyn
I!
517
I 1
l1ll Il11l 1l11
l1 lIl1
l1
l1
l11
l1lIl I1 I I I1
l1
0 Dynamic method
0 Wind-tunnel balance
T h e k i n e m a t i c m e t h o d of s m a l l o s c i l l a t i o n s p e r m i t s the
coefficients of the rotational derivatives to be determined by m e a s u r e m e n t s of
s e v e r a l p a r a m e t e r s of motion. This can b e done by either f r e e or forced
oscillations J The installation for determining the rotational derivatives is
shown schematically in Figure 7.78. It consists of a-system with one degree
of freedom. In the method of f r e e oscillations, the model is first brought
out of equilibrium. It will then, under the action of springs P I and P2,
p e r f o r m damped oscillations about the axis of the centering instrument,
which a r e recorded on a moving chart by a pen fixed to a pendulum
(Figure 7. 79). This chart also contains time m a r k s , which permit the
oscillation period of the model to be determined. In the method of forced
519
(Figure 7. 8 0 ) . The coefficients of the rotational derivatives of the
moment can then be determined f r o m the p a r a m e t e r s and position of this
ellips e ,
from a,,, J.2 is the moment [about the z-axis] of the inertia forces of
the model-pendulum system, 1,=Jzmod+ (k)Jzpend.
M, is the m oment exerted
by the springs and the weight of the pendulum, which does not depend on the
angle of attack, k*(ao + a ) is the moment exerted by the springs and the weight
of the pendulum, which depends on the angle of attack ( a ao): +
520
.. .I
external force causing the oscillations , M, is the aerodynamic
moment on the model:
dza
-
dtl +2n $-+m2a+ma=A, sin p t ,
where
When the model oscillates about the y-axis, the equation of motion is
where
PO is the angle of yaw which corresponds to the mean position of the model,
and is the deviation from PO.
A s i m i l a r expression can be found f o r oscillations of the model about
the x - a x i s . For this motion, the model is suspended f r o m the centering
instrument by a support which p e r m i t s osciIlations about the x-axis
(Figure 7. 81). P r o c e s s i n g of the r e s u l t s of the recordings p e r m i t s the
coefficients of the rotational derivatives of the aerodynamic moment t o
be determined with the aid of the above relationships. This i s done by
T h e coefficient must be positive, since otherwise the motion of the model will not be oscillatory. The
in2
. Sb3 .
condition that this coefficient be positive is when mwz - 1s negligible in coiiiparison with 1. :
z p 2
k'-";qSb>O.
52 1
I l1l1l l 1l1l l l I1
dzO dB
-
dt2 +2n - ; i T + m 2 8 + m , = A , s i n p t ,
where Bo is the angle which corresponds to the mean position of the model,
8, sin ( x t - q ) e - n t is the free-oscillation t e r m , and Ezsin ( p t + E) is the forced
response of the model.
F o r f r e e oscillations ( A l = 0) the solution is
522
I
Taking the logarithms of both s i d e s of this equation and solving f o r n ,
we obtain
2s
Knowing n and x , we c a n find m. Experiments yield approximately m = T .
The coefficient mo is determined f r o m the equation
E is the phase shift between the excitation-force fluctuations and the forced
oscillations of the model,
Knowing the values of 02 and E we can find the coefficients m and n of the
equation of motion:
n = . AAs i n E ; m= I/p2--A,cosE.
2POl e1
I
T h e factor e-"ldecreases rapidly since n > 0 . so that after a short t i m e t h e amplitude becomes constant.
** This expression is obtained by considering t h e parametric equation of t h e ellipse drawn by t h e pen on the
moving t a pe � = a ,slnpl; q= 6 , sln@t-c), where E and (1 are respectively t h e displacements of t h e
carriage and the pen from their equilibrium positions, while a, and b, are respectively t h e amplitudes of
t he oscillation of t h e carriage and pen.
523
the z-axis, we can neglect the magnitude m$pSG, which, during
t e s t s in an a i r s t r e a m , is s m a l l in comparison with the moment of
i n e r t i a J , . We then obtain
where Jzl is the moment of inertia with the equivalent load. Then
524
Bibliography
525
1 7 . I d e l ' c h i k , I.E. Aerodinamika potoka i poteri napora v
diffuzorakh (The Aerodynamics of Flow and P r e s s u r e L o s s e s
in Diffusers). - Promyshlennaya Aerodinamika, In: Sbornik,
No. 3. BNT TsAGI. 1947.
18. A b r a m o v i c h , G.N . Prikladnaya gazovaya dinamika (Applied Gas
Dynamics). - Moskva, Gostekhizdat. 1953.
19. K h a n z h o n k o v , V.I. Ventilyatornye deflektory dlya
zheleznodorozhnykh vagonov (Ventilation Hoods for Railcars). -
Promyshlennaya Aerodinamika, In: Sbornik, No. 3.
BNT TsAGI. 1947.
20. S h o l o m o v i c h , G. I. Eksperimental'noe issledovanie modelei mnogo
lopastnykh vetrokoles v kosom potoke (Experimental Investiga
tions of Models of Multiblade Wind-turbine Wheels in Inclined
A i r s t r e a m s ) . - Promyshlennaya Aerodinamika , In: Sbornik,
No. 16. Oborongiz. 1960.
526
Chapter VIIZ
527
corrections f o r tunnel blockage by the model and its wake t o be reduced t o
values less than 0.5 t o 1 % of the m e a s u r e d forces, s o that they can be
ignored altogether. However, the introduction of corrections t o the
r e s u l t s of t e s t s in tunnels is often unavoidable, s i n c e t h e i r magnitudes
become comparable with those characterizing the tested phenomena.
F o r instance, the difference in d r a g of an airplane model with two different
wing designs is about 1 0 to 20%; f o r a tunnel with open t e s t section, the
correction f o r induced drag, flow, inclination, etc., is about 15 t o 20%
of the d r a g m e a s u r e d by the balance.
v, = Vme(1 +E&,
528
Since
we obtain
where
�=�,+E,.
Hence
529
induce velocities very f a r u p s t r e a m of the model, where the measurements
a r e performed.
This method was used by different authors to determine the blockage
coefficients of the model(~,)and its wake ( E , ~ $ f o r tunnels with closed and
open t e s t sections of different cross-sectional shape . We present several
4- $7
-
h
44-.-- 4
Figure 8 . 1 . Replacing FIGURE 8.2. T w o solid walls replaced
a solid wall by a mir- by mirror images of the model.
ror image of the model
A=-
;( I+- :)*
where c is the chord length 1 3 1 . The value of h can be determined from
Figure 8 . 3 .
2. F o r a rectangular closed test section, Glauert / 4 / suggested
where . ~ = j (iss an
) empirical coefficient (Figure 8.4). The value of
can also be found f r o m the drag: / 51, 161
530
c/t
FIGURE 8.3. Coefficient A appearing in FIGURE 8.4. Coefficient ’1 appearing in
formula for em (two-dimensional flow). formula for 1 (two-dimensional flow).
11. W i n g s of i n f i n i t e s p a n i n c i r c u l a r c l o s e d t e s t
s e c t i o n s 171.
1. ~ ~ = 1 . 3 5 6 1 ( $ ) 2 , where d is the diameter of the tunnel.
2. eW=0.321 %ex.
111. M o d e l s i n t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l f l o w .
I. Body of revolution located on the tunnel axis / 3 /
E ,.1(+)”
m pt s
Cross-sectional
Closed test Open test
shape of test
section section
section
53 1
c/t
FIGURE 8.5. Coefficient L appearing i n for
mula. for em (for body of revolution).
W
0.65
hZb ’
where h and b a r e respectively the height and the width of the t e s t section.
This formula gives a correction with an accuracy of 510%.
T a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t , The s t a t i c
-
p r e s s u r e v a r i e s linearly with$ along the test-section axis, where is the
r a t i o of s t a t i c p r e s s u r e to velocity head. T h e Archimedian f o r c e Q’is
proportional t o the volume W of the body
532
The correction f o r the p r e s s u r e gradient is*
We can also write /1/ e, = c y me- EA ($)*e, me , where A is found in the same way as in the
determination of e m and
*
** T h e correction for the pressure gradient in such tunnels is determined by highly accurate rests.
533
The blockage coefficients of the model and i t s wake are then
E'=?
m -mg3
-
1
'
1
0
'Iw =i w -F .
The corrections f o r the Mach number, density, and velocity head are 1 5 1
AM = ( 1 + I
Mhe) Mm$,
Ap = - M'
me' '
C' 2
A (p -\ = (2 - M,&)
2 1
5' (PTL
V1
where
Lift effects
534
535
-I I
I
V
Y
FIGURE 8.8. Flow pattern around airfoil in tunnel with closed
test section.
_-
I C
4 h cyme.
Thus, intunnels with open t e s t sections the total change in the angle
of attack is
Pa=-- (iy
- (c y
I C
me+4cmme)-~~~yme*
536
Cy cor Cy me.
Also,
cXcor=c,,,cosAa+cym,sin~~-cxm,+cym,A~.
we obtain
537
1
I1
ll1
l 111l1
l1ll1
l1lIl 1 l l llIlllIl II
Correction
~ -
Closed test
section
- I Open test
section
. -. ~-
L i f t e f f e c t s o n w i n g s of f i n i t e s p a n . I n m o s t wind-tunnel
t e s t s the chord of the wing is s m a l l in comparison with the dimensions
of the test section, s o that the curvature of the streamlines, caused by
the tunnel boundaries, canbe ignored. T h e lift effects can then be simulated
by the flow perturbations caused by the images of vortices shed f r o m the
trailing edge (Figure 8.10). Under these conditions the corrections f o r
wall effects become
scr
P a =6 -cyme,
FLS.
scr
Acx = Aac, m e = 6 -c2
Ft.5. yme-
1680
538
a) C i r c u l a r t u n n e l w i t h c l o s e d t e s t s e c t i o n
Model span
Tunnel diameter. .......... 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Elliptical load distribution over
the span ............... 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.127 0.128 0.131 0.137
Uniform load ............ 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.126 0.126 0.127 0.130 0 136 0.148
b) O c t a g o n a l t u n n e l w i t h c l o s e d t e s t s e c t i o n
Model span
Tunnel d i a m e t e r . . . . . . . . . . .
Elliptical load distribution over
I 0 I 0.1 I 0.2
the span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Uniform load. ............
I I I I
c) R e c t a n g u l a r t e t s e c t i o n
Width
-
Width
Helghr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Closed .................
I I 1.0 1.5 I 2.0 12.5 1 I 3.0
Open.. ................
.-
T h e tabulated data should b e used if the experimental values of I,, and ECrI are not known for the
tunnel in which the tests a r e performed.
539
The relationships a -a o =f
(2
:., )
a r e then plotted f o r f i x e d values of cy(cY=0.1;
we can determine
a n i = - . k"i
CY
kc
we obtain By experiments with geometrically s i m i l a r wings
e:
in tunnels with elliptical t e s t section, it was found that 6.,=0.24 and 6cxi=o.17.
540
Aa =6. -cy me
s CI ,
' Fts.
f o r two-dimensional flow
ha= "(5)'
96 h
( ~ y m e S - 4 c m m e )
FIGURE 8.11. Blocking effect in a tunnel with open elliptical test section.
where the correction for the blocking effect Ap is found by averaging the
r e s u l t s of experiments with different wings. In tunnels with closed t e s t
sections o r with single r e t u r n ducts the correction f o r the blocking effect
is s m a l l and is mostly neglected. In tunnels with dual r e t u r n ducts this
correction is considerable.
541
Different methods of introducing corrections
f o r the lift effect
me a
dcyme
Strictly speaking, t h e slope is 7 ,
bur the error is negligible
542
due t o the change in concavity ( A i ) , and
Cy=Cyme-~Cy,--~y,=~yme- C A CY'
where Sh.[.isthe area of the horizontal tail, Lh.[.is the distance f r o m the
wing t o the horizontal tail (usually f r o m the center of gravity t o the hinges
of the elevator), b A is the m e a n aerodynamic chord, and
543
- - - - -- - -- - --- - .-... -- -
Experiments show that 6 t can be a s s u m e d equal t o 0.08. Hence
and
The influence of the lift a t large subsonic velocities is taken into account
by multiplying the expressions for AT (see page 535) by p=- v nI z . We
thus obtain:
AT=+"-
192 [fir
c
'me
1
__-
-2
f o r a closed t e s t section,
1
AT = - ( f T c y m eY-~Z - radians f o r a n open test section
c = .1/1- 2%
-
--M2 (a + 271,
c, = -
x
v-i=KG T v
544
I
which is t r u e for a thin airfoil. The additional correction to the angle
Of attack Aa= - $f cyme.necessitated by the general flow inclination in an
open t e s t section, shouldnot be made; neither should t h e r e be a change
in the correction f o r the induced d r a g ( A c , =
~ ~cuAai).
Applicability of corrections
545
When balance measurements of a half-wing supported on the wall of a
closed test section a r e performed (such t e s t s enable the span of the model
and the Reynolds number to be increased)> it can be assumed that the flow
perturbations caused by the boundaries, and thus, the relevant corrections,
will be the s a m e a s when a complete model is tested in a tunnel having a
t e s t section of double the width.
The influence of the boundary layer at the tunnel wall on which a model
supported can be ignored if, on both sides of the tunnel, false end sections
of a wing of the s a m e profile a r e placed with a clearance between the wall
and the model wing. These end sections should, on each side, extend a
distance a into the tunnel where =tg lo", 6 being the chord length of the
wing. This is illustrated in Figure 8 . 13. The influence of the boundary
layer on the wall is sometimes eliminated by placing, with clearances,
profile plates between the model and the wall.
Wire of t a i l
To balance / suspension
Cleai
The corrections for blockage by the model and its wake can be estimated
f r o m the experimentally determined i n c r e a s e in velocity (or p r e s s u r e ) on
the tunnel wall opposite the model. If AVI is the increase in velocity at the
wall, due to blockage by the model and its wake, while .1V2 is the velocity
increase far downstream of the model, then f o r small models / 5 /
546
This method can be used a s long a s the theory of small perturbations
i s applicable, i. e., for velocities a t which the supersonic region on the
airfoil is s m a l l and shocks do not extend t o the tunnel walls. A t these
velocities m o r e accurate r e s u l t s a r e obtained f r o m the expressions 1 1 2 1 .
The tested model is mounted in the tunnel with the aid of different
types of suspensions, supports, s t r u t s , etc. Their influence on the flow
pattern in the tunnel and around the tested model is considerable. In the
general c a s e , these effects a r e expressed in changes in the velocity and
p r e s s u r e distributions, which a r e noticed:
a ) a s changes in the average velocity in the t e s t section, which
necessitates corrections in the velocity coefficient of the tunnel;
b ) a s changes in the p r e s s u r e gradient, which c r e a t e a horizontal
Archimedian force affecting the drag, thus necessitating a correction in
the p r e s s u r e gradient;
c ) a s changes in the flow inclination in the vertical plane n e a r the
supports, which affect the distribution of the downwash over the span
of the model and n e a r the tail, and necessitate corrections in the angle
of flow inclination and in the downwash near the tail;
d ) a s changes in the downwash along the chord of the wing (along
the flow direction), which affect the lift and the pitching moment, and
necessitate corrections in the induced curvature of the streamlines;
e ) a s changes in flow velocity n e a r the tail, which necessitate corrections
in the longitudinal-stability c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ;
f ) a s different local influences affecting boundary-layer flow, vortex
formation, local flow separation, etc.
547
F i g u r e 8 . 1 4 shows the influence of supports of the type shown i n
Figure 8 . 1 5 on the s t a t i c p r e s s u r e and the downwash in the t e s t section
of the tunnel. Immediately behind the tail s t r u t , the static p r e s s u r e is
reduced by an amount equal t o 8% of the velocity head. In front of and
I I
548
considerably f r o m the corresponding values in the presence of the model
because of i t s influence on the flow around the supports. Determination
of the effects of interference between
the model and i t s supports is t h e r e
f o r e important in aerodynamic
measurements, particularly in high-
speed tunnels, where the supports can
radically change the flow pattern
around the model.
Due t o the l a r g e differences in the
supports used, and the complexity
of the phenomena, it is difficult t o
perform a generalized analysis of the
interference f o r different models
tested in tunnels of various dimensions
and types, In practice, in each wind
tunnel this problem is solved
individually by collecting experimental
data on which corrections in the t e s t
r e s u l t s a r e based. The corrections
a r e obtained by s e v e r a l general
methods. In so-called comparative
t e s t s , a t velocities a t which
compressibility effects can be
neglected, it is sufficient t o take into
FIGURE 8. 16. Model of a n airplane with swept- account the drag of the supports by
back wings in a full-scale runnel.
testing the l a t t e r without the model.
This procedure is c o r r e c t when the
overall change in velocity around the model, caused by the flow constriction
a t the supports, is negligible, a s in low-speed tunnels, where wire and tape
supports a r e used. When the changes in velocity cannot b e neglected,
tunnel blockage by the supports can b e taken into account by the methods
described above ( s i m i l a r t o the effects of blockage by the model itself).
Thus, a sufficiently accurate correction factor is / 5 /
E=
I sc,
4 bh I
549
acting on the main supports at a given position of the model a r e deduced f r o m the
test results, and the f o r c e s acting on the mode1 alone a r e thus found.
L�
support
“lb To balance
a
To balance
b
To balance
C
550
t o be equal to the interference between the main supports and the model.
The f a l s e supports should therefore not be located a t the wing tips, close
to the engine nascelles, etc.
It is possible t o combine these methods, and a l s o other methods of
taking into account the interference between the model and the supports.
In particular, in high-speed tunnels the influence of the supports i s
determined not only by means of balances but by measuring the p r e s s u r e s
beneath the model, where it is connected t o the supports. The difficulty
of accurately determining the interference between the model and the
supports makes it n e c e s s a r y to reduce its effects to minimum when the
balance and the model supports a r e designed. This can b e done by
reducing the number of supports and their c r o s s sections, and by suitably
selecting the point where they a r e fixed to the model. T h e s e points should not
be in the region of maximum wing thickness (especially on the upper s u r f a c e )
near the leading edge o r engine nascelles, at the wing tips, e t c .
Symmetrical swept back supports a r e used in high-speed tunnels. The
angle of sweepback exceeds by 5" t o IO" the angle of sweepback of the wings
usually tested on these supports. Rigid shrouded tail supports a r e
successfully used in supersonic tunnels. It is mostly possible by repeated
t e s t s , t o determine accurately the interference effects of the supports
selected f o r a given tunnel and to take them into account in the r e s u l t s of
the aerodynamic measurements. When designing the supports, special
attention must be paid to their rigidity. This is particularly important
f o r tail supports in supersonic tunnels.
551
-
a=u
I l l 1 TI
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
FIGURE 8.22. Typica prcscntation of measurement results of m y = / ( p . a,,).
a-0'
553
I 11l1
l1
l1
l1
l11
l1
ll1Il1
l1llIl I
TABLE 14. Example of program for processing the results of tests on a six-component wind-tunnel balance
in a low-speed tunnel with open test section
6 : x s -Drag of supports
I = 0.17, F = 1 . 3 2 m 2
)rag correction for lift effect:
9 degrees
effects
10 degrees
Sh.t
15
mz tr = mz - Amzo m z o =0.061 -*zCy
bA
loment correction for downwash a t tail
B = 26" R, = - 0.0138,
B=O R,s=O,
!3=-26' Rzs=+0.0138
19
20
554
TABLE 14 ( c o n t ' d )
Number Order of calculation
-
Dimensions
1 Remarks
24
P r o g r a m f o r p r o c e s s i n g t e s t r e s u l t s . The r e s u l t s of t e s t s
on the balance shown in Figures 6 . 3 4 and 6 . 3 5 in a tunnel with an elliptical
open t e s t section (Figure 3 . 18) a r e processed in table 14. The results of
t e s t s in low-speed tunnels a r e usually presented in the f o r m of diagrams
a s shown in Figures 8 . 1 9 to 8. 23. The r e s u l t s of t e s t s in supersonic
tunnels a r e usually given in the f o r m of dependences of the f o r c e and
moment coefficients on the Mach number a t fixed angles of attack, which
-
can then be presented in the form of relationships cr f ( ~ )e tc. f o r fixed
Mach numbers.
A c c u r a c y a n d r e p r o d u c i b i l i t y of e x p e r i m e n t s . In
laboratory t e s t s both random and systematic e r r o r s a r e encountered.
Random e r r o r s have a Gaussian distribution 1131. Systematic e r r o r s obey
certain laws which can be found and taken into account when the t e s t r e s u l t s
a r e being processed. In o r d e r to estimate the c o r r e c t n e s s of the values
of the aerodynamic coefficients, which a r e always obtained by indirect
measurements, the accuracy of these measurements must be taken into
account. , This must be done both when setting up an experiment and
designing the experimental equipment and a f t e r the experiment.
When setting up the experiment, it is n e c e s s a r y t o consider the effects
of random e r r o r s of the different measuring instruments on the accuracy
of determining the required characteristic. 'This has already been
mentioned i n Chapter II. Here we shall consider specifically the influence
555
of e r r o r s of the measuring instruments on the accuracy of measuring the
power coefficient of a propeller (see Chapter VII)
2aM
p=--
p4DS ‘
B --
2 /(g+(!$+
(2:g
or, noting that the density p is also determined indirectly by measuring the
temperature T and the barometric p r e s s u r e B (see § 15):
2888
p=0.125mT ,
(We a r e considering measurements in a low-speed tunnel where
compressibility effects a r e neglected). We thus obtain
556
This line can be drawn by eye or better, by using the method of l e a s t
squares (see S29).
An important c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the precision of the experiment is the
accuracy of the "single test". Usually the t e s t r e s u l t s a r e presented a s a
s e r i e s of curves (e. g., cx = f ( a ) f o r different Mach numbers; B = f(h) f o r
different blade angles, etc.). It is very important t o find the deviation
of the points f r o m the smoothed curves (which can a r b i t r a r i l y be made
by additional measurements of cx, p. etc.) f o r one experiment (single t e s t ) .
This is usually done by additional t e s t s , which a r e periodically c a r r i e d
out f o r methodological purposes and a r e included in multiple t e s t s of any
model.
Multiple t e s t s of a model a r e usually performed a f t e r adjusting the
tunnel and i t s equipment and developing the experimental method. In
o r d e r t o reduce the influence of systematic e r r o r s , these t e s t s should be
c a r r i e d out under equal conditions a s r e g a r d s the tunnel, the measuring
equipment, and the model, and at s h o r t intervals. The r e s u l t s of each
t e s t a r e processed by the s a m e method, and curves plotted. For any
value of the argument, the arithmetic mean of the ordinates is then
found f o r each measured value. The deviation of the points (for a fixed
value of the argument) on each curve f r o m the mean value of the ordinate
(for instance pa v= 3)
n
determines the standard deviation of the measuremenl
o r the probable e r r o r
551
The main sources of random e r r o r s in aerodynamic tests a r e in
accuracies, under static conditions, of the measuring equipment (about
20% of the e r r o r s ) , differences in the initial installation of the model in
the tunnel (ainsL)(about 30% of the e r r o r s ) , and the nonsteady c h a r a c t e r of
the aerodynamic loads (about 50% or' the e r r o r s ) . The random e r r o r s also
depend on the aerodynamic properties of the model: f o r high-lift models
(large values of the derivative c); the values of ac and am* will be l a r g e ,
558
frequently requires comparison and compilation of the aerodynamic
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s determined in different tunnels. Although such comparisons
a r e mainly possible for overlapping conditions, (e. g., a t a velocity which is
the maximum possible in a low-speed tunnel, the minimum possible in a
high-speed tunnel, o r at equal Reynolds numbers when compressibility
effects a r e neglected), agreement between the r e s u l t s of t e s t s in different
tunnels p e r m i t s the range of investigations to be extended. The possibility
of using r e s u l t s obtained in different tunnels p e r m i t s superfluous expensive
t e s t s to be avoided in many c a s e s .
4 6 8 10
Reef .io+
559
aerodynamic properties a s functions of the effective Reynolds number:
da,
dCY cymaxand aEy-O.
7 8 . 9 1 0
Reef
Number TF
of T ype of tunnel Dimensions of rest section On tunnel axis
tunnel
560
de
Figures 8 . 2 5 and 8 . 2 6 show that the values of 2 and cYmaxobtained in
different tunnels agree with an accuracy of 2 t o 370.
Figure 8 . 28 shows comparative r e s u l t s of multiple t e s t s of the same
model in a tunnel with an open elliptical t e s t section and in a tunnel with
a closed c i r c u l a r t e s t section. Noting the agreement between the
aerodynamic properties determined in different tunnels, we can a s s u m e
that the corrections introduced a r e sufficiently accurate. Thus, f o r instance,
E
Y
0.6
06
0.4
02
0
-a 2
mz
0
-0 I
-02
56 I
Figure 8. 29 shows the r e s u l t s of tests of the NACA RM-IO model in
different wind tunnels and in flight, a s functions of the Mach number / 1 4 / .
A 1860” long model was tested in a tunnel whose t e s t section measured
2.44mX1.83m. The total drag was measured by a balance. Two models,
of 229” and 186” length w e r e tested in a tunnel, whose test section
measured 0.23mXO.l9m, by means of strain-gage balances located in
the support outside the model. Nine models were tested in flight: five
w e r e 3720” and four w e r e 1860” long. The total drag was determined
0.z
0 TunneI f.22 ?.ZZm2 Re=(ill+C5) M a
0 TunnelL?Z3.0.t9m2 Re-2.66 lo6
0.3
0.2 To t a l drag coefficient
(c,l
Dl
Coefficient of bottom drag
0 (czb 1
14 7.4 1.8 22
M
FIGURE 8. 29. Comparative results of tests in tunnels and in flight of a NACA RM-10 model.
1- model length 3720 mm, i n tunnel: 2 - model length 3720 mm, in flight: 3 - model
length 1860 mm, in flight; 4 - model length 1860 mm; in 2.44 m X 1.83 mm tunnel,
R e = 30X106.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
562
4. G 1 a u e r t , H. The Interference of a Wind Tunnel on a Symmetrical
Body.--. and M. 1544. 1933.
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6.
A 11 e n , H. I. and W. G. V i n c e n t i. Wall Interference i n a Two-
Dimensional Flow Wind Tunnel with Consideration of the Effect
of Compressibility. - NASA, T. R. 782. 1944.
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upon the Aerodynamic Characteristics of a n Aerofoil Spanning
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8.
B a t c h e 1o r ,G. K. Interference on Wings, Rodies and Airscrews in
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9. .
Y o u n g ,A. D. and H. B. S q u i r e Blockage Corrections in a Closed
Rectangular Tunnel: Part I. Simple Approximate Formulae f o r
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10.
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G 1a u e r t , H. Osnovy t e o r i i kryl'ev i vinta 4Fundamentals of the
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GNTI, Moscow-Leningrad. 1931.
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M. 2527. 1944.
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Komitet PO delam mer i izmeritel'nykh priborov p r i Sovete
Ministrov SSSR, Moscow. 1949.
14 E v a n s ,A. I. The Zero-Lift Drag of a Slender Body of Revolution
(NASA RM-10 r e s e r c h model) as Determined f r o m T e s t s in
Several Wind Tunnels and a Flight at Supersonic Speeds.-
Report NASA, 1160. 1954.
563
Chapter IX
564
t e s t s (for instance, inserting the values of aerodynamical coefficients
from a balance t e s t of the model without taking into account the influence
of suspensions, interference, etc.).
During the l a s t 1 0 y e a r s , electronic computers have been used f o r
processing experimental data, Notwithstanding the fact that electronic
digital computers a r e expensive and require complex s y s t e m s f o r
converting the measurements into digital form, they a r e used in most l a r g e
modern aerodynamic l a b o r a t o r i e s .
A s t h e r e is a l a r g e amount of l i t e r a t u r e on the u s e of electronic
computers (see, f o r instance, / l / , / 2 / ) , only the main principles of t h e i r
operation, necessary f o r understanding the methods of preparing the
measured r e s u l t s f o r feeding t o the computers, a r e explained h e r e .
Electronic digital computers consist of the following main p a r t s :
1 ) arithmetic unit, f o r operating on digits; 2) memory, f o r reception,
storage, and output of the digits; 3 ) control unit, f o r controlling the
automatic operation of the computer; 4 ) data input and output device,
(Figure 9. 1). The process of solving a problem on the computer, a s with
Signals to
I Numbers
and
Controller
iiistruc tions
Control by
operJ tor it
Address
\,
Input Output
device of
results
565
566
Wind-tunnel experiments consist of measuring a l a r g e number of
different p a r a m e t e r s . Thus, f o r instance, when testing an airplane
model on six-component balances, the following values must be measured:
t h r e e components of force, t h r e e components of moment, the full and
static p r e s s u r e in the working p a r t , and the braking temperature. Some
times, additional p a r a m e t e r s a r e measured, f o r instance, the hinge
moments of the control organs, and the p r e s s u r e a t different points on
the model and walls of the tunnel. These a r e necessary f o r inserting
suitable corrections when subsequctly computing the dynamic coefficients.
One experimental point when testing the model is calculating a s e r i e s of
the above-mentioned values a t the moment when these quantities are
constant. Simultaneously, the p a r a m e t e r s given by the experimenter
must be calculated, f o r instance, the angle of attack and the angle of slip.
The r e s u l t s of one t e s t (or a s is often said, one blowing of the model)
con,cist of a number of experimental points received with one independent
parameter, f o r instance, angle of attack o r s t r e a m velocity. Testing an
airplane o r a rocket in a wind tunnel consists of s e v e r a l series of t e s t s ,
f o r example: a s e r i e s of t e s t s according t o velocity, according t o the
angle of installation of the control s u r f a c e s , with a model having di.fferent
geometrical p a r a m e t e r s , e t c .
Thus, the full testing cycle of an airplane model consists of l a r g e
numbers of measurements, whose total can reach thousands. Other
types of experiments a r e no l e s s labor-consuming as, f o r instance,
testing a s e r i e s of wing o r propeller profiles. When testing turbojet
engines in wind tunnels, the principal parameters measured a r e p r e s s u r e
and temperature. Sometimes hundreds of values a r e recorded in one read-
off, and a full cycle of t e s t s can contain several thousand measurements.
The manual recording of m e t e r readings is connected with subjective
e r r o r s and e r r o r s caused by nonsimultaneous read-downs f r o m different
instruments. To reduce e r r o r s and t o speed up experiments, the
indications of the s e p a r a t e balances and instruments a r e r e a d down by
different operators according t o an audio o r visual signal f r o m the chief
operator. This method is used a t present only in wind tunnels with very
low loads. To improve the utilization of modern powerful tunnels, the
accuracy and speed of experiments are incrcased by automatically recording
all the measured values.
T h e r e a r e two possible methods of automatically recording primary
measurements: 1) graphically; 2 ) numerically,
By observing graphically recorded data, the senior experimenter can
easily find any maladjustment in the measuring system or tunnel. F r o m
the tendency and shape of the curve, the experimenter can then plan the
next p a r t of the experiment.
The use of graphs f o r f u r t h e r computation is connected with additional
e r r o r s and loss of time when measuring and recomputing the coordinates
into digital f o r m . For this reason, graphs a r e very seldom used f o r
p r i m a r y measurements in modern wind tunnels, but r a t h e r , digital forms
of recording data. However, a s the possibility of observing the process
of the experiment f r o m graphs is very important, many wind tunnels use,
in addition t o digital devices, all s o r t s of automatic graph r e c o r d e r s ,
placed on a panel before the senior experimenter. It is particularly useful
567
llIll Il1Il 1
Wind
tunnel R
Long-term memory
no., etc.
......
of dimensionless
coefficients final data
568
In addition to the measured data, some auxiliary quantities a r e recorded
(for instance, the point number, record number, model number, etc.). The
punch c a r d s a r e put into the computer which makes all the n e c e s s a r y
computations according t o a given program, which is usually recorded on
punch c a r d s . The computed data a r e punched out by the computer onto
punch c a r d s or paper tape. These data a r e t r a n s f e r r e d t o a printer which
prints the r e s u l t s in the tabulated form, or to a plotter.
Very often, the physical values measured during t e s t s , such a s l i n e a r
and angular movements and voltages, must be converted into digital f o r m .
Thus, f o r example, compensating instruments (automatic lever -type
balances, automatic bridges and potentiometers) have a s the output signal
t h e angular movement of a shaft. Strain gages, resistance t h e r m o m e t e r s ,
and thermocouples inserted into an unbalanced bridge produce signals in
the f o r m of voltages.
Counter Paper
/
tape
Ribbon
tenths of a turn of the shaft. When this wheel makes one rotation, the
wheel of the next o r d e r is pushed ahead by a s t e p change of 0.1 turn.
Thus, the number of turns made can be read off the counter a s a decimal
number to 0.1 of a rotation.
Decimal counters a r e suitable, in most c a s e s , f o r the maximum number
of turns made by the balancing motor of an instrument. This can r e a c h
hundreds of t u r n s , a s in automatic lever-type balances.
The indications on the counters can be recorded using decimal wheels
with protruding numbers and an electromagnetic device, a s shown in
Figure 9 . 3 . Such a device is used f o r recording the indications of automatic
bridges in s t r e s s balances.
569
A multichannel digital p r i n t e r (Figure 9. 4) is used f o r recording
simultaneously the indications of a l l instruments when testing a model
with mechanical wind-tunnel balances.
1680
570
A read-down is made by depressing a print push-button switching on
motor (6). The motor, via a c a m distribution mechanism (7), f i r s t
lowers all l e v e r s t o the corresponding s p i r a l c a m s (1). Simultaneously,
the printing s e c t o r s (4) a r e turned by an angle corresponding t o the
radius of the protrusion on the s p i r a l cam, on which is p r e s s e d the given
l e v e r . The digits of the s e c t o r s , equal to the digits in each of the decimal
protusions of the counter, a r e placed opposite the c e n t e r of rubber r o l l e r ( 8) .
A s the l e v e r s (2) turn, the toothed s e c t o r (9) closes contact ( l o ) , which
sends pulses to the puncher. The number of pulses equals the number
recorded on the counter. The distribution mechanism then f r e e s s t r i k e r
( l l ) , which under the action of p r e s t r e s s e d spring (12) s t r i k e s the base
of all the printing s e c t o r s . The l a t t e r , moving by inertia, s t r i k e the rubber
r o l l e r , making an impression by means of copying paper on paper tape (13).
The r e g i s t e r s a r e placed in one r o w , and therefore one s t r i k e of rod (11)
on the tape prints the indications of a l l the measuring instruments a s four
digit numbers. The angle of attack and the read-down number a r e recorded
by t h r e e - o r d e r counters. The read-down number on the counter changes
automatically with each measurement,
13
ii
57 1
and t h e i r operation. In the center is a graph r e c o r d e r (5), an indicator
displaying the Mach number of the s t r e a m (4), and an angle-of-attack
indicator (6). This placing of the display instruments enables the
experiment to be overseen by 2 operators, one f o r recording the
m e a s u r e m e n t s while the other changes the conditions in the tunnel, A
panel (7), containing the selsyn r e c e i v e r s of the automatic balancing
elements, i s placed inside the desk, under the printer. The balancing
elements m e a s u r e six components of the forces on a wind-tunnel balance
(l), the static p r e s s u r e p in the working part of the tunnel, and the
p r e s s u r e drop AI) between the working part and the forechamber. In
addition, the selsyn r e c e i v e r s of the automatic balance a r e installed on
panel (7). This bridge m e a s u r e s the s t r e a m temperature with a resistance
thermometer, Another selsyn receiver is connected to the mechanism
changing the angle of attack.
FIGURE 9,6. Recording measurements i n a wind tunnel having mechanical balances. 1-wind
tunnel balance with lever-type balancing elements; 2-printer: 3-COntrOl panel; 4-visual dis
play of the Mach number of the stream; 5 - ch ar t recorder; 6-angle-of-attack indicator; 1
selsyn receivers; 8- analog devices for measuring t h e Mach number of the stream; 9-puncher.
512
Rheostat
Digital
01 000001
02
03
000010
OOOO!~
SBB% amo
06 0001!0 OOOlOl
of meclianical r e g i s t e r s . These convert
07 000111 OOOlDD
08 001000 OOl!OO the angle t o a binary coded number,
IO 0010!0 OOllll
13 001101 OOlO!l
15 001111 OLYODD
18 010010 OllO!l
26 olioin oioiii
conducting and non-conducting segments.
27 OllOll OlO!lO
28 c:mo aioaio A separate brush slides on each ring,
29 O!llO! OlOOlI
30 011110 O!OOOl
and responds t o a definite binary bit.
32 110000
573
111 I I1 1111 I I I1 I I
To i n c r e a s e the operational reliability of the converter, the segments on
the coding disk a r e placed s o as to produce a reflected binary code, a s
shown in the third column of Figure 9.8. This code differs f r o m the
normal binary code in that in each subsequent number the digit changes
in only one o r d e r , thus reducing the possibility of an e r r o r in read-down.
The fourth column of Figure 9. 8 shows the layout of a six-bit coding
disk. The darkened segments a r e the conducting ones.
Numbers, r e a d off f r o m a coding disk, coded according t o the reflected
binary code, a r e not suitable f o r further u s e in electronic computers and
must be converted t o normal binary codes. F o r conversion, switching
devices consisting of electromagnetic r e l a y s a r e switched into the brush
c i r c u i t s of the coding disk (Figure 9. 9).
a
V
"
Coding disk
574
.
.. ._ .. ...
This relay converter s e r v e s at the s a m e time as a s h o r t - t e r m memory
(register). The measured values a r e stored in a long-term memory (the
machine f o r punching c a r d s ) during a period of time necessary for
providing stabilized conditions in the s t r e a m before the next read-down.
During the read-down of the r e g i s t e r by the long-term memory, the
balancing motors of the compensating instruments can be either stationary
o r rotating, watching the changing conditions. The second method is better,
a s it reduces measuring time. To make this method possible, the relay
r e g i s t e r is equipped with an additional blocking contact, which maintains
the c u r r e n t s in the r e l a y circuits until the next read-down.
Microamperes
--
Tti"3Tt
400 20
-kReference
--
- voltage
i
Compensating
20
- -
100 40
-
20 20 10 4 2 2 1
Amplifier
-
I
x
+ N
Measured
voltage
number with the aid of a mechanical counter connected to the shaft of the
balancing motor of the compensator. In the s y s t e m shown in Figure 9. 7
the measured voltage f r o m the compensating instrument is f i r s t converted
into an angular shaft position. The angular position is then converted by
a coding disk into digital form.
There a r e systems where the voltages a r e digitally measured without
conversion into angular motion. The advantage of these systems is t h e i r
considerable increase in speed of operation. This is achieved by replacing
the balancing motor by a s y s t e m of electromechanical o r contactless r e l a y s .
575
A circuit diagram of a high-speed digital potentiometer is shown in
Figure 9.10, This s y s t e m was developed by the Lewis Aeronautical
Laboratory (NASA) f o r the multipoint measurement of thermocouple
signals, but is also suitable for measuring signals f r o m s t r a i n gages / 4 / .
The instrument is designed for measuring voltages ranging f r o m 0-10
and 0-40 millivolts in 72 channels during 48 seconds. The temperature
is read by comparing a compensating voltage with the measured voltage.
The difference between these voltages is amplified, and the output voltage
f r o m the amplifier is used f o r changing the compensating voltage until it
equals the measured voltage. Twelve fast-acting r e l a y s switch on 1 2
r e s i s t o r s in the compensating circuit, f o r balancing the potentiometer.
The figures in Figure 9 . 1 0 denote the current in m i c r o a m p e r e s passing
through the corresponding r e s i s t o r s when the relay contacts, in s e r i e s with
the r e s i s t o r s , close. The sum of these c u r r e n t s p a s s through a 10ohm
r e s i s t o r for producing the compensating voltage.
Different r e l a y switching combinations give any compensating voltage
between 0 and 9.99 millivolts in steps of 0.01 millivolts. To obtain the
necessary voltage balance, the r e s i s t o r s a r e switched f r o m left to right
by a step selector incorporated in a circuit consisting of 12 thyratrons.
Immediately after the f i r s t [selector] contact is closed, the r e l a y contacts
to the input of the amplifier a r e broken, giving a positive pulse if the
balancing voltage is l e s s than the unknown voltage, and a negative pulse
i f it is g r e a t e r than the unknown voltage. A positive pulse f i r e s the
thyratron connected by the selector to the output of the amplifier, and
switches in via an intermediate relay the f i r s t r e s i s t o r . If the balancing
voltage is g r e a t e r than the unknown voltage, the first thyratron is not fired
and a s the switch p a s s e s to the next contact, the f i r s t relay remains d e
energized. The s a m e process takes place for each of the 1 2 steps. At the
end of the cycle, s o m e thyratrons a r e conducting, the contacts of the
relays connected with them a r e closed, and the potentiometer is balanced.
The voltage is read f r o m the conducting or nonconducting condition of each
of the 1 2 thyratrons, which s e r v e a s a r e g i s t e r .
The relay in the plate circuit of the thyratron gives the information to a
paper-tape puncher. For the puncher to be operated constantly, two
thyratron assemblies a r e provided, one for obtaining the information f r o m
the potentiometer, and the second for simultaneously transmitting to the
puncher the information received in the previous read-down. The thermo
couples a r e switched successively into the circuit via a separate step
selector switch. Figure 9.11 shows the simplified block diagram of the
system. The moment the amplifier transmits the information to the upper
thyratrons, the lower thyratron r e g i s t e r transmits to the relay r e g i s t e r
the information recorded during the previous read-down. The information
in the r e g i s t e r s is erased by momentarily shorting the plate supply voltage
of the thyratrons, thereby enabling the lower r e g i s t e r to receive new
information f r o m the amplifier. The relay r e g i s t e r decodes the information
recorded on the thyratron r e g i s t e r a s a 1, 2, 2, 4 code into a natural
binary code. The p r o g r a m m e r transmits to the tape, in the necessary
sequence, the information f r o m the relay r e g i s t e r and f r o m the channel
coder. The channel coder punches on the tape the number of the channel
corresponding t o the given read-down.
576
Method of dynamic compensation
- ~-
I
I
Source of 1 I
577
memory (7) takes place between two measurements. Each pulse
corresponds t o a known s m a l l interval of voltage, and therefore knowing
the total number of pulses, it is easy t o determine the measured voltage.
Contr
FIGURE 9. 12. System for measuring a voltage as a number of pulses. 1-control circuit:
2 - transducers; 3 - amplifiers; 4- zero indicator; 5-gate; 6 -d a t a output pulse genera
-
tor; 7- long-term memory; 8- electronic counter; 9 clock-pulse generator; 10- saw
tooth voltage generator; 11- scanner.
b d d d d d d d d d d
1 0 0 1 1 1 0 I I 0 1=1261
an off c e l l by a white one, then the display of the binary counter, a s shown
schematically in Figure 9 . 1 3 , will be 10011101101, i. e., the decimal
number 1261. F o r multipoint measurement, it is not required t o count
578
the number of pulses in each measuring channel with s e p a r a t e electronic
counters. Due t o their high speed of operation, one counter can successively
count the number of pulses in each channel and give this number as a binary code
to a long- t e r m memory for input to a computor. With a clock-pulse frequency
of lo6 cycles, it is possible by dynamic computation to record on magnetic
tape, during one second, 1000 values to an accuracy of 0.1%. To accomplish
this, a high-speed electronic switch (11) should be placed a t the amplifier
input (Figure 9 . 1 2 ) . Electromechanical switches can be used for measuring
up to 1 0 0 channels p e r second.
579
a n interval of time a r e counted. These r e p r e s e n t change in p r e s s u r e
f r o m a fixed initial value up t o the measured quantity 161,
An arrangement for measuring p r e s s u r e using the first method is shown
in Figure 9.14. The p r i m a r y p r e s s u r e measuring element is p r e s s u r e
switch with a sensitive diaphragm (1) (Figure 5.56, Chapter V). For
simplicity, only one switch is shown in the figure, but the actual number
equals the number of p r e s s u r e s measured. The measured p r e s s u r e pi is
applied t o one side of the diaphragm. The other side of the diaphragm is
connected with r e s e r v o i r (21, in which is created a varying compensating
p r e s s u r e . Initially, a vacuum is created in r e s e r v o i r (2). A s the measured
p r e s s u r e is g r e a t e r than the p r e s s u r e in the r e s e r v o i r , the diaphragm is
deflected and closes an electrical contact. The r e s e r v o i r is connected t o
an a c c u r a t e manometer, which sends electrical pulses, with increasing
p r e s s u r e in the r e s e r v o i r , t o a circuit closed through the diaphragm.
Each pulse corresponds t o an i n c r e a s e in p r e s s u r e of 0.25 m m Hg. The
pulses a r e counted until the p r e s s u r e in the r e s e r v o i r equals the measured
p r e s s u r e . At this moment, the diaphragm opens i t s contact, and the pulses
stop reaching the counter which is connected to the diaphragm. The
measured p r e s s u r e in mm Hg is eqaul t o 0.25 r i , where r i is the number of
recorded pulses. The p r e s s u r e in the r e s e r v o i r continues to r i s e to a value
slightly higher than the highest measured p r e s s u r e , after which a vacuum
is again created in the r e s e r v o i r . A measuring cycle l a s t s 1 0 seconds.
A null-instrument is used for measuring the compensating p r e s s u r e and
f o r sending pulses. It consists of a bellows (3), whose movable cover is
connected with two flat cantilevered springs (4), and a differential t r a n s
f o r m e r (5), sensitive to movements of up t o 0.00025 mm. A s the p r e s s u r e
i n c r e a s e s in the r e s e r v o i r , the cover of the bellows and the cantilevered
springs move upward. A s a result, a signal is induced in t r a n s f o r m e r (51,
which is amplified in amplifier (6), giving a voltage t o servomotor (7). The
l a t t e r r o t a t e s micrometric s c r e w (8). Nut (9) moves support (1O ) , on
which a r e fixed springs (41, until the force exerted by the springs equals the
p r e s s u r e on the cover of the bellows. This is c a r r i e d out with the aid of
l e v e r s (1 1) and (12), which form, together with the moving support (1 O), a
parallelogram. This arrangement moves support (10) towards the bellows
by about the amount of deformation of the spring, and prevents the bellows
f r o m moving sideways. A piston (13) relieves nut (9) f r o m the forces
acting on the bellows.
Servomotor (7) r o t a t e s the micrometric s c r e w through a pair of g e a r
wheels. The gear wheel on the axis of the s c r e w has 180 teeth. The
stiffness of springs (4), the a r e a of bellows (31, the transmission r a t i o
of lever (111, and the pitch of the s c r e w a r e chosen in such a way that a
turn of the s c r e w by 2" corresponds t o a change in p r e s s u r e of 0.25 m m Hg.
Each of the 180 teeth of the g e a r wheel, when turning, interrupts a r a y of
light between s o u r c e (14) and photoelement (1 5).
Figure 9.15 shows a block diagram of a p r e s s u r e r e c o r d e r , the
measured p r e s s u r e s p,, .. ., p,, a r e fed by tubes to the diaphragm heads.
The electrical p u k e s generated by the photoelements of p r e s s u r e m e t e r (3)
a r e fed simultaneously via the closed contacts of all the diaphragm heads
(2) t o the recording heads (4) of a s h o r t - t e r m magnetic memory. The
l a t t e r is a bronze drum with an external diameter of 300" and a length of
100". During the changing p r e s s u r e cycle in the r e s e r v o i r , the drum
580
rotates uniformly. Recordings a r e made by magnetizing the ferromagnetic
coating on the surface of the drum which is at the given moment under the
recording head. The clearance between the recording head and drum
s u r f a c e is 0.025".
PI = I
I
I
I Short-term !
Pz = I memory 'I
I
I I
L - -J
i
P1 1
Throttling valve
% 1
I
FIGURE 9. 15. Diagram of a multipoint pressure measuring system. 1- reservoir in which is
created the compensating pressure; 2- diaphragm pressure switch; 3 - pressure m e t e r with pulse
generator; 4- magnetic recording heads; 5 - m ag n et i c drum; 6-scanner; 7-electroniccounter;
E-coding and decoding; 9-printer; 10- tape puncher; 11- control panel; 12-pressure and
vaclium control.
58 1
such data a s the channel number, computer instructions, experiment
number, record number, date, and other necessary data a r e also recorded.
A characteristic example of using dynamic compensation methods is the
centralized measuring s y s t e m at the Lewis Aeronautical Laboratory (NASA)
1 6 1 . This system is the intermediate link between 9 wind tunnels and
electronic computers. The data previously recorded on intermediate
memory devices a r e transmitted as pulses over telephone wires to a
central encoder and a r e recorded on magnetic tape during the time the
necessary s t r e a m conditions a r e established for the next measurement.
Four types of data a r e recorded on the magnetic tape:
1 ) data common to the given job, e. g., read-down number, record,
number, barometric p r e s s u r e , date, etc.;
2) the p r e s s u r e at 300 points measured with p r e s s u r e switches;
3) voltages f r o m 200 channels measured with thermocouples, and
voltages f r o m s t r a i n gages of wind-tunnel balances and potentiometers,
Control room
Wind tunnel
Central
station
582
I
The connections a r e made with relays, which automatically switch the
different circuits during data recording. The dynamic compensation method
used in the given s y s t e m differs f r o m the s y s t e m shown in Figure 9.15 in
recording instead of a drum and the pulses recorded represent fixed intervals
1 3M
To central
register -
FIGURE 9. 11. Arrangement for measuring pressure and recording the pulses in a magnetic core
memory. 1- reservoirwith linearly changing pressure: 2-diaphragm pressure switches; 3
clock-pulse generator; 4- readout-pulser; 5 - input from binary-decimal electronic counter;
6-matrix; I-output register; 8-gates.
583
accumulated during time t,i in each of the 300 measuring channels. Each
magnetic c o r e consists of a miniature ceramic bobbin wound with a tape of
magnetic m a t e r i a l 0.12” thick. Through a hole in the bobbin t h r e e wires
p a s s f o r the voltage pulses.
The memory qualities of the c o r e s a r e based on t h e i r magnetic
rectangular h y s t e r e s i s loop. A minimum c u r r e n t I through one of the
w i r e s is required t o change the magnetic position of the c o r e . With a
1
c u r r e n t of k T / , the c o r e r e m a i n s in its initial magnetic condition. How
e v e r , if two c u r r e n t pulses o f pl / p a s s through two wires, the magnetic
flux caused by these two c u r r e n t s is summed and the magnetic condition of
the c o r e changes. Thus, the c o r e will r e m e m b e r the coincidence by
changing its magnetic condition. The c o r e s a r e placed in horizontal and
vertical rows in the f o r m of a matrix. Sixteen c o r e s in one vertical
column form one information channel and can s t o r e a 4 digit decimal number
(a 1 6 digit binary number). To s t o r e the data of 300 channels, 300 vertical
columns a r e required.
A vacuum tube is connected t o each vertical column. The tube p a s s e s
c u r r e n t only when a positive voltage is applied t o the control grid. The
tube is controlled by the diaphragm p r e s s u r e switch of the given measuring
channel. A horizontal wire p a s s e s through each of the 1 6 c o r e s of one
column, and the c u r r e n t through the wire is controlled by the 1 6 bits f r o m
the binary-decimal electronic counters. The function of each bit f r o m the
1
counter is to control the transmission of a pulse of y / along the horizontal
wire to the corresponding c o r e . If the counter position contains a unit of
information, it will pass a pulse of 1 I into one c o r e of each of the 300
channels.
At the moment the measuring cycle s t a r t s , the 1000 cps clock-pulse
generator switches on. The generator sends pulses t o the electronic
counter and t o each of the 300 tubes connected with the diaphragm
p r e s s u r e switches. When the p r e s s u r e in the r e s e r v o i r equals the p r e s s u r e
measured by the given p r e s s u r e switch, the diaphragm opens its contact
and a signal is transmitted t o the tube connected to this p r e s s u r e switch.
With the next pulse f r o m the generator, this tube p a s s e s a current pulse
of + / into the 1 6 c o r e s of the corresponding channel. Simultaneously,
I
the electronic counter sends pulses of I along the horizontal wires
connected t o those positions in the counter storing bits. Those c o r e s
of the given channel receiving coincident pulses along the horizontal and
vertical wires change their magnetic condition, and thus r e m e m b e r the
number of pulses s t o r e d by the electronic counter when the tube was
switched on.
Those c o r e s not receiving coincident pulses remain unchanged. After
the contacts’of a l l the diaphragm p r e s s u r e switches have operated, a
signal is automatically sent t o read down the information stored in the
m a t r i x memory. The information is r e a d down of a speed of 20 channels
p e r second by sending a c u r r e n t pulse l a r g e r or equal t o I through each
vertical column via pulser (4). A second electronic counter (output r e g i s t e r )
(7) r e c o r d s the voltage pulses appearing on the third wire of each horizontal
584
r o w of the matrix. These pulses a r e induced by changes in the magnetic
flux of the c o r e and pass the recorded values t o the central encoder. A t
the end of read-down the s y s t e m is r e s e t to i t s initial condition and is
ready t o receive the next measurement.
Engine r. p. m. and fuel output a r e recorded by electronic counters
counting the number of pulses produced by magnetic tranducers from
tachometers and flowmeters (Figure 9 . 1 8 ) during an interval of 10 seconds.
I \
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5 45. PROCESSING THE M E A S U R E D D A T A
ON C O M P U T E R S
Channel S cal e
Transducers amplifiers factors
e
discontinuities
FIGURE 9. 19. Block diagram of a system for continuously processing strain-gage indications
at t h e Wright Brothers Research Center.
The least s q u a r e s method is used to determine the torque M,, and the
s t r e s s Y, acting on the model installed on pivoted strain-gage balances.
The device computes according to the formulas discussed in Chapter VI
(page 409)
+
Y , = a,,Au, a,,Au, +a,,Au, + . . .,
M,, = a d u l + anAu2 +- + ...,
Q23Au3
.
where Au,, A U Z , . . a r e the voltages f r o m the strain-gage bridges placed in
different sections of the beam. The measuring s y s t e m of each transducer
operates with an a . c . c a r r i e r frequency. F i l t e r s at the output of the
information channels filter out the c a r r i e r frequency and d , c , signals
a r e received proportional to the measured values of A u i . The d. c. signals
a r e summed in operational amplifiers. Before summation, the signals
f r o m different channels a r e multiplied by "weight" coefficients a s
determined by the constants of the equation. These coefficients depend
on the design of the balances and the model, inserted by potentiometers
a t the input of the operational amplifiers, and a r e easily controlled.
Correction factors a r e also inserted into the adders.
The p r e s s u r e factor is determined by
1680
586
which is converted t o
1680
587
instructions t r a n s f e r r e d t o the computor following each read-down. This
simplifies the processing of data obtained f r o m different experimental
objects and instruments.
The method of processing the measured data on an IBM-604 computer
using punch cards can be seen in Figure 9. 20, where p r e s s u r e s a r e
measured with the aid of a multipoint digital r e c o r d e r .
01 02 03 -
--
- - 04 05
FIGURE 9.20. Automatic data processing with a digital computer in t h e Lewis Aero
nautical Laboratory. -
1-reference pressure; 2 tested engine; 3 - pressure in engine;
4 -paper tape; 5 -reader; 6 -codex; 7 - puncher; 8 -blank punch cards; 9 -punch
-
cards with additional punchings; 10 -sorter; 11 computer; 12 -digital pressure recorder.
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the auxiliary punch c a r d s and automatically puts the l a t t e r into the
appropriate places between the main punch c a r d s .
Figure 9. 2 0 shows the sequence of feeding the main auxiliary punch
c a r d s t o the computer and the marking of the code of the operational
instructions. The f i r s t punch c a r d is an auxiliary one and contains
information on the calibration coefficient and support p r e s s u r e . The code
punched on this card instructs the machine a s t o the u s e of this information
f o r further computation. The next punch c a r d , r e f e r r i n g t o channel 01, is
punched with a code 1 , 3 , and on those punch c a r d s referring t o channels
02 and 03, with code 3. Code 1, 3 instructs the machine to begin the
summation of the computedpressure, while code 3 instructs this process to be
continued. The card in channel 03 is followed hy an auxiliary c a r d , coded
8, 9. Code 8 instructs the machine t o divide the summed p r e s s u r e s f r o m
channels 01, 02, and 03, by t h r e e , and t o punch out the r e s u l t s . Code 9
instructs the machine t o record the computed average p r e s s u r e f r o m all
the following punch c a r d s . This is necessary because a t this point the
complete limited capacity of the memory i s used up,
The next card is an auxiliary c a r d , codedX, 12, 1, 2, 3, 8, and 9 . The
machine does an operation corresponding t o the logical s u m of the
instructions of this compound code. Code 12 instructs the machine to
operate with the average p r e s s u r e of channels 01, 0 2 , and 03. The
appropriate corrections a r e inserted into the average value, and the new
p r e s s u r e i s kept f o r comparing with the subsequent p r e s s u r e according t o
instruction code 2. The values of the f u l l p r e s s u r e s a r e corrected by the
corrected value of the support p r e s s u r e a s given on the punch c a r d , and
the next punch card with the code X gives a new calibration coefficient for
channels 04 t o 09. The code on subsequent c a r d s instructs the machine on
making further computations in the described o r d e r .
# t
H
e[
Computing center
FIGURE 9.21. System for automatic data processing during an experiment. 1--wind-tunnel
balances; 2 -digital converters for wind-tunnel balances; 3 -multipoint manometer; 4 -
digital converter for manometer; 5 -auxiliary data input; 6 -controller; 7 -punchers;
S -readers; 9 -buffer memory; 10 -print-out of primary data; 11-graph recorder of advance
data; 1 2 --Datatron computer; 13 -print-out of processed data; 14 -distributor; 1 5 -graph
plotter of final data.
589
FIGURE 9. 22. System for automatically plotting graphs from digital data. 1- t a b l e with
paper sheet; 2 -guide; 3 -carriage; 4 -lead screw for pen; 5 -pen; 6 - lead screw for
carriage; I,8 -servomotors; 9 - analog-to-digital converters.
590
punch tapes with p r i m a r y data. One is immediately fed to the computer,
while the other is used f o r operating a tabulator o r an X-Y plotter. With
combined tests, where the f o r c e s and p r e s s u r e s a r e measured
simultaneously, one tape r e c o r d s the indications of the balance, while the
other r e c o r d s the indications of the manometer.
T h e printing of tables and plotting of graphs a r e operated by the given
system during t e s t s , thus allowing the senior engineer to monitor the
experiment. This is very important when doing basic r e s e a r c h of new
phenomena.
I _
59 1
balance, the electromagnetic m a r k e r frees the pen, which falls for a
moment onthe paper, making a dot. The pen is then r a i s e d , the Y relay
register receives signals from the other channel, and the pen is moved t o
a new position, making another dot.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. K i t o v , A . N . a n d N . A . K r i n i t s k i i . Elektronnye tsifrovie
vychislitel'nye mashiny (Electronic Digital Computers). - Moskva,
Fizmatgiz. 1961.
2. L e b e d e v, S. A. , Elektronnye vychislitel'nye mashiny (Electronic
Computers). - Izd. AN SSSR. 1956.
3 . S c h o 1e s ,J . F. M. The Automatic Handling of the Egperimental Data in
Wind Tunnels .- British Communications and Electronics, Vol. 4,
No. 10. 1957.
4. S m i t h ,R. L . A High-speed Potentiometer f o r Recording on Punched
P a p e r Tape, ISA Proc., Vol. 7. 1952.
5. S h a r p , E. M. A Digital Multiple Point P r e s s u r e Recording System. -1SA
Proc., Vol.7, 1952.
6 . S h a r p , E. M. An Automatic Data Recording System f o r Aeronautical
Research - IRE T r a n s . Instrum., Vol. 6, No. 7. 1957.
7. H a n e m a n , V. S. Automatic Reduction of Wind Tunnel Data. - Aeron.
Engns. Rev., Vol. 12, No. 2. 1953.
8. R a w l i n g s , J.H. MechanizedDataHand1ing.- ISA P r o c . , Vol. 7. 1952.
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$ 9-00
. .