Aircraft Design1 PDF

‫‪UOT‬‬
‫‪Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch‬‬

‫‪Aircraft Design‬‬
‫‪Chapter One/ Introduction, Airworthiness & Crashworthiness‬‬
‫‪ .1‬مدخل (‪)Introduction‬‬
‫تصميم و تطوير الطائرة‪:‬‬ ‫‪.1-1‬‬
‫يمكن إدراج العوامل الرئيسية التالية المحفزة لتطوير أنواع الطائرات المختلفةة الجديةدة أو الموجةودة ية‬
‫الخدمة‪.‬‬
‫نمو حجم النقل الجوي و هذا لالسباب التالية‪:‬‬ ‫أ‪-‬‬
‫‪ .1‬انخفاض أجرة الركوب‪.‬‬
‫‪ .2‬تحسين نوعية الطائرة (السرعة‪ ،‬الراحة‪...‬الخ)‪.‬‬
‫‪ .3‬زيادة نشاط اإلعمال و نمو دخل األيراد‪.‬‬
‫‪ .4‬نمو سعة استيعاب الطائرة‪.‬‬
‫‪ .5‬زيادة عدد الطيرات على خط الطيران الواحد‪ ،‬و زيادة عدد الخطوط‪.‬‬
‫‪ .6‬االستخدام المتعاظم للتسهيالت األرضية و التسهيالت داخل الطائرة‪.‬‬
‫عائد االستثمار (‪ ) return of investment‬وهو المعيار المعقول ألي شركة استثمارية‪.‬‬ ‫ب‪.‬‬
‫رغبات الزبون‪ :‬للحصول على طائرات مدنية أو عسكرية مختلفة األغراض تلب رغباته‪.‬‬ ‫ج‪.‬‬
‫استبدال الطائرات الت قاربت اعمارها التشغيلية على االنتهاء‪.‬‬ ‫ح‪.‬‬
‫ادخةةال التحسةةينات و التطةةويرات التكنلوجيةةة لمختلةةء اجةةراء الطةةائرة كالمحركةةات و سةةبائ الهيكةةل و‬ ‫خ‪.‬‬
‫االجهزة االليكترونية المختلفة‪.‬‬
‫االذعان لمتطلبات سالمة الطيران و التحديدات البيئية من ناحية الضوضاء و االنبعاثات الغازية‪.‬‬ ‫د‪.‬‬
‫اعتبارات مختلفة‪ :‬سياسية‪ ،‬اقتصادية‪ ...‬الخ‪.‬‬ ‫د‪.‬‬
‫ويمكن تحديد مراحل تصميم و تطوير الطائرة بما يل من األطوار األساسية‪:‬‬

‫‪ .1‬طور التصميم ألمفاهيم (‪.) Conceptual design phase‬‬
‫= ‪.) Preliminary‬‬ ‫‪ .2‬طور التصميم االبتدائ ( =‬
‫= ‪.) Detailed‬‬ ‫‪ .3‬طور التصميم التفصيل ( =‬
‫ويمكن إضاية مراحل أخرى تكميلية وه ‪:‬‬

‫‪ .1‬تصنيع النموذج التجريب (‪.) Prototype manufacturing‬‬
‫‪ .2‬الفحص (‪.) Testing‬‬
‫‪ .3‬التصنيع النهائ ( ‪.)Final production‬‬
‫و يالحظ إن هذه األطوار متداخلة مع بعضها‪ .‬نظرا التساع مراحل التصميم‪ ،‬خاصة الطورين األول‬
‫والثان ‪ .‬ان دراستنا الحالية تختص ببعض أجزاء طور التصميم االبتدائ ‪ .‬الشكل (‪ )1-1‬يمثل مخطط‬
‫لمراحل التصميم االساسية‪.‬‬
‫طور التصميم المفاهيم ‪ :‬ي هذا الطور تؤخذ بنظر االعتبار االشكال التقليدية و المبتكرة للطائرة و‬
‫معرية االشكال القابلة للتطبيق من الناحية التقنية و التجارية‪ .‬مثال الشكل الخارج للطائرة‪ ،‬عدد و انواع‬
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‫‪Prepared by A.A. Al-Hussaini‬‬ ‫‪2014/2015‬‬
‫‪UOT‬‬
‫المحركات و مكانها‪ ،‬تصميم مقصورة الركاب‪ ،‬نوع منظومات المالحة و السيطرة‪ ،‬المواد المستخدمة‪،‬‬
‫طرق التصنيع‪ ،‬طرق التشغيل و الصيانة‪ ،‬مستوى التكنولوجيا المقترحة‪ ،‬الكلفة التخمينية ‪ ...‬الخ‪.‬‬
‫طور التصميم االبتدائ ‪ :‬يتم التحليل التقن لألشكال المقترحة بعمق ( االيرودينامية‪ ،‬االداء‪،‬‬
‫االستقرارية‪ ،‬السيطرة‪ ،‬االجهادات الهيكلية‪ ،‬الكلء المالية ‪ ...‬الخ‪ .‬و ايجاد الهيئة المثالية للطائرة و حسب‬
‫المتطلبات التجارية مع المقارنة باألنواع المنايسة ي السوق‪.‬‬
‫طور التصميم التفصيل ‪ :‬ي هذا الطور يتم اعادة التحليل التفصيل لمجمل اجزاء و اجراء الحسابات‬
‫المختلفة التفصيلية النهائية لكل النواح المتعلقة بالطائرة‪ .‬و ي نهاية هه المرحلة يتم اإلقرار على بداية‬
‫االنتاج بعد ان يتم تصنيع نماذج تجريبية للفحوصات االرضية و الجوية‪ ،‬لتحليل اداء الطائرة ويق ما هو‬
‫مخطط و تحليل كل جزء من الطائرة بعد مروره بالفحوصات الالتدميرية و التدميرية‪.‬‬
‫يحدد الزبون عادة المواصفات الفنية و غيرها للطائرة المطلوبة‪ .‬هذه الموصفات بمثابة بيانات إدخال‬
‫(‪ )input data‬للتصميم الطائرة الجديدة ‪ ،‬الشكل (‪ .)2-1‬يمثل مخطط انسياب لتصميم عام مطور و مؤلء‬
‫ألغراض برمجة الحاسوب‪.‬‬
‫بعض الشركات العمالقة ه الت تحدد المواصفات المطلوبة من خالل قراءة سوق الطائرات و‬
‫متطلبات حركة النقل الجوي‪ .‬لذل تبدأ الدعاية عادة بوقت مبكر لمحاولة جذب رؤوس أموال المستثمرين‪.‬‬
‫ويبدأ اإلنتاج بعد اجتياز نموذج االختبار(‪ )prototype‬جميع الفحوصات الجوية المطلوبة‪ .‬و يمكن لعملية‬
‫إبرام عقود البيع ان تتم قبل و أثناء و بعد اإلنتاج‪ .‬ويكون التسليم حسب القدرة اإلنتاجية للشركات و حسب‬
‫التوقيتات المتفق عليها‪.‬‬
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‫‪ .2-1‬قسم التصميم االبتدائي‪:‬‬

‫حين يتم القرار على تطوير أو تصميم نوع جديد من الطائرات‪ ،‬يان اإلجراء المتبع هو تشكيل مجموعة‬
‫المشروع (‪ ) Project group‬من مختلء االختصاصات‪ ،‬و تتضمن هذه المجموعة خبراء و مهندس‬
‫التصميم االبتدائ ‪ .‬ويختصون ي الفروع التالية‪:‬‬
‫‪ .1‬خبراء االيرودينامية‪ :‬وهم يختصون بتصميم الشكل الخارج ‪.‬‬
‫‪ .2‬مهندسو الهياكل‪ :‬الذين يضعون بدراساتهم تصميم البناء الهيكل المقترح و ينجزون وضع األبعاد‬
‫واالختيارات المثلى للهيكل (‪.)Dimensioning & Optimization‬‬
‫‪ .3‬خبراء اإلنتاج و المواد‪ :‬لتحديد أيضل طرق اإلنتاج الواجب إتباعها‪ .‬و متابعة آخر إبداعات علم‬
‫المواد‪.‬‬
‫‪ .4‬مهندسو الوزن‪ :‬وواجبهم التعامل مع أوزان المنتجات و السيطرة على توزيع األوزان لتحديد‬
‫مركز الثقل و انجاز حسابات عزم القصور الذات (‪.)Moment of inertia‬‬
‫‪ .5‬مهندسو السيطرة و أالستقرارية‪ :‬لتصميم منظومة السيطرة على الطيران وتحليل النوعية‪.‬‬
‫‪ .6‬مهندسو المنظومات‪ :‬لتصميم معدات و منظومات البدن ( جسم الطائرة)‪.‬‬
‫‪ .7‬خبراء االقتصاد و المالية‪ :‬والذين يكون واجبهم حساب الكلفة التخمينية األولية و التشغيلية‬
‫للطائرة‪ ،‬وكذل التدقيق عن قرب للنواح المالية لمجمل المشروع‪.‬‬
‫عمل يريق التصميم االبتدائ و الذي يكون مرتبطا بشكل دائم بأعمال المشروع‪ ،‬بخالف باق أقسام‬
‫المشروع‪ ،‬يتكون من النشاطات التالية إضاية للواجبات األساسية حسب اختصاصاتهم‪:‬‬
‫‪ .1‬تحليل السوق و وضع اللمسات للمواصفات األولية لنوع الطائرة الجديد بالتعاون مع قسم التسويق‪.‬‬
‫‪ .2‬اقتراح الحلول المختلفة ألي مشكلة تصميم معطاة‪.‬‬
‫‪ .3‬تقييم مختلء اقتراحات التصميم باستخدام طرق التصميم االبتدائ لك يتم اتخاذ القرار على‬
‫أساس بيان مختلء اآلراء‪.‬‬
‫‪ .4‬وضع و تحديد تفاصيل األبحاث للمشاكل الت تم مواجهتها‪ ،‬مثال االيرودينامية و الهيكل و باق‬
‫مساحات العمل‪ .‬مثال تطوير طرق تخمين الكبح‪ ،‬الوزن‪...‬الخ‪.‬‬
‫‪ .5‬مناقشات مع الزبائن الحاليين و كذل الوسطاء للمستقبل ي أمور تخص أجزاء الطائرة كالمحرك‬
‫و العجالت‪..‬الخ‪.‬‬
‫‪ .6‬تعزيز قسم المبيعات بالمعطيات الفنية‪.‬‬
‫‪ .7‬إجراء دراسات تطوير المنتج بهدف زيادة استخدام الطائرة‪.‬‬
‫‪ .2‬سالمة الطيران (‪:)Airworthiness‬‬

‫يمكن تعريء سالمة الطيران على انه تامين المتطلبات االساسية لضمان الطيران بشروط امنة ضمن‬
‫الحدود المسموحة‪.‬‬
‫‪ .i‬متطلبات سالمة الطيران‪:‬‬
‫ه أنظمة وقواعد) ‪(Rules & Regulations‬لتصميم واالشتغال و األنظمة األخرى الت يتم‬
‫تحديدها من قبل سلطات الطيران )‪ (Aviation Authority‬المحلية و تفرض على مصنع و‬
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UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Aircraft Design
Chapter One/ Introduction, Airworthiness & Crashworthiness
‫الطائرات ضمن الحدود اإلقليمية لهذه السلطات لضمان مستوى معين من األمان لعموم‬ ‫مستخدم‬
.‫الناس‬
،‫ مقصورة الركاب‬،‫ كالبدن‬،‫ لهذه األنظمة و القواعد بعيد األثر على تصميم أجزاء الطائرة‬
.‫الخ‬...‫المنظومات‬
.‫ على المصمم اختيار قوانين سالمة الطيران المالئمة لغرض تصميم الطائرة ويقا لهذه القوانين‬
.‫ قواعد سالمة الطيران تختلء من بلد إلى آخر‬
‫ ييجب أن تظهر الطائرة القدرة على اإلقالع‬،‫تفرض قواعد السالمة كما قلنا مستوى عال من األمان‬
‫ بقيادة طيار‬،‫و التسلق و الطيران للمساية المقررة و كذل المناورة مع األحمال المقررة للسرعة المحددة مسبقا‬
‫ إن احتمالية الفشل الفاجع ي‬.‫ دون أن تصبح الطائرة غير قابلة للقيادة أو متعبة للطيار أثناء الطيران‬،‫مرخص‬
.‫ ) طيران‬107 ‫ إلى‬1(‫الهيكل أو أي جزء آخر يجب أن يكون اقل من‬
Safety is a concept generally ingrained in the human mind. The main conventional flight safety
factors are; (i) man, (ii) the environment, and (iii) the machine. Many countries issue their own
rules and regulations to preserve adequate level of safety by its civil airworthiness authority. But the
most regulations and authorities are:
1. BCAR: British Civilian Airworthiness Requirements: are published by CAA: Civil Aviation
Authority in Britain. The CAA was established in 1972. BCAR are now replaced by EASA.
2. FAR: Federal Aviation Rules; are issued by FAA: Federal Aviation Administration. FAR are
adopted in the United States as well as in many other countries. The Air Commerce Act of 20
May 1926 was the cornerstone of the Federal government’s regulation of civil aviation. In 1938,
the Civil Aeronautics Act transferred the Federal civil aviation responsibilities from the
Commerce Department to a new independent agency, the Civil Aeronautics Authority. on 1
April 1967, the FAA became one of several modal organizations within the DOT, Department of
Transportation and was given a new name, the Federal Aviation Administration.
3. JARs, Joint Aviation Requirements are issued by JAA, The Joint Aviation Authorities for The
ECAC (European Civil Aviation Conference). The JAA’s work started in 1970 (when it was
known as the Joint Airworthiness Authorities). Since 1987, JAA activities have been extended to
operations, maintenance, and licensing and certification design standards for all classes of
aircraft. (since 2002 there is efforts to transfer all activities to the EASA regulations).
4. EASA regulations, The European Aviation Safety Agency. The EASA is an independent
European Community body with a legal identity and autonomy in legal, administrative, and
financial matters. This single authority has been created by the adoption of a European
Parliament and Council Regulation in 15 July 2002 in order to put in place a Community system
of air safety and environmental regulation. The activity of the EASA started, as planned, on 28
September 2003 and, after a transitory period in Brussels, the Agency has now moved to
Cologne (Germany).
5. ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization) annexes. The ICAO officially came into
existence on 4 April 1947. At the invitation of the Government of Canada, Montreal was chosen
as the site for its headquarters. resently, the Contracting States number more than 180. The
4-6 Ch.1
Prepared by A.A. Al-Hussaini 2014/2015
‫‪UOT‬‬
‫‪applicable JAA/FAA/EASA airworthiness standards for the certification of aircraft to be‬‬

‫‪internationally recognized are issued in accordance with the ICAO Annexes. Then, from a‬‬
‫‪practical point of view, the certification process is based on these airworthiness standards rather‬‬
‫‪than (directly) on the ICAO International Standards.‬‬
‫‪ .3‬سالمة التحطم (‪ .)Crashworthiness‬عند الهبوط االضطراري‪.‬‬

‫سالمة التحطم بالنسبة لمقصورة الركاب تعن اسهام مجمل عناصر التصميم االساسية ذات العالقة لحماية‬
‫الركاب ي "بيئة تحط م قابة للنجاة"‪ .‬تتحقق بيئة التحطم القابلة للنجاة عندما يتعرض الركاب الى قوى تحطم‬
‫ضمن المستوى المسموح لإلنسان وتبقى متانة هيكل الذي يحوي الركاب سليمة بحيث يمكن اخالء الركاب‬
‫سريعا‪ .‬تصميم الهيكل لضمان سالمة الطائرة يجسد اهداف التصميم لكل من سالمة التحطم و سالمة‬
‫الطيران ولكن بحدود متفاوتة‪ .‬اهداف سالمة الطيران التصميمية تختص بقابلية الهيكل لتحمل االحمال‬
‫التصميمية او الحفاظ على سالمة الرحلة نسبة لظروف العمل المحيطة‪ .‬اما االهداف التصميمية لسالمة‬
‫التحطم يه تختص بسالمة الركاب‪.‬‬
‫‪A report prepared by Simula Technologies, Inc. for The NASA Langley Research Center‬‬
‫‪summarizes the crashworthiness requirement as:‬‬
‫‪The concept of crashworthiness refers to those vehicle design characteristics that protect the‬‬
‫‪occupant from injury or death during a crash event. Specifically, the designer strives to:‬‬
‫‪(1) Eliminate injuries and fatalities in relatively mild impacts.‬‬
‫‪(2) Minimize injuries and fatalities in all severe but survivable crashes.‬‬
‫‪(3) Minimize the damage to the aircraft structure in all crash events.‬‬
‫بدا التركيز على اهمية سالمة التحطم مبكرا و خاصة بعد الحرب العالمية الثانية يميال ي عام ‪1667‬‬
‫نشرت ادارة الطيران الفدرالية (‪ )FAA‬ي الواليات المتحدة االمريكية معايير سالمة التحطم الت‬
‫تخص يئة طائرات النقل‪ .‬و ي عام ‪ 1672‬تم تحديث هذه المعايير‪ .‬ينصب اهتمام (‪ )FAA‬ي مقاربة‬
‫سالمة التحطم على ثالث مساحات من االهتمام‪:‬‬
‫‪ .1‬حماية ركاب الطائرة من صدمة التحطم‪.‬‬
‫‪ .2‬تقليل من مخاطر الحريق عند التحطم‪.‬‬
‫‪ .3‬سرعة اخالء الركاب من الطائرة‪.‬‬
‫و على هذا االساس ال تحبذ سلطات الطيران استخدام طائرة نقل للركاب ذات جناح علوي رغم ميزاته‬
‫( تأثير ارض قليل بسبب بعد الجناح عن االرض‪ ،‬كفاءة ايرودينامية عالية لكون الكبح التداخل قليل و بناء‬
‫الضغط المنخفض يوقه يكون مستمرا) و ذل لألسباب التالية‪:‬‬
‫‪ .1‬قد يؤدي ثقل الجناح الى انهيار المقصورة عند الهبوط االضطراري عند سرعة حط عالية‬
‫(‪.)touch down‬‬
‫‪ .2‬عند الهبوط االضطراري على الماء يؤدي ثقل الجناح الى سرعة غرق المقصورة‪.‬‬
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‫و استخدام وقود ذو درجة اتقاد عالية و ان تكون خزانات الوقود بعيدة عن مقصورة الركاب الى الجانب و‬
‫الخلء و ان تحتوي الطائرة على مخارج طوارئ يتناسب عددها مع عدد الركاب ‪ ...‬الخ‪.‬‬
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UOT
Aircraft Design
Chapter Two/Fuselage Layout Design
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Ch. 2. Fuselage Layout Design
2.1. Fuselage main characteristics are:

1. It constitutes the shell containing the payload which should be carried to a certain distance
at a specified speed. The shell offers protection against climatic factors (cold, low pressure,
a very high wind velocity and against external noise.
2. It is the most suitable part for housing the cockpit, usually in the nose.
3. The fuselage maybe regarded as the central structural member to whom the other main parts
are joined (wings, tail unit and in some cases the engines).
4. Most of aircraft systems are generally housed in the fuselage; it also sometimes houses
engines, fuel tanks and retractable undercarriage.
2.2. Fuselage design requirements:

1. The drag of fuselage should be low, since it represents ( ) of zero lift drag, .
2. The structure must be sufficiently strong, rigid and light, possess a fixed useful life and be
easy to inspect and maintain.
3. Low operating costs, since the fuselage design has influence on fuel consumption and
manufacturing costs.
4. The fuselage does not merely serve to carry the empennage, but also affects the tail
configuration since the aerodynamic moments in pitch and yaw is approximately
proportional to its volume, while the stabilizing contribution of the tail surfaces is mainly
dependent on the length of the fuselage tail.
2.3. The cylindrical arrangement

The shape of fuselage is derived from efficient arrangement of passengers or freight, see
(figure 1). Fuselage layout is usually configured as a cylinder for the following reason:
1. Structural design and manufacturing are considerably simplified.
2. It is possible to obtain an efficient internal layout with little loss of space.
3. The flexibility of the seating arrangement is improved.
4. Further development by increasing the length of the fuselage (stretching) is facilitated.
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Aircraft Design
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2.4. Cabin design (configuration):
Left: Airbus A300 cross-section, showing cargo,

passenger, and overhead areas.
Below: Cross-section comparison of Airbus A380 (Full
length double deck) and Boeing 747-400(Only the front
section is double deck)
a- Cross-section: Configuration and dimensions.

Circular cross-section is the simplest shape and the width ( ) can be evaluated from (figure 3).
or calculated from the following formula:
( ) ( )
: Typical fuselage wall thickness.

: Distance between end arm set and wall.
: Number of set in a row.
: Number of arm set.
: Minimum aisle width between arms seats.
: = = = without = =.
: From table (1).
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According to FAR 25 Sec. 25.817 for the

maximum number of seats abreast. On airplanes
having only one passenger aisle, no more than
three seats abreast may be placed on each side of
the aisle in any one row.
b- Cabin length.
The length of fuselage cabin ( ) can be evaluating from figure (5) or it is approximately:
c. Passenger seat.
Preliminary design is based on a certain standard type of seat, but airlines can lay down their
own specification for cabin furnishing. See figure 4 and the table. And:
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Deluxe type : Set pitch is (38 - 40 in) 965 - 1016 mm
Normal type : = = = (34 - 36 in) 865 - 914 mm
Economy type: = = = (30 - 32 in) 762 - 812 mm
d- Flight desk.
The general configuration can be chosen by comparison with other a/c. Location
and dimension of pilot seat and the flight controls can manipulated as shown in
figure (6) where visibility from the cockpit during horizontal flight and during
approach is assured. Details are out of the scope of this lecture.
2.5. Fuselage main dimensions:

The dimensions of the fuselage cabin are evaluated through using the design packages (CAD,
3DMAX, SOLDWORK, …etc) or approximated by the following simple two methods:
a) Quick method:-
For fuselage with cylindrical mid-section
( )
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⁄
( ) ( ) Where
: Fuselage volume.
⁄ for : Fuselage wetted area.
: Mid-section cross area.
: Diameter, mean.
√
: Fineness ratio.
: Fuselage length.
For fully stream lined shapes without cylindrical mid-
: Fuselage nose length.
section:
( )
⁄
( ) ( )
b) General method:-
The general method depends
on a diagram and an illustrative
figure. The following formulas are
used:
( )
( )
( )
The length of fuselage nose

( ) and fuselage tail ( ) are
evaluated by comparison with
other aircraft that is in service.
The comparator aircraft should be
civilian passenger transporter.
( ⁄ )
( ⁄ )
The ratios ( ⁄ ) and ( ⁄ ) are
extracted from comparator aircrafts.
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2.5. Fuselage weight:
The fuselage makes a large contribution to the structure weight, but it is much more difficult
to be predicted by general methods than the wing. The reason is the large number of local
weight penalties in the form of floor, attachment, support structure at, bulk heads, doors,
windows and other special structural feature. Fuselage weight is affected primarily by gross
shell area ( ), which intern depend upon the overall dimensions of the fuselage as well
as the design diving speed.
For AL-alloy fuselage, the following simple weight estimation method can be used as a first
approximation:
√ ( )
.
⁄
: Dive speed which is the maximum aircraft speed for its structure to withstand.
: Distance between wing a.c. and horizontal tail a.c, in .
: Fuselage maximum width and height, .
To the total basic weight that calculated by above formula:-
: should be added for pressurized cabin.
: = = = for rear fuselage mounted engines.
: = = = if the main u.c. is attached to the fuselage.
: = = = for freighter aircraft.
The nominal fuselage weight is about ( ) , aircraft maximum take-off

weight.
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Aircraft Design
Chapter Three/Wing Layout Design
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Ch. 3. Wing Layout Design
3.1. Wing basic requirement:

1. The aircraft must satisfy the performance characteristics laid down in the design specification with best
economic yield and operation flexibility.
2. Flight characteristics must be satisfactory both at high and low flying speeds.
3. It must be possible to design the structure within the external lines and the general arrangement which satisfies
demands regarding, strength, rigidity, weight, service life, accessibility &etc.
4. Sufficient space must be provided for fuel and to permit the attachment and retraction of main u.c.
5. Wing design must connect to the choice of power plant, minimizing fuel consumption, tail configuration, weight
distribution… etc.
3.2. design aspects:

Wing design is a highly iterative process, practically in the preliminary stage; the following comments may help
to speed it up: it is convenient to make a distinction between:-
a) Wing size (area).
b) Basic shape (planform, sections and twist).
c) High _ lift devices.
1. In case of low speed aircraft, it is probably best to determine the aspect ratio first; the wing loading and type of
high lift devices are dealt with next, and the basic shape is finally evaluated mainly on the basis of the stalling
characteristics. Small variations in the wing size have only a minor effect on the stalling characteristics.
2. In case of high speed jet aircraft the span loading and wing loading maybe dealt with first according to wing
sweep and mean thickness/chord ratio of high subsonic a/c which are based primarily on the Mach number in
high speed flight in order shock formulation and to decrease wave drag and increase.
3. The high lift devices is to be decided after a satisfactory wing shape, based on takeoff and landing characteristics
and manufacturing complexity.
4. A final check on low speed performance, fuel tank volume and buffet margins may lead to corrections of wing
area which have only minor effect on high speed performance.
3.3. Wing location:

3.3.1. Low wing: advantage:
1. Good visibility in a turn during takeoff and landing.
2. Acts as an emergency dissipater in case of crash, with good possibility of survival.
3. Passenger seats can be arranged on the middle portion of the wing.
4. In small a/c, concentrated load and occupants could be reacted directly by the low wing.
5. Short u.c. when engine attached to fuselage.
6. Simple flap and ailerons control mechanism.
7. Continuous wing structure.
8. Conventional tail is quite sufficient.
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3.3.2. Low wing: disadvantage:
1. High interference drag.
2. Special equipment must be used during loading and
unloading.
3. Because of ground effect, large ground clearance is
wanted which means long leg u.c.
4. For a wing mounted engine, a high a/c (long u.c.) is
needed.
5. For fuselage mounted engines the c.g. is shifted
backward and a large tail to ensure trim condition
which lead to higher profile drag.
3.3.3. High wing: advantage:

1. Very suitable for military transportation (IL-76, C-130, C-17).
2. High ground clearance, i.e. minimum ground effect.
3. Suitable for wing attached engine.
4. Continuous wing structure.
5. High aerodynamic efficiency.
High wing: disadvantage:

1. Low visibility in a turn during takeoff & landing.
2. T-tail is needed.
3. The energy dissipated finally by the wing, and it may be as a heavy
weight, crush on the passenger.
4. The passenger's seats need to be arranged on a torque box and not
directly on the floor.
5. In small a/c occupants weight should transmitted to the fuselage and
up to the wing, i.e. weight penalty.
6. Long u.c. attached to the wing, or a complicated short u.c. with small
track if attached to the fuselage.
Mid wing:
This type is chosen, generally, when minimum drag in high-speed
flight is of paramount importance. With a fuselage of roughly circular
cross-section, the surfaces at the wing-fuselage junction meet at practically
right angles so that interference between the boundary layers at small
angles of attack will be minimized. In most cases the fuselage section at
the location where the wing is mounted to it is roughly cylindrical. The
divergence of the airflow over the wing root at high angles of attack is thus
minimized. Wing root fairings of only very modest size will therefore be required. For these reasons many mid-
wing layouts are found in fighter and trainer aircraft. The wing may be continuous through the fuselage. The
advantages and disadvantages are moderated.
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3.4. Wing characteristics:
The most important wing characteristics are
defined briefly below. (See figure 1):
Taper ratio is the ratio of wing tip chord to
wing root chord.
For straight taper wing;
; Gross or design wing area is the total wing

area which the area enclosed by the wing
outlines including wing flap in the
retracted position, and aileron, but
excluding fillets or fairings.
⁄
∫
; Net wing area, the gross wing area minus the projection of the central wing part.
; Exposed or wetted wing area which is the net external wing surface area that exposed to the air flow. If the
wing contains nacelles, the wetted area should be reduced by
wing area inside the nacelle structure.
[ ( ) ]
( ) ⁄( )
̅ Geometric or standard mean chord.
̅
Aspect ratio
Quarter chord line, is the line passes through points at for all sections from tip to root.
Angle of attack is the angle between line of flight (free air velocity) and chord line.
Angle of incidence is the angle between a/c (fuselage) datum line from nose to tail and wing root chord line.
Angle of dihedral is the angle between the projection of the quarter chord line on the ( ) plane and y-axis.
The negative angle is called anhedral.
Sweep angle is the angle between the projection of the quarter chord line on the ( ) plane and the y-axis.
( ), ( ) and ( ) are sweept angle for wing leading edge, quarter line and wing trailing edge.
For straight taper wing, swept angle for any edge relative to other edge is;
( )
( )
( )
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Where ( ) is a fraction of the chord. For example ( ) and ( ). For wing or tail plane with
straight trailing edge, i.e. ( ) and ( ), then:
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
Wing twist, angle of incidence of wing section relative to that of root section, measured in plane parallel to
(XOZ) plane (side view).
Positive twist, (wash-in), tip section nose leading edge rotated upwards.
Negative twist, (wash-out), = = = = = = downwards.
Geometric twist is the twist of the chord line of a section relative to the chord line of root section.
Aerodynamic twist is the twist of the zero-lift line of a section relative to the zero-lift line of root section.
For any section
) ) )
For tip section;
) ) ) )
Angle of attack for zero lift line which has a negative value.
Zero-lift line; is a line passes through T.E. and make a negative angle with the chord line, , and if the free
stream velocity is parallel to the zero-lift line, the lift is zero.
3.5. Determination of (MAC):

̿ Mean aerodynamic chord, is the chord of an equivalent untwisted, non-swept and non-tapered wing, for
which the total lift and pitching moment are essentially equal to the lift and pitching of the actual wing.
̿ ; is the distance from aerodynamic center to root chord.
̿ ; is the distance from aerodynamic center to root chord apex.
3.5.1. Analytical method:

⁄
̿ ∫
⁄
̿ ∫
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For straight taper wing and moderate sweep angle.
̿
( )
̿ ̿
3.5.2. Graphical method: (see figure 2).

1. Draw tip chord ( ) at root side.
2. Draw root chord ( ) at tip side.
3. The interception point of the two diagonals indicates the position
of ( ̿ ), ( ̿) and ( ̿ ).
3.5.3. For (rectangular & trapezoidal) wing:

1. Determine (MAC) of the rectangular and trapezoidal portions
separately.
2. Determine the area ( ) and ( ) of each portion:
For rectangular ̿
For rectangular ̿
Then:
̿ ̿ ̿ ̿ ̿ ̿
̿ ̿ ̿
3.5.4. Strips method:

For elliptical wing for example (see figure 4): Divide the wing into (n) number of strips of equal width
(Δy).Measure the mean chord of each strip ( ) and the distance ( ) from this mean chord line to a/c center line.
Prepare a table as shown below, then:
⁄
∑ ⁄ ∑( ̿ ) ∑( ) ∑( )
̿ ̿ ̿
∑ ⁄ ∑( ) ∑( ) ∑( )
⁄
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3.5.5. Graph method:
Figure (5) is useful evaluate mean
aerodynamic chord ( ̿ ).
Aerodynamic center (a.c.):

is a point in the XOZ plane about
which the aerodynamic pitching
moment coefficient of the wing is
essentially constant up to maximum
lift in subcritical flow. For moderate
sweep angle a reasonable
approximation for the a.c. is the
mean aerodynamic chord quarter
point, ( ̿ ).
Wing loading, ⁄ ;
is a very important character. It is a
variable parameter, varying from a
maximum value at takeoff to minimum value at landing. It influences takeoff and landing field distance, stall speed,
buffet boundaries, gust loads, structure weight … etc.
3.6. How to evaluate wing size:

Wing loading ( ⁄ ) and aspect ratio (AR) is chosen in advance by comparison with similar a/c in service. The
wing loading for short range subsonic transporter lies in the range of ( ⁄ ),( ⁄ ).
The weight of the a/c is guessed as a first start from comparator a/c or evaluated roughly. Figure (6) shows the
trends of wing loading with take-off weight. Then:
The wing area is
( ⁄ )
The wing span is
√
And compute other wing characteristics,
̅ ̅ ̿ ̿. Assume that the wing is straight
tapered with straight trailing edge and
compute . You should decide
wither a geometrical or aerodynamical twit is
chosen depending on local lift distribution
(from Ch. 10). A suitable three views should
be drawn for the wing.
The airfoil cross section area and wing
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wetted area and wing volume also should be computed. The same procedure must be carried out for horizontal and
vertical tail.
√
( )
( )
3.7. Airfoil section:

Requirements
1. The basic airfoil must have a low profile drag coefficient for the range of lift coefficients used in cruising
flight.
2. For the inboard sections with flaps extended, the drag must be low in high lift condition, particularly during
takeoff and climb.
3. The tip section should have high maximum lift coefficient and gradual stalling characteristics.
4. The inboard wing sections should have high maximum lift with flaps extended.
5. The critical Mach number should be sufficiently high.
6. The pitching moment coefficient should be low.
7. The aerodynamic characteristics should not be extremely sensitive to manufacturing variations in the wing
shape, contamination and dirt…etc.
8. The wing sections should have the largest possible thickness ratio in the interest of low Structure weight; a
sufficient internal space must be provided for fuel tanks, main u.c., and mechanical controls…etc.
3.7.1 Definitions:
( )
This is very roughly value. In order to estimate area of the airfoil section at root or tip or other sections,
Simpson’s rule with graphical paper or computer aided design software are recommended.
Example: an a/c has weights at takeoff has a straight taper of aspect ratio of and a taper ratio of
. If the wing loading at takeoff is ⁄ and the airfoil designation . Calculate wing
area, wing span, standard mean chord, wing volume, root section circumference.
Solution:
⁄( ⁄ ) ⁄
√ √
̅ ⁄ ⁄
√ ( ) √
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
̅
( ) ( )
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3.8. High lift devices:
They are mechanical devices,
which used mainly to increase
lift coefficient during takeoff and
landing stages. They are mainly
flaps, which are positioned at
T.E. and sometimes at L.E., and
slats, which are positioned at
L.E. see table (2).
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Figure (9): the effect of leading edge slat, leading
edge flap and trailing edge flap upon lift and angle
of basic wing section.( ) is increment of lift
coefficient due to T.E. flaps only, while dashed
line is due to L.E. flaps or slats. The upper curve
shows the effect of T.E. and L.E. high lift devices
3.9. Airfoil section coding:

The NACA, (National Advisory Committee for
Aeronautics), airfoils were designed during the
period from 1929 through 1947 under the
direction of Eastman Jacobs at the NACA’s
Langley Field Laboratory. Most of the airfoils
were based on simple geometrical descriptions of
the section shape, although the 6 and 6A series
were developed using theoretical analysis and
don’t have simple shape definitions. Although a
new generation of airfoils has emerged as a result
of improved understanding of airfoil performance
and the ability to design new airfoils using computer methods, the NACA airfoils are still useful in many
aerodynamic design applications. A number of references have been included to allow the reader to study both the
older NACA literature and the new airfoil design ideas. Many airfoil sections were designed in many countries
having their own coding. NACA (National Aerodynamic and a Space Administration) officially turned over
operations to NASA on 1 October 1958.
4- Digit series, (for slower a/c):

Ex. NACA
• (4) The maximum camber ( ) value is (0.04C).
• (4) The position of maximum camber is at (0.4C).
• (15) Section maximum thickness is (0.15C).
• (3) Magnitude of leading edge radius, (6 is normal, 0 is sharp).
• (4) The position of maximum thickness is (0.4C).
5- Digit series, (for subsonic low speed a/c):

Ex. NACA
• (2) Design lift coefficient is of magnitude ( ⁄ ⁄ ).
• (30) The position of maximum camber is at ( ⁄ ⁄ ).
• (12) Section maximum thickness is ( ).
The design lift coefficient is the theoretical ( ) for the airfoil when (α) is such that the slope of mean camber
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line at the L.E. is parallel to the free air stream velocity.
6- Digit series, (for slower a/c, laminar-flow wing sections):

Ex. NACA (this is 5-digit airfoil in 6-digit series).
• (6) 6-digit series.
• (3) Position of minimum (negative) pressure, which is favorable gradient, is at (0.3C).
• (4) Favorable lift coefficient (designed) is (0.4).
• (12) Section thickness ratio is (0.12C).
Ex. NACA
• (5) Position of minimum (negative) pressure, which is favorable gradient, is at (0.5C).
• (3) Favorable lift coefficient range is (± 0.3) above and below the design lift coefficient where favorable
pressure gradients exist on both surfaces.
• (2) Design lift coefficient is (0.2).
• (18) Section thickness ratio is (0.18).
Ex. NACA
• (4) Position of minimum (negative) pressure, which is favorable gradient, is at ( ).
• (A) Section is straight on both surfaces from about ( ) to the T.E.
• (2) Design lift coefficient is ( ).
• (15) Section thickness ratio is ( ).
Ex. NACA
• ( ) Position of minimum (negative) pressure, which is favorable gradient, is at ( ).
•( ) Section has cusped T.E. (without A).
• ( ) low drag range is ( ) above and below lift coefficient ( ).
• ( ) Design lift coefficient is ( ).
•( ) Section thickness ratio is ( ).
7- digit series;
Ex. NACA .
•( ) 7-digit series.
•( ) Extent of region of favorable pressure gradient over upper surface from ( ) of L.E. at the design lift
coefficient.
•( ) Extent of region of favorable pressure gradient over lower surface from ( ) of L.E. at the design lift
coefficient.
• ( ) Section is straight on both surfaces from about ( ) to the .
• ( ) Design lift coefficient is ( ).
•( ) Section thickness ratio is ( ).
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3.10. Wing aerodynamic characteristics:
3.10.1. Determine lift curve slope for unflapped wing:

1. Chose a suitable airfoil, for example ( ), see figure 10.
2. Determine slope of lift curve for wing section, ( ), for two dimensions incompressible flow, for standard
roughness and ( ), as follow:
 Extract data from ( ) for .
 Draw a tangent straight line to the curve starting from ( ). use the origin data sheet or create a new
graph using a graphic software.
 Take a straight portion of the lift curve, see figure (11). Where
and , the curve slope is
3. Determine ( ), lift curve for unflaped wing for sub-sonic aircraft at low Mach
no.:
( )
: Factor from sheet W01.01.01, upper curve.

:= = = W01.01.01, lower curve.
( )
4. Determine ( ), lift curve for unfflaped wing for sub-sonic aircraft at high Mach, but below the critical Mach
no.:
( )
√(
: Sweep back of quarter chord line.
: Mach number.
: slope of lift curve of airfoil section in 2-D, incompressible flow, at low Mach no.
: slope of lift curve of airfoil section in 2-D, incompressible flow, at high Mach, but below the critical Mach
no. which is ( ).
: Aspect ratio correction factor.
: Taper ratio correction factor.
: Prandtl-Glauert factor, (√( ).
: Effective sweep back in degree.
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Example. A straight rectangular wing, ( ), , . Find wing lift curve slope.
Sol.
For straight, rectangular wing ( ) and ( ).
From sheet
Since ( ).Then:
From sheet ⁄
( ) ( )
⁄ .
Lift curve slope can be evaluated also as flow:
: Correction factor for wing taper .

: June's edge velocity factor
For straight tapered wing,
( )
For the previous example,
( )
The value from this method is not far away from the previous value, .
For subsonic high Mach no.
√ ( )
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3.11. How to draw wing lift cure:
Usually wing section lift curve is available from airfoil data sheets, while lift cure for a wing, as 3-D object,
is not available and should be evaluated during design stage. This lift curve is evaluated by aerodynamic wing
testing in a wind tunnel. For preliminary design stage there are many simple ways to draw such curve. The
following procedure can be used.
Takeoff stage:
1. From previous example, the following data is available:
i. For ( ) ,
, , . Zero lift angle,
.it does not change with aspect ratio or
taper ratio.
ii. Draw a straight line, from point ( ) at ( ), with
slope ( ). Extend this line until it intersects line
( ) at ( ) as shown in figure 13.
iii. Measure the distance between ( A ) and (A′ ), peak point
on origin lift curve, ( ), along line
( ). The distance is ( ).
2. Calculate maximum wing lift curve ( ) variation due to
surface roughness and Reynolds number ( ) influence.
i. Choose a standard surface roughness and Reynolds
number at takeoff ( ). Takeoff velocity
is assumed by comparison with other a/c in service
( ⁄ ).
ii. From origin ( – ) sheet, the following
data is available.
For smooth roughness
For standard roughness
iii. Draw the relationship between ( ) and ( ), the relation is assumed linear. For smooth roughness
there are three points while for standard roughness there is one point at ( ). So the second line
is drawn from point (d) parallel to the first line as in figure 14.
iv. At takeoff speed where: Air viscosity, ⁄ , Air density, ⁄ , and assume that
take off speed, ⁄ and standard Mean chord, ̅ , Then :
̅
v. So for standard roughness, the actual maximum lift coefficient is ( ) and
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vi. From point ( ) with slope ( ) draw a straight line till it
intersects line ( ) at ( ). Then from point ( ) move to
the right a distance ( ) a long line ( ) to point ) to the
peak of the new curve.
vii. Copy the curved portion from the origin curve, on the new curve.
3.12. Lift coefficient increment due to T.E. flaps:

3.12.1. Determine lift coefficient increment due to split flap (or plain flap)
The following formula can be used, see figure (15), to find Lift coefficient
increment:
( )
Δ
( )
( ) : A parameter which is a function of aspect ratio.
( ) : A parameter which is a function of ( ).
: Correction factor depends on ( ⁄ ̅ ).
: Correction factor depends on ( ).
: Correction factor depends on ( ⁄ ).
: Flap mean chord.
: Flap span.
: flap deflection angle in degree.
The parameters ( , & ) are laid down (chosen) by the designer in comparison with comparator a/c that is
similar and is in service. And the total Lift coefficient is then:
Δ
Example: A rectangular wing has a split flap, where ( , ⁄̅ , ⁄ , ⁄ and
C , find the increment in the lift coefficient.
From figure (11a) with ( ) ( ) .
From figure (11b) with ⁄̅ .
From figure (11c) with , .
From figure (11d) with ⁄ .
( )
Δ Δ
( )
3.13.2. Determine lift coefficient increment due to single slotted flap.

For full span single slotted flap the following formula is used.
[ ( )]
: extended wing cord.

: Wing aspect ratio. : Standard aspect ratio which is (6).
: lift coefficient increment based on extended wing chord C′ and standard aspect ratio (6).
: lift coefficient of the actual wing where flaps are at neutral position. At each angle of a take ( ), there is a
certain value for ( ).
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Example: Find lift coefficient increment due to a fixed hinge full span single slotted flap having the following data:
mean flap chord, , flap angle, , mean wing chord, ̅ , ⁄ and the wing with
the flap in the neutral position has a lift coefficient, .
Sol. ⁄ ⁄
From sheet (F01.01.08), upper curves of figure (12) at ⁄ and , we have:
And ⁄ ⁄
From lower curves of sheet (F01.01.08) at ⁄ and ( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ ) , we get: ( ⁄ )

( ⁄ ) .
( ⁄ ) ( )
For the same wing and flap arrangement , the optimum ( ) that could be obtained, from the upper set of curves
of sheet (F 01.01.08), is (0.98), then:
( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ )
From the lower sets of curves, ( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ )
( ⁄ ) ( )
3.13.3. Determine lift coefficient increment due to double slotted flap.

Usually one is main flap and the other is auxiliary. The data is applicable to slotted or split auxiliary flap with the
deflection of the main not less than ( ). This data does not apply to flaps having in themselves a fixed slot or
some similar arrangement. For obtaining the lift coefficient increment due to a double slotted flap, contributions of
the main flap and the auxiliary flap are estimated separately, using the dotted curves in the upper set of curves of
data sheet (F 01.01.08) for obtaining the lift coefficient increment due to the main flap and the curves of data sheet
(F 01.01.09) for obtaining the contribution of the auxiliary flap.
( )
: lift coefficient of the actual wing at the chosen incidence with main flap and auxiliary at neutral position.
: lift coefficient increment due to full span main flap with ( ), based on extended wing chord and
aspect ratio ( ), see data sheet (F 01.01.08).
: lift coefficient increment due to full span auxiliary flap based on extended wing chord and standard aspect
ratio (6).
: lift coefficient lift coefficient increment due to full span double slotted flap.
: lift coefficient increment due to full span double flap with the wing at the chosen incidence, based on wing
chord and aspect ratio of the wing.
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3.14. Wing weight
Some of the non-optimum weight penalties in wing arise from joints, non-tapered skins, U.C. attachment,
fairing etc. The following simplified expression can be used for general a/c with AL-alloy cantilever wings. It is
valid for the case of wing mounted retractable U.C., but not for wing mounted engine:
⁄
[ √ ] ( )
⁄
; Gross weight, maximum takeoff weight.

; Factor for proportionality, for transporter:
.
.
; Structural wing span ⁄ ( ).
; Reference span .
; Maximum thickness of root chord.
The weight given by this equation includes the weight of high lift devices and ailerons.
 If spoilers and speed brakes are used, added ( ).
 Reduce ( ) for two wing mounted engines.
 Reduce ( ) for four wing mounted engines.
 Reduce ( ) if U.C. is not wing mounted.
It can be seen from this equation that the wing structure weight decreases with increasing wing loading
( ⁄ ), and this is the reason why all transport aircraft has been designed with large wing loading, i.e.
relatively small wing area for given all up weight
22-24 Ch.3

UOT
Aircraft Design
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23-24 Ch.3

UOT
Aircraft Design
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24-24 Ch.3

UOT
Aircraft Design
Chapter Four: Tail Layout Design
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. Tail (Empennage) Layout Design
4.1. Introduction
Tails are little wings. The major difference between a wing and
a tail is that, while the wing is designed to produce a substantial
amount of lift to carry the aircraft, a tail is designed to provide
moments for trim, stability, and control.
For the h. tail, trim primarily refers to the balancing of the
moment created by the wing. An aft h. tail (stabilizer) typically has a
negative Incidence angle of about to balance the wing pitching moment. As the wing pitching
moment varies under different flight conditions, the h. tail incidence is usually adjustable through a
range of about up and down. The exact area of the tail surfaces is actually not very critical in the
early stages of the design process. The tail geometries are revised during later analytical and wind-
tunnel studies.
For the v. tail, the generation of a trim force is normally not required because the aircraft is usually
symmetric about x-z plane. The v. tail of a multi-engine aircraft must be capable of providing a
sufficient trim force in the event of an engine failure.
A stabilator is variable-incidence (adjustable) tail plane which has
the advantages that at high-subsonic speeds adjustment of the tail plane
is more effective than trimming by means of the elevator - which may
cause shock waves, and has the additional advantage that it improves
both maneuverability and control in out-of-trim conditions.
4.2. Tail surface functions are:

a) Trim function, to balance the moments producing by wing in
steady level flight.
b) Stability function, to ensure stable equilibrium, so after
disturbance the equilibrium must be restored with an adequate
damping.
c) Control function, The tail must be sized to provide adequate
control power at all critical conditions for maneuvering the
aircraft at stages of nose up, nose down, yawing, bitching,
recovery from spin…etc.
d) Other functions, for example, vertical tail provides trim moment
to equilibrate moment created due engine failure for multi-engine
aircraft.
1-11 Ch.4
UOT
Aircraft Design
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4.3. Type of surface controlling system:

a) Manual, direct mechanical transmission. The stick forces increase with size, EAS and load factor.
b) Power assisted controls, by means of pneumatic or hydraulic ram which exerts the multiple of the
force applied by the pilot (boost ratio).
c) Power operated controls, in these systems the control surfaces are moved by electrical, hydraulic
or pneumatic means without direct physical effort by the pilot.
4.4. Tail plane shape and configuration:

4.4.1. Tail parameters.
a) Aspect ratio, , This factor is of direct influence because of its effect on the lift-curve slope.
b) Taper ratio, , Tail plane taper has a slightly favorable influence on the aerodynamic
characteristics.
c) Sweep angle, , In the case of high-speed aircraft the tail plane angle of sweep, in combination
with its thickness ratio, ⁄ ) is chosen so that at the design diving Mach number strong shocks
are not jet formed.
d) Airfoil shape, the basic requirements are that the airfoil section should have a high and a
large range of usable angles of attack.
e) Dihedral, , The position of the tail plane relative to the propeller slipstream or jet efflux may
make it desirable to shift it slightly in an upward direction. This may be achieved by using a
certain degree of dihedral.
f) Elevator area and deflection, a large elevator area - as a fraction of the tail plane area - promotes
good controllability at forward e.g. locations, but for manual control systems the stick forces will
increase. Similar arguments apply to the maximum elevator deflection. The danger of tail plane
stall and elevator lock-over grows greater with increasing elevator chord and deflection.
The design of the tail plane is always an iterative process. It is usual to make an initial choice of
certain shape parameters such as aspect ratio and thickness ratio, etc. The choice of the type of
aerodynamic balance, whether the stabilizer will be fixed or
adjustable, and the type of control system is much more
difficult, and more data will generally be required than are
available to the preliminary design engineer. Later may previous
assumptions regarding the tail plane shape or even the wing
location will have to be revised.
2-11 Ch.4
UOT
Aircraft Design
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Horizontal tail ( ) values are in the range of ( to ). Typical aspect ratios are about
( ). T-Tails are sometimes higher ( ), especially to avoid aft-engine/pylon wake effects.
Taper ratios of about ( ) are typical for tail surfaces.
Horizontal tail Leading-edge sweep is usually set to about more
than the wing sweep. This tends to make the tail stall after the wing, and
also provides the tail with a higher Critical Mach Number than the wing,
which avoids loss of elevator effectiveness due to shock formation.
For low speed aircraft, the horizontal tail sweep is frequently set to provide
a straight hinge line for the elevator.
Vertical tail sweep varies between about . For a low speed
aircraft, there is no reason for vertical-tail sweep beyond about deg
other than aesthetics. For a high-speed aircraft, vertical-tail sweep is higher
than the wing to insure that the tail's Critical Mach Number is higher than
the wing one.
The surface areas required for all types of tails are directly proportional
to the aircraft's wing area, so the tail areas cannot be selected until the
initial estimate of aircraft takeoff gross weight has been made. The initial
estimation of tail area is made using the "tail volume coefficient" method.
The force due to tail lift is proportional to the tail area. Thus, the tail
effectiveness is proportional to the tail area times the tail moment arm. This
product has units of volume, which leads to the "tail volume coefficient"
method for initial estimation of tail size.
Horizontal tails on transport aircraft are usually power-operated. A
controllable tail plane is sometimes used on small aircraft and frequently on
gliders. An anti-balance tab is recommended in order to obtain acceptable
control forces and control force stability. Trim tabs, balance tabs, horn
balance, etc. or variable-incidence stabilizers can be used to reduce the
control forces to zero.
4.4.2. Tail layout design.

 The first stage is the initial choice of a certain shape parameters such
as aspect ratio ( ), thickness ratio ( ⁄ ), taper ratio ( )…etc. in
comparison with comparator a/c
 The decision whether the horizontal tail will be fixed or adjustable, and the type of control
system, which is more difficult and more data acquiring.
3-11 Ch.4
UOT
Aircraft Design
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 The next stage is to choice the type of aerodynamic balance, which is a way of reducing hinge
moments by construction geometry i.e. (to reduce force exerted by the pilot for light or old a/c).
After these decisions have been taken about the previous assumptions, the tail plane shape or even
the wing location will have to be revised. When designing tail plane, one should consider horizontal
“tail plane volume” instead of “tail area” and so tail distance is evaluated.
 Bigger tail volume gives greater airplane stability.
 Large center of gravity movement needs large tail plane, vice versa.
 Transport a/c needs large tail plane and seat arrangement.
4.5. Horizontal tail plane:

Horizontal tail plane volume is defined as:
̅
̅
: Horizontal tail plane area.
: Wing area.
: Distance from aircraft c.g. to horizontal tail a.c.
̅ : Standard mean chord.
In the above formula, tail volume is related to wing
area and to the SMC which has great importance on the
airplane longitudinal stability and control. In table (1) a
variety of horizontal tail volumes for many airplanes in
service. ( VH ) is assumed and since (  H ) is known
from layout, then ( S H ) is evaluated and as aspect ratio is assumed then all other dimensions are
computed. Horizontal tail usually uses symmetrical airfoils.
4.6. Vertical tail plane:

The design of vertical; tail
plane is more complicated than
that of the horizontal tail plane.
In addition to the geometric data,
the following requirements are
necessary:
1. The vertical plane must
not stall as a result of an oscillation after deflection of the rudder or sudden engine failure.
2. Multi-engines a/c must remain controllable to ensure steady flight if an engine failed.
4-11 Ch.4
UOT
Aircraft Design
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3. It should be possible to land transport a/c in
cross wind up to ( ⁄ ).
4. The a/c must possess good directional and
lateral static stability.
5. In small a/c, recovery from spin must be
possible and rudder must be effective even art
large angle of attack.
Vertical tail plane volume is defined as:
: Vertical tail plane area.

: Distance from aircraft c.g. to V. tail a.c.
: Wing span.
Here vertical tail is related to wing span which has a great significance on directional
stability and control. ( ̅ ) is assumed, see table (2), by comparison with similar airplanes that in
service. Vertical tail always uses symmetrical airfoils.
4.7. Tail surface configuration:

a) Group A: single fin with horizontal tail (or stabilizer)
mounted either on the fuselage or on the fin structure. It
is simple and stiff.
i. Convention tail.
ii. The " " is also widely used.
 A( ) is inherently heavier than a conventional
tail because the vertical tail must be strengthened to
support the horizontal tail.
 The ( ) allows the use of engines mounted in
pods on the aft fuselage.
 Due to end-plate effect, the ( – ) allows a smaller
vertical tail.
 The (T –tail) lifts the horizontal tail clear of the wing
wake and prop wash, which makes it more efficient and
hence allows reducing its size.
 This also reduces buffet on the horizontal tail, which
reduces fatigue for both the structure and the pilot.
5-11 Ch.4
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Aircraft Design
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iii. The cruciform tail, a compromise between the conventional and T–tail arrangements, lifts the
horizontal tail to avoid proximity to a jet exhaust (as on the B-IB), or to expose the lower part
of the rudder to undisturbed air during high angle-of-attack conditions and spins. These goals
can be accomplished with a T-tail, but the cruciform tail will impose less of a weight penalty.
b) Group B: twin fins is used to minimize rolling moment due to large distance from fin a.c. to a/c
longitudinal axis, for single large fin. The modern fighters always use such configuration.
It is also a good choice when a twin tail booms are used. The " " is used primarily to
position the vertical tails in undisturbed air during high angle-of-attack conditions, (as on the T-
46), or to position the rudders in the prop wash
on a multiengine aircraft to enhance engine-out
control.
The ( ) is heavier than the conventional
tail, but its endplate effect allows a smaller
horizontal tail.
c) Group C: ( ) (or butterfly) tail which is
adopted for sailplanes and sometimes on
powered a/c to keep the tail surfaces clear of jet
efflux. In " ", the horizontal and vertical
tail forces are the result of horizontal and
vertical projections of the force exerted upon
the" V" surfaces.
It has the following advantage:-
 Less drag interference.
 Fewer tendencies toward rudder lock.
 Fewer surfaces to manufacture.
 High location of surfaces which reduce
possibilities of tail buffeting due to wakes.
And it has the following disadvantage:
 More complicate operating system.
 Possible of interaction of elevator and rudder
action.
6-11 Ch.4
UOT
Aircraft Design
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d) Canard tail (forward tail): There are actually
two distinct classes of canard:
 The control-canard.
 The lifting-canard., which generate
upward lift.
In the control-canard, the wing carries most of the
lift, and the canard is used primarily for control.
The canard normally operates at nearly zero angle
of attack; and thus carries little of the aircraft's
weight. This is accomplished by a Sophisticated,
computerized flight control system that changes the
angle of the canard in response to gusts.
e) Tailless configuration: It offers the lowest
weight and drag of any tail configuration, if it can
be made to work. For a stable aircraft, the wing of
a tailless aircraft must be reflexed or twisted to
provide natural stability. This reduces the
efficiency of the wing.
4.8. Tail group weight:

This weight is a small part of a/c weight which is a
bout , but as its c.g. a far from aircraft
c.g, so it has an effect on the position of the a/c c.g.
Accurate weight prediction is difficult due to the
wide variety of tail plane configurations adopted and the
limited knowledge of strength stiffness and other conditions that controls the design, for example some
highly maneuverable aircrafts ( , , Mig-29.. etc.) need twin fins, which increase tail
group weight.
Torenbeek method:
a) For relatively low speed, ( ⁄ ) light a/c, the maneuvering loads are
most important and the specific tail weight is affected by the load factor as follow:
[ ]
7-11 Ch.4
Tabl
UOT
Aircraft Design
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
b) For transport category a/c and executive jets, design ⁄ , figure 4.6.
[ { }]
√
[ { }]
√
: Design dive (maximum) speed in ( ⁄ ) which is expressed in terms of ( ).
: half chord swept back angle for horizontal and vertical tail plane.
: Correction factors.
, For fixed stabilizers, (convention type).
, For variable incidence stabilizers,
(movable tail).
, For fuselage mounted stabilizers.
[ ]
for fin mounted stabilizers.

: Height of horizontal tail plane above fin root.
: fin height, see figure (4).
8-11 Ch.4
UOT
Aircraft Design
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9-11 Ch.4
UOT
Aircraft Design
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10-11 Ch.4
UOT
Aircraft Design
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11-11 Ch.4

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‫‪UOT‬‬

‫‪Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch‬‬

‫ويمكن تحديد مراحل تصميم و تطوير الطائرة بما يل من األطوار األساسية‪:‬‬

‫ويمكن إضاية مراحل أخرى تكميلية وه ‪:‬‬

‫‪ .2-1‬قسم التصميم االبتدائي‪:‬‬

‫‪ .2‬سالمة الطيران (‪:)Airworthiness‬‬

‫‪applicable JAA/FAA/EASA airworthiness standards for the certification of aircraft to be‬‬

‫‪ .3‬سالمة التحطم (‪ .)Crashworthiness‬عند الهبوط االضطراري‪.‬‬

2.1. Fuselage main characteristics are:

2.2. Fuselage design requirements:

2.3. The cylindrical arrangement

Left: Airbus A300 cross-section, showing cargo,

a- Cross-section: Configuration and dimensions.

: Typical fuselage wall thickness.

According to FAR 25 Sec. 25.817 for the

2.5. Fuselage main dimensions:

The length of fuselage nose

The nominal fuselage weight is about ( ) , aircraft maximum take-off

3.1. Wing basic requirement:

3.2. design aspects:

3.3. Wing location:

Prepared by A.A. Al-Hussaini 2014/2015

Prepared by A.A. Al-Hussaini 2014/2015

3.3.3. High wing: advantage:

High wing: disadvantage:

Prepared by A.A. Al-Hussaini 2014/2015

For straight taper wing;

; Gross or design wing area is the total wing

Prepared by A.A. Al-Hussaini 2014/2015

3.5. Determination of (MAC):

3.5.1. Analytical method:

Prepared by A.A. Al-Hussaini 2014/2015

3.5.2. Graphical method: (see figure 2).

3.5.3. For (rectangular & trapezoidal) wing:

3.5.4. Strips method:

Prepared by A.A. Al-Hussaini 2014/2015

Aerodynamic center (a.c.):

3.6. How to evaluate wing size:

Prepared by A.A. Al-Hussaini 2014/2015

3.7. Airfoil section:

Prepared by A.A. Al-Hussaini 2014/2015

Prepared by A.A. Al-Hussaini 2014/2015

3.9. Airfoil section coding:

4- Digit series, (for slower a/c):

5- Digit series, (for subsonic low speed a/c):

Prepared by A.A. Al-Hussaini 2014/2015

6- Digit series, (for slower a/c, laminar-flow wing sections):

Prepared by A.A. Al-Hussaini 2014/2015

3.10.1. Determine lift curve slope for unflapped wing:

: Factor from sheet W01.01.01, upper curve.

Prepared by A.A. Al-Hussaini 2014/2015

Lift curve slope can be evaluated also as flow:

: Correction factor for wing taper .

For straight tapered wing,

Prepared by A.A. Al-Hussaini 2014/2015

Prepared by A.A. Al-Hussaini 2014/2015

Prepared by A.A. Al-Hussaini 2014/2015

For standard roughness

v. So for standard roughness, the actual maximum lift coefficient is ( ) and

Prepared by A.A. Al-Hussaini 2014/2015

3.12. Lift coefficient increment due to T.E. flaps:

3.13.2. Determine lift coefficient increment due to single slotted flap.

: extended wing cord.