Lok Sin Tong Leung Chik Wai Memorial School Chapter 12: p.

1
F. 6 Chemistry
Chapter 12: Bondings, Structures and Properties

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRUCTURES AND PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

I. Introduction

There are four main types of solid structures : 1. giant ionic, 2. giant covalent,3.giant metallic
and 4. simple molecular. Their physical properties can be explained in terms of their structures.

II. Giant Ionic Structure

Giant ionic structure is a three-dimensional lattice structure formed by cations and anions
which are held by strong electrostatic forces of attraction.

In ionic lattice structure, there are

• electrostatic (or coulombic) forces of attraction between oppositely charged ions and
• electrostatic (or coulombic) forces of repulsion between ions of the same charge.

Overall, the attraction win over the repulsions. This maintain the ionic lattice structure.
Example : The forces interacting in the ionic lattice of sodium chloride are shown below

(A) Physical properties of giant ionic structure

<1> Brittle
• Ionic crystals are generally brittle because movement of the planes of ions may result in
similarly charged ions being opposite one another.

• The planes involved repel each other and tend to separate.

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F. 6 Chemistry
Chapter 12: Bondings, Structures and Properties

<2> High density

The ions are brought together by strong electrostatic forces and they pack closely in the unit
cell. This results in a high density.

<3> Hard and high melting points and boiling points

• It requires a lot of thermal energy to break down the giant ionic lattice through
overcoming strong electrostatic attraction between unlikely charged ions.
The m.p. of three ionic solid are in the order:
Na2O < MgO < A12O3
m.p. 920°C 2900°C 2980°C

Reason : ________________________________________________________________

<4> Electrical conductivity

• Ionic solids cannot conduct electric current because there are no delocalized of mobile
electrons ion the ionic lattice.

• However, if the solid is melted or dissolved in aqueous solution. the ions become mobile (i.e.
delocalized) and are able to carry current. Ionic compounds are invariable electrolytes.

<5> Solubility
• Ionic compounds are usually soluble in polar solvent such as water, in which ions are free to
move and interact with the solvent molecules.

• They are usually insoluble in non-polar solvents which do not allow free ,movement of ions
and interactions with solvent molecules.

III. Giant Covalent Structure

Giant covalent structure is formed when atoms are held to each other through strong covalent
bonds. thereby generating in a macromolecule.

(A) Physical properties of giant covalent structure

<1> Very high melting points and boiling points
• The destruction of the lattice involves breaking a large number of strong covalent bonds. A
large amount of thermal energy is required.

<2> Solubility
• Macromolecular crystals are very stable and are insoluble in polar or non-polar solvent.

(B) Physical properties of diamond and graphite

Both allotropes of carbon, graphite and diamond, have giant covalent structure. They have same
properties in m.p. , b.p. and solubility. However, their physical properties differ in several aspects.
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F. 6 Chemistry
Chapter 12: Bondings, Structures and Properties

<1> Diamond
• It is extremely hard because each carbon atom is held firmly in position by covalent bonds
to four other carbon atoms. It can be used to make glass cutters and drills.

• All valency electrons of carbon are utilized in forming covalent bonds. Diamond cannot
conduct electricity as a result.

<2> Graphite
• Graphite is soft and slippery because the hexagonal layers are held together by weak Van der
Waals’ forces. These layers slide -over one another easily. Graphite can be used as high
temperature lubricant in machine as a result.

• Graphite can be used to make crucibles for molten metals and electrodes since it has a very
high melting point.

• Graphite can conduct electricity along its layers it has delocalized cloud electrons between
the layers.

Note : Graphite cannot conduct electricity in a direction perpendicular to the layers because
electrons cannot pass through them.

Exercise 1 :
Graphite is used as lubricant whereas diamond is used as glass cutters. Explain these two
properties with the aid of diagrams.
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F. 6 Chemistry
Chapter 12: Bondings, Structures and Properties

Exercise 2 Graphite is a macromolecular crystal

(a) Describe the physical properties of graphite with respect to its structure.
(b) Silicon(IV) oxide is another macromolecular crystal. Describe its structure and discuss how its
electrical conductivity differs from that of graphite.
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F. 6 Chemistry
Chapter 12: Bondings, Structures and Properties

IV. Giant Metallic Structure

(A) Physical properties of giant metallic structure
<1> Hard and high melting points and boiling points
The metallic bonds between cationic lattice and mobile valency electrons are very strong.
Metals are therefore hard. Large amount of thermal energy is required to break the strong
metallic bonds, resulting in high melting and boiling points.

<2> High density

• The metal atoms are closely packed in the metallic structure, accounting for a high density of
metal.

<3> Shinning lustre

• The delocalized electrons are in energy levels that are close together. When light falls onto a
metal, the electrons are readily excited to a higher energy level.

• A large number of transitions between energy levels is possible, such that a whole range of
frequencies of light can be absorbed. When the electrons return to lower energy states, the
absorbed radiation is emitted immediately as light.

<4> Malleable and ductile

• When one plane of metal ions slides over another, the delocalized can move easily between
the planes to maintain metallic bonding.

<5> Electrical conductivity

• Metals can conduct an electric current because their valence electrons are mobile and
delocalized in the “sea of electrons” throughout the cationic lattice.

• If a potential is applied across the metal, electrons will flow in one direction from the
negative terminal to positive terminal.

<6> Thermal conductivity

• When metal is heated, the mobile electrons at the hot vibrate and gain kinetic energy. They
hit the electrons at the cool end, which starts to vibrate as a result.
• The transfer of kinetic energy through the system of delocalized electrons accounts for
thermal conductivity.
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F. 6 Chemistry
Chapter 12: Bondings, Structures and Properties

Exercise 3

Explain why the electrical conductivities of caesium chloride and copper differ in solid state.

V. Simple Molecular Structure

The molecules in molecular crystals are held in position in a molecular lattice by weak
intermolecualr forces, i.e. van der Waals’ forces (and possibly dipole-dipole interactions and/or
hydrogen bonds).

(A) Physical properties

<1> Low melting point and boiling point

• Because of the weak intermolecular attractive forces between molecules, little energy is
required to separate the molecules.

<2> Poor electrical conductivity

• There are no charged particles (ions or electrons) delocalized throughout the molecular
crystal lattice to conduct electricity. They cannot conduct electricity in either the solid or
molten state.

<3> Soft and low density

• Van der Waals forces are weak and non-directional. The lattice is readily destroyed and the
crystal are soft and have low density.

<4> Solubility
• Molecular crystals tend to dissolve in non-polar solvents such as alcohol.
• They are usually insoluble in polar solvents such as water. However, some may dissolve in
water as a result of forming hydrogen bonds with it.

Exercise 4
Account for the fact that SiO2 is a solid with high melting point, whereas CO2 ,is a gas at room
temperature.
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F. 6 Chemistry
Chapter 12: Bondings, Structures and Properties

VI. Summary : Bonding and the nature of solids

The table below summarizes the structure, bonding and physical properties of the four main
types of solid.

Giant ionic Giant covalent Giant metallic Simple

molecular
Examples sodium chloride, graphite, diamond, iron, copper, silver iodine, dry ice (solid
caesium chloride quartz (SiO2) C02), ice, methane

A. STRUCTURE

Constituents ions atoms atoms molecules

Type of metal/non-metal non-metal element in metal element with non-metal element or
substance compound with a Group IV or its low electronegativity non-metal/non-metal
large difference in compounds compound (element
electronegativity with high
between elements electronegativity)

B. BONDING

Nature of Electrostatic Strong covalent Attraction of strong Strong Covalent

bonding- Attraction between bonds link one outer mobile bonds hold atoms
positive atoms to another electrons (sea of separate together in
ions and negative through the whole electron) molecules.
ions forms strong structure. for positive nuclei Separate
ionic bond. binds atoms together molecules are
through metallic held together by
bonds. weak
intermolecular
forces (van der
Waals’ forces,
hydrogen bonding,
dipole-dipole
interactions or
induced dipole -
induced dipole
interactions).
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F. 6 Chemistry
Chapter 12: Bondings, Structures and Properties

Packing of regular packing of regular packing of • solid: discrete

constituents ions atoms molecules in
regular packing of regular packing
atoms • liquid/gas:
discrete
molecules
randomly
located
.
Resulting non-directional bond directional bonds, non-directional bonds, short range
structure giving high low coordination high coordination and intermolecular forces
coordination and high density giving low
high density coordination and low
density
 Lok Sin Tong Leung Chik Wai Memorial School Chapter 12: p.9
F. 6 Chemistry
Chapter 12: Bondings, Structures and Properties

C. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Giant ionic Giant covalent Giant metallic Simple molecular

melting point high very high high low

Boiling point high very high high low

Hardness/ hard and brittle very hard hard but malleable soft
malleability and brittle and ductile

Electrical non-conductors when non-conductor good conductors non-conductors

conductivity solid, good conductor (except graphite) when solid, liquid
when molten or in and in aqueous
aqueous solution solution (but some
(electrolytes). may react with water
conduction by to form electrolytes,
mobile ions

Solubility in soluble insoluble insoluble Insoluble (except with

polar solvent, reaction)
e.g. water

Solubility in insoluble insoluble insoluble (but soluble

non-polar soluble in liquid
solvent. metals - alloy)
e.g. CCl4