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Types of Clauses
Independent clauses
contain both a subject and a verb
and can stand alone as a sentence.
Example: Jet lag affects most long
distance travelers.
Dependent clauses
contain both a subject and a verb, but cannot stand
alone as a sentence. Dependent clauses are introduced
by subordinating conjunctions such as because, what, if
Example: Although there is no sure way to prevent jet lag.

Independent Clauses
Meaning Coordinators Conjunctive Example
Adverbs

To add an and in addition, Women follow more healthful diets, and

idea furthermore, they go to doctors more often.
moreover, also

To show time first, second, then, First, robots can perform repetitive tasks
or sequence next, later, without becoming tired or bored. Second,
meanwhile, finally they can fulfill tasks requiring pinpoint
accuracy.

To contrast but however, Increasing the size of airports is one

yet nevertheless, solution to traffic congestion; however, this
in contrast, is a long-term solution whose benefits may
on the other hand not be seen for many years into the future.

To show so therefore, thus, Native and nonnative English speakers have

result consequently, different needs; therefore, most schools
as a result provide separate classes for each group.

To introduce or otherwise Students must take final exams; otherwise,

an alternative they receive a grade of incomplete.

To emphasize in fact, of course, The little girl hated spiders; in fact, she was
indeed, certainly terrified by them.

To provide an for example, In the operating room, robotic equipment

example for instance can assist the surgeon. For instance, a robot
can kill a brain tumor.

To generalize in general, overall, Hermes is not only the messenger of Zeus,

or summarize in short but the patron of thieves. In general, he is
the god of authorized and unauthorized
transfers.
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Dependent Clauses
Types of clauses Subordinators Examples

what, where, why, how, He knows that his business will

where, when, who be successful.
1. Noun clauses
whom, which, whose, That there is a hole in the ozone
whether, that, if layer of the earth’s atmosphere
is well known.

who, whom, which, Men who are not married are

whose, that, where, called bachelors.
2. Adjective clauses
when Last year we traveled to San
Francisco, which is famous for
its architecture.

a. time when, before, after, When he won the money, he

until, since, as soon as decided to buy a car.

b. place where, wherever She drove wherever she wanted.

c. cause because, as, since She got a parking ticket because

3. Adverb clauses she parked illegally.

d. purpose so that, in order that He drove fast so that he could

get to work on time.

e. result so ... that, such ... that He drove so fast that he got a
speeding ticket.

f. condition if, unless If she hadn’t won the lottery,

she would have been very
unhappy.

g. concession although, even though Although she thought she was a

good driver, she got a lot of
tickets for speeding.

Punctuation marking
With noun clauses, no commas are used.
Adjective restrictive clauses are not separated by commas, but with adjective descriptive clauses
commas are used.
Adverb clauses that come before the independent clause are followed by a comma, but if they come
after the independent clause, no comma is used.