​

Diploma in Mass Communication

Mass Media in Singapore and Asia

“The Sexualisation of Minors in Japanese Graphic

Novels”

T302

Beatrice Ng (S10162733D)
Claudia Ng (S10164086G)
Kenneth Tan (S10163656E)

1
 Content Page

1.0 Introduction 3

2.0 Literature Review

2.1​ Definitions 4
2.2​ State of Sexualisation of Minors In Graphic Novels Around 4
The World
2.3​ State Of Sexualisation Of Minors In Graphic Novels In Asia 5
2.4​ State Of Sexualisation Of Minors In Manga In Japan 7
​2.4.1​ Political 7
​ 2.4.2​ Economical 8
​2.4.3​ Social 8
​ 2.4.4​ Technological 10
2.5​ Research Gap 11

3.0 Research Question 12

4.0 Methodology 13

5.0 Findings and Analysis 15

5.1​ Past Efforts of UNICEF in Japan 15

5.2​ Past UNICEF Efforts in Other Asian Countries 16
5.3​ Current UNICEF Efforts in Other Countries 17
5.4​ UNICEF Collaborations with Governments 18
5.5 ​UNICEF Collaborations NGOs 19

6.0 Recommendations 21

6.1 ​Conducting Further Research to Analyse Effects on Society 21

6.2​ Partner with Family Organisations in Japan 21
6.3​ Pressure the Japanese Government to Impose Laws 22

7.0 Conclusion 23

8.0 Works Cited 24

2
1.0. Introduction

In June 2014, the Japanese government banned the possession of real images that

depicted child pornography (Hellmann). However, the sexualisation of minors in graphic

novels was often brought up in debates since it is still legal under the law. Unfortunately,

based on research, the legality of consumption, possession and production of such

explicit graphic novels in Japan has led to the issue of a high number of child abuse

cases, suggesting that there is a need to tackle the issue from all three aspects. The

target audience, the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF),

is invested in protecting and defending the rights of children. This research proposal will

thus be of interest to them as it proposes feasible recommendations to reduce and

eventually ban the consumption, possession and production of graphic novels that

sexualise minors in Japan, ultimately decreasing related child abuse cases and creating

a safe haven for Japanese children. This research proposal focuses on the

sexualisation of minors in graphic novels in Japan. Japan was chosen as the focus

country as its graphic novel (manga) industry is highly profitable. Graphic novels are

also commonly read by Japanese people, and form the basis of many anime

adaptations, both of which are thriving communities and businesses.

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2.0 Literature Review

2.1 Definitions

Sexualisation is defined as a state of endowing things or a person with sexual

characteristics, rendering them in a sexual way (“Sexualisation”). Minors are defined as

persons under the age of 18 (Arnett 156). Graphic novels refer to stories that are

presented in comic-strip format and published as a book (“Graphic”). In this research,

the research perimeter has been streamlined to only include manga, which refers to

Japanese graphic novels (Arnett 456).

2.2 State of Sexualisation of Minors In Graphic Novels Around The World

Globally, there has been multiple reported cases of graphic novelists punished by law

for publishing explicit graphics of minors.

In the United States (US), 2010, Christopher Hendley, a comic book collector, was

sentenced to prison under the 2003 PROTECT Act for importing and possessing seven

Japanese comic books depicting cartoon children having sex. Hendley’s case was

brought to light in 2006, when the US Immigration and Customs Enforcement

confiscated a package mailed from Japan to him containing Japanese comic books

featuring graphics of minor females engaged in sex with older males and animals.

Further investigations from the US Postal Inspection Services ​also indicated findings

from Hendley’s house which included drawings of children engaged in sexually abusive

acts (Masuchika).

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The Comic Book Legal Defense Fund is a non-profit organisation in the US which fights

against the censorship of comic books and protects the First Amendment right to free

speech. It also provides legal representation for comic artists facing prosecution

(Barnette) and has won multiple cases in recent years.

In the United Kingdom in 2014, manga fan Robul Hoque became the first man in Britain

to be convicted of illegally possessing cartoon children images. Despite the virtual

setting of the images, they explicitly depict young girls in school uniforms exposing

themselves or taking part in sexual activities. He pleaded guilty to 10 specimen charges

and was given a nine-month jail term (Lightfoot).

Through research, it is found that no other country besides the US has an organisation

that protects the freedom of speech of comic artists.

2.3 State Of Sexualisation Of Minors In Graphic Novels In Asia

In Asia, countries like Singapore has legislation to counter explicit content. Singapore’s

Undesirable Publications Act states the publication is objectionable if it portrays sex in a

way that is injurious to the public good, exploits nudity in children and breaks the

standards of morality, decency and propriety that are generally accepted by reasonable

members of the community. Section 292 of the Penal Code also supports the act, by

stating that whoever sells, lets to hire, distributes, transmits by electronic means,

5
publicly exhibits or in any manner puts into circulation, or for purposes of sale, hire,

distribution, transmission, public exhibition or circulation, makes, produces, or has in his

possession any obscene book, pamphlet, paper, drawing, painting, representation of

figure, or any other obscene object whatsoever (“Section 292”). Additionally, it is also

against the law to keep, distribute or sell pornographic films under sections 29 and 30 of

The Films Act (“Films Act”).

In South Korea, laws surrounding child pornography were revised in 2011 to include

materials like photographs, drawings and visual recordings, featuring visual and

nonvisual minors in sexual situations. The law treats imaginary sex with an imaginary

child the same as sex with a real child, and individuals caught in both acts face the

same minimum sentence. As such, Koreans caught downloading manga with images

that sexualise minors will be prosecuted (Gilly).

Through research, it is found that the consumption, possession and production of virtual

images that sexualise minors are legal only in Japan.

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2.4 State Of Sexualisation Of Minors In Manga In Japan

2.4.1 Political

(a) Current Legislation

In June 2014, Japan banned the possession of child pornography images that

depict real children. Potential offenders were given a year to dispose the images.

Subsequently, individuals found with explicit photos or videos of children can be

imprisoned for up to one year and fined up to 1 million yen. However, the law

excludes child pornography images in manga, animated films and video games

(Hellmann).

(b) Political Strains After The Legislation Was Raised

The US’ 2015 “Country Reports on Human Rights Practices” critiqued Japan for

not having laws to address the availability of sexually explicit cartoons, comics

and video games in Japan. They suggested that Japan’s culture was one that

accepted the depiction of child sexual abuse. This caused strains in political

relations between US and Japan (Miller 145).

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2.4.2 Economical

(a) Profitable Manga Industry Boosts Economy

Japan’s manga industry is a profitable business, generating a large revenue

yearly, which boosts the economy. In 2016, the manga industry ​generated

USD3.91 billion in physical and digital sales. This was a USD3 million increase in

sales revenue from 2015 ​(Sudo)​.

(b) Increasing Proportion of Digital Sales

In 2016, the sale of digital manga volumes increased by 27.1% from 2015. This

aligns with the technological observation of a high smartphone penetration rate and

mangas being easily accessible on digital platforms, elaborated below ​(Sudo)​.

2.4.3 Social

(a) Increase In Crimes Related To Child Abuse

Crimes related to child abuse in Japan increased fivefold from 2004 to 2014. At

least 600 children fell victim to paedophile directors and photographers yearly

(McNeill). These child abuse images were featured in various mediums that

included magazines, manga and videos.

(b) Normalisation Of Sexualising Minors

Many Japanese artists do not view the sexualisation of minors in manga as

detrimental. There is a general belief that manga with sexually explicit images of

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 minors are a venting mechanism for individuals with paedophile fantasies

(Varley), and that reading them is fine. However, critics have expressed that

even if no one is harmed in the creation of the explicit manga, it can normalise,

facilitate or lead to an increased risk of sexual abuse (Fletcher).

(c) Curbed Freedom of Speech of Manga artists

After Tokyo’s metropolitan government revised the law of illegal sexual or violent

acts or sex involving anyone under the age of 18, ​while also prohibiting children

under 13 from posing for materials that portray them in suggestive ways, Japan’s

top 10 publishers boycotted the Tokyo International Anime Fair. Manga artists

and publishers have resisted on the ban of certain images, as they feel that it is a

“restriction of freedom and expression” (Friedman).

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2.4.4 Technological

(a) High Smartphone Penetration Rate

In April 2016, Japan’s smartphone penetration rate was measured to be 64.9%

and forecasted to continue growing (“Slow, Steady Smartphone”). The large

usage of smartphones in Japan has been attributed to cause the overtaking of

print manga by digital manga platforms (Macdonald) as e-manga is easily

accessible and more convenient to read.

(b) Accessibility of Mangas That Sexualise Minors

Mangas that sexualise minors are readily available on the web. New digital

advancements have changed manga production and display methods noticeably.

Now, sites like Epubor.com display numerous websites where consumers can

read a large variety of manga online for free. They are also able to access

manga that sexualise minors since these websites often do not implement an

age restriction for manga with suggestive content (Yan).

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2.5 Research Gap

Lack of examples from the larger Asian regions such as China and India makes it hard

to justify that the issue of sexualisation of minors in manga context happening in Japan

is in relation to a larger Asian scope.

No external organisations have taken any other actions besides issuing a warning to

Japan to clamp down on the sexual exploitation of minors in manga.

To date, only UNICEF has stepped up to verbally urge Japan to ban images that

sexually exploit children in manga (McCurry).

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3.0 Research Question

How can the UNICEF work with the Japanese government to explore ways to reduce

the sexualisation of minors in manga to address child sexual abuse cases and create a

safer haven for the children in the country?

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4.0 Methodology

Due to resource constraints and the fact that the issue resides in Japan, conducting

primary research is unlikely. Thus, secondary research will be used to answer the

research question and make recommendations. Secondary research can deepen the

understanding of past and current campaigns by UNICEF in and out of Japan, and will

enable us to review their successes or failures, enabling lessons to be learnt.

However, there is a lack of research and campaigns by UNICEF targeted towards the

sexualisation of minors in graphics novels in and out of Japan. Examples found mainly

cover larger issues like child pornography and sexual violence. Reason potentially

being, these forms of sexualisation deals with the exploitation of real-life children and

has more tangible consequences as compared to the exploitation of minors in fictional

graphic novels. Despite that, consequences arising from the sexualisation of minors in

real life are still closely linked to those of a fictional context. As such, information about

past and current campaigns by UNICEF dealing with child pornography and sexual

violence, in and out of Japan, will be needed. Information about UNICEF’s partnerships

with other governmental and non-governmental organisations (NGOS) in Japan and

other countries to tackle these issues are also crucial.

The content analysed will comprise mainly of quantitative research through the study of

data such as online news articles, case studies and e-books.

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Through the analysis of past and current UNICEF campaigns, practices and

collaborations with governments and NGOs, there will be greater insight on how

UNICEF can effectively work with the Japanese Government to reduce the

sexualisation of minors in graphic novels by tackling the consumption, possession and

production of such graphic novels.

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5.0 Findings and Analysis

5.1 Past Efforts of UNICEF in Japan

Since 1996, ​UNICEF has been combating child pornography in Japan when the first

World Congress against Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children was held (“Child

rights advocates”). The World Congress helped Japanese delegates examine their

country’s attitudes and perceptions as to what was accepted as legal tolerance towards

child pornography. In 1999, a new law against the commercial sexual exploitation of

children was formalised. It outlawed the production and distribution of child

pornography, and possession of child pornography with intention to circulate (Janowski

and Kasai).

In 2008, the ​Japan Committee for UNICEF and its non-governmental partner

organisations launched the ‘Say “No” to Child Pornography’ campaign in an attempt to

reform Japanese law. The proposed new legislation would make the possession of child

pornography illegal, even if the offender had no intention of selling or distributing the

content. The law was successfully reformed in 2014. (“Child rights advocates”)

The past efforts of UNICEF were done to tackle child pornography and the commercial

sexual exploitation of children in Japan. The World Congress questioned Japan’s legal

tolerance towards child pornography, and alongside the 2008 campaign, paved the way

to make the possession of child pornography illegal in Japan.

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However, since the 2008 campaign, there has been no other campaigns by UNICEF to

solve related issues in Japan.

5.2 Past UNICEF Efforts in Other Asian Countries

In 2009, UNICEF worked with then-Filipino president Gloria Arroyo to pass the

Anti-Child Pornography Act. ​The act served to “prosecute perpetrators” to protect

Filipino children from abusers and create “a safe haven for children” (“Success for

UNICEF”). The act would penalise anyone who produces, distributes or assists in the

transmission or promotion of child pornography, including via the Internet.

In December 2017, UNICEF’s Philippines study revealed that it “is still among the

world’s top sources of pornography” (“Philippines still among”). UNICEF emphasised on

the need to raise awareness and vigilance of the issue, so that parents, who

occasionally contribute to the statistic by arranging child sexual abuse on camera, will

know that child sexual abuse is morally wrong and affects a child’s health and mental

development.

UNICEF has also supported ​Brunei’s government “through consultations, providing

expertise and listening to the voice of youth” (Kon), which paved the way for Brunei’s

efforts in the cyber protection of children through the 2013 establishment of a Child

Online Protection framework. Brunei was the first country in the Southeast-Asian region

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to do so. The framework builds on an existing legislation in Brunei which criminalises

the possession of child pornography and causing a person under 16 to watch a sexual

act, among others.

The past efforts of UNICEF were done to tackle and bring attention to the issues of child

pornography and child sexual abuse in the world. The studies highlight the situation of

child pornography and sexual abuse in other asian countries and raises questions on

the safety of children on the Internet in Japan.

5.3 Current UNICEF Efforts in Other Countries

UNICEF’s global “The State of the World’s Children 2017” report indicates global digital

safety as one of its core focus. It has embarked on uncovering how the Internet and

digital technology is helping and hindering children’s learning, well-being and social

relationships, and has shedded light on the positive and detrimental effects of digital

technology (“The State of”). One specific segment focused on child sexual abuse and

exploitation, among other negative effects.

UNICEF then ensured a call to action for the digital technology sector in the government

and telecom industries to make expanding internet access and protecting the children a

priority (“The State of”).

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The information provided from this report will be useful in helping to push for reforms to

protect children from online sexual exploitation in the future, as people will come to see

that digital technology can be used negatively, and should not be taken lightly.

5.4 UNICEF Collaborations with Governments

UNICEF has collaborated with the Japanese government to protect children and women

in Myanmar. In September 2016, the Japanese government contributed USD2.2 million

to UNICEF to improve child protection against violence. Through this contribution,

UNICEF, in partnership with the Myanmar government, will work to prevent and respond

to cases of gender based violence, and contribute to the ongoing development and

capacity building of key government departments and civil groups, through the provision

of quality social work (“Japan and UNICEF”).

The one-year programme aimed to raise awareness to prevent child sexual abuse and

violence, and aimed to reach one million children by building sustainable government

social services. In addition, a new module on violence and protection of children was

introduced in Myanmar’s Police Force and Supreme Court training curriculums,

benefitting 10,000 justice professionals.

This effort helps UNICEF gain reputation and credibility for working with governments to

push for reforms and new legislations. This thus places them in a better position to work

with other governments in the future.

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5.5 UNICEF Collaborations with NGOS

Exposure to media amongst youths creates a potential for large exposure to

sexualisation of girls, trivialising violence against girls (“Not An Object”). Organisms, by

learning not to respond to uneventful familiar stimuli, would be able to conserve energy

and attend to other stimuli that is important (Passer and Smith 195). Similarly,

desensitisation from the large exposure to the sexualisation of girls will occur over time,

which will then result in violence against girls being trivialised.

To counter these findings, UNICEF has participated in projects like Together for Girls, a

global partnership dedicated to ending violence against children, focusing on sexual

violence against girls (“Who We Are”). This partnership group works on a “Data,

Advocacy, Action” basis, where they find data on issues like child sexual violence. They

will act on the data through advocacy and action in terms of legal and policy reforms in

the country (“How We Work”).

This project has proved its success in various countries like Nigeria. Nigerian President

Muhammadu Buhari has taken action in response to the shocking findings from the

Violence Against Children Survey done in their country. Supported by UNICEF Nigeria,

he launched the Year of Action to End Violence in September 2015, which called on

federal and state ministries, NGOs, Faith-Based Organisations, media, communities,

19
parents and children to come together to prevent and respond to physical, sexual and

emotional violence against children (“Nigeria”).

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6.0 Recommendations

6.1 Conducting Further Research to Analyse Effects on Society

Findings indicate that UNICEF’s past efforts were channelled towards protecting

children from the dangers of child pornographic film. However, there has been minimal

efforts done to protect children from the dangers of long-term exposure to graphic

imagery featuring sexualised minors. The Japanese government has previously worked

with UNICEF to impose legislation which banned the possession of real-life images of

children engaging in sexual acts. UNICEF can build on this partnership to earn support

from the Japanese government to provide the necessary statistical resources to conduct

this study, so that they can support the Japanese government in building a healthier,

predator-free society for Japan. Since UNICEF is an interest group, they reside in the

extramedia level in the Shoemaker and Reese model (Keith). This means that UNICEF

can influence the type of messages circulating in the media, which serves as a

motivation for the Japanese government to work with UNICEF to tackle the

consumption and possession of fictional graphic imagery that sexualise minors in the

long run.

6.2 Partner with Family Organisations in Japan

The statistic of crimes related to child abuse images calls for urgent action towards

protecting Japanese minors from sexual predators. The media has strong effects on

consumers without their awareness, especially those without strong “family values”

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(Strasburger 254). This indicates that exposure to media materials, including fiction, can

have negative effects on users. As manga that sexualises minors is still legal, long-time

consumers of such content may develop paedophilic tendencies (Arnett 156). Hence,

UNICEF should work with family organisations to raise awareness of this issue so that

there is stronger vigilance against child sexual predators to protect and create a safer

environment for children in Japan.

6.3 Pressure the Japanese Government to Impose Laws

As previously established, Japan’s current legislation only serves to aggravate the

potential problem of pedophilia, threatening the safety of children. UNICEF should

therefore pressure the Japanese government to progressively integrate a law that bans

the sexualisation of minors in manga, with an end goal of introducing a law that will

eventually ban the consumption, possession and production of all virtual imagery that

sexualises minors, including fictional materials.

UNICEF is a global organisation with authority to pressure the Japanese government to

relook at their current legislation. Further research will also seek to put UNICEF in a

higher position to push for a revision of law in Japan.

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7.0 Conclusion

To answer the research question, UNICEF can persuade the Japanese government to

recognise the severity of the issue and pressure them to create legislation to combat

graphic novels sexualising children. With their joint efforts, they can develop good

policies to change the Japanese publishers’ perception about publishing materials that

sexualise children. This will ensure a reduction in the amount of graphic novels

sexualising minors, thus combating child abuse cases and creating a safe haven for

children.

Word Count: 3300

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