Thermodynamic Concepts ‘Thermodynamics is the science that deals with the relationship between heat, work, and properties of systems, Fundamental Concepts '* Systems Surouangs ‘Sysem boundary System 1, open system ~ mass, heat, and work can cross the system boundary 2, closed system — heat and work ean cross the system boundary (mass cannot) 3, isolated system ~ no mass, heat, or work ccan cross the system boundary 4. adiabatic system ~ no heat can cross the system boundary ‘* Equilibrium—free from any tendency to un- dergo change, ie. no gradients exist ‘+ Functions 1. path function — depends on the process ~ inexact differential = eg. heat and work 2. point function = independent of the process ~ exact differential eg. properties Properties * Properties are point functions or characteris- ties of a system, * Properties can be classified as: 1. extensive ~ depend on mass 2. intensive ~ independent of mass © Three fundamental properties are pressure (p), volume (v or V), and temperature (T). + Other properties are |. u, U ~ internal energy . hy H — enthalpy, h = w+ po , 5 ~ entropy, dS = (6Q/T)eev 4, A ~ Helmholtz function, a = u~T's 9, G ~ Gibb's function, 9 = h-Ts ‘+ In some cases other properties are: 1. cy ~ constant volume specific heat, ey = (u/OT)y 2. cp ~ constant pressure specific heat, cp = (Oh/8T)p 3. jy ~ Joule-Thomson coefficient, Hs = (OTOP + For a single pure component Number of Number of prop phases to specify state 1 2 2 1 3 0 © Quality ~ mass fraction of the vapor phase, ie. z=m,/(m, +m) ‘The specific volume of a two phase system can be given by v = xu, +(1~2)vy = avy, + uy. Similar expressions exist for u, h, and 8 + Model Jude: 1, ideal gas equation, pu = RT 2, other equations of state, eg. van der Waal’s equation (p+ a/v")(v— 0) = RT 3. generalized charts, = = pu/ RT 4. tables Processes and Cycles # Processes are: 1. reversible ~ a succession of equilibrium states (quasi-equilibrium process) 2, irreversible - a succession of non- equilibrium states ME 301 DWM* Specific processes include: 5. adiabatic . isobaric ~ constant pressure isothermal ~ constant température isochorie ~ constant volume isentropic ~ constant entropy tno heat transfer polytropic ~ pu" = constant + A thermodynamic cycle is a linked series of processes sich that the final state of the last process is the same as the initial state of the first process. * Carnot power cycle—all reversible processes: 1 2. 3 4 isothermal heat rejection . adiabatic, reversible compression isothermal heat addition |. adiabatic, reversible expansion Work and Heat + Work is done dy a system during a given peo- cess if the sole effect external to the system could be reduced to the the lifting of a weight. For a reversible process, closed system: ‘open system: ‘¢ Heat is the transfer of energy from a high tem- perature body to a low temperature body due to a temperature difference only. For a re- versible process, ‘© Sign convention for work and heat: +Q -Q + -w = = = into the system out of the system out of the system into the system ME 301 DWMFirst Law of Thermodynamics « For a cycle, the Bist law can bé expressed as pian fom. «© For a closed system, the first law can be written as 4 mV3= Vi) 1Q2 = U2 -Uy + mg(Z2- Z1) + 1Wa, or on a per mass basis as 1@ =u + + 9(Z2~ Zi) +1ue where 1@2 = 1Qa/m, 142 = \We/m, and u = U/m. «For a control volume, a mass balance yields dimee et ee and an energy balance yields $s =, tae Eau (nee a =) - om (m+ Mtoe) * For a SSSF process, continuity requires that ‘Tus, the first law can be written as Gant Din (ne Mean) = rm (b+ SE tae) + the + For a SSF process with one inlet and one outlet so that the first law can be written as v: ath+ St gn a het OE tore tw where q = Quy/ri and w = Wey ME 301 DWMCycle Components 1. Turbine # working fluid does work against a blade attached to a shaft, ‘* converts kinetic energy of fluid to rota- tional energy of shaft # working fluid undergoes a pressure and enthalpy drop « ideal is adiabatic and reversible = rin(hy ~ ha) n . 2. Nozzle # a flow passage of varying cross-sectional area in which the velocity of the fuid «pressure and enthalpy drop » ideal is adiabatic and reversible + Viti = Vit 3. Diffuser «a flow passage of varying cross-sectional area in which the velocity of the fluid decreases « pressure and enthalpy rise + ideal is adiabatic and reversible 4. Pump «+ incompressible working fuid, ie. a lig: uid «+ pressure and enthalpy increase + ideal is adiabatic and reversible o Win fi vaP = -mw(P, ~ P) 5. Compressor ‘© compressible working fluid, ie. a gas «© pressure and enthalpy increase « ideal is adiabatic and reversible © -W = rin —) he 6. Throttling Device ‘© working fluid passes through a restric. ton which causes a pressure drop ‘+ no work or change in kinetic or potential energy ‘+ examples are capillary tubes, valves, or porous plugs ‘© adiabatic implies hy = hy 7. Heat Transfer Devices (Heat Exchangers) ‘pressure is constant + boilers convert liquids to vapors a Tas ‘* condensers convert vapor to liquid ' Heater the = ba ‘* combustion chambers allow the reaction of a fuel and a oxidizer ‘= open feedwater heater = fluids mix + closed feedwater heater > heat transfer due to conduction convection ME 301 DWMSecond Law of Thermodynamics *# The second law for a closed system can be written as ? 6 51-51= [B+ S20 ‘+ For a SSSF process, the second law can be written as San — Dine +O + Som 20 Availablity, Reversible Work, and Irreversiblity ‘© Nonflow availability per unit mass is given by @ = (€ = €0) ~ To(s ~ 50) + Pov v0). For a closed system, the maximum reversible work is given by we" = d= dat ay (- and the irreversibility is given by + Flow availability or exergy is defined as b= (h4V7/2 + gz — Tos) - (ho + 920 - Toso). For a SSSF process, the reversible work is given by Wa = Lowes = Dohete +0, (-2) and the irreversibility is given by ME 301 DWM‘T-ds Relationships ‘= Two useful relationships among the properties are: Tds = du + Pdv and Tas = dh ~ vaP. Ideal Gas + An ideal gas is a compressible substance whose thermal equation of state is given by Pu = RT. + The ideal gas molecules are assumed to point masses with no intermolecular forces «The ideal gas approximation is valid at high temperatures and low pressures ie. low density ope =R + Properties ~ Internal Energy: u = u(T) du=eaT = wou f hn ~ Enthalpy: = A(T) n dheeeT => ha-m= [oat = Entropy «© For an isentropic process with constant specific heats: m_ (BNO om yh (2) no | Tea) Bo \u)* ‘© For an isentropic process with cp = a+ 60 + eT? + dT*: cea ant, +67, + 572+ 57 a i B an, -6n - $77 -479- ein (2) = wt, on -S1}- $79 Ro (2) ©. ME 301 DWM