been discovered elsewhere, for example in Iran, The objections raised by Hole’ ries have had limited impact, with the exception OFF. Ranke's extreme views. According othe late, all the evidence fcocering apparions of the army of the dead vas the fruit of hlucinaions pure and. simple, and pusbologial rather than rythico-religous statements But this ratonalisic, reductionist interpretation seems tobe as baseless as Holler’s. have mentioned that the documentation collected in Kalicke Goheimbinde was rouch richer than what had been available to “Weiser. Nevertheless, Holler ignored 2 number of themes. Firs, Weiser had compared the ecsusy of Eurasian shamans wo the unbridled wari frenzies (Ras of the berserk Secondly, se had also pointed out the presence of feminine divinities atthe head of the ‘Wild’ Hunt and had investigated the relationship between the Germanic Perehta and the Mediterranean Artemis. t was from the fist that Weiser presumably traced ber cautiously advanced hypothesis thatthe mythico-rural complex she was studying actually had presIndo-European as well as Indo-European roots; fom the second, her allusions connected with feriliy themes: Behind the Germanic warrior associations Weiser glimpsed something vaster and more complex which was not exclusively marial nor exclusively Germanic. Hifler decisively minimized the significance of these possible ramifcations The eesasy of the Germanic wartors was not an individual phenomenoa, but a controlled release of restraints obtained through communion withthe dead, “an immense source of scat and. staal energies.” “As for female divinities and. the ‘connotations that had been attached to feriity, Hafler definitely considered them to be of marginal importance. For him the core of “the ecstatic cut of the Germanic religion of the dead” was the “bond (e-igo), understood as «sacred duy, withthe living dead and their guide" The hercic and martial myth of the Germanic famy of the dead was not redvibe to "general concepts in the posits study of religion, namely, fetty magic and protecve Imagic.” Holler rejected tempts to link Germanic wareor frenzy and shamanistic ecstasy, as wells, in general, the superimposition of “oriental concepts" on Germanic mythology: Wodan™=Odin was not god of licentiousness {uschnafun), but the god ofthe dead, of ‘warirs of kings and ofthe state." "The above passages, except for the last wo, are from the concluding pages of Kulishe Gehimbind dr Germann the last #0 ial it dil sppear in a polemical reply to a review by F. von der Leyea. A peculiar” accident had befallen Haller” between these (90 Dublictions: he had licovered, tn exvoms, thanks toa reference by Meu, the proceeding of Inte-seventeenth-century ial against an ‘id. Livonian werewolf We recall that Weiser, purruing = "sggestion by Mogk, had already proposed adding werewolves 10 the evidence connected with male societies. Now, through this document fhe voice of fllower ofa sccret male soccty had reached Hiller without passing through the ter of literary. tradition, ‘The feommentary which accompanied the republication of the tal records in an appendix revealed an obvious embarrassment: the ores told by the old werewolf were ful of fabulous elements and Aifficlt o accept a literal descriptions of ites; moreover, they were based explicly on the theme of battles fought perodialy against witches and watlocks over the feriliy ofthe harvests and, final, the documents acully mentioned the paricipaton in these combats of female werewolves. Holler atempted to extricate himself by saying thatthe werewolf was a raggar, and a Blt besides. The Germanic wartior groups, instead, were strictly male and not concerned with (questions of ferility ~ to sum up, they were something totally Siferent.” Clearly, Hofler’s interpretative somersaults were required to save the basic framework of his research; its ideological matrix is lear and confirmed by the casing words in his book: “The specific vocation of the Nordic race, its creat in bringing states into being, found its proper fulllment in the male societies [Manned giving them {he possibility of flourishing in the richest manner possbl. In the fillnes oftheir power they constitute both a productive clement and san aggressive force: fighting, educating, and dominating, they entered the history ofthe world." Such statements certainly did not have an orginal ring in the Germany of the peri. A. Kecbs had already written inthe journal Pave und Gaeta Nationaal ‘sche Briefe (1928) thatthe male Bend was the nucleus from which “al states have their origin.” Hofer, unlike Weiser, found the inspiration for his research in that current, spified by Krebs and ‘exemplified by the youth movement merging with Niism. But after Inving given its stamp to the fst phase of Nazism, the bind crrent ended up being relegated drastically tothe background. "This, among other factors, explains the violent atack on Hoiler’s book published in 1936 i the journal Rae. The author, H. Spek, judged Kutsche Gekeimbinde der Germanen and Mi. Ninck’s Wodan140 / Clue, Myths, andthe Historia! Method and germanicher Schdvatgaube to be “grave dangers for the ‘contemporary poieo-cultual situation.” ‘The cricism was not ‘only, nor even primarily, based on scholarly considerations: by ‘modeling the Germanic image on that of the Viking warriors (the ‘erserkil) wh had eot themselves oft fom their native sol the tw0 uthors had forgotten that “the Germanic man of the pagan period, ‘specialy on German si, was primarily a peasant and a watir too, oF course” He differed greatly from primitive demonic horsemen, from crazed members of secret societies, from ecstatic. ‘The tistncive tat in the soul ofthe Nordic race and of the original Indo-Germani religion, Spehr concluded, was moderation, cahea, combined with smphryne, not ebsass, the sacred ongy that characterizes the aca soul of Asia Minor." Evidently inthe eyes of the Rase reviewer, the exaltation of the martial ferocity of the ‘Germanic male societies conjured up the memory of the SA, which tad been purged in blood bath two years eater. Holler was lightly fut of sep with the times in regard wo that solidly rural image, Custodian of trdilonal vitwes, that the Nazi regime wanted 10 project forse at that particular moment. Tet us rerum to Myther et dicur des Gemains. Dumézil used Hiller’ book in is own work without expressing the slightest critical detachment from i. But Duméz's juxtaposition of beserkc and the SSA was already implicit in Kultsche Cehimbinde der Geranen, where the berserk were explained in terms of the SA, and vice ‘essa Ie’the cave of «vious cree more than s hermeneutic one. ‘There remains Block's review. Should we interpret it asthe fruit of a casual misunderstanding, of a superficial reading? This ‘suggestion, quite improbable in isl is contradicted by the fac hat Bloch was well acquainted with one of the books used by Dumézi, Hitler's Kultiche Gekeimbinde der Germanen Bloch wrote favorably about tin a 1937 fsue of the Reme historique: “The erudition i {stonishing: the psychological refinement, the sense of life, no les. Ss. Rarely has anyone penetrated further through that substratum of | Superimposed popular beliefs from which Europe has for so long ‘ourshed itself, oe analyzed better, ina mythology considered tobe 25 one, such a8 that of the ancient Germans, the coexistence of fature deities and warsior gods.” Bloch’s favorable opinions (ll Somewhat debatable except for the eibute to Heller's erudition) foutweghed by far his crtcsm of dhe laters refusal (probably preconceived) to tke ito account research on the superimposition Df Christianity over the anclent myths. Equally downplayed ~ actully Germanic Mythology and Nasiom / 141 relegated t0 2 foomote - is Bloch’s obseration apropos the Ierpretation of a passage in the edict of Rothari condemning Alisgises contrived “inorder to steal” (atrcnandi anime) In these teavesis Heller had, as usual, presied the waces of ancient cls, liching this comment from Block: “Without being exceedingly prostic, I believe, one may deplore the scom in which some "mythologst hold the simplest explanations." Curiously, Bloch did not cary this eric, undermining the very foundations of Hofer’ thesis, tts logical conclusion, Stranger stl isthe fact that he did ‘not make something of the ideological implications so patent in such ‘book as Kuiche Govimbinde der Germanen, especialy since he was discussing it in a review dominated by his aie, his “anguish,” over the tional ad it orn in German cholri ring se yeas. Bloch’simellectual and political biography inthe period preceding the war is practically unexplored. Even his correspondence. with Lucien Febwre remains unpublished. ‘To discover some of the reasons for Bloch’ favorable response tothe books by Dumézl and ‘Holler, we shall have to make an indirect approach In. 1936 Elie Haléry presented a paper tothe Société Francaise de Philosophie ended "L'ere des trannies,” which was later published in the society's Bullen, together with some leters of commentary, ‘one of which was by Marest Maus. Maun uly approved ofthe inks ‘which Haley had suggested between Bolsheviam on one side, and Fascism and Nazism on the other. He noted the importance of Sorel’s writings, 10 which Lenin, Mussolini, and, indirectly, Hier hrough Mussolini) were” indebted. The Bolshevik party, he continued, remains 2 secret society wih its own armed body (the KGB), ensconced in the hear of Rosia, just as the Fascist and Hierian parties, which have neither arllery ao let, but possess = police apparatus, inhabit Italy and Germany. And Mauss added: “Here I easily recognize events which often occurred in Greece, and hich Arisoile deseibes well but which are characteristic of ancient Societies in general and, who knows, perhaps ofthe ene worl. 1 am refering to the ‘Society of Men, wit its confaternites that are public and secret at che same tim. In this male society iis che young ‘who act.” Mase concluded that this might be a necessary, but Socilogcally backward, form of activity. Te satsfies the eraving “Tor secrecy, fr influence, for action, for youth and often, for tradition, ‘These are new beginning, identical sequences."142 / Cle, Myths, andthe Hiorical Method ‘Nether Dumé no, probably, een Bloch could have oresooked this eter, reprinted in 1938 when "L'ere des grannies” appeared in book for immediatly after Hay’ death, In Myhe et dir des Gerais ich open snl it depict on Mas crposton of Nea paratary organizations wih ancien you tjtey" was revved and eaied farther, but ins wally diferent Spirit Realingbetneen the ines of Dumeris detached acount one The shamanistic characterises which I had recognized inthe bnandanth ‘now appear tobe shared by other figures in European folklore: Slavic and ‘Balic werewolves, Hungarian lr, Dalmatian Ari, Corsican masse, and s0 forth All these personages claimed to be able to travel periodically (sprit or in animal form) tothe word of the dead. ‘Their destiny war indicated by special charactratis having bcen born with ther teeth (lt), with te cal (enandandh :148 / Clues Myths, andthe Historical Method eroili, werewolves), or during the ewele days between Christmas and Epiphany (werewolves) Let us retum to the wolf-man, We lear from Fread’s published account thatthe patient was a Rusia, that he had been born with the eal, that he had been bon on Christmas da.? There is an ‘obvious cultural homogeneity between these facts and the inintle ‘dream focusing on the sppearance ofthe wolves. A series of casual cincdences is really quite improbable. ‘The intermediary berween the sphere of folkloric belies connected with werewoles and Freud's future patient, who belonged, as I have sid, t0 an ‘upper-middle-class family, undoubteily must have been the nurse, the nani, described asa “pious and Supersttious” woman.® The child was deeply atached tothe old nurse Gt was she, afer ll, who tomforted him after his anguished dream about the wolves). [twas from her that he would have learned what extraordinary (sot necessily negative) powers were conferred by the fact that he had been born wih the cal. And it was she who would have told him his first fairy tales, before the English governess read to him Grimms in ‘Russian translation, Even the fable of the tailor and dhe wolves,