An integrated materials valorisation scheme for Enhanced

Landfill Mining
Tom VAN GERVEN1, Daneel GEYSEN2, Yiannis PONTIKES2, Özlem CIZER3,
Gilles MERTENS4, Jan ELSEN4, Koen VAN BALEN3, Peter Tom JONES2, Bart
BLANPAIN2
1
Department of Chemical Engineering, K.U.Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
2
Department of Metallurgy and Materials Engineering, K.U.Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
3
Department of Civil Engineering, K.U.Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
4
Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, K.U.Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
tom.vangerven@cit.kuleuven.be, daneel.geysen@mtm.kuleuven.be,
yiannis.pontikes@mtm.kuleuven.be, ozlem.cizer@bwk.kuleuven.be,
gilles.mertens@ees.kuleuven.be, jan.elsen@ees.kuleuven.be,
koen.vanbalen@bwk.kuleuven.be, peter.jones@mtm.kuleuven.be,
bart.blanpain@mtm.kuleuven.be

Abstract
This contribution gives an overview of how materials valorisation fits into the overall scheme
of Enhanced Landfill Mining and shows its relations with energy recovery, separation of
material streams and carbon sequestration. As such there is a close link with the
contributions of Lieve Helsen and Anouk Bosmans; Mieke Quaghebeur et al. and Ben
Laenen and Peter Van Tongeren, elsewhere in these Conference Proceedings. In addition
some novel technological methods and considerations will be highlighted, which underline
ELFM as a holistic and innovative route for materials recycling. Finally, two recent initiatives
will be briefly described as they illustrate the approach that is needed to cope with this
interdisciplinary challenge.

Materials valorisation as part of ELFM

ELFM consists of two essential technological components. The first one is energy
valorisation, a.k.a. Waste-to-Energy, WtE. This is in fact the part that has been realised in
many landfills where landfill mining is performed. Indeed landfill mining is often not more than
methane recovery from the landfill gases and subsequent conversion into electricity. It is
clear that WtE can be much more than only methane recovery (see the contribution of
Helsen and Bosmans. in this book). A fully fledged WtE gives rise to energy production
(electricity, syngas) with solid residues, CO2 and heat as by-products. The other component
is materials valorisation, a.k.a. Waste-to-Materials or WtM, leading to new materials that can
be re-introduced in the economic cycle. In recent years this has been attracting more and
more attention in scientific literature1-4 and through commercial trials. Examples of the latter
are presented in the annual Global Landfill Mining Conference. However, this Conference
also shows the vulnerability of the landfill mining concept to the economic context. The 2nd
Global Landfill Mining Conference, which was due in October 2009, was postponed to 2010
because of the collapse in global commodity and waste material prices. This vulnerability
underlines the need for an integrated view on landfill mining with optimal valorisation of
streams. The word ‘optimal’ refers in this respect to 1) achieving near 100% recycling, and 2)
recycling in as-high-value-as-possible options. This double goal often requires a balanced
trade-off. Therefore, in ELFM the two basic components (WtE and WtM) need to be
supported by state-of-the art separation technology and decision tools. The latter include a.o.
Life Cycle Analysis and Life Cycle Costing and have to be flexible to account for a dynamic
economic and societal environment.
Figure 1 shows the relation between WtM, WtE and the separation/decision stage. While
some of the materials can immediately serve as new resources after separation, the majority
will have to be treated in the WtM section. WtE inevitably produces solid residues that will
flow into the WtM. Also a (small) part of other outputs of WtE, CO2 and heat, can be used in
the WtM section. The majority, however, has to find other outlets, such as underground
injection of CO2, use both heat and CO2 in greenhouses for the production of vegetables,
and possibly in future the chemical reduction of CO2 to fuels and/or materials.

landfill

separation
& decision

new solid syngas,

WtM WtE
materials residue electricity

CO2, CCS,
heat greenhouses
Figure 1: Overall scheme of ELFM

Novel components of a materials valorisation scheme for ELFM

In this section we will take a closer look at possible components of the WtM plant. The focus
will be on technologies and tools that are being investigated in the domain of solid waste
recycling, but are new in the context of landfill mining. The discussed topics are a selection
and constitute by no means an exhaustive or closed set of options.

Alternative raw materials for cement

Production of Portland cement, an essential building material for the construction industry
worldwide, is a significant source of energy-related and process-related CO2 emissions. The
suggested figures for cement’s industry footprint vary between 5 to 7% of the global
anthropogenic CO2 emissions.5 Process-related CO2 emissions result from the dissociation
of limestone (CaCO3), the primary raw material for clinker production, to calcium oxide
(CaO), an intermediate product in the clinkering process, and to CO2. The final product is
typically heated to a temperature in the region of 1450°C and the energy requirement is
between 3,2 106 kJ/t and 3,5 106 kJ/t for dry kiln systems with 4/5-stage preheating.6

As part of the transition to low-carbon closed loop economies, the development of new
cement types from alternative CaO-rich input streams with low-energy requirements is thus
becoming of utmost importance to reduce the CO2 emissions from clinker production
considerably. Other strategies are also being investigated, namely decreasing the clinker to
cement ratio (by introducing Supplementary Cementitious Materials) or producing non-
Ordinary Portland Cements. In the latter direction, considerable work is being done in the
direction of reactive belite-rich cements.
Metallurgical slags, such as steel slags and stainless steel slags, are typically rich in CaO (up
to 70 wt%) and 2CaO.SiO2 (β- or γ-dicalcium silicate, up to 80 wt%). This renders them into
materials with a high potential to form cementitious systems and thus would allow the
transformation of these waste residues into products.7-8 This approach is the current
research domain of the authors in several projects embedded within the SMaRT-Pro²
Industrial Knowledge Platform on waste valorisation, where the complex chain from high-
temperature processes to final products, including a reverse engineering approach (see in
the following section), is taken into account. It is currently being investigated if stainless steel
slags can be transformed into a new cement type or can be used as additives along with
Portland cement, forming blended cements. Alternatively, it will be investigated if these slags
can be used as the primary input materials in clinker production with the target of producing
low-energy and low-CO2 belite-rich binders. Probably, the most interesting opportunity arises
from the ability to alter the chemistry of the slags at high temperatures and to adapt the
cooling process. These actions can drastically modify the mineralogy of the final slag and
thus produce a better material for subsequent use.

In the context of Enhanced Landfill Mining in which various waste streams are considered,
the separation of these metallurgical slags and the improvement of the waste properties in
terms of heavy metals leaching and reactivity are the major challenges in forming
cementitious systems. Cement today is also made by combining different wastes as a source
of energy. There as well, heavy metal content is a topic requiring much attention. The heavy
metal content and heavy metal availability of the different ELFM materials should be
considered. Cement is known to be able to reduce the availability of several metals. The
work at K.U.Leuven will envisage cement making from ELFM materials with low or no
environmental concerns in its application.

Alkali-activated binders out of waste

Propelled by the same concerns as in the previous section, new materials are being
investigated to replace cement. Alkali-activated binders, produced by alkali-activated silica-
and alumina-containing materials such as kaolinitic clays, metakaolin or industrial waste (fly
ash and blast furnace slag), seem to have a high potential9-10. The concept of alkali activated
binders was first developed in 1940s with the work of Purdon on blast furnace slag and alkali
combinations. Major contribution came from Davidovits who developed and patented a
binder obtained from alkali-activated metakaolin called ‘geopolymer’ that is comprised of an
amorphous to semi-crystalline, silico-aluminate polymeric network.11 This was then followed
by the developments of ‘alkali-activated (pozzolanic) cements’ and ‘geopolymeric cements’,
including ordinary Portland cement and geopolymers in the composition. Alkali-activated
cements show lower porosity, higher early strength and higher durability (i.e. higher
resistance against corrosive environments) than Portland cement due to the formation of
zeolitic compounds (sodium alumino-silicate hydrates). These cements are also much better
in stabilisation/immobilisation of hazardous and radioactive wastes.12 Alkali-activated
cements from blast furnace slag, phosphorous slag, nickel and copper slag were fully
standardised in the former Soviet Union.

Alkali-activated cements are mainly produced in two ways13: (1) activation of calcium and
silica rich materials, such as the activation of blast furnace slag under relatively moderate
alkaline conditions, giving the main reaction products of calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H),
being similar to the one produced in cement hydration; (2) activation of materials with low
CaO and high silica and alumina content, such as metakaolin or type F fly ash, using solid or
liquid alkaline activators under high alkalinity and high temperatures (60 to 200°C), forming
alkaline inorganic polymers of zeolitic compounds. Another option is alkali-activated blended
cements with low Portland cement clinker (< 30%) and with high mineral additions (> 70%),
giving a composition rich in silica, calcium and alumina. The exact reaction mechanism of
alkali activation is not yet understood thoroughly because it depends on the composition of
the primary materials and on the alkaline activator. However, a three-step model of
dissolution of raw materials, transportation or orientation and hardening via polycondensation
of the reaction products is suggested to occur.

Waste residues from high temperature processes such as waste incineration, ferrous- and
non-ferrous metallurgy are characterised by their oxidic nature. Some have high silica
content whereas others have high alkali content. Due to the high temperature at which these
materials are produced and as a result of the fast cooling, the siliceous phases can be glassy
in nature and thus easily soluble in alkali, i.e. they are ‘reactive’. That particular characteristic
makes them interesting raw materials for alkali activation. In this way, the leaching problem
of the elevated heavy metal content in these materials is tackled by applying them as binder,
making their reuse possible. So far, investigations on alkali-activated binders include reactive
primary materials such as metakaolin and fly ash. Alkali activation of less consistent (in terms
of composition) waste materials will not give the same reactivity and final product quality. It is
also argued that parameters related to alkali activation of metakaolin cannot be applied to
waste materials because not all silica and alumina are reactive. A particular interest has
recently arisen in this topic.13 In-depth research is required in this promising domain with the
main goal of transforming these waste residues into alternative binders having performance
comparable with or even higher than Portland cement.

At the Remo landfill site (see the contribution of Yves Tielemans and Patrick Laevers in this
book), MSW bottom ashes, fly ashes, APC residues, non-ferrous slags and stainless steel
slags are present. Besides, the new plasma technology introduced seems also promising in
delivering a final product, with high silica content and highly glassy, i.e. ‘reactive’, that could
produce geopolymers.14 This wide array of wastes necessitates innovative research because
alkali-activation studies have been focused on blast furnace slag and fly ash from electric
power plants (from coal combustion). It will be investigated how an alkali-activated binder
can be made from ELFM materials and which ELFM residues are suitable. Moreover, it will
be investigated how the reactivity of the materials can be enhanced, e.g. by
mechanochemical activation through milling. Because the use of pure alkaline activators is
expensive, low cost alkali waste streams will be studied. Alkali activation can be used to
make monolithic materials such as ‘bricks’ or ‘concrete’ type blocks.

Mineral carbonation of alkaline materials

Mineral carbonation is the reaction of alkaline minerals with atmospheric carbon dioxide to
form carbonate minerals and is one of the major processes in the long-term global carbon
cycle.15 The process is being investigated in the domain of solid waste management for
several reasons. First, it is the most important reaction in the ageing process of alkaline
waste materials and, therefore, it is relevant to know what the effect is of mineral carbonation
on the properties of the waste. In many cases carbonation appears to have beneficial effects,
and then it becomes interesting to accelerate mineral carbonation. Secondly, carbonation of
selectively separated waste streams may generate pure carbonate materials with high-value
applications. Finally, mineral carbonation also implies CO2 sequestration.

Many ashes from municipal solid waste incineration as well as slags from metallurgical
processes contain high amounts of calcium and magnesium, either in oxidic phases or in the
form of silicates, aluminates, etc. These phases are prone to carbonation, with the free
oxides being the most reactive. These materials also contain troublesome heavy metals such
as Cu, Pb, Zn, Cr, As, etc. It has been shown that leaching of several of these metals such
as Cu, Pb and Zn decreases by carbonation.16-17 For other elements such as the oxyanion-
forming Cr, Sb and Mo, carbonation can be steered towards an increase or decrease of
leaching16,18 (Figure 2). In addition, the compressive strength of these materials seems to
increase dramatically by the effects of carbonation. Values of several (tens of) MPa have
been reported.19 In the context of Enhanced Landfill Mining the improvement of waste
properties is probably the major driver for the application of this technology.

In particular waste streams the amount of Ca and/or Mg may be so high that it becomes
worthwhile to investigate the separation of these cations followed by carbonation in view of
the production of granulated calcium carbonate (GCC), precipitated calcium carbonate (PCC)
or the Mg counterparts.20 These high-value products are used as a supplemental ingredient
in pharmaceutical, food and fertilizer

Cu Cr
10,0
5,0

leaching (mg/kg dry matter)

leaching (mg/kg dry matter)

1,0

0,5 0,1
1 10 100 1 10 100
carbonation time (h) carbonation time (h)

Figure 2: Effect of accelerated carbonation on leaching of Cu (left) and Cr (right) from MSWI
bottom ash16. The different data points at the same carbonation time indicate different
processing conditions.

industry, and as filler or coating agent in the polymer, paper and paint industry. To achieve
commercial application, however, much improvement on the separation process needs to be
made.

With increasing concern for climate change and rising CO2 prices sequestration will gain
importance in the next decades. The CO2 sequestration potential of mineral carbonation is
undoubtedly low (typically one or so percent of the CO2 emitted by waste incinerators could
be sequestered in the residues it produces; higher values may be possible in the
metallurgical sector). However, it can be seen as a first and easy step for a company in
lowering its CO2 emissions. The biggest hurdle in achieving maximum sequestration is the
slow and incomplete reaction due to the fact that is a surface-related process. The finer the
alkaline material, the more efficient carbonation will proceed. Therefore, investigation is
focusing on improving conversion while avoiding energy-intensive milling as much as
possible.21

Recovery of scarce elements

A rather new topic that is arising is the scarcity of several of the elements present in the
22
periodic table. The situation is described in the excellent position paper of Dodson et al. It
appears that while many ‘carbon-low’ technologies are developed, these are all using the
same rare and precious elements. And in contrast to biological materials, the availability of
these materials is finite. Availability is also not only a technological story, there is also a geo-
political aspect to it. Mineral reserves are located in certain areas which appear to be
controlled by an astonishing small amount of actors. China for example now provides more
than 95% of the world’s supply of rare earth metals.

Landfills can be an interesting source for these scarce metals. In Japan it appears that more
gold and silver has been accumulated in goods and waste than there is currently present in
the reserves of the richest resource possessing country for each of these elements.23 Also
huge amounts of indium, tin, tantalum, platinum and lithium have been collected. Three times
more gold, silver and indium are contained in Japan’s waste than the world uses in a year.
When comparing the concentration in different waste streams ending up in landfills with the
metal content in ores (Figure 3), it becomes incomprehensible that countries are willing to
ship their waste abroad and even pay for it. Exact information on concentration in European
landfills remains scarce.

Although the total concentration of scarce elements in ore and solid residues can be
comparable, an important drawback of the solid residues is that in most cases the desired
elements are present in many different mineral phases and occur together with many other
but similar (from a chemical point of view) elements. This makes it difficult

100000
Incineration fly ash
10000
Gasification fly ash
Concentratoin (ppm)

1000 Crude ore

100

10

0,1
Zn Pb Cu Sn Sb Ag Bi Ga Ge In Pd Te Tl
Element

Figure 3: Total concentration of selected metals in residues of thermally treated municipal

solid waste and comparison with concentration in crude ore (Halada et al.24)

to extract them both completely and selectively. However, many investigations are being
conducted on (selective) hydrothermal, pyrometallurgical and biotechnological extraction of
scarce elements from specific waste streams. More work on the recovery potential from
landfills is desirable.

Hot-stage engineering for a better product

A part of the materials input in the WtM section comes from a thermal process (WtE). In this
case it can be useful to study the possibilities of hot-stage engineering, which reflects every
activity performed in the hot (even liquid) stage of the slag production with the aim of steering
the properties of the cold, solidified product to a desirable direction. Although not extensively
practised, a number of case studies illustrate the potential of hot-stage engineering and how
25
it could redefine established operations. A review paper has been published recently.

Hot-stage engineering can involve: a) additions during the molten state of the slag for
reduction and separation of a metallic phase or stabilisation of minerals (and complementary
additions to secure the dissolution of the materials added) and b) selection of appropriate
cooling paths to deliver the desirable product.

Several stabilising agents have been investigated to deal with the volume instability of
stainless steel decarburisation slag caused by the β to γ transformation of C2S (2CaO.SiO2)
leading to disintegration and dust formation. The option of inhibiting this transformation was
first elaborated in 1986 by Seki and co-workers26, who developed a borate-based stabiliser
for stainless steel decarburisation slag. Typical boron minerals are kemite (Na2B4O7.4H2O),
colemanite (2CaO.3B2O3.5H2O) and borax (Na2B4O7.10H2O) whereas lately, boron-
27
containing glazing powders with promising results were also used. Adding a relatively large
amount of silica is an alternative way to avoid C2S. This was proven on a laboratory scale by
28
Sakamoto , who stabilised a stainless steel decarburisation slag with 12 wt% of waste
glass, containing 70-75 wt% SiO2. However, an additional slag treatment process is probably
required in order to dissolve the waste glass. This is also the case in the treatment of volume
instability caused by expansive hydration of free CaO and MgO to Ca(OH)2 and Mg(OH)2.
29-30
Kuhn et al. developed a process where additives are introduced in order for free CaO
and MgO to react towards a stable matrix of calcium silicates and ferrites. This can be
achieved by the addition of SiO2-containing materials, such as quartz sand, glass cullet and
spent foundry sands. The treatment with quartz sand offers the advantage of higher SiO2
content per mass of additives and is not introducing other components that can cause side
reactions. Oxygen is required for the treatment process in order to supply additional heat by
the oxidation of FeO to dissolve the added sand totally and to keep the slag liquid. In Figure
4 a schematic drawing of the process is presented.

Besides obtaining a cold product with the required technical properties, hot-stage additions
can also help in reducing the release of troublesome components by leaching. Mudersbach
31
et al. show that it is possible to improve both the technical stability of Electric Arc Furnace
(EAF) slag and the immobilisation of chromium in the slag by additions of materials which
decrease the basicity and favour the formation of spinel type phases during solidification.
Even if the slag contains high chromium contents, the leaching of chromium can be
suppressed. The authors developed the so-called ‘factor sp’ to empirically describe the
expected chromium content based on the slag composition, showing that there is a
correlation between the spinel factor and the actually measured chromium leaching levels
(which seem to confirm that spinel

O2 SiO2

slag pot
slag

Figure 4: Scheme of the process for dissolving a large quantity of SiO2 (~10 wt%) in carbon
steelmaking slags.
behaves, in practice, as a stable phase with respect to chromium leaching). Based on this
relation, the authors propose different types of additions which should mitigate any chromium
leaching problems from EAF slags

Finally, rapid cooling has been shown to result in a glassy slag, potentially encapsulating part
of the leachable elements in the matrix and thus lowering the total leaching ability.
Experiments showed, however, that glass formation in water granulated steel slag samples is
insufficient to prevent leaching.32 The differences between the original slowly cooled and
granulated slag samples were low. Further development is required.

An interdisciplinary approach towards materials valorisation

In many optimisation schemes for valorisation materials recycling is only one of the essential
building blocks. As shown before energy recovery is often another one, and decision tools
are required to choose between them. Other important building blocks pay attention to the
non-technological issues: economics, legislation, multi-actor processes, etc. Coping with
such a complex web of interactions requires an interdisciplinary consortium to bring forth
robust solutions. SMaRT-Pro² and CR³ are two such consortia that are (co-)coordinated by
the K.U.Leuven.

The SMaRT-Pro² Industrial Knowledge Platform

This Platform is funded by the Industrial Research Fund of the Flemish Government. Its
mission is to develop promising fundamental research on the sustainable valorisation of high-
temperature and other inorganic residues into application-oriented proof-of-concept. Three
research institutions (K.U.Leuven, HUB and KHBO) bring together expertise in the domains
of chemical engineering and technology, metallurgical and materials engineering, building
materials and technology, geology and applied mineralogy, economy, psychology and law.
They collaborate with industry, investment funds, governmental bodies and civil society
actors on specific topics such as mineral carbonation, sorbent synthesis, construction
applications with waste, novel cement formulations incorporating waste.a1

CR³, international collaboration for resources recovery and recycling

The Center for Resource Recovery and Recycling has a wider scope than the previous
consortium because it aims at both inorganic and organic materials. It consists of several
universities in the US and, for the time being, one European university: K.U.Leuven.
Partnering industrial companies can tailor project definitions to their needs and share their
costs on a pre-competitive basis. The goal is to incorporate the whole chain of relevant
actors from initial product design through manufacture and end-of-life disposition to closing of
loops.a2

Conclusions
A holistic approach is needed in order to achieve robust solutions in the landfill mining
concept: materials valorisation is an essential building block, but it is only one. Others include
energy recovery, decision tools and non-technological components. Within the Waste-to-
Materials context, novel technologies should be taken into account and integrated with state-
of-the-art separation methods, achieving both maximum recycling and high-value targeting.
Only with an interdisciplinary approach Enhanced Landfill Mining can emerge as a corner-

a1
More information can be found on http://www.smartpro2.eu.
a2
More information can be found on http://www.wpi.edu/academics/Research/CR3/
index.html
stone of the waste management system, helping to pave the way for the transition to
Sustainable Materials Management.

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