1

THERMOCOUPLES
2). The advantages of 2, 3 & 4 wire pT100 measurements.
3). Introduction to Thermocople measurements.
4). Basic RTD measurements

The thermocouple is frequently used as the sensing element in a thermal sensor

or switch. The principle is that two dissimilar metals always have a contact
potential between them, and this contact potential changes as the temperature
changes.

Fig. 1.1

The contact potential is not measurable for a single connection (or junction), but
when two junctions are in a circuit with the junctions at different temperatures
then a voltage of a few millivolts can be detected (Fig. 1.1). This voltage will be
zero
if the junctions are at the same temperature, and will increase as the temperature
of one junction relative to the other is changed until a peak is reached.

Fig. 1.2

A thermocouple characteristic, showing the typical curvature and the transition

point at which the characteristic reverses. A few combinations of metals (like
copper/silver) have no transition, but have a very low output.

The shape of the typical characteristic is shown in Fig. 1.2, from which you can
see that the thermocouple is useful only over a limited range of temperature due
to the non-linear shape of the characteristic and the reversal that takes place at
temperatures higher than the turn-over point.
 2

The output from a thermocouple is small, of the order of millivolts for a 10°C
temperature difference, and Fig. 1.3 shows typical sensitivity and useful range
for a variety of the common types. Of these, the copper/constantan type is used
mainly for the lower range of temperatures and the platinum! rhodium type for
the higher temperatures.

Fig.1.3

Because of the small voltage output, amplification is usually needed unless the
thermocouple is used for temperature measurement along with a sensitive milli
voit meter. If the output of the thermocouple is required to drive anything more
than a meter movement, then DC amplification will be needed, using an
operational amplifier or chopper amplifier.

The type of amplifier that is used needs to be carefully selected, because good
drift stability is necessary unless the device is recalibrated at frequent intervals.
This
makes the chopper type of amplifier preferable for most applications.

If an on/off switching action is required, the thermocouple must be used along

with a controller that uses a Schmitt trigger type of circuit which also permits
adjustment of bias so that the switching temperature can be preset. The usual
 3

circuitry includes amplification, because the lower ranges of thermocouple

outputs are comparable with the contact potentials (the same type of effect) in
amplifier circuits,
and attempting to use very small inputs for switching invariably leads to
problems of hysteresis and excessive sensitivity. One particular advantage of
thermocouples is that the sensing elements themselves are very small, allowing
thermocouples to be inserted into very small spaces and to respond to rapidly
changing temperatures. The electrical nature of the processmeans that the
circuitry for reading the thermocouple output can be remote from the sensor
itself. Note that thermocouple effects will be encountered wherever one metallic
conductor meets another, so that temperature differences along circuit boards
can also give rise to voltages which are comparable with the output from
thermocouples.

The form of construction of amplifiers for thermocouples is therefore important,

and some form of zero-setting is needed. With acknowledgments to 'Sensors &
Transducers’, A Guide for Technicians by Ian R. Sinclair-ISBN 0-632-02069-5
Copyright acceptance to be applied for.

PLATINUM RESISTANCE Pt100 SENSORS

The resistance to the flow of electricity in metallic materials varies with
temperature. This can be used to good effect in platinum resistance detectors.
Platinum is particularly stable both electrically and mechanically and is also
stable with respect to time, producing a relatively linear change in resistance
versus temperature.

Because the output resistance change to temperature is relatively small, it

follows that lead lengths and resistances are therefore important features. In
general when lead lengths are short, or can be considered as an acceptable
additive content, two wire configurations is sufficient. Three wire is the most
commonly used and unless otherwise specified is supplied as standard, the third
wire is the compensator for lead length and providing that all three wire have
equal resistance, compensates for any ZERO or SPAN errors. (Not true for all
bridges).Four wires provide for high precision and are recommended for use
with Zener Barriers.
 4

CONNECTION CONFIGURATION

Platinum resistors are most commonly 100 ohms at 0 °C and 138.51 ohms at
100 °C. They are available in different grades according to the accuracy
required and can be supplied as duplex sensors, two independent sensors on a
single former. The respective accuracies of the three main specification types,
BS.EN 60751 Class A, BS.EN 60751 Class B and 1/10th Class B. Pt100
Platinum Resistance sensors are as shown in the tolerance table below.

Resistance at 38.51
Tolerances for 100 ohms
ohms fundamental
Thermometers
interval
1/10 Class
Temperature Class A Class B
B
Nominal ± ± ±
°C °F ± °C ± °C ± °C
Value ohm ohm ohm
-200 -328 18.52 0.55 0.24 1.3 0.56 0.13 0.06
-100 -148 60.26 0.35 0.14 0.8 0.32 0.08 0.03
0 32 100.00 0.15 0.06 0.3 0.12 0.03 0.01
100 212 138.51 0.35 0.13 0.8 0.30 0.08 0.03
200 392 175.86 0.55 0.20 1.3 0.48 0.13 0.05
300 572 212.05 0.75 0.27 1.8 0.64 0.18 0.06
400 752 247.09 0.95 0.33 2.3 0.79 0.23 0.08
500 932 280.98 1.15 0.38 2.8 0.93 0.28 0.09
600 1112 313.71 1.35 0.43 3.3 1.06 0.33 0.10
700 1292 345.28 - - 3.8 1.17 - -
800 1472 375.70 - - 4.3 1.28 - -
 5

TOLERANCE VALUES AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE FOR

100 ohms THERMOMETERS

LEADS
Pt100 sensors are supplied with 2, 3 or 4 wire connections and, unless otherwise
specified, will be supplied as 3 wire type 7 x 0.2 mm Cu PTFE insulated, with
two red wires indicating one end of the element and one white wire indicating
the other. Alternative types of wire insulation can be supplied.

Material Maximum Range Application

PVC -10 to +105 °C Low cost, moisture resistant, short lengths
PTFE -60 to +250 °C Abrasion resistant, long lengths
Woven Asbestos to +700 °C Fireclay impregnated
Woven Silica to +1000 °C
Aluminous
to +1400 °C Electrical resistance declines above 900 °C
Porcelain
Recrystalised Electrical resistance declines above 900
to +1950 °C
Aluminia °C

Flying lead sensors can be supplied with an optional stainless steel over braid or
convolute sheathing for more arduous environments.
 6

2). The advantages of 2, 3 and 4 wire Pt100 measurement.

INTRODUCTION
Two, Three and Four wire measurement techniques have been developed for
measuring accurately the resistance of resistive temperature detectors (RTD).
This application note looks at the new techniques being adopted in ‘Smart’
instruments where, using the intelligence of a microprocessor, the traditional
drawbacks of 3 wire systems no longer apply.

THREE WIRE MEASUREMENT

The traditional method of accurately measuring a resistance is to incorporate the
resistance into a Wheatstone bridge circuit (see figure below).

A voltage excites the bridge and the voltage across the bridge is proportional to
the resistance of the RTD.A problem occurs when we introduce lead resistances
(See figure below). It is apparent that any resistance in the lead looks as though
there is additional resistance in the element to be measured.

To minimize these errors the three wires compensated bridge was introduced
(see figure below).
 7

This has the effect of removing the error introduced by the lead resistance as
long as lead resistances RL1 and RL3 are matched.

However the effect of the lead resistance can be to cause less current to flow in
the detector leg and hence introduce a small but possibly significant span error.
This can be eliminated by exciting the bridge from a constant current source
rather than a constant voltage and so whatever the lead resistance, the same
current always flows through the detector. With this method there are no lead
resistance errors introduced as long as the lead resistances are equally matched.
In practice they are very closely matched as long as the wire used is part of the
same multi-core cable.

The exception to this is when the sensor is used in a Hazardous area and
connected to the bridge circuit via a Zener Barrier. Here any mis-match in the
resistance of the two legs of the Zener barrier can appear as a sensor error.
Although still small, this error can be as much as 0.15 ohm or approx.
0.3°C.(MTL 155 Barrier).For analogue transmitters Status Instruments Ltd.
have traditionally used a variation of this technique using an in house active
bridge circuit. The exception being the new ‘Smart’ series of instruments which
use a different technique which will be explained later. Another way of
measuring Pt100 elements is to use a 4 wire current and voltage method (see
figure below).

Here the detector is excited by a constant current and the voltage across the
detector measured by an amplifier with a high impedance input. If the current
source is perfect and the input impedance of the voltage measuring circuit is
infinite, then there is no error whatsoever introduced by the lead resistances
even if they are mismatched.
 8

THE ‘SMART’ WAY FORWARD

This paragraph describes the method used to measure Pt100 on the new
DM3000 series instruments. The current trend for so called SMART
instruments is to have a universal input capable of supporting a wide range of
inputs. It is inconvenient (and unnecessary) to dedicate input pins and
electronics to support a constant current supply and a bridge arrangement. The
input circuit measures voltages to a high degree of accuracy and the
microprocessor performs the calculation in the figure below.

Rc is used solely to limit the current flowing and Rs is a stable reference

resistor. Having computed the resistance, the microprocessor applies the
corrections required and translates the resistance to an accurate temperature
reading.

In addition, the microprocessor can determine which if any, of the RTD inputs
has become disconnected and detect other errors such as RTD short circuit. This
is an improvement over both conventional three and four wire circuits because
you can now have a predictable failure mode which does not depend upon
which of the three wires has become disconnected.

This technique removes lead resistance effects as long as they are equal. Again,
we have the problem when using Zener barriers, in that if the legs of the barrier
are not accurately matched, then a small error could be introduced.

3). Introduction to Thermocouple Measurements

Introduction
The most common devices used for sensing temperature include thermocouples,
resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), and thermistors. Each has unique
characteristics and properties that make one more suitable than another for a
certain application.

Thermocouples are the most widely used device for sensing temperature, and
probably the least understood. They are simple and efficient, and provide a
small voltage signal proportional to the temperature difference between two
junctions in a closed thermoelectric circuit. In its most basic configuration, one
 9

junction is held at a constant reference temperature while the other is placed in

contact with the medium to be measured.

This medium can be gas, liquid, or solid, but in all cases, the medium shall not
be allowed to chemically, electrically, or physically contaminate or alter the
thermocouple junction. For special applications or to protect them from the
environment, thermocouples are available with protective coatings and shields
or sheaths. RTDs are composed of metals with a high positive temperature
coefficient of resistance. Most RTDs are simply wire-wound or thin-film
resistors made of wire with a known resistance vs. temperature relationship.
Platinum is one of the most widely used materials for RTDs. They come in a
broad range of accuracies, and the most accurate are also used as NIST
(National Institute of Standards and Technology) temperature standards.
Thermistors are similar to RTDs in that they also change resistance between
their terminals with a change in temperature. However, they can be made with
either a positive or negative temperature coefficient. In addition, they have a
much higher ratio of resistance change per degree C (several %) than RTDs,
which make them more sensitive.

The Gradient Nature of Thermocouples

Thermocouple junctions alone does not generate voltages. The output or
potential difference that develops at the open end is a function of both the
closed junction and the open end temperatures. The principle of operation
depends on the unique value of thermal emf generated between the open ends of
the leads and the junction of two dissimilar metals held at a specific
temperature. The principle is called the See beck Effect, named after the
discoverer. The amount of voltage generated at the open ends of the sensor and
the range of temperatures the device can measure depend on the See beck
coefficient, which in turn depends upon the chemical composition of the
materials comprising the thermocouple wire.

In principle, a TC can be made from any two dissimilar metals such as nickel
and iron. In practice, however, only a few TC types have become standard
because their temperature coefficients are highly repeatable, they are rugged,
and they generate relatively large output voltages. The most common
thermocouple types are called J, K, T, and E, followed by N28, N14, S, R, and
B. The junction temperature could be inferred from the See beck voltage by
consulting standard tables. However, this voltage cannot be used directly
because the thermocouple wire connection to the copper terminal at the
measurement device itself constitutes a thermocouple junction (unless the TC
lead is also copper) and generates another emf that must be compensated.
 10

Cold Junction Compensation

The classical method used to compensate the emf at the instrument terminals is
a thermocouple immersed in an actual ice-water bath which in turn connects in
series with the measuring thermocouple. The ice and water combination holds
the temperature bath to a constant and accurate 0°C (32°F). NIST’s
thermocouple emf tables list the emf output of a thermocouple based on a
corresponding reference thermocouple junction held at 0°C.

Software Compensation
Ice baths and multiple reference junctions in large test fixtures are nuisances to
set up and maintain, and fortunately they all can be eliminated. The ice bath can
be ignored when the temperature of the lead wires and the reference junction
points (isothermal terminal block at the instrument) are the same. The emf
correction needed at the terminals can be referenced and compensated to the
NIST standards through computer software. When ice baths are eliminated, cold
junction compensation (CJC) is still necessary in order to obtain accurate
thermocouple measurements. The software has to read the isothermal block
temperature. One common technique uses a thermistor, mounted close to the
isothermal terminal block that connects to the external thermocouple leads. No
temperature gradients are allowed in the region containing the thermistor and
terminals.
The type of thermocouple employed is pre-programmed for its respective
channel, and the dynamic input data for the software includes the isothermal
block temperature and the measured environmental temperature. The software
uses the isothermal block temperature and type of thermocouple to look up the
value of the measured temperature corresponding to its voltage in a table, or it
calculates the temperature with a polynomial equation. The latter method allows
numerous channels of thermocouples of various types to be connected
simultaneously while the computer handles all the conversions automatically.

Hardware Compensation
Although a polynomial approach is faster than a look-up table, a hardware
method is even faster, because the correct voltage is immediately available to be
scanned. One method uses a battery in the circuit to null the offset voltage from
the reference junction so the net effect equals a 0°C junction. A more practical
approach is an "electronic ice point reference," which generates a compensating
voltage as a function of the temperature sensing circuit powered by a battery or
similar voltage source. The voltage then corresponds to an equivalent reference
junction at 0°C.
 11

Type Mixing
Thermocouple test systems often measure tens to hundreds of points
simultaneously. In order to conveniently handle such large numbers of channels
without the complication of separate, unique compensation TCs for each,
thermocouple-scanning modules come with multiple input channels and can
accept any of the various types of thermocouples on any channel,
simultaneously. They contain special copper-based input terminal blocks with
numerous cold junction compensation sensors to ensure accurate readings,
regardless of the sensor type used. Moreover, the module contains a built-in
automatic zeroing channel as well as the cold-junction compensation channel.
Although measurement speed is relatively slower than most other types of
scanning modules, the readings are captured in ms, they contain less noise, and
they are more accurate and stable. For example, one TC channel can be
measured in 3 ms, 14 channels in 16 ms, and 56 channels in 61 ms. Typical
measurement accuracies are better than 0.7°C, with channel-to-channel
variation typically less than 0.5°C.
Linearization
After setting up the equivalent ice point reference emf in either hardware or
software, the measured thermocouple voltage must be converted to a
temperature reading. Thermocouple output voltage is proportional to the
temperature of the TC junction, but it is not perfectly linear over a very wide
range.
The standard method for obtaining high conversion accuracy for any
temperature uses the value of the measured thermocouple voltage plugged into a
characteristic equation for that particular type thermocouple. The equation is a
polynomial with an order of six to ten. The computer automatically handles the
calculation, but high-order polynomials take considerable time to process. In
order to accelerate the calculation, the thermocouple characteristic curve is
divided into several segments. Each segment is then approximated by a lower
order polynomial.
Analogue circuits are employed occasionally to linearize the curves, but when
the polynomial method is not used, the thermocouple output voltage frequently
connects to the input of an analogue to digital converter (ADC) where the
correct voltage to temperature match is obtained from a table stored in the
computer’s memory. For example, one data acquisition system TC card includes
a software driver that contains a temperature conversion library that changes
raw binary TC channels and CJC information into temperature readings. Some
software packages supply CJC information and automatically linearize the
thermocouples connected to the system.
 12

Thermocouple Measurement Pitfalls

Noisy Environments
Because thermocouples generate a relatively small voltage, noise is always an
issue. The most common source of noise is the utility power lines (50 or 60 Hz).
Thermocouple bandwidth is lower than 50 Hz, so a simple filter in each channel
can reduce the interfering ac line noise. Common filters include resistors and
capacitors and active filters built around op amps. Although a passive RC filter
is inexpensive and works well for analogue circuits, it’s not recommended for a
multiplexed front end because the multiplexer’s load can change the filter’s
characteristics. On the other hand, an active filter composed of an op amp and a
few passive components works well, but it’s more expensive and complex.
Moreover, each channel must be calibrated to compensate for gain and offset
errors.

Additional Concerns
Thermocouple Assembly
Thermocouples are twisted pairs of dissimilar wires and soldered or welded
together at the junction. When not assembled properly, they can produce a
variety of errors. For example, wires should not be twisted together to form a
junction; they should be soldered or welded. But solder is sufficient only at
relatively low temperatures, usually less than 200°C. And although soldering
also introduces a third metal, such as a lead/tin alloy, it will not likely introduce
errors if both sides of the junction are at the same temperature.

Welding the junction is preferred, but it must be done without changing the
wires’ characteristics. Commercially manufactured thermocouple junctions are
typically joined with capacitive discharge welders that ensure uniformity and
prevent contamination. Thermocouples can become un-calibrated and indicate
the wrong temperature when the physical makeup of the wire is altered. Then it
cannot meet the NIST standards. The change can come from a variety of
sources, including exposure to temperature extremes, cold working the metal,
stress placed on the cable when installed, vibration, or temperature gradients.
The output of the thermocouple also can change when its insulation resistance
decreases as the temperature increases. The change is exponential and can
produce a leakage resistance so low that it bypasses an open-thermocouple wire
detector circuit. In high-temperature applications using thin thermocouple wire,
the insulation can degrade to the point of forming a virtual junction. The data
acquisition system will then measure the output voltage of the virtual junction
instead of the true junction.

In addition, high temperatures can release impurities and chemicals within the
thermocouple wire insulation that diffuse into the thermocouple metal and
change its characteristics. Then, the temperature vs. voltage relationship
 13

deviates from the published values. Choose protective insulation intended for
high-temperature operation to minimize these problems.

Isolation
Thermocouple isolation reduces noise and errors typically introduced by ground
loops. This is especially troublesome where numerous thermocouples with long
leads fasten directly between an engine block (or another large metal object)
and the thermocouple-measurement instrument. They may reference different
grounds, and without isolation, the ground loop can introduce relatively large
errors in the readings.

Auto-Zero Correction
Subtracting the output of a shorted channel from the measurement channel’s
readings can minimize the effects of time and temperature drift on the system’s
analogue circuitry. Although extremely small, this drift can become a
significant part of the low-level voltage supplied by a thermocouple. One
effective method of subtracting the offset due to drift is done in two steps. First,
the internal channel sequencer switches to a reference node and stores the offset
error voltage on a capacitor. Next, as the thermocouple channel switches onto
the analogue path, the stored error voltage is applied to the offset correction
input of a differential amplifier and automatically nulls out the offset. See
Figure 9.

Open Thermocouple Detection

Detecting open thermocouples easily and quickly is especially critical in
systems with numerous channels. Thermocouples tend to break or increase in
resistance when exposed to vibration, poor handling, and long service time. A
simple open thermocouple detection circuit comprises a small capacitor placed
across the thermocouple leads and driven with a low level current. The low
impedance of the intact thermocouple presents a virtual short circuit across the
capacitor so it cannot charge. But when a thermocouple opens or significantly
changes resistance, the capacitor charges and drives the input to one of the
voltage rails, which positively indicates a defective thermocouple.
Galvanic Action
Some thermocouple insulating materials contain dyes that form an electrolyte in
the presence of water. The electrolyte generates a galvanic voltage between the
leads, which in turn, produces output signals hundreds of times greater than the
net open circuit voltage. Thus, good installation practice calls for shielding the
thermocouple wires from high humidity and all liquids to avoid such problems.

Thermal Shunting
An ideal thermocouple does not affect the temperature of the device being
measured, but a real thermocouple comprises a mass that when added to the
 14

device under test can alter the temperature measurement. Thermocouple mass
can be minimized with small diameter wires, but smaller wire is more
susceptible to contamination, annealing, strain, and shunt
impedance. One solution to help ease this problem is to use the small
thermocouple wire at the junction but add special, heavier thermocouple
extension wire to cover long distances. The material used in these extension
wires has net open-circuit voltage coefficients similar to specific thermocouple
types. Its series resistance is relatively low over long distances, and it can be
pulled through conduit more easily than premium grade
thermocouple wire. In addition to its practical size advantage, extension wire is
less expensive than standard thermocouple wire, especially platinum.
Despite these advantages, extension wire generally operates over a much
narrower temperature range and is more likely to receive mechanical stress. For
these reasons, temperature gradients across the extension wire should be kept to
a minimum to ensure accurate temperature measurements.

Improving Wire Calibration Accuracy

Thermocouple wire is manufactured to NIST specifications. Often, these
specifications can be more closely met when the wire is calibrated on site
against a known temperature standard.

Temperature Sensors
Temperature can be measured via a diverse array of sensors. All of them infer
temperature by sensing some change in a physical characteristic. The two main
categories of these sensors are contact and noncontact style temperature sensors.
There are three methods of contact style temperature measurement, which can
generally be referred to as temperature probes: thermal resistors (RTD,
thermistors), thermocouples and IC sensors.
The most important specification to consider when searching for temperature
probes is sensed temperature range. This is the temperature range the device is
rated for sensing. The number of elements contained in the temperature probe
is another important consideration. Typically the more elements in the probe the
more accurate and expensive the probe is. Probes usually have one or two
elements for sensing, but some can be
configured to have greater than two
elements.
Basic sensing technologies for
temperature probes include thermocouple
(shown on right), RTD, thermistor, solid
state, and fiber optic. A thermocouple
consists of two wires, each made of a
different homogeneous metal or alloy. The
wires are joined at one end to form a
 15

measuring junction. This measuring junction is exposed to the fluid or medium

being measured. The other end of the wires is usually terminated at a measuring
instrument where they form a reference junction. When the two junctions are at
different temperatures, current will flow through the circuit. The milli voltage
resulting from the current flow is measured to determine the temperature of the
measuring junction. They are generally simple, rugged and cover a wide
temperature range. Resistance temperature detectors are types of thermal
resistors - they are electrically conductive elements (typically platinum) that are
designed to change electrical resistance in a predictable manner with changes in
applied temperature.
They are very linear and accurate; however they are typically more expensive
than other temperature detection methods.
Thermistors (shown below) are another type
of thermal resistor (RTD is the other) - they
tend to exhibit a large change in resistance
proportional to a small change in temperature.
Solid state or IC temperature sensors are very
linear with options of high current or voltage
outputs; however they typically are not usable at temperatures exceeding 200
degrees Celsius. In a fiber optic temperature sensor a thin film, typically
gallium arsenide, is deposited on the end of an optical fiber. Temperature can
be deduced from the reflected absorption/transmission spectrum. Other types of
fiber optic sensors include luminescence fiber optic temperature sensors, where
a temperature sensitive phosphor is deposited on the end of an optical fiber and
when the phosphor is excited by changes in temperature the luminescence can
be measured. Infrared fiber optic temperature sensors absorb ambient infrared
radiation given off by a heated surface. The incoming light is converted to an
electric signal, which corresponds to a particular temperature.
Temperature probes can have one of many different configurations. These
include straight probe, penetration or needle probe, flexible probe, drop probe,
curved probe, roller or moving probe, air probe, angled probe, surface probe,
clamp or strap sensor, and flat or ribbon. Additional specifications to consider
include diameter or width, bare or insulated lead wires, plug or quick connects,
metal braided leads, and integral connection heads.

Piezoelectric sensor
 16

A piezoelectric disk generates a voltage when deformed (change in shape is

greatly exaggerated)
A piezoelectric sensor is a device that uses the piezoelectric effect to
measure pressure, acceleration, strain or force by converting them to
an electrical charge.

Piezoelectric disk used as a guitar pickup.Piezoelectric sensors have proven to

be versatile tools for the measurement of various processes. They are used
for quality assurance, process control and for research and development in many
different industries. Although the piezoelectric effect was discovered by Pierre
Curie in 1880, it was only in the 1950s that the piezoelectric effect started to be
used for industrial sensing applications. Since then, this measuring principle has
been increasingly used and can be regarded as a mature technology with an
outstanding inherent reliability. It has been successfully used in various
applications, such as in medical, aerospace, nuclear instrumentation, and as a
pressure sensor in the touch pads of mobile phones. In the automotive industry,
piezoelectric elements are used to monitor combustion when
developing internal combustion engines. The sensors are either directly
mounted into additional holes into the cylinder head or the spark/glow plug is
equipped with a built in miniature piezoelectric sensor.
The rise of piezoelectric technology is directly related to a set of inherent
advantages. The high modulus of elasticity of many piezoelectric materials is
comparable to that of many metals and goes up to 106 N/m² Even though
piezoelectric sensors are electromechanical systems that react to compression,
the sensing elements show almost zero deflection. This is the reason why
piezoelectric sensors are so rugged, have an extremely high natural frequency
and an excellent linearity over a wide amplitude range. Additionally,
piezoelectric technology is insensitive to electromagnetic fields and radiation,
enabling measurements under harsh conditions. Some materials used
(especially gallium phosphate or tourmaline) have an extreme stability even at
 17

high temperature, enabling sensors to have a working range of up to 1000 °C.

Tourmaline shows pyro electricity in addition to the piezoelectric effect; this is
the ability to generate an electrical signal when the temperature of the crystal
changes. This effect is also common to piezo ceramic materials.

Strain Sensitivity Threshold Span to threshold

Principle
[V/µ*] [µ*] ratio

Piezoelectric 5.0 0.00001 100,000,000

Piezoresistive 0.0001 0.0001 2,500,000

Inductive 0.001 0.0005 2,000,000

Capacitive 0.005 0.0001 750,000

One disadvantage of piezoelectric sensors is that they cannot be used for truly
static measurements. A static force will result in a fixed amount of charges on
the piezoelectric material. While working with conventional readout electronics,
imperfect insulating materials, and reduction in internal sensor resistance will
result in a constant loss of electrons, and yield a decreasing signal. Elevated
temperatures cause an additional drop in internal resistance and sensitivity. The
main effect on the piezoelectric effect is that with increasing pressure loads and
temperature, the sensitivity is reduced due to twin-formation. While quartz
sensors need to be cooled during measurements at temperatures above 300 °C,
special types of crystals like GaPO4 gallium phosphate do not show any twin
formation up to the melting point of the material itself.
However, it is not true that piezoelectric sensors can only be used for very fast
processes or at ambient conditions. In fact, there are numerous applications that
show quasi-static measurements, while there are other applications with
temperatures higher than 500 °C.
Piezoelectric sensors are also seen in nature. The collagen in bone is
piezoelectric, and is thought by some to act as a biological force sensor.
 18

Principle of operation
Depending on how a piezoelectric material is cut, three main modes of
operation can be distinguished: transverse, longitudinal, and shear.[4]
Transverse effect
A force is applied along a neutral axis (y) and the charges are generated along
the (x) direction, perpendicular to the line of force. The amount of charge
depends on the geometrical dimensions of the respective piezoelectric element.
When dimensions apply,
,
where is the dimension in line with the neutral axis, is in line with the
charge generating axis and is the corresponding piezoelectric coefficient.
Longitudinal effect
The amount of charge produced is strictly proportional to the applied force and
is independent of size and shape of the piezoelectric element. Using several
elements that are mechanically in series and electrically in parallel is the only
way to increase the charge output. The resulting charge is
,
where is the piezoelectric coefficient for a charge in x-direction released by
forces applied along x-direction (in pC/N). is the applied Force in x-
direction [N] and corresponds to the number of stacked elements .
Force applied and the element dimension.
Electrical properties

Schematic symbol and electronic model of a piezoelectric sensor

A piezoelectric transducer has very high DC output impedance and can be
modeled as a proportional voltage source and filter network. The voltage V at
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the source is directly proportional to the applied force, pressure, or strain. The
output signal is then related to this mechanical force as if it had passed through
the equivalent circuit.

Frequency response of a piezoelectric sensor; output voltage vs applied force

A detailed model includes the effects of the sensor's mechanical construction
and other non-idealities The inductance Lm is due to the
seismic mass and inertia of the sensor itself. Ce is inversely proportional to the
mechanical elasticity of the sensor. C0 represents the static capacitance of the
transducer, resulting from an inertial mass of infinite size. Ri is the
insulation leakage resistance of the transducer element. If the sensor is
connected to a load resistance, this also acts in parallel with the insulation
resistance, both increasing the high-pass cutoff frequency.

In the flat region, the sensor can be modeled as a voltage source in series with
the sensor's capacitance or a charge source in parallel with the capacitance
For use as a sensor, the flat region of the frequency response plot is typically
used, between the high-pass cutoff and the resonant peak. The load and leakage
resistance need to be large enough that low frequencies of interest are not lost.
A simplified equivalent circuit model can be used in this region, in
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which Cs represents the capacitance of the sensor surface itself, determined by

the standard formula for capacitance of parallel plates. It can also be modeled as
a charge source in parallel with the source capacitance, with the charge directly
proportional to the applied force, as above.
Sensor design

Metal disks with piezo material, used in buzzers or as contact microphones

Based on piezoelectric technology various physical quantities can be measured;
the most common are pressure and acceleration. For pressure sensors, a
thin membrane and a massive base is used, ensuring that an applied pressure
specifically loads the elements in one direction. For accelerometers, a seismic
mass is attached to the crystal elements. When the accelerometer experiences a
motion, the invariant seismic mass loads the elements according to Newton’s
second law of motion .
The main difference in the working principle between these two cases is the
way forces are applied to the sensing elements. In a pressure sensor a thin
membrane is used to transfer the force to the elements, while in accelerometers
the forces are applied by an attached seismic mass.
Sensors often tend to be sensitive to more than one physical quantity. Pressure
sensors show false signal when they are exposed to vibrations. Sophisticated
pressure sensors therefore use acceleration compensation elements in addition to
the pressure sensing elements. By carefully matching those elements, the
acceleration signal (released from the compensation element) is subtracted from
the combined signal of pressure and acceleration to derive the true pressure
information.
Vibration sensors can also be used to harvest otherwise wasted energy from
mechanical vibrations. This is accomplished by using piezoelectric materials to
convert mechanical strain into usable electrical energy.
Sensing materials
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Two main groups of materials are used for piezoelectric sensors: piezoelectric
ceramics and single crystal materials. The ceramic materials (such
as PZT ceramic) have a piezoelectric constant / sensitivity that is roughly
two orders of magnitude higher than those of the natural single crystal materials
and can be produced by inexpensive sintering processes. The piezo effect in
piezo ceramics is "trained", so unfortunately their high sensitivity degrades over
time. The degradation is highly correlated with temperature. The less sensitive
'natural' single crystal materials (gallium phosphate, quartz, tourmaline) have a
much higher – when carefully handled, almost infinite – long term stability.
There are also new single crystal materials commercially available such as Lead
Magnesium Niobate-Lead Titanate (PMN-PT). These materials offer greatly
improved sensitivity (compared with PZT) but suffer from a lower maximum
operating temperature and are currently much more expensive to manufacture.