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TUTOR ASSESSED EXERCISE

No 67 SC & SC

SUBJECT : AIR POWER STUDIES PHASE-I

STUDENT # 67-22

SUBMITTED BY : SQN LDR M IMRAN RASHID PAK/11843

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Ans to Q 1 CATEGORIES OF WARFARE AND ROLE OF AIR POWER IN SUB
CONVENTIONAL WARFARE
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Introduction 5
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1. War is a prolonged state of violent, large-scale conflict involving two or more
groups of people or states. It is difficult to draw line and categorize warfare, since
some conflicts may feature in two or more categories and may remain indistinctive.
Countries may categories war from their own perspective.

Categories of Warfare

2. Broad categories of warfare, keeping in view the dimension, scope and nature
of war are described in the subsequent paragraphs.

Conventional Warfare

3. Conventional warfare is warfare between nations or multi-national groups of

states where the force is applied by uniformed military units usually against other
uniformed military units or well defined military targets using conventional military
weapons. Biological, chemical or nuclear weapons are not used in conventional
warfare. The general purpose of conventional warfare is to weaken or destroy the
opponent’s military force thereby negating its ability to engage in conventional
warfare. In forcing capitulation, however, one or both sides may eventually resort to
unconventional warfare tactics.

4. In the recent past, the Iran-Iraq war (1980-1988), Soviet invasion of

Afghanistan (1979-1989) are two very good examples of conventional warfare. Even
the presence of nuclear weapons has not been able to prevent the conventional
wars e.g. the Sino-Soviet conflict (1969) and Falklands War (1982). The Kargil war
(1999) and “Near War Scenario” (2001-2002) between Pakistan and India are the
forms of conventional war, though both have achieved the nuclear status.

Nuclear Warfare

5. Nuclear warfare is a military conflict or political strategy which involves the

employment of nuclear weapons to inflict damage on the opponent. Compared
to conventional warfare, nuclear warfare is vastly more destructive in range and
extent of damage. A major nuclear exchange could have severe long-term effects,
primarily from radiation release but also from the production of high levels of
atmospheric pollution leading to a "nuclear winter" that could last for decades,
centuries, or even millennia after the initial attack. A large nuclear war is considered
to bear existential risk for civilization on earth. Only two nuclear weapons have been
used in the course of warfare; both by the United States near the end of World War II
over Japan.

Sub-Conventional Warfare

6. Sub-conventional warfare is a generic term encompassing all armed conflicts

that are above the level of peaceful co-existence amongst states and below the
threshold of war. It includes militancy, insurgency, proxy war and terrorism employed
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as a means in an insurgent movement or undertaken independently. Border
encounters also fall within this category. Sub-conventional warfare targets civilian
population and political bodies directly; seeking to render the military proficiency of
the enemy irrelevant.
7. The sub-conventional warfare is the most effective way of destabilizing the
enemy even if it has the conventional / nuclear power to engage into conventional
war. The destruction of Iraqi nuclear reactor by Israel in 1982 stuns Iraq and it was
unable to react. Another example is terrorist attack on PNS Mehran on 22 May, 2011.
PAF is also engaged in the sub- conventional warfare in the troubled tribal areas of
KPK and Baluchistan.

Role of Air Power in Sub-Conventional Warfare

8. The role of air power in sub-conventional warfare is very limited due to the
nature of this warfare. However, air power can be used in decreased scale directly or
indirectly in sub conventional warfare.

9. Direct Use. Direct use involves the application of kinetic energy of air power
through close air support or independent air strikes to physically destroy the
insurgents. Enhanced range, endurance and accuracy resulting from technological
advancements in the last two decades have substantially increased the lethality of
airpower in sub-conventional warfare. The accuracy and high reliability of modern
weapon systems allow engagement of targets with a high degree of success
provided the target is correctly identified. Politically, the application of direct force in
sub conventional warfare is complex and local dynamics makes it even more
demanding. It may be noted that population is the common center of gravity for
insurgents as well as counterinsurgents in sub conventional warfare. Inappropriate
direct use of airpower resulting in civilian casualties, whether from bad intelligence or
poor tactical decision making, can incur a high political cost. An air attack platform is
required for delivery of precision and specialized weapons to minimize collateral
damage. Missile equipped UAVs are ideally suited in the role and provide a
commander the ability to engage fleeting targets of opportunity.

10. Indirect Use. Indirect use involves the support roles such as surveillance,
reconnaissance, transportation and logistics. Indirect use complements information
warfare and support ground mobility. The indirect employment supports other
elements to fight the insurgents or win over the population. Reconnaissance and
surveillance provides useful information about the location and movement of
insurgents. In transport role, airpower affords quick reaction to the ground forces
against emerging threats from insurgents. Air logistics can support ground forces to
sustain operations in isolated areas for extended period; it can also support the
population and other agencies in execution of economic development. Unmanned
piloted Vehicles (UAVs) and drones fitted with advanced sensors, data linked to the
command center are ideal platform for surveillance and reconnaissance.

11. The use of drones by the United States in the tribal areas of Pakistan to
engage insurgents is an example of direct use of air power in sub conventional
warfare. Similarly, air power was used in support role of transportation during the raid
on Osama Bin Laden in Abbottabad.

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Word Count : 900 words

Sources Consulted : Chapter II, AFM 1-1, Doctrine of Pakistan Air Force

SC & SC Air Power Studies Correspondence Component Phase-1 Précis

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Ans to Q 2 FACETS OF COUNTER AIR OPERATIONS AND PAF’S POTENTIALS
Introduction

1. Any action taken by air, land or sea forces with the intent of gaining air
superiority falls under Counter Air Operations (CAO). Air superiority is defined as the
degree of dominance in the air battle of one over another that permits the conduct of
operations by the former and its related land, sea and air forces at a given time and
place without prohibitive interference by opposing air forces. Different facets of CAO
viz-a-viz PAF’s potential are discussed below.

Counter Air Roles

2. Air Operations are subdivided into Offensive Counter Air (OCA) and defensive
Counter Air (DCA) operations.

Offensive Counter Air (OCA) Operations

3. Offensive Counter Air operations are conducted to reduce or destroy the

enemy’s air power capabilities to establish control of the air and to eliminate the
enemy’s potential to achieve the control of the air. Platforms and weapons with more
range and endurance coupled with good intelligence are perquisite for effective
conduct of OCA operations. OCA comprises of the following types of missions:-

(a) Airfield Attack or Strike. Airfield Attack is an attack against aircrafts,

runways, hangers, POL and ammunition dumps etc. Attacks that leave long
term ineffectiveness are rewarding. Airfield attacks are high attrition mission,
therefore, should be carefully planned keeping in view the opposing DCA.
PAF has platforms like Mirage (Rose I, II & III), F-16 and JF-17 to conduct
such missions using weapons like durrandels, GP bombs (MK-82, 84), laser
guided bombs and cluster bombs (Mk-20, Bl-755, PSD-I/II, ISCB).

(b) Force Protection. Protection provided to the attacking formation from

adversary air threat so that they can achieve their objective is known as Force
Protection. Following missions falls in the category of Force Protection:-

(i) Fighter Sweep. In fighter sweep missions dedicated air-to-air

fighter aircrafts are used to provide air superiority coverage at a given

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time and space to enhance the survivability of own offensive missions.
In PAF, platforms like F-16 (AMRAM, AIM 9L), JF-17 (SD-10, PL5E),
Mirage ROSE-I (AIM-9L) and F-7P/PG (AIM-9L) can be employed in
this role.

(ii) Dedicated Escort. Dedicated Escorts are those aircrafts which

provide protection to a strike package. Unlike fighter sweep, an escort
only engages the enemy interceptor when they pose a threat to strike
package. PAF’s potential platforms for this role are F-16, JF-17 and F-
7PG. Beyond Visual Range weapons (AMRAM & SD-10) and side
winder (AIM 9L & PL5E) are possessed by PAF for this role.

(c) Suppression of Enemy Air Defence (SEAD). Air operations

undertaken to destroy or temporarily degrade enemy’s ground based air
defences (ground radars, SAMs, AAAs) for a certain time and space are
known as SEAD. These missions are normally undertaken to compliment a
strike. PAF has weapons like Laser Guided Bombs GB-10/12 (F-16), AGM-65
(F-16), MAR-1 (JF-17, Mirage), and H2/H4 (Mirage) for this role.

(d) Participation of Surface Forces. Ground forces can also add to

OCA effort. Destruction of airfield and allied facilities by artillery fire or by
commando raids are typical examples of surface forces to supplement OCA.
PAF has a dedicated SSG wing for this role.

Defensive Counter Air (DCA) Operations

4. The aim of DCA is to minimize the damage caused to friendly forces by

enemy offensive air actions and to inflict maximum damage on intruding elements of
air power. DCA is of following two types:-

(a) Active Air Defense

(b) Passive Air Defense

5. Active Air Defence. The purpose of Active Air Defence is to neutralize the
enemy OCA effort by employing interceptor aircrafts and air defence systems. Active
Air Defence comprises of following:-

(a) Ground-Based Air Defence (GBAD). Ground/sea launched Surface-

to-air missiles (SAMs) and Anti Aircraft Artillery (AAA) systems are GBAD.
However, a large number of such systems are required to defend target
points. PAF has SAMs like Anza and crotalles and SPADA. AAA coverage is
provided by Air Defence units of Pak Army.

(b) Air Defence. Engagement of enemy air offensive strikes by

interceptor aircrafts in own area falls in this category. Fighter interceptors
have the capability to defend large areas and they can be concentrated
quickly however, they have limited endurance. Fighter interceptors can be
used for Area Defence or Point Defence. PAF has aircrafts like F-16, Mirage
Rose-I and F-7P for day/night air defence. Weapons like AIM-9L and AMRAM
are used in this role.

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6. Passive Air Defence. The measures which are undertaken to enhance the
survivability of friendly forces and installations from hostile air actions falls in the
category of Passive Air Defence. Passive AD includes:

(a) Camouflage. Camouflage is hiding of valuable installations and

assets through the use of methods such as deceptive paintwork or nets etc.
PAF has well chalked out camouflage measures which are adopted both in
peacetime and wartime.

(b) Concealment. Concealment is a covering that serves to hide vital

assets such as creating facilities underground. In PAF, maximum effort is
made to conceal vital assets especially command, control and communication
centers.

(c) Hardened Construction. Hardened construction provides strength to

vital buildings from affects of air strikes. In PAF, aircraft hangers, ADA huts,
munitions buildings are constructed in this way to compliment passive air
defence.

(d) Dispersal. In dispersal, likely targets are moved away to such

locations which provide natural protection by the surroundings. Plans for
dispersal are made in peacetime and are executed whenever and wherever
required.

(e) Deception techniques. Deception techniques are techniques

comprising of decoys, electronic warfare, use of smoke, jammers etc. No 606
Wing and No 24 EW Sqn can be used in electronic warfare deception.

Conclusion

7. The success of any major military operation depends on the degree of air
superiority. PAF has adequate potential to gain favourable air superiority through
counter air operations.

Word Count : 942 words.

Sources Consulted : Chapter V, AFM 1-1, Doctrine of Pakistan Air Force

SC & SC Air Power Studies Correspondence Component Phase-1 Précis

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Ans to Q 3 SUCCESSFUL AIR OPERATIONS DEPEND ON CORRECT
APPLICATION OF TENETS OF AIR POWER
“Hitler built a fortress around Europe but he forgot to put a roof on it”
-Franklin D Roosevelt

Introduction

1. Air power is a unique capability for national defence and is a prime military
tool for resolution of politico-military contests by national leadership. Air power is a
three dimensional force therefore its employment is characterized by different set of
rules than that of surface forces. Air power due to its speed, range and flexibility can
respond to national requirements by delivering precise military might whenever and
wherever required. Air power is the most powerful means to show national resolve
with minimum collateral damage. Air power requires some specialized principles of
war that apply to all military forces due to its unique nature. The tenets of airpower
complement the principles of war by providing specific considerations for employing
air power. The conflicting claims of various tenets can often be balanced by being
tested against the principle of war.

Tenets of Air Power

2. Tenets of airpower are the truths that have been validated by decades of
experience by airmen. The tenets are the guiding principles of airpower
employment. The tenets are:

(a) Centralized control and decentralized execution.

(b) Qualitative edge.

(c) Centre of gravity.

(d) Concentration of purpose.

(e) Situational Awareness.

(f) High Tempo.

(g) Concurrent Operations.

(h) Priority.

(i) Balance.

(j) Attrition management.

3. Successful air operations depend on correct application of the tenets of air

power. Historical examples highlighting this fact are discussed in succeeding
paragraphs.

North African Campaign

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4. The North African campaign took place from 10 June, 1940 to 13 May, 1943.
In late 1942, the allied (US) airpower was assigned for support of specific ground
units. Thus the air assets were put under the individual ground commander to set the
priorities. The individual commanders’ unwillingness to release control of their air
assets for overall campaign resulted in disintegration of effort and hampered the aim
of achievement of air superiority. The lesson learnt was the notion of centralized
control and decentralized execution.

Battle of Britain

5. Centralized control and decentralized execution was effectively used by the

Royal Air Force (RAF) during World War II in the Battle of Britain. The RAF’s,
command and control structure gave commanders at every level sufficient
information and authority to make and implement decisions. At every level of
hierarchy, the commander knew which part of the German Luftwaffe’s attack was his
responsibility to counter. As the Germans approached, information from radar and
the Royal Observer Corps allowed commanders to develop, a broad plan of action,
at the appropriate level. Higher commanders delegated authority downward, giving
subordinate commanders the flexibility to use their own initiative in attacking
formations. The simple RAF command structure proved effective to defeat the
German air power.

6. During the same battle, the German Luftwaffe failed to properly concentrate in
purpose and resulted in defeat. The German’s strategy was to defeat the RAF by
bombing airfields. However, during the battle, a German bomber got lost and
accidentally attacked London. In response, Churchill directed the RAF to retaliate
and bomb Berlin. This angered Hitler and he ordered the bombing of London. This
sudden shift in strategy from attacking RAF airfields to achieve air superiority was a
major factor in Germany’s defeat due to their disregard of the tenet of concentration.

Operation Deliberate Force

7. The tenet of concentration of purpose was seen in action in Bosnia in 1995.

The Bosnian Serb attack on refugee’s safe area in Sarajevo killed 38 civilians and
prompted a UN and NATO military response. The resulting campaign, which
consisted of NATO airpower, was called Operation Deliberate Force. Friendly forces
struck the Bosnian Serb military system through a concentrated application of
airpower. Precision munitions destroyed Bosnian Serb heavy weapons, ammunition
depots, and command and control centers. Three weeks of continuous air strikes
finally forced the Bosnian Serbs to talk peace.

Operation Desert Storm

8. In the opening hours of Operation Desert Storm, targets related to multiple

centers of gravity were attacked nearly simultaneously. The swift, massive, and
precise application of airpower against strategic, operational, and tactical objectives
induced shock which resulted in paralysis of the Iraqi military organization. This
paralysis provided the leverage needed to dominate surface as well as air
operations.

Yom Kippur War

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9. The tenet of priority was properly utilized by the Israeli Air Force during the
Yom Kippur War of 1973. On 6 October, Syrian and Egyptian forces simultaneously
attacked Israeli frontiers. Egyptian forces crossed the Suez Canal and moved into
the Sinai Peninsula while, to the northeast, Syrian troops overran Israeli-occupied
positions in the Golan Heights. After initial Arab successes, the Israeli Defense
Forces held their ground and counterattacked by 10 October. The Israelis constantly
shifted airpower from the Sinai front to the Golan Heights front. The Israelis
successfully accomplished those shifts daily, to accomplish the highest priority
objectives.

Operation Enduring Freedom

10. During Operation Enduring Freedom, the tenets of concurrent operation and
centralized command and decentralized execution were effectively utilized by USAF.
Separate command and control, intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance, and
strike assets were integrated into Combined Air Operations Center, or CAOC, in
Saudi Arabia. The CAOC directed multiple air assets during a mission to find and
destroy Taliban and al Qaida leadership, facilities and personnel. Using their
theater-wide perspective and centralized control of the battle space, CAOC
personnel tasked multiple platforms to find, fix and track a convoy of enemy targets
to a compound.

Conclusion

11. The characteristics of airpower make it fundamentally different from land or

sea power. The tenets of airpower are the fundamental truths for its proper
employment. Historical examples highlight the dependency of successful air
operations on correct application of tenets of air power. Failure to frame the
employment of airpower within these tenets during a campaign or battle may result in
less than optimum combat capability. As seen in the historical examples provided,
properly applying the tenets maximizes airpower’s contribution to achieving desired
objectives.

Word Count : 972 words.

Sources Consulted : Chapter IV, AFM 1-1, Doctrine of Pakistan Air Force
SC & SC Air Power Studies Correspondence Component Phase-1 Précis
http://www.apc.maxwell.af.mil/l007/pubs/script.pdf

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PRECISION ENGAGEMENT

1. Due to their speed and reach as compared to land vehicles or naval ships, the
air vehicle can uniquely exploit the third dimension above the surface of sea/earth.
The height, speed and reach are the primary strength of air power. The primary
strengths when coupled with responsiveness, lethality and flexibility make the air
power as a preferred choice for today’s warfare.

2. One of the core competences of air power is its precision engagement

capability. Precision engagement is undertaken at both strategic and tactical level of
war depending upon the type of weapon. This capability enables air power to engage
its targets with pin point accuracy without any fears of collateral damage in a political
sensitive environment. Lesser force projection is required to carry out a given
mission due to the accuracy of precision engagement, thus enabling commander
more flexibility in planning operations. Precision engagement is a critical force
multiplier. Moreover, precision engagement reduces combat attrition significantly as
lesser number of aircraft are involved war theater while employing intelligent
munitions e.g. BVRs, cruise missiles etc. During ongoing war on terror, America is
striking the hide outs of terrorist and caravans within meters of accuracy through
precision engagement.

3. The unique ability of air power to absorb technology advancement has

enhanced its capability of precision engagement. Today a single bomb or missile can
achieve the same effect that needed scores of aircraft and tons of bombs to achieve
in World War II. Precision has changed the meaning of “mass” in combat; now no
more does it mean a larger assembly of forces or firepower, but the effectiveness of
the weapons released, with the resultant value of the shock it generates for the loss
of a centre of gravity or a critical asset. The effort so spared now enables an
operational commander to employ his forces on a wider front, in depth, or in parallel
operations for the benefit of the overall war effort. Minimal application of air power
thus can provide disproportionate advantages, sometimes of strategic importance,
enabling mission achievement in a highly cost-effective manner.

4. Precision guidance meant that an aircraft would have to make fewer passes
over heavily defended targets and also that weapon release could be accomplished
from greater distances and altitudes, keeping the aircraft out of harms way.

5. Precision engagement has been and will continue to be the Holy Grail of
airpower and airmen. Improvements in air power precision engagement have been
remarkable during the past century.

6. The Joint Attack Munitions (JDAM) has a 30-feet accuracy, has a steering
system that was launch and leave and could not fed target coordinates up to
moments before release and had all-weather day and night capability.

7. The combination of such precise weaponry with real-time targeting capability

provides air power with the ability now to conduct a new kind of warfare in which it
can locate, engage and destroy enemy ground forces across the entire spectrum of
operations. Tactical application of such awesome power has also kept pace with
capabilities and thereby increases the efficacy of air power.

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8. The first Gulf war demonstrated vividly and graphically the new meaning that
technology gave to the concept of precision. Precision guidance made it possible to
destroy 41 of the 54 roads and rail bridges between Bagdad and Kuwait in just 450
sorties and brought about the almost complete destruction of the Iraqi military.

9. Precision attack in the Gulf War changed the perceptions and reality of air
strikes. It made air power the weapon of choice not only to prepare the battlefield for
the ground advance but to destroy more than 50 percent of the enemy’s equipment.
Precision engagement has incredibly high expectation of perfection in its strike
capabilities.

10. The attack on Iraq’s nuclear reactor by Isreali air strike on 7 June 1981 is an
excellent example of surprise and precision engagement. Precision engagement
strategies and weapons are being used in the war against terrorism by the NATO
and United Nations forces in Afghanistan.

Word Count : 667 words

Sources Consulted : Chapter VI, AFM 1-1, Doctrine of Pakistan Air Force

SC & SC Air Power Studies Correspondence Component Phase-1 Précis

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Ans to Q 4(b)
CENTRALIZED CONTROL AND DECENTRALIZED EXECUTION
1. Air power is intrinsically different from land and sea power; therefore its
employment should be guided by axioms different than those of surface forces. Air
power involves the operations in three dimensions. By taking the advantage of three
dimensional manoeuvrability, the air power can overlook enemy positions and able to
manoeuvre beyond enemy surface forces. The fundamental guiding truths of air
power employment are known as tenets. The tenets of air power compliment the
principles of war. The tenets provide more specific considerations for air forces while
the principles of war provide the general guidance on the application of air forces.

2. Joint doctrine is based on centralized planning by using commander’s intent

and mission type to convey unity of command/unity of effort. Decentralized execution
provides enhanced tactical flexibility, and exercise of initiative. Centralized control is
defined as “placing within one commander the responsibility and authority for
planning, directing, prioritization, allocation, synchronization, integration and de-
confliction of air capabilities to achieve the desired objective”. “Decentralized
execution of air power is the delegation of execution authority to responsible and
capable lower level commanders to achieve effective span of control and to foster
disciplined initiative, situational responsiveness, and tactical flexibility.”

3. Centralized control and decentralized execution of air forces are critical to

force effectiveness. Air power must be controlled by an airman who maintains a
broad strategic and/or theatre perspective in prioritizing the use of limited air assets
to attain the objectives across the range of operations.

4. Battlefield picture of even the tactical level can now be transmitted to

command headquarters owing to the advancement in modern communication
technologies. This can tempt the commanders at headquarters at the execution of air
operations. Therefore, over-centralization of planning and execution by staff and
commanders away from the battlefield should be avoided. However, political
leadership can define the rules for conflict and determine the types of target that
should be engaged depending on the overall aim and objective of the war.

5. During the Vietnam conflict, airpower doctrine followed tight centralized

control and centralized execution. All targeting was overseen by the Johnson
administration. This close political oversight worked in coordination with the
centralized command system put into place in the Air Force. by the then dominant
leaders in the Strategic Air Command. During the course of conflict, the tactical
elements of the air power struggled to find ways to decentralize operations. Conflict
within the air power and with other services led to a twisted and territorial command
and control system. Three Tactical Air Control Centers (TACC) evolved over the
course of the conflict. These centers provided tactical centralized planning (within the
constraints of the administration) and control of a specific sector within the theater.
Naval airpower was assigned another sector. Strategic Air Command maintained
control of all bomber forces, which operated in all sectors but were not under the
planning or control of that area TACC. The end result was a theater command and
control system that was fragmented and lacked unity of effort.

6. Operation Desert Storm was the first time airpower was effectively employed
in large scale under the direction of a Joint Force Air Component Commander

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(JFACC) and operated under the tenet of centralized control and decentralized
execution. All air operations for the entire war theater were in Air Operation Center
(AOC) which contained a plans division. The air tasking orders ware then transmitted
to units for execution. These units planned the tactical portions of the mission. Once
airborne, the aircraft fell under the control of the AOC’s operations cell. The lessons
of Vietnam were utilized in the operation Desert Storm. The efficient command
structure provided the unity of command needed to synchronize airpower into a
lethal force yet balanced decentralized execution to increase tactical initiative.

7. Attempts to fragment the control and planning of air power will ultimately cost
blood and treasure by diverting effort and impact. Centralized control allows
commanders to focus on those priorities that lead to victory. Through centralized
control, commanders give coherence, guidance and organization to the air effort and
maintain the ability to focus the tremendous impact of air power wherever needed
across the theater of operations. Just as central to the proper application of airpower
is the concept of decentralized execution. Delegation of execution authority to
responsible and capable lower-level commanders is essential to achieve effective
span of control and to foster initiative, situational responsiveness, and tactical
flexibility.

Word Count : 734 words.

Sources Consulted : Chapter IV, AFM 1-1, Doctrine of Pakistan Air Force

SC & SC Air Power Studies Correspondence Component Phase-1 Précis

http://www.apc.maxwell.af.mil/main.htm

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