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The Religions Book DK 2013 US PDF
The Religions Book DK 2013 US PDF
RELIGIONS
BOOK
THE
RELIGIONS
BOOK
LONDON, NEW YORK, MELBOURNE,
MUNICH, AND DELHI
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COBALT ID
Published in the United States by
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CONTRIBUTORS
SHULAMIT AMBALU ANDREW STOBART
Rabbi Shulamit Ambalu MA studied at Leo Baeck College, London, The Rev. Dr. Andrew Stobart is a Methodist minister. He studied
where she was ordained in 2004 and now lectures in Pastoral Care Christian theology to the doctoral level at the London School of
and Rabbinic Literature. Theology and Durham and Aberdeen universities, and has taught
and written in the areas of theology, church history, and the Bible,
MICHAEL COOGAN contributing to Dorling Kindersley’s The Illustrated Bible.
One of the leading biblical scholars in the United States, Michael MEL THOMPSON
Coogan is Director of Publications for the Harvard Semitic
Museum and Lecturer on the Old Testament/Hebrew Bible at Dr. Mel Thompson BD, M.Phil, PhD, AKC was formerly a teacher,
Harvard Divinity School. Among his many works are The Old lecturer, and examiner in Religious Studies, and now writes on
Testament: A Historical and Literary Introduction and The philosophy, religion, and ethics. Author of more than 30 books,
Illustrated Guide to World Religions. including Understand Eastern Philosophy, he blogs on issues of
religious belief, and runs the “Philosophy and Ethics” website at
EVE LEVAVI FEINSTEIN www.philosophyandethics.com.
Dr. Eve Levavi Feinstein is a writer, editor, and tutor in Palo Alto, CHARLES TIESZEN
California. She holds a PhD on the Hebrew Bible from Harvard
University, and is the author of Sexual Pollution in the Hebrew Bible Dr. Charles Tieszen completed his doctorate at the University of
as well as articles for Jewish Ideas Daily and other publications. Birmingham, where he focused on medieval encounters between
Muslims and Christians. He is currently a researcher and adjunct
PAUL FREEDMAN professor of Islamic studies, specializing in topics related to Islam,
Christian–Muslim relations, and religious freedom.
Rabbi Paul Freedman studied Physics at Bristol University and
Education at Cambridge. Following a career in teaching, he gained MARCUS WEEKS
rabbinic ordination and an MA in Hebrew and Jewish studies at
Leo Baeck College, London. A writer and musician, Marcus Weeks studied philosophy
and worked as a teacher before embarking on a career as an
NEIL PHILIP author. He has contributed to many books on the arts, popular
sciences, and ideas, including the Dorling Kindersley title
Neil Philip is the author of numerous books on mythology and The Philosophy Book.
folklore, including the Dorling Kindersley Companion Guide to
Mythology (with Philip Wilkinson), The Great Mystery: Myths
of Native America, and the Penguin Book of English Folktales.
Dr. Philip studied at the universities of Oxford and London,
and is currently an independent writer and scholar.
CONTENTS
10 INTRODUCTION 36 Our ancestors will
guide us
PRIMAL BELIEFS
The spirits of the dead live on
24 Even a rock has a spirit 40 The gods desire blood 60 The triumph of good over
Animism in early societies Sacrifice and blood evil depends on humankind
offerings The battle between good
26 Special people can visit and evil
other worlds 46 We can build a
The power of the shaman sacred space 66 Accept the way of
Symbolism made real the universe
32 Why are we here? Aligning the self with the dao
Created for a purpose 48 We are in rhythm with
the universe 68 The Five Great Vows
33 Why do we die? Man and the cosmos Self-denial leads to
The origin of death spiritual liberation
50 We exist to serve the gods
34 Eternity is now The burden of observance 72 Virtue is not sent
The Dreaming from heaven
51 Our rituals sustain Wisdom lies with the
the world superior man
Renewing life through ritual
78 A divine child is born
The assimilation of myth
CLASSICAL BELIEFS
will of the gods
Divining the future
FROM 3000 BCE 80 The gods are just like us
Beliefs that mirror society
56 There is a hierarchy
of gods and men 82 Ritual links us to our past
Beliefs for new societies Living the Way of the Gods
210 The body may die but the 240 Scientific advances do not
soul will live on disprove the Bible
Immortality in Christianity The challenge of modernity
186 God and humankind are
in cosmic exile 212 God is three and God 246 We can influence God
Mysticism and the kabbalah is one Why prayer works
A divine trinity
188 The holy spark dwells
in everyone 220 God’s grace never fails
Man as a manifestation
of God
Augustine and free will ISLAM
222 In the world, but not of FROM 610 CE
189 Judaism is a religion, not the world
a nationality Serving God on behalf 252 Muhammad is God’s
Faith and the state of others final messenger
The Prophet and the origins
190 Draw from the past, live 224 There is no salvation of Islam
in the present, work for outside the Church
the future Entering into the faith 254 The Qur’an was sent
Progressive Judaism down from heaven
God reveals his word and
196 If you will it, it is his will
no dream
The origins of modern 262 The Five Pillars of Islam
political Zionism The central professions
of faith
198 Where was God during
the Holocaust? 270 The imam is God’s
A challenge to the covenant chosen leader
The emergence of
199 Women can be rabbis Shi‘a Islam
Gender and the covenant
317 We have forgotten our
MODERN RELIGIONS true nature
FROM 15TH CENTURY Clearing the mind with
Scientology
T
here is no simple definition increasingly deployed as a political of finding significance and
of the concept of religion tool. Military conquests were often meaning, and providing a starting
that fully articulates all followed by the assimilation of the point for all of life’s endeavors,
its dimensions. Encompassing pantheon of the defeated people by it appears to be fundamental at
spiritual, personal, and social the victors; and kingdoms and a personal as well as a social level.
elements, this phenomenon is empires were often supported by
however, ubiquitous, appearing their deities and priestly classes. Beginnings
in every culture from prehistory We know about the religions of the
to the modern day—as evidenced A personal god earliest societies from the relics
in the cave paintings and elaborate Religion met many of the needs they left behind and from the stories
burial customs of our distant of early people and provided of later civilizations. In addition,
ancestors and the continuing templates by which they could isolated tribes in remote places,
quest for a spiritual goal to life. organize their lives—through rites, such as the Amazonian forest in
For Palaeolithic people—and rituals, and taboos. It also gave South America, the Indonesian
indeed for much of human history them a means by which they islands, and parts of Africa, still
—religion provided a way of could visualize their place in the practice religions that are thought to
understanding and influencing cosmos. Could religion therefore have remained largely unchanged
powerful natural phenomena. be explained as a purely social for millennia. These primal
Weather and the seasons, creation, artifact? Many would argue that religions often feature a belief in
life, death and the afterlife, and the it is much more. Over the centuries, a unity between nature and the
structure of the cosmos were all people have defied opposition to spirit, linking people inextricably
subject to religious explanations their faiths, suffering persecution with the environment.
that invoked controlling gods, or a or death to defend their right to
realm outside the visible inhabited worship their God or gods. And
by deities and mythical creatures. even today, when the world is
Religion provided a means to arguably more materialistic than
communicate with these gods, ever before, more than three-
through ritual and prayer, and quarters of its population consider
these practices—when shared by themselves to hold some form of All men have need
members of a community—helped religious belief. Religion would of the gods.
to cement social groups, enforce seem to be a necessary part of Homer
hierarchies, and provide a deep human existence, as important to
sense of collective identity. life as the ability to use language.
As societies became more Whether it is a matter of intense
complex, their belief systems personal experience—an inner
grew with them and religion was awareness of the divine—or a way
INTRODUCTION 13
As the early religions evolved, Other belief systems were new religions began to appear,
their ceremonies and cosmologies developing in the east. From the especially in the 19th and 20th
became increasingly sophisticated. 17th century BCE, the Chinese centuries, but these invariably
Primal religions of the nomadic and dynasties established their nation bore the traces of the faiths that
seminomadic peoples of prehistory states and empires. There emerged had come before.
gave way to the religions of the traditional folk religions and
ancient and, in turn, of the classical ancestor worship that were later Elements of religion
civilizations. Their beliefs are now incorporated into the more Human history has seen the rise
often dismissed as mythology, philosophical belief systems and fall of countless religions,
but many elements of these ancient of Daoism and Confucianism. each with its own distinct beliefs,
narrative traditions persist in In the eastern Mediterranean, rituals, and mythology. Although
today’s faiths. Religions continued ancient Egyptian and Babylonian some are similar and considered
to adapt, old beliefs were absorbed religions were still being practiced to be branches of a larger tradition,
into the religions of the society when the emerging city-states there are many contrasting and
that succeeded them, and new of Greece and Rome developed contradictory belief systems.
faiths emerged with different their own mythologies and Some religions, for example,
observances and rituals. pantheons of gods. Further east, have a number of gods, while
Zoroastrianism—the first major others, especially the more modern
Ancient to modern known monotheistic religion—had major faiths, are monotheistic;
It is hard to pinpoint the time when already been established in Persia,
many religions began, not least and Judaism had emerged as the
because their roots lie in prehistory first of the Abrahamic religions,
and the sources that describe their followed by Christianity and Islam.
origins may date from a much later Many religions recognized the
time. However, it is thought that particular significance of one or There is no use disguising
the oldest surviving religion today more individuals as founders of the fact, our religious needs
is Hinduism, which has its roots the faith: they may have been are the deepest. There is
in the folk religions of the Indian embodiments of god, such as Jesus no peace until they are
subcontinent, brought together in or Krishna, or recipients of special satisfied and contented.
the writing of the Vedas as early divine revelation, such as Moses Isaac Hecker,
as the 13th century BCE. From this and Muhammad.
Roman Catholic priest
Vedic tradition came not only the The religions of the modern
pluralistic religion we now know world continued to evolve with
as Hinduism, but also Jainism, advances in society, sometimes
Buddhism, and, later, Sikhism, reluctantly, and often by dividing
which emerged in the 15th century. into branches. Some apparently
14 INTRODUCTION
and there are major differences of or a more sophisticated set of ancillary texts have themselves
opinion between religions on such scriptures, but often includes a acquired canonical status. There
matters as the afterlife. We can, creation story and a history of is also often an ethical element,
however, identify certain elements the gods, saints, or prophets, with rules of conduct and taboos,
common to almost all religions in with parables that illustrate and and a social element that defines
order to examine the similarities reinforce the beliefs of the religion. the institutions of the religion and
and differences between them. Every existing faith has a collection of the society it is associated with.
These aspects—the ways in which of sacred texts that articulates its Such rules are typically concise—
the beliefs and practices of a central ideals and narrates the the Ten Commandments of
religion are manifested—are what history of the tradition. These Judaism and Christianity, or the
the British writer and philosopher texts, which in many cases are Noble Eightfold Path of Buddhism,
of religion Ninian Smart called the considered to be have been passed for example.
“dimensions of religion.” directly from the deity, are used in
Perhaps the most obvious worship and education. Religion and morality
elements we can use to identify In many religions, alongside this The idea of good and evil is also
and compare religions are the narrative, is a more sophisticated fundamental to many faiths, and
observances of a faith. These and systematic element, which religion often has a function of
includes such activities as prayer, explains the philosophy and doctrine offering moral guidance to society.
pilgrimage, meditation, feasting of the religion, and lays out its The major religions differ in their
and fasting, dress, and of course distinctive theology. Some of these definitions of what constitutes a
ceremonies and rituals. Also good life—and the line between
evident are the physical aspects moral philosophy and religion is far
of a religion: the artifacts, relics, from clear in belief systems such
places of worship, and holy places. as Confucianism and Buddhism—
Less apparent is the subjective but certain basic moral codes have
element of the religion—its What religion a man shall emerged that are almost universal.
mystical and emotional aspects, have is a historical accident, Religious taboos, commandments
and how a believer experiences quite as much as what and so on not only ensure that the
the religion in achieving ecstasy, language he shall speak. will of the God or gods is obeyed,
enlightenment, or inner peace, for George Santayana, but also form a framework for society
example, or establishing a personal and its laws to enable people to live
Spanish philosopher
relationship with the divine. peaceably together. The spiritual
Another aspect of most religions leadership that in many religions
is the mythology, or narrative, that was given by prophets with divine
accompanies it. This can be a guidance was passed on to a
simple oral tradition of stories, priesthood. This became an
INTRODUCTION 15
essential part of many communities, Conflict and history a result there arose communist
and in some religions has wielded Just as religions have created states that were explicitly
considerable political power. cohesion within societies, they atheistic and antireligious.
have often been the source—or
Death and the afterlife the banner—of conflict between New directions
Most religions address the central them. Although all the major Responding to societal change
human concern of death with the traditions hold peace as an and scientific advances, some of
promise of some kind of continued essential virtue, they may also the older religions have adapted
existence, or afterlife. In eastern make provision for the use of force or divided into several branches.
traditions, such as Hinduism, the in certain circumstances, for Others have steadfastly rejected
soul is believed to be reincarnated example, to defend their faith or to what they see as a heretical
after death in a new physical form, extend their reach. Religion has progress in an increasingly rational,
while other faiths hold that the soul provided an excuse for hostility materialistic, and godless world;
is judged after death and resides in between powers throughout fundamentalist movements in
a nonphysical heaven or hell. The history. While tolerance is also Christianity, Islam, and Judaism
goal of achieving freedom from considered a virtue, heretics and have gained many followers who
the cycle of death and rebirth, or infidels have often been persecuted reject the liberal values of the
achieving immortality encourages for their beliefs, and religion has modern world.
believers to follow the rules of been the pretext for attempted At the same time, many people
their faith. genocides such as the Holocaust. recognize a lack of spirituality in
modern society, and have turned to
Challenges to faith charismatic denominations of the
Faced with the negative aspects of major religions, or to the many new
religious belief and equipped with religious movements that have
the tools of humanist philosophy appeared in the past 200 years.
and science, a number of thinkers Others, influenced by the New
All religions, arts, and have questioned the very validity Age movement of the late 20th
sciences are branches of religion. There were, they argued, century, have rediscovered ancient
of the same tree. logical and consistent cosmologies beliefs, or sought the exoticism
Albert Einstein based on reason rather than faith— of traditional religions with no
in effect, religions had become connection to the modern world.
irrelevant in the modern world. Nevertheless, the major religions
New philosophies, such as of the world continue to grow and
Marxism-Leninism considered even today very few countries in
religions to be a negative force the world can be seen as truly
on human development, and as secular societies.
PRIMAL
BELIEFS
FROM PREHISTORY
18 INTRODUCTION
Primal religions—so-called because
they came first—were practiced by people
throughout the world and are key to the
development of all modern religions.
Some are still active today.
By building miniature
versions of the cosmos,
the Pawnee created Through their
sacred places. bond with the gods,
the Warao believe
that everything
is connected.
Rituals to renew life
and sustain the world
were a central part
of the religion of
the Hupa.
O
ur early hunter-gatherer phenomena. The rising of the goddess gave birth to the world,
ancestors considered the sun each day, for example, might be which was in some cases fathered
natural world to have a seen as a release from the darkness by another god. Sometimes these
supernatural quality. For some, of the night, controlled by a sun parental deities were personified as
this was expressed in a belief god; similarly, natural cycles such animals, or natural feature, such
that animals, plants, objects, and as the phases of the moon and the as rivers or the sea, or in the form
forces of nature possess a spirit, seasons—vital to these people’s of mother earth and father sky.
in the same way that people do. way of life—were assigned their
In this animistic view of the world, own deities. As well as creating Rites and rituals
humans are seen as a part of a cosmology to account for the The belief systems of most primal
nature, not separate from it, and workings of the universe, most religions incorporated some form
to live in harmony with it, must cultures also incorporated some of afterlife, one that was typically
show respect to the spirits. form of creation story into their related to the existence of a realm
Many early peoples sought to belief system. Often this was in separate from the physical world
explain the world in terms of deities the form of an analogy with human —a place of gods and mythical
associated with particular natural reproduction, in which a mother creatures—to which the spirits
PRIMAL BELIEFS 19
In the ritual
The natural and In the Dreaming,
Work of the Gods,
supernatural worlds are Aboriginal Australians
the Tikopians fulfilled
intertwined in the religion see the creation as
their obligation to
of the San bushmen. ever-present.
serve the gods.
of the dead would travel. In some ensure good fortune in hunting or in the image of the cosmos. A few
religions, it was thought possible to farming inspired rituals of worship, of these primal religions survive to
communicate with this other realm and, in some cultures, sacrifices the present day among dwindling
and contact the ancestral spirits for to offer life to the gods in return for numbers of tribespeople around
guidance. A particular class of holy the life they had given to humans. the world untouched by Western
person—the shaman or medicine Symbolism also played a key civilization. Some attempts have
man—was able to journey there role in the religious practices of been made to revive them by
and derive mystical healing powers early cultures. Masks, charms, indigenous peoples who are
from contact with, and sometimes idols, and amulets were used trying to reestablish lost cultures.
possession by, the spirits. in ceremonies, and spirits were Although their belief systems
Early peoples also marked life’s believed to occupy them. Certain may seem at first glance to be
rites of passage; these, along with areas were thought to have primitive to modern eyes, traces
the changing of the seasons, religious significance, and some of them can still be seen in the
developed into rituals associated communities set aside holy places major religions that have evolved
with the spirits and the deities. and sacred burial grounds, while in the modern world, or in the
The idea of pleasing the gods to others made buildings or villages New Age search for spirituality. ■
20
IN CONTEXT
UNSEEN
KEY BELIEVERS
/Xam San
WHEN AND WHERE
FORCES ARE
From prehistory,
sub-Saharan Africa
AFTER
44,000 BCE Tools almost
AT WORK
identical to those used by
modern San are abandoned
in a cave in KwaZulu–Natal.
19th century German
linguist Wilhelm Bleek sets
T
he question of why human
beings first develop the
idea of a world beyond
the visible one in which we live
is complex. Motivated by an urge
to make sense of the world around
them—particularly the dangers
and misfortunes they faced, and
how the necessities of life were
provided—people in early societies
sought explanations in a realm
that was invisible to them, but
had an influence over their lives.
The idea of a spirit world is
also associated with notions of
sleep and death, and the interface
between these and consciousness,
which can be likened to the natural
phenomenon of night and day.
PRIMAL BELIEFS 21
See also: Animism in early societies 24–25 ■ The power of the shaman 26–31 ■ Created for a purpose 32
■ Living the Way of the Gods 82–85 ■ A rational world 92–99
Unseen forces
are at work.
The Storm Bird blows
his wind into the chests of
man and beast, and without
this wind we would not Our food
be able to breathe. Spirits seem to supply, the plants
African fable appear to us in the and animals,
sky, the earth, is sometimes
the animals, plentiful,
or the fire. sometimes
scarce.
22 MAKING SENSE OF THE WORLD
by marks such as /, indicating shape, transform, and create. The
a dental click rather like a tut of /Xam believed that these beings
disapproval), are thought to survive were the first to inhabit the earth.
from humankind’s earliest speech.
Elemental forces
Levels of the cosmos In /Xam myth, elements of the My mother told me that the
The mythology of all San peoples natural environment were given girl [of the Early Race] put
is modeled closely on their local supernatural significance or her hands in the wood ash
environment and on the idea personified as spirits. Supernatural and threw it into the sky, to
that there are both natural and figures could take the form of the become the Milky Way.
supernatural realms that are deeply animals they shared their lands African fable
intertwined. In their three-tiered with, such as the eland (a type of
world, spirit realms lie both above antelope), the meerkat, and the
and below the middle, or natural, praying mantis. The creator
world in which humans live; each is /Kaggen, who dreamed the world
accessible to the other, and into being, usually took human
whatever happens in one directly form but could transform into
affects what happens in the other. almost anything, most often a trickster, many of the myths
Humans with special powers could praying mantis or an eland. While surrounding him and his family are
visit the upper or sky realm, and he was the protector of game comic rather than reverent; even
travel underwater and underground animals, he would sometimes the key myth of the creation of the
in the lower spirit realm. transform himself into one in order first eland includes a scene in
For the /Xam San, the world to be killed and feed the people. which an ineffectual /Kaggen is
above was inhabited by the creator The people of the Early Race beaten up by a family of meerkats.
and trickster deity /Kaggen (also were regarded with awe and Important elemental forces
known as Mantis) and his family. respect, but not worshipped. Not and celestial bodies also became
They shared this world with an even /Kaggen the Mantis was characters in stories that explained
abundance of game animals, prayed to, although a San shaman how they came to be, and why
and with the spirits of the dead, such as //Kabbo (see box, facing they behave in the way that they
including the spirits of the Early page) might hope to intercede with do. The children of the Early Race,
Race—a community of hybrid /Kaggen to ensure a successful for example, threw the sleeping sun
animal-humans, with powers to hunt. Because /Kaggen is a up into the sky, so that the light
that shone from his armpit would
illuminate the world. It was a girl
from the Early Race who made the
stars by throwing the ashes of a fire
into the sky of the Milky Way. Rain
was not thought of as a natural
phenomenon, but as a large animal.
A fierce thunderstorm was a
rain-bull, and a gentle rain was
a rain-cow. Special people who had
the power to summon the rain,
such as //Kabbo, would make a
supernatural journey to a full
EVEN A ROCK
HAS A SPIRIT
ANIMISM IN EARLY SOCIETIES
T
he word Ainu means
IN CONTEXT Everything in the world “human being,” and
has a spirit. refers to the indigenous
KEY BELIEVERS
population of Japan, now living
Ainu
mainly on the island of Hokkaido.
WHERE The Ainu have close cultural ties
Hokkaido, Japan Even human beings are with other inhabitants of the north
simply containers Pacific Rim—Siberian peoples
BEFORE for a spirit. (such as the Chukchi, Koryak, and
10,000–300 BCE Neolithic Yupik) and the Inuit of Canada
Jomon people—remote and Alaska. These peoples share,
ancestors of the Ainu— in particular, an animistic view of
live in Hokkaido, probably the world, in which every being and
worshipping clan deities. Spirits are immortal. object that exists has a spirit that
can act, speak, and walk by itself.
600–1000 CE Okhotsk hunter- They also believe that the spiritual
gatherer people occupy coastal and physical worlds are separated by
Hokkaido. Some of their ritual only a thin, permeable membrane.
practices, such as bear worship, The most important The Ainu consider the body to
are seen later in the Ainu. spirits are the gods. be simply a container for the spirit;
700–1200 Okhotsk culture after death, the spirit passes out of
blends with that of the the mouth and nostrils, and arrives
in the next world to be reborn as a
Satsumon to create the Ainu.
kamuy, a word meaning both god
Ceremonies, songs, and
AFTER and spirit. When the kamuy dies in
offerings give the gods
1899–1997 The Ainu are status in the other world. the next world, it is reborn in this
forced to assimilate into one. It will always reincarnate in the
Japanese culture; many Ainu same species and gender—a man
religious practices are banned. will always be a man, for example.
Kamuy can be animals, plants,
2008 The Ainu are officially If we treat the gods well, minerals, geographical or natural
recognized as an indigenous they will provide us phenomena, or even tools and
people with a distinct culture. with food. utensils produced by humans.
Because all spirits, even those of
PRIMAL BELIEFS 25
See also: Living the Way of the Gods 82–85 ■ Devotion through puja 114–15
S
hamanism describes one
IN CONTEXT of humankind’s oldest and
most widespread religious
KEY BELIEVERS
practices, based on a belief in
Sami
spirits who can be influenced by
WHEN AND WHERE shamans. These shamans, men or We believe in dreams,
From prehistory, Sápmi women, are believed to be special
and we believe that people
(formerly Lapland) people who possess great power
and knowledge. After entering an
can live a life apart from
AFTER altered state of consciousness, or
real life, a life they can go
10,000 BCE Ancestors of the trance, they are able to travel to through in their sleep.
Sami make rock carvings in other worlds and interact with the Nâlungiaq,
the European Arctic. spirits who live there. a Netsilik woman
c.98 CE The Roman historian Bargaining with the powerful
spirits who control these other
Tacitus makes the first record
worlds is often a key aspect of the
of the Sami (as the Fenni).
shaman’s activities. For example,
13th century CE Catholic the shaman often requests the
missionaries introduce release of game animals (essential
Christianity, but traditional in some traditional societies) from alleviate suffering and hardship
shamanism persists. the spirit world into this world, in the community. This function
to gain insight into the future, or is reflected in some of the (now
c.1720 CE Thomas von Westen, for remedies to cure the sick. In largely obsolete) terms that have
Apostle of the Sami, forcefully return, the spirits may ask humans been used to describe shamans,
converts Sami to Christianity, (via the shaman, who acts as an such as witchdoctors in sub-
destroying shamanic drums intermediary) to make offerings Saharan Africa and medicine
and sacred sites. to them or to observe certain rules men in North America.
and codes of conduct. In Europe, shamanism was a
21st century Most Sami Shamans play an important dominant feature of many societies
follow the Christian faith, role as healers of the sick; this role from around 45,000 years ago up
but recent times have seen a emphasizes that their journeys are until the modern era. The Vikings,
revival of Sami shamanism. not simply personal and private, practiced a form of shamanic
but are undertaken primarily to divination known as seiðr between
These people can enlist the help of There are some special people who can
the spirits to ask for game or good weather visit the worlds in which these spirits live.
for us, or cure us when we are ill.
PRIMAL BELIEFS 29
See also: Making sense of the world 20–23 ■ Animism in early societies 24–25 ■ Divining the future 79
Sami shamans
The longest recorded history of
shamanism in Europe, however, from close comparison with related The Sami shaman’s drum was
is in northern Scandinavia, in the cultures in North Asia and the used to make contact with the spirit
area now known as Sápmi (formerly American Arctic. world. Some of these drums survive,
although many were burned by
Lapland). Here the Sami people, Sami shamans, or noaidi, could Christian missionaries.
semi-nomadic reindeer herders and inherit their calling or be chosen
coastal fishers, maintained a fully directly by the spirits. In some
shamanic religion into the early other cultures, those chosen to the shaman’s horse); the drum was
18th century, which has been be shamans often experienced a decorated with images of the world
partially revived in recent decades. period of intense illness and stress, of the gods above, the world of the
Their religion can be reconstructed as well as visionary episodes in dead below, and the world
from historical sources as well as which they might be killed and inhabited by humans (the earth)—
then brought back to life. the three realms connected by
Sami shamans had helping the World Tree. The third way the
spirits in the form of animals, such shaman was helped to enter a
as wolves, bears, reindeer, or fish, trance was through the ingestion
whom they imitated when entering of the psychotropic (mind-altering)
a trance. Shamans are often said to fly agaric mushroom (Amanita
Mankind does not end become the animal they imitate; muscaria). After taking the
its existence because this occurs through a process of mushroom, the shaman would
sickness or some other interior transformation rather than fall into a trance and become rigid
accident kills its animal by visible, exterior change. and immobile, as if dead. During
spirit down here on Three things helped the Sami this process, male Sami guarded
earth. We live on. shaman enter a trance. The first the shaman, while the women
Nâlungiaq, a Netsilik was intense physical deprivation, sang songs about the tasks to be
woman often achieved by working naked performed in the upper or lower
in the freezing Arctic temperatures. realms, and songs to help the
The second was the rhythmic beat shaman find his or her way home.
of the sacred rune drum (among Stories are told of Sami
similar peoples, such as the Yakut shamans who never returned
and Buryat, the drum is called from the other world, often ❯❯
30 THE POWER OF THE SHAMAN
In some Arctic cultures, animals are believed beliefs to the Sami. As well as
to have spirit guardians who protect them and subduing storms and acting
ensure their well-being. Shamans have the power as healers, they also mediated
to negotiate with these guardians, on behalf of
between the human world and the
human beings, for the release of animals from
the spirit world into the human world for spirits of the earth, air, and sea. A
hunting and fishing. shamanic seance was always held
in subdued light, in a snow hut or
a tent. The shaman would summon
his helping spirits by singing
special songs. After falling into a
trance, he would speak in a voice
that was not his own—most often
in a deep, resonant bass, but
sometimes in a shrill falsetto.
While in this trance state, the
shaman could send his soul up into
the sky to visit Tatqiq, the moon
man, who was thought to bring
fertility to women and good luck
in hunting. If he was pleased with
the offerings the shamans made
to him, he would reward them
with animals. When the moon was
not visible in the sky, the Netsilik
believed that he had gone hunting
for animals to feed the dead.
WHY ARE
WE HERE?
CREATED FOR A PURPOSE
T
he Baiga are one of the man, Nanga Baiga, and the first
IN CONTEXT indigenous tribal peoples woman, Nanga Baigin, who were
of central India, collectively born in the forest from Mother
KEY BELIEVERS
known as the Adivasis. The Baigas, Earth, took four great nails and
Baiga
who call themselves the sons and drove them into the four corners of
WHEN AND WHERE daughters of Dharti Mata, Mother the earth to steady it. Bhagavan
From 3000 BCE, Mandla Earth, believe that they were told them that they should take
Hills, southeastern Madhya created to be the guardians of care of the earth to keep the nails
Pradesh, central India the forest—a task they have carried in place, promising them a simple
out since the beginning of time. but contented life in return.
BEFORE In their belief, Bhagavan, the The Baiga followed the example
From prehistory The Baiga creator, spread the world out flat of Nanga Baiga, hunting freely
are thought to share a like a chapati, but it flapped about in the forest and considering
common ancestry with the and would not stay still. The first themselves lords of the animals.
Australian Aborigines. Believing it wrong to tear the body
of Mother Earth with a plow,
AFTER they practiced a form of slash-and-
Mid-19th century British burn agriculture known as bewar
forest officials restrict sacred (although always leaving the stump
bewar agriculture. Food of a saj tree for the gods to dwell
shortages follow; the Baigas You are made of the in), moving every three years to
say that the Kali Yuga, the earth and are lord of the earth, a new patch of forest. However,
age of darkness, has begun. and shall never forsake it. 19th-century British officials
1890 A reserve that
You must guard the earth. opposed the Baiga’s methods,
surrounds eight Baiga
Bhagavan the Creator forcing them to abandon their
traditional axe-and-hoe cultivation
villages is demarcated
and take up the hated plow. They
where bewar is permitted.
were permitted to practice bewar
1978 A Baiga development only in the reservation of Baiga
agency is established. Chak in the Mandla Hills. ■
1990s More than 300,000
See also: The Dreaming 34–35 ■ A lifelong bond with the gods 39
Baiga live in central India. ■ Renewing life through ritual 51
PRIMAL BELIEFS 33
WHY DO
WE DIE?
THE ORIGIN OF DEATH
A
ccording to Maori belief,
IN CONTEXT death did not exist at the
beginning of the world but
KEY BELIEVERS
was brought into being following
Maori
an act of incest. In one version
WHEN AND WHERE of the Maori myth, the forest
From prehistory, god Tane grew up between and
New Zealand separated his parents—Rangi,
the sky god, and Papa, the earth
BEFORE goddess—because they forced him The trees, plants, and creatures
2nd and 3rd millennia BCE to live in darkness. He then asked of the forest were believed by the Maori
Ancestors of the Polynesian his mother to marry him, but when to be offspring of Tane, the forest god.
people spread across the Papa explained that this could not Before felling a tree they therefore
made an offering to the spirits.
Pacific Ocean, possibly from be, Tane shaped a woman from
origins in Asia. Their ritual mud and mated with her.
practices and mythology The result of this union was became known as Hine-nui-te-po,
develop independently but a beautiful child—Hine-titama. the goddess of darkness and
retain parallels across this She became Tane’s wife, unaware death. In an attempt to overturn
vast region. that he was also her father. One the course of events and regain
day, however, she discovered immortality on behalf of human
Before 1300 CE The Maori the terrible truth, and descended beings, the trickster hero Maui
people settle in New Zealand. in shame to the darkness of Po, raped Hine-nui-te-po as she slept,
the underworld; it was from this believing that after this act she
AFTER
moment that humankind’s descent would die, and that death would
Early 19th century European
to the realm of death began. also cease to exist. But Hine-nui-
settlement begins. Some Maori When Tane visited his wife, she te-po awoke during the attack and
convert to Christianity. told him, “Stay in the world of light, squeezed Maui to death with her
1840 The Treaty of Waitangi and foster our offspring. Let me thighs, thereby ensuring that
formalizes relations between stay in the world of darkness, and mortality would remain in the
whites and Maori. drag our offspring down.” She then world forever. ■
Today Around 620,000 Maori See also: Preparing for the afterlife 58–59 ■ Living the Way of the
are resident in New Zealand. Gods 82–85
34
ETERNITY
IS NOW
THE DREAMING
AFTER
8000 BCE The date ascribed
to certain changes to the
Australian landscape in The land is alive with this power.
Aboriginal oral tradition;
this has been supported
by geological evidence.
4000–2000 BCE Aboriginal The power of the Dreaming is eternal and ever-present.
rock art depicts the ancestral
beings of the Dreaming; some
experts estimate the earliest
portrayals of the Rainbow We can access that power and enter the eternal Now.
Serpent to be even older, dating
them to some 8,000 years ago.
1872 Uluru is first seen by
I
n the Australian Aboriginal with the Aboriginal belief that the
a non-Aborigine, Ernest Giles,
tradition, the time of the Dreaming can be accessed through
who called it “the remarkable creation was once called the acts of ritual, song, dance, and
pebble.” European settlers give Dreamtime, but is now referred to storytelling, and through physical
it the name Ayers Rock in 1873. as the Dreaming. This term better things such as sacred objects, or
1985 The ownership of Uluru captures the crucial element of paintings on sand, rock, bark, the
is returned to the Pitjantjatjara Aboriginal faith—that the creation is human body, and even canvas.
and Yankunytjatjara peoples. continuous and ongoing, existing in Myths of the Dreaming, called
the real, eternal present, as opposed Dreamings, tell of the ancestral
to the remote past. It also accords beings, who are known as the
PRIMAL BELIEFS 35
See also: Making sense of the world 20–23 ■ Created for a purpose 32 ■ The spirits of the dead live on 36–37
■ Living the Way of the Gods 82–85
Uluru holds great spiritual power, and forth from animal to human
according to Aboriginal tradition. It forms. Finally they transform The origin of Uluru
is said to be the heart of the ancestral themselves into features of the
beings’ Songlines, whose signs may According to one legend,
environment including stars,
still be seen in the great rock’s features. before the Uluru rock existed,
rocks, watering holes, and trees.
the Kunia, or carpet-snake
people, lived there. To the west
First People or “the eternal ones The living land lived the Windulka, or mulga-
of the dream,” and their role in Dreamings are thus intimately seed men, who invited the
creation. Aboriginal tradition tied to natural features such as hills, Kunia to a ceremony. The Kunia
tells how these beings awake in a rocks, and creeks, as well as the men set out, but, after stopping
primal world that is still malleable Songlines themselves. Aboriginal at the Uluru waterhole, they
and in a state of becoming. They peoples revere the topography of met some Metalungana, or
journey across the land, leaving Australia as sacred because it offers sleepy-lizard women, and
sacred paths known as Songlines, evidence both of their spiritual forgot about the invitation.
or Dreaming tracks, in their wake. ancestors’ wanderings, and of their The Windulka sent the bell
As they go, they shape human bodies. The Gunwinggu tribe bird Panpanpalana to find the
beings, animals, plants, and the describes the land as being infused Kunia. The Kunia men told the
landscape, establishing rituals, with the ancestral beings’ djang bird they could no longer
defining the relationships between (spiritual power): it is this that attend since they had just
gotten married. Affronted, the
things, and changing shape back gives it its life and its holy power.
Windulka asked their friends
This sacred topography the Liru, the poisonous-snake
converges on Uluru, a sandstone people, to attack the Kunia.
rock formation in the Northern During a furious battle, the Liru
Territory, the center from which overcame the Kunia, who
all the Songlines are said to radiate. surrounded their dying leader,
We say djang… Uluru is venerated as a great Ungata, and sang themselves
That secret place… storehouse of djang, the navel to death. During the battle,
Dreaming there. of the living body of Australia. Uluru was formed. Three rock
Aborigines consider the land holes high on Uluru mark the
Gagudju elder place Ungata bled to death,
Big Bill Neidjie to be both their inheritance and
responsibility, and so they nurture and the water that spills from
it, and the Dreamings accordingly. them is Ungata’s blood. It flows
While they may be mortal, the down to fill the pool of the
Rainbow Serpent, Wanambi.
djang of their ancestral beings lives
forever, and is forever in the now. ■
36
OUR ANCESTORS
WILL GUIDE US
THE SPIRITS OF THE DEAD LIVE ON
IN CONTEXT
The spirits of the
KEY BELIEVERS We inherited the land
ancestors are enshrined
Quechua Indians from our ancestors.
in the land.
WHEN AND WHERE
From prehistory, central
Andes, South America
AFTER
From 6000 BCE Ayllu, If we do this, the land Both the ancestors and
or extended communities, will feed us and the the land must be fed
develop in the Andes. ancestors will guide us. with blood and fat.
3800 BCE Corpses are
mummified and revered
as sacred objects.
c.1200 CE The Inca Empire
T
he religion of the Andean ways resembled that of the Aztecs
is established. highlands can be said to of Mesoamerica (pp.40–45), who
be, in essence, a cult of the were their contemporaries. It
1438 The Inca Empire expands
dead. This tradition of reverence revolved around worship of their
across the central Andes,
for the ancestors stretches back to own supreme deity, the sun god.
reaching its peak in 1532. long before the short-lived empire However, beyond the Inca
1534 The Empire collapses of the Incas—the culture for which capital of Cuzco, with its priests,
after the Spanish Conquest. the region is best known—and rituals, and golden artifacts, the
has lasted to the present day. common people, whom the Incas
21st century Catholicism Just one of many Quechua- called the Hatun Runa, persisted
has been institutionalized speaking Andean peoples, the with a cult of ancestor worship
across this region since the Incas rose to dominate much of and earth worship that dated back
colonial era; however, most modern-day Peru, Ecuador, and to prehistoric times. This survived
present-day Quechua blend Chile, and parts of Bolivia and the mighty Inca Empire when, in
elements of Christianity with Argentina in the 13th century. As the 16th century, it was utterly
their traditional beliefs. they extended their empire, they destroyed by Spanish conquistadors
imposed a culture that in many led by Francisco Pizarro.
PRIMAL BELIEFS 37
See also: Making sense of the world 20–23 ■ Created for a purpose 32 ■ Sacrifice and blood offerings 40–45 ■ Devotion
through puja 114–15
WE SHOULD
BE GOOD
LIVING IN HARMONY
M
ost societies have as both dangerous and wrong.
IN CONTEXT developed a system Only by looking after the entire
of morality based population in a spirit of fairness
KEY BELIEVERS
on an appeal to notions of human and sharing can the group hope
Chewong
goodness, reinforced by sanctions to survive. The Chewong believe
WHEN AND WHERE from religious and social authorites. that violation of their moral code—
From 3000 BCE, Very few cultures have existed by not sharing food, by showing
Peninsular Malaysia where ideas such as crime and anger at misfortune, by expressing
warfare are unknown, but the few anticipation of pleasure, or by
BEFORE that have been found have been nursing ungratified desires—will
From prehistory The tribal peoples eking out a hunter- have supernatural repercussions
Chewong are one of the 18 gatherer existence in the rainforest. such as illness, or physical or
indigenous tribes of Peninsular One such tribe is the Chewong of psychic attack, either by a tiger,
Malaysia collectively known as Peninsular Malaysia, whose first snake, or poisonous millipede, or
the Orang Asli—the “original contact with Europeans was in the ruwai or soul of the animal. ■
people”. Each tribe has its the 1930s. They now number
own language and culture. around 350 people.
The Chewong are nonviolent
AFTER and noncompetitive; their
1930s Europeans first language has no words for war,
encounter the Chewong; fight, crime, or punishment. They
contact with Chinese and believe the first human beings Human beings should
other Malay ethnic groups is were taught the right way to live never eat alone. You must
also very restricted until this by their culture hero Yinlugen Bud always share with others.
time because of the tribe’s —a forest spirit who existed before Yinlugen Bud
remote forest location. the first humans. Yinlugen Bud
gave the Chewong their most
From 1950s Chewong come
important rule, maro, which
under pressure to assimilate specifies that food must always
themselves into mainstream be shared. To eat alone is regarded
Malay society and convert to
Islam; many choose to retain See also: Created for a purpose 32 ■ The burden of observance 50
their traditional practices. ■ The Five Great Vows 68–71
PRIMAL BELIEFS 39
EVERYTHING
IS CONNECTED
A LIFELONG BOND WITH THE GODS
L
iving in the environment
IN CONTEXT of the Orinoco Delta, where
the land is divided into
KEY BELIEVERS
countless islands by a network
Warao
of waterways, the Warao tribe see
WHEN AND WHERE the world as flat—the earth is just
From 6000 BCE, the Orinoco a narrow crust between water and
Delta, Venezuela sky. They believe that Hahuba, the
Snake of Being—the grandmother
BEFORE of all living things—is coiled
From prehistory The around the earth, and that her
Warao are one of the largest breathing is the motion of the
indigenous groups in the tides. Their various gods, known In Warao myth, the Bird of Beautiful
Latin American lowland. as the Ancient Ones, live on sacred Plumage is believed to provide
mountains at the four corners of supernatural protection to children.
AFTER the earth, with the Warao living A child that dies is said to be claimed
16th century Europeans as food by spirits of the underworld.
at its very center. In villages under
first encounter the Warao the particular protection of one
and compare their settlements of the gods, the temple hut also first cry is said to carry across the
with similar structures in contains a sacred rock in which world to the mountain of Ariawara,
Venice, giving Venezuela the god dwells. the God of Origin, in the east; in
(“little Venice” in Spanish) return, the god sends back a cry of
its name. Divine dependence welcome. Soon after a baby is born,
From 1960s Environmental The Warao gods depend on humans Hahuba, the Snake of Being, sends
degredation in the region to nourish them with offerings, a balmy breeze to the village, to
especially tobacco smoke; in return, embrace the new arrival. From that
affects local fisheries and
the Warao depend on the gods for point on, the baby becomes part
displaces tribespeople
health and life. This lifelong bond of the complex balance between
to the cities; some are with the gods is established as natural and supernatural that
converted to Catholicism. soon as a baby is born. The child’s forms the web of Warao daily life. ■
2001 More than 36,000 Warao
people are registered as living See also: The Dreaming 34–35 ■ The spirits of the dead live on 36–37
■ Symbolism made real 46–47 ■ Man and the cosmos 48–49
in the Orinoco Delta area.
THE GODS
DESIRE
BLOOD
SACRIFICE AND BLOOD OFFERINGS
42 SACRIFICE AND BLOOD OFFERINGS
T
he sacrifice of animals legends, the gods themselves
IN CONTEXT and humans has been a had made tremendous sacrifices in
feature of many religious forming the world, which included
KEY BELIEVERS
traditions around the world, but shedding their own blood to
Aztec, Mayan, and other
the idea of ritual sacrifice was create humankind; therefore they
Mesoamerican peoples particularly important to societies desired similar sacrifices of
WHEN AND WHERE in the ancient civilizations of blood from humanity in return.
3rd–15th century CE, Mesoamerica, notably the Mayans
Mexico and the Aztecs. Sacrifice and creation
The Mesoamerican peoples The power of blood and the
BEFORE inhabited the area from present- necessity of sacrifice are central
From 1000 BCE The Mayan day central Mexico through to to the Aztec creation myth. The
civilization begins its slow rise, Nicaragua. The Mayan civilization Aztecs believed that the gods
reaching its peak—the Classic (which peaked c.250 CE–900 CE) had created and destroyed four
Mayan period—between the preceded and then coincided earlier eras, or suns, and that
3rd and 10th century CE. with the Aztec civilization, after the destruction of the fourth
which reached its height around sun by flood, the god of the wind,
From 12th century CE The 1300 –1400 CE. Aztec culture Quetzalcoatl, and his trickster
Aztec empire is established. drew on the Mayan tradition, and brother, Tezcatlipoca, tore the
AFTER the two peoples had several deities goddess (or god in some versions)
1519 CE The Aztecs, whose in common; they went by different Tlaltecuhtli in half to make a new
population numbers 20–25 names but shared characteristics. heaven and earth. From her body
million, are overthrown by grew everything necessary for the
Spanish forces under the A reciprocal gift of blood life of humankind—trees, flowers,
conquistador Hernán Cortés. The Mesoamerican cultures grass, fountains, wells, valleys,
believed that blood sacrifice to and mountains. All this caused
1600 CE Forced conversion to their gods was essential to ensure the goddess terrible agony, and
Catholicism and exposure the survival of their worlds, in she howled through the night
to European diseases destroy a tradition of ritual bloodletting demanding the sacrifice of
the Aztec civilization and that dated back to the first human hearts to sustain her.
reduce the population to major civilization in Mexico—that Further cosmic acts of creation
around one million. of the Olmecs, which flourished followed, all requiring sacrifice or
between 1500 and 400 BCE. In blood offerings. One relief shows
the first stars being born from underworld and retrieved the bones and needed to be fortified by
blood flowing from Quetzalcoatl’s of former humans (remains from the blood in order for the sun to
tongue after he had pierced it. four previous eras), the gods ground continue in its cycle. Thus
Most notably, the creation of the them into a fine meal flour. They the continued existence of
fifth sun required one of the gods to let their own blood drip onto the the Mesoamerican world was
cast himself into a funeral pyre. flour to animate it and created seen as extremely tenuous, and
Two gods, Tecuciztecatl and a new race of people—people in need of constant support
Nanahuatzin, vied for the honor, whose hearts could in turn satisfy through acts of sacrifice.
both immolating themselves; the gods’ own need for blood. Bloodletting for the gods
Nanahuatzin became the sun and In Mesoamerican myth, took two forms: autosacrifice
Tecuciztecatl the moon. The other each period of 52 years was seen (self-inflicted bloodletting) and
gods then offered their hearts in as a cycle, the end of which could human sacrifice. Both Mayans and
order to make the new sun move spell the end of the world. Human Aztecs took part in autosacrifice.
across the sky (the offering of sacrifice could be used to appease Mesoamerican nobles had what
hearts is a recurring theme in the gods and persuade them not was seen as the privilege and
Mesoamerican myth and ritual). to bring an end to the present responsibility to shed their own
age—that of the fifth sun. The blood for the gods. This involved
Humanity’s gruesome debt Mayans believed that blood piercing their flesh with stingray
Both the Mayans and the Aztecs sacrifice was necessary for the sun spines, obsidian knives, and, most
were bound to their gods by a blood to rise in the sky every morning. often, with the sharp spines of the
debt from these acts of creation that The Aztecs’ sun god, maguey (agave) plant. Blood was
could never be repaid. After Huitzilopochtli, was locked in drawn from the ear, shin, knee, elbow,
Quetzalcoatl descended to the an ongoing struggle with darkness tongue, or foreskin. Autosacrifice ❯❯
44 SACRIFICE AND BLOOD OFFERINGS
smoke from incense and tobacco,
and with food and precious objects,
blood was what they really craved.
WE CAN BUILD
A SACRED SPACE
SYMBOLISM MADE REAL
T
he first sacred spaces
IN CONTEXT of early religions were
The world and we ourselves naturally occurring ones—
KEY BELIEVERS
were created by Tirawahat, groves, springs, and caves. However,
Pawnee
the expanse of the heavens. as worship became more ritualized,
WHEN AND WHERE He told us the earth is the need to define holy places
From c.1250 CE, Great our mother, the sky is arose, and buildings designed
Plains, US our father. for worship encoded the essential
features of each religion.
AFTER On the other hand, buildings
1875 The Pawnee are relocated used for everyday activities often
from their lands in Nebraska to took on cosmic significance in
a new reservation in Oklahoma. cultures in which religious and
daily life were intertwined. This
1891–92 Many Pawnee adopt was true of the earth lodges, or
the new Ghost Dance religion, If we make our lodges to ceremonial centers, of the Pawnee,
which promises resurrection for encircle the earth and one of the Native American
their ancestors. encompass the sky, we
nations of the Great Plains. The
invite our mother and
1900 The US census records a father to live with us. Pawnee earth lodge had a sacred
Pawnee population of just 633; architecture, making each lodge
over the next four decades, a miniature cosmos as Tirawahat,
traditional Pawnee religious the creator god and chief of all the
gods, had prescribed at the
practices dwindle and die out.
beginning of time, after he had
20th century The Pawnee made the heavens and earth and
Nation is mainly Christian, its brought the first humans into
people belonging to the Indian being (see box, facing page).
If we open our lodges to the
Methodist, Indian Baptist, east, Tirawahat can enter with Four posts held up each earth
or Full Gospel Church. Some the dawning sun. Our lodges lodge, one at each corner. These
Pawnee are members of the are a miniature version represented four gods, the Stars of
Native American Church. of the cosmos. the Four Directions, who hold up the
heavens in the northeast, northwest,
southwest, and southeast. The
Pawnee believed that stars had
PRIMAL BELIEFS 47
See also: Making sense of the world 20–23 ■ Man and the cosmos 48–49 ■ Living the Way of the Gods 82–85
WE ARE IN
RHYTHM WITH
THE UNIVERSE
MAN AND THE COSMOS
T
he Dogon people live in as two lines of storerooms, the
IN CONTEXT the Bandiagara plateau chest as two jars of water, and the
in Mali, West Africa, where penis as the entrance passage. The
KEY BELIEVERS
they practice a traditional animist building reflects the creative power
Dogon
religion: for them, all things are of the male–female twin ancestral
WHEN AND WHERE endowed with spiritual power. beings, the Nommo (see facing page).
From 15th century CE, Fundamental to Dogon religious The hut of the hogon, the Dogon’s
Mali, West Africa belief is that humankind is the spiritual leader, is a model of the
seed of the universe, and that the universe. Every element of the hut’s
BEFORE human form echoes both the first
From 1500 BCE Similarities moment of creation and the entire
in oral myths and knowledge created universe. Every Dogon
of astronomy suggest that the village is therefore laid out in the
Dogon’s ancestral tribes may shape of a human body, and is
have originated in ancient regarded as a living person.
Egypt before migrating to the
region of present-day Libya, Sacred and symbolic space
then Burkina Faso or Guinea. A Dogon village is arranged lying
north to south, with the blacksmith,
From 10th century CE Dogon or forge, at its head and shrines
identity evolves in West Africa at its feet. This layout reflects the
from a mixture of peoples of belief that the creator god, Amma,
earlier tribes, many of whom made the world from clay in the
have fled Islamic persecution. form of a woman lying in this
AFTER position. Everything in the village
has an anthropomorphic, or human,
Today The Dogon people
equivalent. The women’s menstrual
number between 400,000
huts, to the east and west, are
and 800,000. The majority
the hands. The family homesteads
still practice their traditional are the chest. Each of these big
religion, but significant Masked dancers perform the dama,
homesteads is, in turn, laid out in or funeral ritual. This traditional Dogon
minorities have converted the plan of a male body, with the religious ceremony is designed to
to Islam and Christianity. kitchen as the head, the large guide the souls of the deceased
central room as the belly, the arms safely into the afterlife.
PRIMAL BELIEFS 49
See also: Symbolism made real 46–47 ■ The ultimate reality 102–105
The Nommo
The Nommo are ancestral
beings worshipped by the
Dogon. They are often
The whole universe was originally contained in an egg or seed. described as amphibious,
hermaphroditic, fishlike
creatures who, acccording to
myth, were fathered by the
god Amma, when he created
the cosmic egg. This egg was
Everything that exists began as a vibration in this egg. said to resemble both the
smallest seed cultivated by
the Dogon, and the sister star
to Sirius—the brightest star in
the night sky. Within the egg
lay the germ of all things.
The form of man was prefigured in the egg, In one version of the myth,
and is also echoed in the form of the universe. two sets of male–female
twins, the Nommo, were
inside the egg waiting to be
born so that they could bring
order to the world. But the egg
was shaken by a vibration and
Everything, from the smallest seed to the expanse of one of the male twins, Yurugu,
the cosmos, reflects and expresses everything. broke out of it prematurely,
creating the earth from his
placenta. So Amma sent the
three remaining Nommo down
to earth, and they established
A village, or a homestead, or a hat, or a seed, the institutions and rituals
can contain the whole universe. necessary for the renewal
and continuation of life. But
because of Yurugu’s premature
actions, the world was tainted
right from the beginning.
decoration and furnishing is laden the seven spiral vibrations that
with symbolism. The hogon’s shook the cosmic “egg of the
movements are attuned to the world” (see right). During a
rhythms of the universe. At dawn crisis, the chiefs gather around
he sits facing east, toward the the headdress; the hogon speaks
rising sun; he then walks through into it and upends it on the ground,
the homestead following the order as if the world itself has been
of the four cardinal points; and turned upside down, ready to be
finally at dusk he sits facing west. restored to order by the god Amma. For [the Dogon],
His pouch is described as “the The complex cosmic symbolism social life represents the
pouch of the world”; his staff is of the Dogon reflects outward from workings of the universe.
“the axis of the world.” the cosmos, and then back in again Marcel Griaule,
to the headdress of the hogon, the anthropologist
Cosmic meaning shell of the world egg. Religion,
Even the hogon’s clothing society, cosmology, mythology,
represents the world in miniature. cultivation, daily life—all are
His cylindrical headdress, for intermeshed in every detail,
example, is a woven image of and reflected in every action. ■
50
WE EXIST TO
SERVE THE GODS
THE BURDEN OF OBSERVANCE
U
ntil Christianity arrived The Work of the Gods was a form
IN CONTEXT in Tikopia in the 1950s, all of worship expressed as a system
the residents of this small of trade between human and spirit
KEY BELIEVERS
Pacific island devoted themselves beings. The Tikopians performed
Tikopians
to ritual for two weeks twice a year, the rituals, and the gods granted
WHEN AND WHERE as they undertook the Work of the the people the necessities of life.
From c.1000 BCE, Gods. At these times, they perfomed Moreover, the religion was
Tikopia, Solomon duties to propitiate the atua, spirits structured so that many of the
Islands, Pacific Ocean or gods, believing that they, in turn, activities undertaken to please the
would ensure plentiful harvests. gods—such as repairing canoes,
AFTER planting and harvesting, and the
1606 European explorers ritual production of turmeric—were
first land on Tikopia. of economic value to the Tikopians.
1859 The Anglican Offerings of food and kava (an
intoxicating drink) made to the
Melanesian Mission makes
gods were consumed only in
contact with Tikopia.
essence—leaving the actual food
1928–29 Tikopian culture available for human consumption.
is studied by anthropologist Taking part in the Work of the
Raymond Firth; the population Gods brought status to individuals,
is divided into four clans. and was perceived as a privilege.
The rituals involved in this religion
1955 The Work of the Gods is also underpinned key social and
abandoned after an epidemic; economic structures, and held
the remaining pagan chiefs Tikopian society together. ■
convert to Christianity.
2002 Tikopia is devastated A Tikopian man performs a dance
by Cyclone Zoë, but islanders with a canoe paddle: ritual dancing
and drumming on canoes were part
take shelter and survive. of the Work of the Gods.
2012 The population of
Tikopia numbers about 1,200. See also: Making sense of the world 20–23 ■ A lifelong bond with the gods 39
■ Sacrifice and blood offerings 40–45 ■ Devotion through puja 114–15
PRIMAL BELIEFS 51
OUR RITUALS
SUSTAIN
THE WORLD
RENEWING LIFE THROUGH RITUAL
T
hrough their ritual songs
IN CONTEXT and dances, the Hupa
tribe of northwestern
KEY BELIEVERS
California believed they could
Hupa
renew the world, or “firm the earth,”
WHEN AND WHERE and revitalize the land to ensure [The Kixunai] painted
c.1000 CE, sufficient resources for the coming themselves and danced there
northwestern California year. One of their most important one night. The next morning
world renewal dances, held every they danced again.
BEFORE autumn, was the White Deerskin Hupa myth
c.900–1100 CE Ancestors Dance. The purpose of the dance
of the Hupa arrive in was to re-create the actions of the
northwestern California from the Kixunai, or First People, the
subarctic regions to the north. Hupa’s mythical predecessors.
By replaying the sacred
AFTER narrative of the Kixunai, the Hupa
1828 The first contact is hoped to tap into the powers of The First People
made with American trappers; creation in order to safeguard the The Kixunai were believed by
around 1,000 Hupa live in the health of the people and guarantee the Hupa to be human in form
Hoopa Valley at this time, and abundant stocks of game and fish but extraordinary in character.
trade furs until the beginning for the hunting season. During the Whatever the Kixunai did became
of the Gold Rush in 1848. dance, which lasted ten days, the the predestined custom of the
elaborately decorated hide of an unborn Hupa race. So every detail
By 1900 The Hupa population
albino deer—a symbol of great of Hupa daily life was mapped out
is reduced to about 500 as a
wealth and status—was displayed. by the activities of the First People.
result of disease. Participants paddled along the According to Hupa belief, the
1911 The first modern Hupa river in dugout canoes every Kixunai later scattered across the
Tribal Council is formed. morning and danced every ocean, leaving only the mythical
afternoon and evening, holding being Yimantuwinyai to assist
Today More than 2,000 Hupa deer effigies aloft on poles. people in their life on earth. ■
live as a self-governing people
on their traditional lands. See also: The spirits of the dead live on 36–37 ■ Beliefs that mirror society 80–81
ANCIENT
CLASSIC
BELIEFS
FROM 3000
BCE
AND
AL
54 INTRODUCTION
Tomb inscriptions known The probable date
as the Pyramid Texts, of the foundation of
Ancient Egypt is the oldest known The pantheon of Zoroastrianism
unified and the Early religious writings, Greek mythology in Persia, although
Dynastic period begins. suggest an Ancient evolves in the this may have been
A cult of a divine Pharaoh Egyptian Minoan culture as early as the
is established. belief in an afterlife. of Crete. 18th century BCE.
T
he earliest civilizations elaborate tombs left by the early Coalescing faiths
emerged when scattered civilizations, such as the Egyptians, By about 1500 BCE, regional
nomadic tribes began that belief in an afterlife existed, religious traditions were well
to settle in order to raise crops. and that rituals of death and burial established in many parts of
Previously localized religious played a major part in religion. the world, and new, more advanced,
beliefs and practices evolved, As people settled in ever bigger societies arose, requiring more
and the beliefs of different tribes communities, temples dedicated elaborate belief systems. Some
amalgamated around common to the gods became focal points in new religions also appeared,
deities and mythologies. Complex the towns and cities. notably Zoroastrianism, which
pantheons emerged, and an often Civilization also gave rise to was arguably the first monotheistic
sophisticated body of myths arose various forms of written language, faith, while the foundations of
from the various strands that had which allowed these stories of Judaism were also being laid down.
come together, describing the role gods and creation to be recorded In India, the numerous local
of the gods and mythical creatures and embellished over the millennia. religious beliefs were incorporated
in the workings of the world. Religious inscriptions first appeared into the Vedic tradition, based
These more formal religions on the walls of tombs and temples on ancient scriptures called the
offered explanations for natural in early civilizations, such as that Vedas. This later became the
phenomena, such as the sun, of Egypt. Elsewhere, distinctive pluralistic amalgam now known
moon, seasons, weather, and the traditions were also taking shape as Hinduism, but alongside this
gods’ influence on them. They as Indian, Chinese, Japanese, came Jainism, which placed more
often included creation stories Norse, and Celtic folk religions emphasis on a correct way of life
and tales of the interaction of were incorporated into the belief than on the worship of deities, and
gods and humans. It is clear from systems of the emerging nations. Buddhism, which was arguably
ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 55
8TH–7TH CENTURIES BCE 599–27 BCE 5TH–4TH CENTURIES BCE 9TH–10TH CENTURIES
The Chinese sage Laozi Confucius, founder Two collections of Icelandic epic
describes the dao, the of Confucianism, is Japanese mythology, the poems describing
way, and establishes born in Zou, Lu Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki, Norse mythology
Daoism in China. State, China. are compiled as a resource are composed and
to support Shinto as recorded in
national religion of Japan. the Eddas.
more a philosophy than a religion, as By the 6th century BCE, the Greek to divine the future, choose
it concentrated on enlightenment city-states had been established, auspicious times for action, and
without the need for gods. and classical Greek civilization was even defeat enemies. Most of the
This focus on moral philosophy exerting a strong influence on the time they existed alongside people,
was also prevalent in the religions eastern Mediterranean region. unconcerned with human affairs,
that evolved in China and Japan. Religion (although the Greeks did but, to keep them happy, the
In the ordered society of the great not have a specific word for it) Greeks erected temples, performed
Chinese dynasties, religion and was very much a part of life, and, rituals, and held regular festivals.
political organization became although the gods were believed to As the early civilizations rose
intertwined. Daoism, proposed live separately from the people, they and fell, many of their beliefs faded
by the legendary scholar Laozi, were imagined to lead remarkably away, or were incorporated into
advocated a religious way of life similar lives. The history of the the religions that replaced them;
compatible with Chinese society. Greek people, as interpreted by the pantheon of Greek mythology,
Confucius built on this to develop Homer in his epic poems, was for example, was absorbed into
a new belief system based on a also the history of their gods. The Roman mythology, and along
reinterpretation of respect for hierarchy of deities, with their very with Celtic and other beliefs,
the hierarchy, and reinforced by human lifestyles and tempestuous into Christianity. Some religions,
ritual. Later, in Japan, traditional relationships, mirrored Greek however, such as that of the
religions were unified to create the society. As well as offering an Norse, were still practiced until
state religion, Shinto, which showed explanation for aspects of the the Middle Ages, and others,
special reverence to ancestors and world, the deities gave reasons for including Shinto, Jainism, Daoism,
encouraged followers to connect the vagaries of human behavior, and Confucianism, have survived
with them through ritual practices. and with their help it was possible into the modern age. ■
56
THERE IS A
HIERARCHY OF
GODS AND MEN
BELIEFS FOR NEW SOCIETIES
M
esopotamia, the area As these larger settlements grew,
Babylon’s chief god, Marduk. of modern Iraq between so did the need for new social
the Tigris and Euphrates structures, a common culture, and
691 BCE Babylon falls to
rivers, is often referred to in the shared beliefs in order to unify
the Assyrians; the myths West as the cradle of civilization. the population and reinforce the
of Marduk are reassigned It was there that—in the Bronze political system. Religion not only
to the Assyrian god Assur. Age—small communities first explained natural phenomena but
evolved into towns and cities. also provided a coherent mythology.
ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 57
See also: Created for a purpose 32 ■ Renewing life through ritual 51 ■ Beliefs
The Enûma Elish
that mirror society 80–81 ■ A rational world 92–99
The Akitu ritual re-created the
events it relates had largely been creation story of the Enûma
adapted from earlier Sumerian Elish. This begins before
time, when only Apsu (the
mythology, but in this retelling
freshwater ocean) and Tiamat
featured Babylonian deities—in (the saltwater ocean) exist.
particular Marduk, son of the Apsu and Tiamat give birth
Sumerian god Enki and the rightful to the primal gods, including
heir to Anu. The story tells of Anshar and Kishu, the
Marduk as the leader of a hierarchy horizons of the sky and the
of young deities, whose victory over earth, who themselves beget
the older gods, including the Anu, the god of the sky, and
creator god, Tiamat (see box, right) Ea (the Sumerian Enki), the
gave him the power to create and god of the earth and water.
organize the universe, which he The shouts of the young gods
ruled from his chosen home of disturb Apsu and Tiamat’s
Images of Babylonian soldiers peace, so Apsu attempts to
lined the Ishtar Gate, which led to Babylon. The Enûma Elish provided
an obvious analogy to the takeover destroy them, but is killed by
the city of Babylon. Effigies of gods Ea. At the site of this struggle,
were paraded from the gate to the of Sumer and founding of Babylon,
the god Ea creates a temple for
city along the Processional Way. but Marduk’s ascendancy over the himself, which he names Apsu
other gods and his ordering of the (after his father), where his
In the 4th millennium BCE, the world also served as a metaphor son Marduk is born. To avenge
Sumerian people inhabited the for the sovereignty of Babylonian her husband, Tiamat wages
region. The population of Sumer kings and their authority to make war on Marduk, and puts her
was concentrated in about a dozen and enforce laws. son Qingu in command of her
city-states; each was ruled by forces. Marduk agrees to fight
a king, but political power was A mark of kingship Tiamat’s army, if all the other
vested in the high priests of each To reinforce the idea of Babylonian gods accept him as king, with
city’s religion. The Sumerians dominance and to unify the empire, sovereignty over the universe.
worshipped a pantheon of gods, the Enûma Elish was recited and Marduk then kills Tiamat and
including Enki, god of water and acted out in an annual New Year Qingu, and brings order to
fertility, and Anu, god of heaven. festival, known as the Akitu, which the universe. From Qingu’s
When the Babylonians began to was held at the time of the spring blood he creates mankind.
settle in Mesopotamia in the 3rd equinox. This performance did
millennium BCE, they absorbed the more than mark the calendrical
Sumerians and their culture— movement from one year to the
including some aspects of their next; it was a ritualized re-creation
mythology—into their own empire. and reenergizing of the cosmos,
The Babylonian leaders used the which enabled Marduk to settle
Sumerian mythology to reinforce the destinies of the stars and I hereby name it Babylon,
the hierarchy they established, planets for the year ahead. Both home of the great gods.
which helped to assert their power in its mythology and its ritual, the We shall make it the
over their own people and the Akitu was fundamentally about center of religion.
supplanted Sumerians. legitimizing kingship; it was a Marduk, in the
public demonstration that the
Enûma Elish
Babylonian religion Babylonian monarch held his
Central to the Babylonian religion authority directly from the god.
was the epic creation story of the By recreating Marduk’s triumph
Enûma Elish, recorded on seven over Tiamat, the centrality of
clay tablets. The sequence of Babylon was also reaffirmed. ■
58
T
he Ancient Egyptians left
IN CONTEXT extraordinary tributes to
their dead, such as the
KEY BELIEVERS We want to live again after Great Pyramids, huge necropolises,
Ancient Egyptians death, as the god Osiris did.
underground tombs, and extensive
WHEN grave goods and art, but it would
2000 BCE–4th century BCE not be true to say that they were
obsessed with death. Instead, they
BEFORE were preparing for the afterlife.
In predynastic Egypt All their mortuary rituals
Bodies buried in the sand are of embalming, mummification,
preserved by dehydration; If we imitate the entombment, and remembrance
this may have inspired later mummification of Osiris by were aimed at ensuring new life
mummification practices. Anubis, we can join Osiris after death. Egyptians wanted to
in the realm of the dead. live after their death as perfected
c.2400–2100 BCE Royal tomb beings in Aaru, the field of reeds,
inscriptions at Saqqara—the which was itself a perfected version
Pyramid Texts—suggest belief of the Egypt they already knew.
in a divine afterlife for the Aaru was the domain of Osiris,
Egyptian pharaohs, promising lord of the dead. In it, the blessed
the kings: “You have not died.” dead gathered rich crops of barley
There, Osiris will judge us, and emmer wheat—abundant
c.2100 BCE The first Coffin and our hearts will be
Texts—spells inscribed harvests that are joyously depicted
weighed against our sins.
on the coffins of wealthy men on the walls of Egyptian tombs.
and women—suggest that Egyptians believed that a
complete person comprised a
the afterlife is no longer
number of elements: the physical
reserved for royalty.
body, the name, the shadow, the
AFTER ka (spiritual life force), the ba
From 4th century BCE The (personality), and the akh (the
If we are judged
conquering Greeks adopt some worthy, we will perfected being that could enjoy
Egyptian beliefs, especially in enjoy everlasting life. life in paradise). To ensure life in
the cult of Isis, wife of Osiris. paradise, care needed to be taken
of all these constituent parts.
ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 59
See also: The origin of death 33 ■ The spirits of the dead live on 36–37 ■ Entering into the faith 224–25 ■ Social
holiness and evangelicalism 239 ■ The ultimate reward for the righteous 279 ■ Awaiting the Day of Judgment 312–13
IN CONTEXT
The creator is wholly good.
KEY BELIEVERS
Zoroastrians
WHEN AND WHERE
1400–1200 BCE, Iran (Persia)
BEFORE
From prehistory Many belief However, both good and evil can be seen in the world.
systems feature a destructive
or mischievous god or spirit
who is in opposition to a
more benevolent deity.
AFTER
6th century BCE The Persian Evil cannot come from good.
and Mede empires are unified;
Zoroastrianism becomes one
of the world’s largest religions.
4th century BCE Classical
Greek philosophers, including
Plato, study with Zoroastrian Therefore there must exist a wholly evil being,
priests; Aristotle is said to opposed to the creator.
have considered Plato to be a
reincarnation of Zoroaster.
10th century CE Zoroastrians
migrate from Iran to India to
avoid converting to Islam; they We must choose the good, in order to help the creator
become the Parsis, the largest in his struggle against the bad.
Zoroastrian community today.
Z
oroastrianism is one of the Ahura Mazda is assisted by his and cannot be considered Ahura
oldest surviving religions, creations, the Amesha Spenta or Mazda’s equal. Ahura Mazda lives
and one of the first recorded bounteous immortals: six divine in the light, while his twin lurks
monotheistic faiths. It was founded spirits. A seventh and less easily in the dark. Their struggle, as evil
by the prophet figure Zoroaster in definable Spenta is the Spenta endlessly attempts to vanquish
ancient Persia (modern Iran). Mainyu, who is seen as Mazda’s good, forms the entire body of
Zoroaster’s religion developed own bounteous spirit, and the Zoroastrian mythology.
from the old system of Indo-Iranian agent of his will. Ahura Mazda battles with
gods, which included Ahura Mazda, According to Zoroastrianism, Ahriman using the creative
lord of wisdom. In Zoroastrianism, the good Ahura Mazda has been energy of his spirit, Spenta Mainyu;
Ahura Mazda (sometimes called locked in struggle with the evil the exact relationship between
Ohrmazd) is elevated to become the entity Ahriman (also called Angra these three entities remains an
one supreme god, the wise creator Mainyu, or destructive spirit) since unresolved aspect of the religion.
who is the source of all good, and time began. Ahriman and Ahura Human beings, also Mazda's
represents order and truth, in Mazda are regarded as twin spirits; creation, have an important role
opposition to evil and chaos. however, Ahriman is a fallen being, in keeping disorder and evil at bay
ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 63
See also: The end of the world as we know it 86–87 ■ From monolatry to
monotheism 176–77 ■ Jesus's message to the world 204–207
Key works
Fire priests tend a sacred flame. They explains why they may be tempted The fact that Ahura Mazda
wear white cloths called padans over to do wrong. It also explains how has given humankind free will
their mouths to prevent their breath or evil can exist in the presence of a means that every moment of an
saliva from desecrating the fire. good god. Zoroastrian texts state: individual’s existence requires
“What is complete and perfect a choice to be made between
It is not long, however, before in its goodness cannot produce what is right and what is wrong,
Ahriman recovers and renews evil. If it could, then it would not and that it is our responsibility
his attack. He breaks through be perfect. If God is perfect in to choose good over evil.
the sky in a blaze of fire, bringing goodness and knowledge, plainly This focus on moral choice
with him starvation, disease, ignorance and evil cannot proceed makes Zoroastrianism a religion in
pain, lust, and death. He also from him.” This is to say that Ahura which personal responsibility and
creates demons of his own. Mazda cannot be responsible for morality are paramount, not only in
Gayomart and the bull ultimately the presence of evil in the world: conceptual terms but as practiced
die, but upon their deaths, their the source of this is Ahriman. in day-to-day life. Human virtues
semen spills on the ground and is
fertilized by the sun. Ahura Mazda One good twin, one evil twin
sends rain, which brings forth,
from the seed of Gayomart, the In Zurvanism, a now-defunct begins to doubt his power to
mother and father of humanity: branch of Zoroastrianism, Ahura produce a son. The evil Ahriman
Mashya and Mashyoi. Meanwhile, Mazda is not the sole creator; is born from his doubt, just as
the bull’s seed gives rise to all the he and Ahriman are the sons Ahura Mazda is born from his
other animals of the world. of a preexisting god, Zurvan optimism. Zurvan prophesies
Because his perfect creation (Time). This doctrine arose from that his firstborn will rule the
has been spoiled by Ahriman’s the reasoning that, if Mazda world. Ahriman forces his way
destructiveness, Ahura Mazda and Ahriman were twin spirits out first, declaring himself
sets a limit on time, which was (as texts said), they needed Ahura Mazda, but Zurvan is not
previously limitless. a progenitor. Zurvan, a neutral, deceived, saying, “My son is
androgynous god, sacrifices light and fragrant, but you are
Evil and human will 1,000 of his years to create dark and stinking.” And Zurvan
a son. But, as the end of the weeps to think he has produced
In Zoroastrianism, all people
millennium approaches, Zurvan such an abomination.
are born good. The presence of
Ahriman, an active principle of evil,
ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 65
Zoroastrian teachings tell that as also the sun. For this reason,
the end of time draws near, the Zoroastrian temples always
Saoshyant (savior) will arise keep a fire burning, symbolizing
and prepare the world to be made their god’s eternal power. Some
anew, helping Ahura Mazda to temple fires have been kept
Establish the power of destroy Ahriman. People will grow burning for centuries. Believers
pure and stop eating meat, then bring offerings of wood (the only
acts arising from a life
milk, plants, and water, until at last fuel used), and fire priests place
lived with good purpose, they need nothing. When all have these in the flames. Visitors are
for Mazda and for the lord chosen good over evil, there will anointed with ash.
whom they made pastor be no more sin, so Az, the demon
for the poor. of lust made by Ahriman, will The continuing struggle
The Ahunavar Prayer starve, turning on her creator. The Zoroastrian idea of eternal,
Ahura Mazda will cast Ahriman opposing forces of good and evil
from creation through the hole that is a form of what philosophy
Ahriman made when he broke calls dualism. Another Persian
in. It is at this point that time dualistic religion, Manichaeism,
will be at an end. was founded by the prophet Mani
Saoshyant will then raise in the 3rd century CE. Mani felt that
worthy of, and helpful to, Ahura the dead, who will pass through his Religion of Light completed
Mazda include truthfulness, loyalty, a stream of molten metal to burn the teachings of Zoroaster, Buddha,
tolerance, forgiveness, respect away their sins. According to and Christ.
for one’s elders, and the keeping Zoroastrianism, the world will begin Like Zoroaster, Mani saw
of promises. Vices such as anger, again, but this time it will be a the world as an eternal struggle
arrogance, vengefulness, bad world everlasting, free of taint. between the forces of good and
language, and greed are condemned The use of fire and molten metal evil, light and darkness. This
—and not only in this life. as a purifier in the Last Judgment was to have a profound effect on
is reflected in the prominence of Christian thinkers, and influence
Judgment and salvation fire in Zoroastrianism as a symbol medieval, heretical Christian cults
Zoroastrians believe that after of sanctity. It is seen as the purest such as the Paulicians in Armenia,
death, individuals will be judged of the elements. Ahura Mazda is the Bogomils in Bulgaria, and, most
twice: once when they die and strongly associated with fire and famously, the Cathars in France. ■
once at a Last Judgment at the
end of time. The two judgments
will address, respectively, the
individual’s morality of thought and
his or her morality of action. In both
cases, moral failings are punished
in hell. However, these punishments
are not eternal; they cease when
the person corrects their moral
failing in the afterlife—which,
once successfully accomplished,
is followed by the person going to
dwell with Ahura Mazda in heaven.
IN CONTEXT
The dao, or Way, is the
KEY FIGURE fundamental principle The dao sustains
Laozi of the universe. all things.
WHEN AND WHERE
6th century BCE, China
BEFORE
7th century BCE In popular
Chinese religion, people We must cease actions
The dao remains
believe their fate is controlled that interrupt this flow and
unchanged, while all
by deities and practice live simply, in harmony
else flows around it.
with nature.
ancestor worship.
AFTER
6th century BCE Confucius
proposes an ethical system in
which virtue and respect lead Through meditation and inaction
to a just and stable society. we accept the Way of the universe.
3rd century CE Buddhism,
with its focus on the personal
journey to enlightenment, first
T
reaches China. he origins of Daoism are book, the Daode jing (The Way and
rooted in ancient Chinese Its Power) identified the dao, or
20th century Daoism is beliefs concerning nature Way, as the power or principle that
banned in China by the and harmony, but its first text, underlies and sustains all things
Communist regime; this attributed to the philosopher Laozi, and is the source of order in the
ban is reversed in 1978. was written in the 6th century BCE universe. Following the dao, rather
—an unusually active time for than hindering or obstructing it,
20th century The physical
ideas that also saw the emergence not only helps to ensure cosmic
and mental discipline of t’ai chi
of Confucianism in China, both harmony, but also leads to personal
attracts followers in the West.
Jainism and Buddhism in India, spiritual development and a virtuous,
and early Greek philosophy. Laozi’s fulfilled, and possibly longer life.
ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 67
See also: Wisdom lies with the superior man 72–77 ■ Physical and mental
discipline 112–13 ■ Zen insights that go beyond words 160–63
THE FIVE
KEY FIGURE
Mahavira
WHEN AND WHERE
GREAT VOWS
From 6th century BCE, India
BEFORE
From 1000 BCE The concept
of samsara, the cycle of death
and rebirth, is developed by
SELF-DENIAL LEADS TO wandering ascetics of the
shramana tradition in India.
SPIRITUAL LIBERATION AFTER
6th century BCE Buddha’s
enlightenment shows him
the way to escape samsara.
From 2nd century BCE
In Mahayana Buddhism,
bodhisattvas—enlightened
humans that remain on earth
to help others—are revered.
20th century Jainism is
recognized as a legally
distinct religion in India,
separate from Hinduism.
J
ainism is the most ascetic
of all Indian religions. Its
followers practice self-denial
in order to progress toward moksha,
release from constant rebirth into
this world of suffering. Jainism
as we know it was founded by
Mahavira, a contemporary of
Buddha, in the 6th century BCE.
However, Jainism takes a long view
of its own historical development:
it is said that it has always existed
and always will exist. Within the
faith, Mahavira is simply regarded
as the most recent of 24 enlightened
teachers in the current era. Jains
believe each era lasts for millions of
years and recurs in an infinite cycle
of ages. These teachers are called
ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 69
See also: The four stages of life 106–109 ■ Escape from the eternal cycle 136–43 ■ Buddhas and bodhisattvas 152–57
■ The ultimate reward for the righteous 279 ■ The Sikh code of conduct 296–301
Life is an endless
cycle of reincarnation.
jinas, or more commonly, (aparigraha). The most important (“sky-clad”) sects. Shvetambara
tirthankaras: “builders of the ford of these vows is the practice of monks believe that detachment
across the ocean of rebirth.” By ahimsa, which extends beyond and purity are mental qualities
following the path of self-denial avoiding violence against human that are unimpeded by wearing
taught by the tirthankaras, Jains beings to encompass all animals, a simple robe. However, Digambara
hope to free their souls from including the smallest organisms monks go naked, believing that the
the entanglements of material found in water or air. The other four wearing of clothes indicates that ❯❯
existence. Without this hope, life Great Vows equip the monk or nun
is simply a continuous cycle of to follow the life of a wandering
life, death, and reincarnation. mendicant, dedicated to preaching,
fasting, worship, and study.
Personal responsibilty Self-denial is central to Jainism.
Jainism does not recognize any It is said within the faith that
deity, placing full responsibility Mahavira himself went naked, Having wisdom, Mahavira
on the actions and conduct of the having been so deep in thought committed no sin himself,
individual. In order to adhere to at the start of his wanderings that nor did he induce others to
a life of self-denial, Jain monks he failed to notice when his robe do so, nor did he consent
and nuns take what are called the snagged on a thorn bush and was to the sins of others.
Five Great Vows—nonviolence pulled off. But in the 4th century CE, Akaranga Sutra
(ahimsa), speaking the truth long after Mahivira’s death, the
(satya), celibacy (brahmacharya), extent to which self-denial should
not taking what is not willingly be practiced caused a schism in
offered (asteya), and detachment Jainism between the Shvetambara
from people, places, and things (“white-clad”) and Digambara
70 SELF-DENIAL LEADS TO SPIRITUAL LIBERATION
The symbol adopted by Jainism is a
complex arrangement of elements within
an outline that represents the universe:
earthly concerns in the lower regions The liberated soul in its
lead up to the abode of celestial beings. elevated dwelling place.
a person is not completely detached fallen from the plant in their the aim is to be at one with the
from sexual feelings and false notions worship, arguing that to cut a living universe, and to forgive and be
of modesty. Digambara monks may flower is an act of violence. Lay forgiven for all transgressions.
not even carry alms bowls, but Jains may marry, but are expected (Forty-eight minutes—one-thirtieth
must receive food in their cupped to uphold the highest standards of a day—is a mahurta, a standard
hands. Digambaras also believe of behavior. In this, as in all things, unit of time in India often used
that liberation from rebirth is not Jains follow the path of the Three for ritual purposes.)
possible for women until they have Jewels: right faith, right knowledge, Other Jain virtues are: service
first been reborn as a man. and right conduct. to others, attention to religious
Sometimes there is said to study, disengagement from passion,
Living in the world be a fourth jewel, right penance: and politeness and humility.
Lay Jains do not take the Five atonement for sins is important Particular merit is gained by
Great Vows, but they do take in Jainism. At the annual festival donating food to monks and nuns.
lesser vows that are similar: of Samvatsari, which follows an All of these practices combine with
renouncing violence, vowing not eight-day period of fasting and the self-denial required by even
to lie or to steal, embracing chaste abstinence in the monsoon season, laypersons’ vows to reduce the
sexual behavior, and avoiding a full confession is made to family karma (consequences of past
attachment to material things. All and friends of the sins of the past deeds) which, the Jains believe,
Jains are strictly vegetarian, in line year, and vows are taken not to accumulates on the soul
with the vow of nonviolence, and carry grudges into the new year. as a kind of physical substance. All
must not do work that involves the Meditation is important, too, and karma, both good and bad, must be
destruction of life. Some Jains will Jain daily rituals include 48-minute removed to achieve liberation. The
only use flowers that have already sessions of meditation, in which idea is to progress gradually along
ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 71
the path of spiritual enlightenment,
earning merit little by little, life
by life. One of the Jain holy texts,
the Tattvartha Sutra, sets out a
sequence of 14 stages through
which the soul must pass to
achieve liberation: the first stage I ask pardon of all living
is called mithyadrishti, in which creatures. May all of them
the soul is in a spiritual slumber; pardon me. May I have a
the final, 14th, stage is ayoga-kevali, friendly relationship
which is populated by souls known with all beings.
as siddhas, who have achieved full Jain prayer
spiritual liberation. This final stage
is beyond the reach of lay Jains. Mahavira
C
onfucius, as he is known
IN CONTEXT in the West, was one
of the first thinkers to
KEY FIGURE
systematically explore the notion
Confucius
of goodness and whether moral
WHEN AND WHERE superiority is a divine privilege To govern by virtue,
6th–5th century BCE, China or is inherent in humankind and let us compare it to the
can be cultivated. North Star: it stays
BEFORE Born in the 6th century BCE in in its place, while the
From 11th century BCE Qufu, in modern China’s Shandong myriad stars wait upon it.
The Zhou dynasty redirect Province, Confucius was one of a The Analects
traditional Chinese ancestor new breed of scholars—in effect, the
worship toward the concept first civil servants—who became
of a heaven, with the Zhou advisors to the Chinese court, rising
emperor as its representative. from the middle classes to positions
of power and influence on the
6th century BCE Laozi
strength of their own merit rather
proposes acting in accordance than through inheritance. In the of ren could be acquired by anyone.
with the dao (the Way) in order rigidly class-stratified society It is in fact the duty of everyone to
to maintain universal harmony. of the day, this presented an anomaly, cultivate the attributes that make
AFTER and it is this anomaly that lies at up ren—seriousness, generosity,
From 6th century BCE the heart of Confucius’s thought. sincerity, diligence, and kindness.
Confucian ideals of virtue and The rulers of the reigning To practice these virtues is to
responsibility inform Zhou Zhou dynasty believed that they uphold the will of heaven.
imperial rule and the political were given their authority directly The Analects—sayings and
by the gods, under the Mandate of teachings of Confucius collected
ideology of later dynasties.
Heaven, and that the quality of ren by his pupils—established a new
18th century Confucius’s (or jen)—humaneness—was philosophy of morality in which
meritocratic ideas are admired an attribute of the ruling classes. the superior man, or junzi (literally
by Enlightenment thinkers Confucius, too, saw heaven as the gentleman), devotes himself to
who oppose the absolute source of moral order, but he argued the acquisition of ren for its own
authority of Church and State. that the blessing of heaven was sake—he learns for learning’s sake,
open to all, and that the quality and is good for goodness’ sake.
Key works
Confucianism evolves of later dynasties such as the New Confucianism has emerged
It was during the Song dynasty that Han (206 BCE–220 CE), the Song in China, blending Confucian ideas
the scholar Zhu Xi (1130–1200 CE) (960–1279 CE) and the Ming with modern Chinese thinking
incorporated elements of Daoism (1368–1644 CE) recognized the value and Western philosophy. Although
and Buddhism into Confucianism, of Confucian ideals in maintaining Confucius built his philosophy on
creating an enduring religion that is social order, and Confucianism existing concepts and practices, he
also known as Neo-Confucianism. became the Chinese state religion. was remarkable for his insistence
Confucius was not the first Chinese It was also a profound influence on that human beings are naturally
sage to contemplate the eternal daily life and thought into the 20th good—only needing to be taught
truths, and Confucius himself century, and was attacked during and encouraged, to be virtuous—
claimed to have invented nothing, the Cultural Revolution for its social and that this goodness is not
but merely to have studied the conservatism, but in recent years a confined to the aristocracy. ■
ideas of earlier thinkers, gathering
them together in five books, known
as the Five Classics. Under the
Western Zhou dynasty, from 1050
to 771 BCE, scholars were highly
valued at court, and in the 7th
century BCE the so-called Hundred
Schools of Thought emerged.
Confucius lived in a time of
philosophical ferment, but also of
social change, as the power of the
Zhou emperors declined and the
whole social order seemed to be
under threat. His focus on order
and harmony emerged from a
genuine concern about potential
societal breakdown. The emperors
A DIVINE CHILD
IS BORN
THE ASSIMILATION OF MYTH
A
round 1420 BCE, the Minoan the place where Zeus’s mother,
IN CONTEXT civilization of the island of Rhea, hid her baby from his jealous
Crete was conquered by the father, Cronus, the cave became
KEY BELIEVERS
Myceneans from mainland Greece, one of ancient Greece’s many
Ancient Minoans
and as the Greek invaders absorbed sacred sites, or shrines.
and Myceneans
the culture of the Minoans, so Rhea may have been one of
WHEN AND WHERE indigenous Cretan and Greek myth the names of the original, Minoan,
14th century BCE, Crete became intertwined. The chief great goddess, but in Greek myth,
deity of the Minoans was a great although she was the mother of
BEFORE mother goddess, who, in legend, gods, Rhea was not considered an
From prehistory Early gave birth to a divine son in the Olympian goddess in her own right.
settlers, probably from western Diktaean cave above Psychro. This Her divine child, on the other hand,
Asia, leave evidence of rituals cave became her holiest shrine and was elevated in status to become
and worship in caves on Crete. no one, god or man, was permitted the highest god of all, the father
to enter. Once a year a fiery glow of all other gods. ■
c.25th century–1420 BCE
was said to erupt from the cave,
Goddesses are the primary
when the blood from the birth of
focus of worship in Minoan
the divine child spilled over.
Crete; many are associated This child grew into a wondrous
with serpents, birds, or bees. beardless youth or kouros, a demi-
AFTER god who was often invoked in
7th century BCE The Greek hymns to bring fertility and good
poet Hesiod relates the birth fortune to humans each year.
of Zeus to Rhea at Psychro The Dorian Greeks, who
and his concealment from succeeded the Myceneans, gave
the Minoan kouros the name of
the wrath of his father. The infant Zeus, here painted
their own supreme god, Zeus, the by Carlo Cignani (1628–1719), was
5th century BCE The Roman deity who came to rule the classical variously described in myth as being
Republic assimilates the Greek pantheon of gods that lived nursed by nymphs, a she-goat, or bees
myths and iconography on Mount Olympus. Regarded as that lived in the Diktaean cave.
of Zeus in its supreme
god, Jupiter or Jove. See also: Symbolism made real 46–47 ■ Beliefs for new societies 56–57
■ The power of the great goddess 104
ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 79
THE ORACLES
REVEAL THE
WILL OF THE
DIVINING THE FUTURE
GODS
T
he ancient Greeks set advisable, meant that personalized
IN CONTEXT great store by divination access to the gods became the
of the future, and the most province of the rich and powerful. A
KEY BELIEVERS
valuable and influential sources of popular alternative was the service
Ancient Greeks
prophecy and wise counsel were offered by seers or soothsayers,
WHEN AND WHERE the oracles, who were almost who, unlike the oracles, were
8th century BCE–4th always women. The oracles would prepared to travel—particularly
century CE, Greece enter a trancelike state, during useful for Greek armies on the
and the Mediterranean which the gods spoke directly move. These seers interpreted
through them. The gods’ messages signs from the gods by methods
BEFORE were sometimes unintelligible, but such as dream analysis, inferring
From 3rd millennium BCE could be interpreted by priests. If meaning from chance events,
The temple at Per-Wadjet offerings were made at the oracles’ observation of birds, and deducing
contains the most renowned sanctuaries, or dwelling places omens from animal sacrifice. ■
oracle in Egypt , that of the (often caves), they would often
snake-headed goddess Wadjet. provide more satisfactory responses.
Oracles could be consulted on
c.800 BCE The oracle of Apollo any aspect of life, from personal
is established at Delphi. matters, such as love and marriage,
AFTER to affairs of state. Prophecies could
also be used for political ends: The Sibyl, with raving lips…
From 1st century BCE The reaches over a thousand
haruspex is an influential Alexander the Great visited the
oracle of the Egyptian god Amun years with her voice,
figure in the Roman Empire, thanks to the god in her.
after conquering Egypt in 332 BCE,
using Etruscan divination Heraclitus
and had his rule legitimized when
techniques to interpret the the oracle recognized him as the
entrails of sacrificed animals. “son of Amun.” However, the
From 1st century CE The number of oracles was limited, and
Christian Church condemns this, combined with the fact that
divination as a pagan practice; substantial offerings were often
it is forbidden in the biblical
Book of Deuteronomy. See also: The power of the shaman 26–31 ■ The African roots of Santeria
304–305 ■ The Pentecostal Church 336
80
IN CONTEXT
The gods
KEY BELIEVERS take an active
Ancient Romans interest in our
domestic Household gods,
WHEN AND WHERE The gods affairs. the penates,
8th century BCE, Rome take an active
reside in our
interest in our
BEFORE homes and help
public affairs.
provide for us.
8th–6th centuries BCE
The Greek civilization flowers,
with its pantheon of deities.
The gods are
AFTER just like us
8th century BCE
Rome is founded.
c.509 BCE The Roman Public leaders Ancestor spirit
monarchy is overthrown consult the gods gods, the lares,
and the Republic established. about political act as our
decision making. guardians.
133–44 BCE Civil wars finally Political leaders
bring an end to the Roman can be given the
Republic; Julius Caesar is status of gods.
named “dictator for life” before
his assassination in 44 BCE.
42 BCE Julius Caesar is deified.
c.335 CE Roman Emperor
T
he pantheon of ancient mirrored the lives of the mortals
Constantine I (the Great) Roman gods was largely and reflected their history.
converts to Christianity. adapted from that of other However, while the Greeks saw
civilizations, notably the Greeks. their gods as remote controllers
391 CE Emperor Theodosius
As the Greek deities had done, of the universe, the Romans
bans the worship of pagan gods.
the Roman gods lived, loved, and considered them to be an intrinsic
fought their battles in a way that part of their lives, and to have
ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 81
See also: Beliefs for new societies 56–57 ■ The assimiliation of myth 78
■ Living the Way of the Gods 82–85
The lares
Constituting a bridge between
the public and domestic gods,
a direct influence on every aspect invited to take up residence in
the lares were typically
of existence. They believed that Rome. For most Roman citizens, guardian deities, whose
divine aid was key to successful however, the local and household function was to protect the
governance, and so worship, ritual, gods, the lares and penates, were livelihood of a particular area.
and sacrifice were incorporated the ones associated with everyday While many homes had a
into public ceremonies in order to life. They were so interested in shrine devoted to the local
ensure the cooperation of the gods. human affairs that their presence lares, their scope was broader
Public ceremonies also helped was everywhere; they were open than that of the household
to strengthen the authority of the to negotiation, and prayers to them penates, and shrines to the
regime, and religious festivals, often took the form of bargains: neighborhood lares were often
often involving public holidays “I give so that you will give.” placed at crossroads, a symbol
and games, contributed to political The foundation of religion for of home in its wider sense.
unity. Religious and state life the Romans was the family. The The lares are thought to have
were interdependent, with priests paterfamilias—head of the family— evolved from earlier cults of
hero-ancestors, or the spirits
forming a part of the political elite was the spiritual leader and moral
of ancestors buried in
and leaders expected to perform authority, who held legal rights over
farmland, with their role
religious duties. In time, individual the property of the family and was as protectors of agriculture
rulers became associated, during responsible for its members in and livestock. In the Roman
their lifetime, with a particular society. The home was sacred to Republic, they came to be
god; some eventually became the Romans, and the heart of the the guardians of businesses,
regarded as gods—either by being home was the hearth. The spirit of transport, and communication.
deified after death or even the head of the household presided Lares were closely associated
achieving divine status while over all the household gods, with local communities and
they were still alive. including the penates, the deities everyday public life, and
of the store cupboard, to whom were very much gods of the
Cults and household gods a portion of each meal was offered plebians (such as soldiers,
Various cults coexisted with the on the flames of the hearth. ■ seafarers, farmers, and
religion of the state. Some were traders), rather than of the
devoted to a particular god— ruling class of patricians,
The Roman gods had human complementing the major
often one outside the conventional characteristics; they are often deities of the state religion.
pantheon; sometimes the foreign depicted feasting, sleeping, or
god of a conquered people was engaging in bawdy drunkenness.
At Rome as elsewhere,
in order to understand
the society of the gods,
we must not lose sight
of the society of men.
Georges Dumézil
82
IN CONTEXT
RITUAL
KEY MOVEMENT
Shinto
WHEN AND WHERE
LINKS US
8th century, Japan
BEFORE
From prehistory In Japan,
animist belief in nature spirits
TO OUR PAST
blends with ancestor worship;
the emperors claim to be
descendants of the gods.
2nd millennium BCE In
ancient China, just rulers
S
hinto is the indigenous,
traditional religion of Japan.
Some say that it is not so
much a religion as a Japanese way
of life, because it is so intrinsically
linked to the topography of the land
and its history and traditions. Its
origins can be traced to prehistoric
times in Japan, when animist
beliefs, with their respect for nature
and natural phenomena, prevailed.
As the universal belief system
of an isolated island nation, Shinto
had no need to define itself until
it was challenged by the arrival of
a rival religion, Buddhism, in the
6th century CE. The traditional
Japanese beliefs lacked complex
intellectual doctrines, allowing
ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 83
See also: Making sense of the world 20–23 ■ Animism in early societies 24–25 ■ Beliefs for new societies 56–57
■ Devotion through puja 114–15 ■ The performance of ritual and repetition 158–59 ■ Jesus’s divine identity 208
THE GODS
WILL DIE
THE END OF THE WORLD AS WE KNOW IT
A
sense of doom runs through Ragnarok, the final battle, in which
IN CONTEXT the Norse mythology of the gods will die and the world will be
Vikings, for everything utterly destroyed.
KEY BELIEVERS
in it leads up to one calamitous As punishment for having
Vikings
moment, in which two gods—Odin, duped Odin’s blind son, Hoder,
WHEN AND WHERE the all-father, and the trickster, into slaying his brother, Baldr,
8th–12th century CE, Loki—bring an age-old conflict the shining prince of goodness,
Scandinavia between the gods and the giants Loki was chained to three rocks
to its terrifying conclusion. This is for eternity. As he struggles to
BEFORE
From prehistory Preserved
bog bodies such as Tollund
Man, found in modern Catastrophe and violence will signal the beginning of the end.
Denmark, suggest ritualized
human sacrifice. A pantheon
of Norse gods—the Aesir, led
by Odin—develops and is
widely worshipped across The barrier between the worlds of the living
northern Europe. and the dead will be breached.
AFTER
13th century As Christianity
spreads across Nordic regions,
Viking beliefs begin to pass In a mighty conflict, the gods themselves will die.
into legend. To preserve them,
the Eddas, poetic compilations
of Norse myth, are compiled.
From 19th century In In the twilight of the gods, the whole world will be destroyed.
Scandinavia and across
northern Europe, Germanic
neopagan movements that
venerate the Aesir are formed. But a new world will arise, with new hope for humanity.
ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 87
See also: Making sense of the world 20–23 ■ The battle between good and evil 60–65 ■ Beliefs that mirror
society 80–81 ■ Entering into the faith 224–27 ■ Awaiting the Day of Judgment 312–13
god finally breaks free, the sky will Yet from this destruction a new
split open, Loki’s monstrous wolf- world will be born, as a new land
son Fenrir will swallow the sun, rises from the sea. One man and
and Loki will lead an army of giants, one woman, Lifthrasir and Lif, will
monsters, and the dead from the survive the destruction. From them
underworld, in a ship made from a new race of humans will be born.
the uncut fingernails of the dead. As for the gods, Odin’s sons Vidar
and Vali, and Thor’s sons Modi and
Odin’s army retaliates Magni, will be the only survivors of
Odin is the god of poetry and the battle. They will be joined by
magic, but he is also the god of war the slain Baldr the beautiful and
and battle, and it is from the slain his blind brother Hoder, who were
of the battlefield that he assembles tricked by Loki—both freed at
his army of dead warriors, the last from the underworld. ■
The gigantic wolf Fenrir, here
swallowing Odin, was the offspring of Einherjar, to fight against Loki’s
Loki’s liaison with a female jötunn, one underworld horde.
of a race of giants at war with the gods. Norse mythology is quite clear,
however, that even with this mighty
free himself, the world will shake; army, the gods are destined to be
trees will be uprooted, and defeated and destroyed in this
mountains will fall. Loki will begin conflict. Odin’s son, the mighty The sun turns black,
to regain his strength, and nature god Thor, will be killed by the huge earth sinks into the sea,
itself will start to go awry: a series serpent Jörmungandr, and Odin the bright stars vanish
of terrible winters, with snow, frost, will be devoured by Fenrir. Thor’s from the sky.
and biting winds, will soon become brother Vidar will step forward and The Eddas
constant, with no summer at all. rip Fenrir in two by the jawbones,
There will be battles everywhere, but it will not be enough to save
brother fighting against brother, either Odin or creation. The whole
father against son, until the whole world will be destroyed by fire,
world is ruined. When the chained and will subside beneath the sea.
Vedic tradition
begins to develop Brahmanic ideas Mahavira becomes
in India, with ritual emerge, based on the a major figure The poet Valmiki
offerings made concept of Brahman, in establishing writes the Sanskrit
to the gods. the supreme power. Jainism. epic the Ramayana.
1700 BCE 6TH CENTURY BCE 6TH CENTURY BCE C.500–100 BCE
A
lhough Hinduism could connected faiths is as much any religion or creed. It may
arguably be called the sociopolitical as religious. The word broadly be described as a way
oldest of living religions, “Hindu” (which shares its roots of life and nothing more.”
the term itself is a relatively modern with the name of the River Indus,
one, which gives a misleading and of India) essentially means Common beliefs
impression of a unified faith with “Indian.” It distinguishes the native However, certain ideas have
a single set of beliefs and practices. religions from those introduced to remained central to virtually all
Hinduism can trace its origins the country, such as Islam, and strands of Hinduism, in particular
to the Iron Age, but it is in fact newer breakaway religions the notion of samsara (the cycle
more a convenient umbrella term such as Jainism and Buddhism. of birth and rebirth of the atman,
covering most of the indigenous The difficulty of defining the soul) and the associated belief
religions of the Indian subcontinent. Hinduism was summed up in an in the possibility of moksha, or
Although these religions share some Indian High Court ruling in 1995: release from this endless cycle.
characteristics, they vary greatly “… the Hindu religion does not The key to achieving moksha is
in practice and encompass a wide claim any one prophet; it does encapsulated in the word dharma,
range of different traditions. In not worship any one god; it does which is variously translated
some of these traditions, the not subscribe to any one dogma; as “virtue,” “natural law,” “right
faith has remained substantially it does not believe in any one living,” or simply “appropriateness.”
unchanged since the earliest times. philosophic concept; it does not Inevitably, this is subject to a
While more than three-quarters follow any one set of religious number of interpretations, but three
of the population of India identify rites or performances; in fact, main ways of achieving moksha
themselves as “Hindu,” today the it does not appear to satisfy the have emerged, collectively known
definition of such a range of loosely narrow traditional features of as the marga. These are jnana-marga
HINDUISM 91
Mahatma Gandhi
The Yoga Sutras Adi Shankara combines religion
—the key texts establishes the Sri Ramakrishna and politics in his
of Yoga, a school of non-dualistic Advaita emerges as a leading peaceful opposition
Hindu philosophy— Vedanta school of figure in the Hindu to injustice and
are compiled. Hindu philosophy. reform movement. discrimination.
(knowledge or insight), karma- And so, while it may seem that One of the main characteristics of
marga (appropriate action or right Hinduism is a polytheistic religion, these Hindu traditions is tolerance.
behavior), and bhakti-marga in many traditions, it is truer to say As a consequence of invasion, first
(devotion to the gods). The marga that adherents have a belief in a by the Greeks under Alexander the
allow scope for a very wide range Lord God, who is complemented Great, and later by Muslims and
of religious practices to suit the by the many minor deities who Christians, Hinduism has adapted
different traditions, including have special powers or carry and accepted some influences.
a variety of rituals, meditation, particular responsibilities. However, while some reform
yoga, and everyday worship (puja). movements emerged as a result of
Sacred texts colonial influences, collectively
Concepts of god The different Hindu traditions labeling these connected religions
Virtually all branches of Hinduism have all been shaped by the four as Hinduism gave them political
accept that there is a supreme Vedas, a collection of ancient clout and a focus for nationalism.
creator god, Brahma, who with texts composed between 1200 This came to a head in the
Vishnu (the preserver), and Shiva and 900 BCE. The Brahmanas, struggle for Indian independence
(the destroyer) form a principal commentaries on the Vedas, and in the 20th century, with Mohandas
trinity, the Trimurti. However, later the Upanishads, provided a Gandhi famously advocating the
many traditions have their own theoretical underpinning of the Hindu weapons of nonviolent
pantheons, or add local and religion, while other texts—notably resistance and civil disobedience,
personal deities to the mix. the two Indian epic poems, the and thereafter establishing an
Confusingly, even the three major Mahabharata and the Ramayana— independent India in which all
gods (and a lot of the minor ones) expanded on history, mythology, religions are not only tolerated
often appear in different guises. religion, and philosophy. but embraced. ■
THROUGH SACRIFICE
WE MAINTAIN
THE ORDER OF THE
UNIVERSE
A RATIONAL WORLD
94 A RATIONAL WORLD
T
here is, strictly speaking, The eternal cosmic order
IN CONTEXT no single religion that Dharma, or “right way,” is
can accurately be called a key term for expressing what
KEY SOURCE
“Hinduism”; this is a modern Hinduism is about. In its original
The Vedas
Western term for the different form, sanatana dharma, it may be
WHEN AND WHERE religions and spiritual philosophies translated from Sanskrit as “the
1500–500 BCE that have originated within the eternal order of things,” truth, or
Indian subcontinent. Nevertheless, reality. It expresses the idea that
BEFORE there are some basic features of there is an underlying structure
From prehistory Early beliefs these religious ideas and practices and meaning to the world; beneath
regard events as unpredictable that are shared by the majority of the complexity and apparently
or at the whim of the gods. Hindus, and it is these ideas that random nature of events, there
1700 BCE Aryan races begin are grouped together under the are some fundamental principles,
a migration into the Indian umbrella of Hinduism. In practice, and, underpinning these, a single,
individual Hindus are free to unchanging reality. These ideas are
subcontinent.
choose which deities they worship, demonstrated in Hinduism in the
AFTER whether they do so at home or at a hierarchy of gods and goddesses,
6th century BCE The authority temple, and how often they take each of whom expresses particular
of the Brahmin class to perform part in religious activities. But they aspects of a single truth.
sacrifices is challenged by share a common social and religious The idea of an eternal order
both Buddha and Mahavira, background that sets Hinduism also has implications both for the
founder of the Jain movement. apart from other belief systems, individual and for society. Religion is
especially the monotheistic faiths. effectively a way of understanding
6th century CE Devotional In the same way as other the place of humanity in the world.
Hinduism, or bhakti, becomes religions, however, Hinduism seeks If the world is capable of being
popular; worshippers make to explain how human life fits into understood, and if it has a definite
their own offerings in order to the universal context. Its rituals hierarchy or structure, then, by
develop a personal relationship and practices aim to address three following that order, a person can
with the gods, an idea very levels of relationship—person to live in harmony with the rest of
different from the establishing the divine; person to person; society and with the universe as a
of order by Vedic sacrifice. and person to him or herself—and whole. A key feature of the forms
how all of these relate in turn to of religion that came together as
the universal order of all things. Hinduism was that, in following this
Brahmins
(priests) All living entities have
different characteristics
and duties that distinguish
them from one another.
Kshatriyas Bhavishya Purana
(warriors)
THE DIVINE
HAS A FEMALE
ASPECT
THE POWER OF THE GREAT GODDESS
W
hile in many faiths the
IN CONTEXT image of the divine has
been mainly masculine,
KEY TEXTS
Hinduism has many goddesses,
The Vedas
who represent creativity, fertility,
WHEN AND WHERE or power. The general term for the
From 1700 BCE, India feminine divine force is Shakti,
which means “to be able.” Shakti
BEFORE is personified in Maha Devi, the
3000 BCE Figurines dating to divine mother or “great goddess.”
this time found in the Indus She represents the active power of
Valley suggest the worship the divine, as well as its nurturing
of a fertility goddess. force, and in the Hindu school of
Shaktism she is worshipped as the
AFTER supreme deity. The great goddess
5th–3rd century BCE The takes on many different forms, each Lakshmi, goddess of good fortune,
Puranas, ancient Hindu texts, expressing particular qualities. beauty, and fertility, is the consort of
celebrate female power, and In her aspect as consort to Shiva, Lord Vishnu. She has four arms and
the goddesses described as for example, Shakti may appear hands, with which she dispenses
consorts of the gods in the material and spiritual gifts to devotees.
as gentle, loving Parvati, but she
Vedas begin to gain their is also Kali and Durga—terrible
own followings. and threatening. sleeping goddess at the base of the
300–700 CE Tantric rites spine. Awareness and development
use images of coupled male The coiled serpent of this force through yoga can be a
and female deities as a focus As well as being the creative power form of spiritual release. Sometimes
of the divine, Shakti represents the practiced physically, more often
for meditation, and Shaktism
feminine element within the self. through meditation, these Tantric
becomes a fully fledged
Hindus believe that our sexual rituals are used to enhance the
devotional branch of Hinduism.
energy and life force (kundalini) union between a person’s male
c.800 CE Adi Shankara resides like a coiled serpent or and female elements. ■
composes Saundaryalahari
(“Waves of Beauty”), a hymn to See also: Physical and mental discipline 112–13 ■ Devotion through puja 114–15
■ Buddhas and bodhisattvas 152–57 ■ Shaktism 328
Parvati and her sexual power.
HINDUISM 101
SIT UP CLOSE
TO YOUR GURU
HIGHER LEVELS OF TEACHING
I
s it realistic to offer the same In particular, the texts argue
IN CONTEXT religious teachings and truths that there is a single universal
to everyone? In Hinduism reality, Brahman, which can
KEY SOURCE
there are different levels at which be known only by thought and
The Upanishads
the religion can be understood and the analysis of experience. The
WHEN AND WHERE followed. Its earliest texts, the Upanishads thus added a highly
6th century BCE, India Vedas, and the commentaries on philosophical dimension to Indian
them that followed, provided the religious discussion. The idea
BEFORE texts, prayers, and instructions of sitting up close to your guru
From 1200 BCE The Vedas for the performance of sacrifices implies that there are levels
provide texts and instructions and other public acts of worship. of teaching which, by probing
for rituals used exclusively Later, the epic, often action-packed religious ideas for truths that are
by the brahmins, or priests. stories of the gods, the Ramayana universal and rational, can give
and the Mahabharata (p.111), new depth to conventional beliefs. ■
AFTER were used for popular devotion.
6th century BCE In India, But by the 6th century BCE, another
traveling teachers, among body of literature—the Upanishads
them Buddha and Mahavira, —had developed, offering access
attract their own disciples. for the initiated to a higher plane
From 1st century BCE Six of spiritual knowledge.
distinct schools of Hindu On Earth, those who
philosophy, known as the Difficult concepts achieve greatness achieve
Darshanas, develop. The word “Upanishad” means it through concentration.
“to sit up close,” and it applies to The Upanishads
800 CE Adi Shankara founds teachings that are restricted to
four famous mathas, or those who are accepted for religious
monastery schools, to teach study by a guru, or teacher. The
the ideas of the Upanishads. Upanishads focus on abstract
1500 CE Sikhism takes its concepts concerning the nature
of the self and of the universe.
name from the Sanskrit word
shishya, “student of the guru.”
See also: The ultimate reality 102–105 ■ The self as constantly changing 148–51
■ The Protestant Reformation 230–37 ■ The Darshanas 328
102
IN CONTEXT
BRAHMAN IS
KEY SOURCE
The Upanishads
WHEN AND WHERE
MY SELF
6th century BCE, India
BEFORE
From 2000 BCE The idea of
a soul that can be separated
WITHIN
from the body is present in
some early Indo-European
beliefs, but describes a spirit
that carries the essence of the
individual rather than a soul at
THE HEART
one with an ultimate reality.
AFTER
c.400 BCE Indian philosophy
influences ancient Greek
thinkers. Plato posits a
THE ULTIMATE REALITY supreme being from which
all other living beings derive.
1st century Buddhist sage
Nagasena rejects the notion
of a fixed self, following
Buddha’s teaching that all
things exist in a state of flux.
T
he Upanishads are a series
of philosophical texts, the
earliest of which had been
composed by the 6th century BCE.
They record the highest level of
teachings, reserved for the finely
trained, meditative minds of
Hindu sages or gurus. Their central
concern is the nature of the self; in
effect they argue that to understand
the self is to understand everything.
Western philosophy has
traditionally taken two positions
on the nature of the self. For the
school known as dualist, the self is
nonphysical and distinct from the
body. Whether it is called the soul
or the mind, it is the thinking and
feeling aspect of what we are—the
HINDUISM 103
See also: Animism in early societies 24–25 ■ Man and the cosmos 48–49 ■ Seeing with pure consciousness 116–21
■ Man as a manifestation of God 188 ■ Mystical experience in Christianity 238 ■ Sufism and the mystic tradition 282–83
WE LEARN,
KEY TEXT
The Dharma-shastras
WE LIVE,
WHEN AND WHERE
5th century BCE, India
BEFORE
From prehistory Many early
WE WITHDRAW,
belief systems have age-related
rules and rites of passage.
From 1700 BCE The Vedic
WE DETACH
religion includes a tradition
of ascetic discipline, but
emphasizes social duty as the
central goal for most people.
I
mplicit in all religions is the
notion that there are aims in
life, and correct ways of living
that might secure these aims.
Hinduism proposes that life has
several main goals: dharma (right
living); the linked concepts of artha
(wealth) and kama (pleasure); and
moksha (liberation). The pursuit
of dharma—living as duty obliges
—keeps a person on the righteous
path. The search for wealth and
pleasure leads people to learn
valuable lessons, as well as
producing children, supporting the
family, and being in a position to
give alms. The final goal, moksha,
is a liberation from the concerns
and things of the earthly world.
HINDUISM 107
See also: ■ Self-denial leads to spiritual liberation 68–71 ■ A rational world 92–99 ■ Selfless action 110–11 ■ Finding the
Middle Way 130–136 ■ The purpose of monastic vows 145
Having it all
In about the 5th century BCE,
A few men may take the final step of further commentaries on dharma
We detach becoming a wandering ascetic. known as shastras offered a new
approach: instead of making one
final choice, a person might work ❯❯
IT MAY BE YOUR
DUTY TO KILL
SELFLESS ACTION
T
he Bhagavad-Gita is an of killing? Advice comes from his
IN CONTEXT ancient Hindu scripture charioteer, who turns out to be
about virtue and duty. It none other than the god Krishna.
KEY SOURCE
tells of a dialogue between Krishna Krishna tells Arjuna that he
The Bhagavad-Gita
(an incarnation of the supreme god should do his duty and fight. The
WHEN AND WHERE Vishnu) and the warrior-prince act of killing would only create bad
2nd century BCE, India Arjuna. Arjuna is about to go into karma if it was done for the wrong
battle against another branch of his reasons—out of hatred or greed,
BEFORE family in a dispute over who should for example. The ideal is for the
From 1700 BCE Dharma—the rule the kingdom. As a member of individual to do his or her duty,
right way of living to preserve the kshatriya class (the military whatever it is and however much it
universal order—is a central or ruling elite), it is his duty is goes against personal inclinations,
feature of early Hindu thought. to fight. Yet he despairs of killing but to do it with selfless motives.
6th century BCE Buddha some of those on the other side— Not only will such action not cause
his relatives or those whom he harm, but it will be a step toward
upholds the concept of
respects as great teachers. personal liberation.
unselfish action, but teaches
In the opening section of the Krishna argues that personal
that all killing is wrong.
Gita, Arjuna says that he would motives are what count when
3rd century BCE The Indian rather give up the struggle over the considering any type of action.
emperor Asoka incorporates kingdom than be involved in the
nonviolence and compassion slaughter. Not only does the idea of
toward all people into his rule. killing members of his family and
his teachers go against his deepest
AFTER inclinations, but he also fears that
From 15th century Sikhism it will have negative consequences,
includes the duty to protect creating bad karma for all involved By fulfilling the obligations
the weak and defend the faith. (in Hinduism, killing a relative is he is born with, a person
thought to lead to the downfall of never comes to grief.
19th–20th century Krishna
a family and rebirth in hell).
Mahatma Gandhi develops
Arjuna is caught between two
the strategy of passive apparently conflicting principles:
resistance as a nonviolent should he do his duty as a member
weapon against injustice. of the warrior class or avoid the
disastrous karmic consequences
HINDUISM 111
See also: Living in harmony 38 ■ A rational world 92–99 ■ Hinduism in the political age 124–25 ■ Let kindness and
compassion rule 146–47 ■ Striving in the way of God 278 ■ The Sikh code of conduct 296–301
THE PRACTICE OF
YOGA LEADS TO
SPIRITUAL LIBERATION
PHYSICAL AND MENTAL DISCIPLINE
T
he Sanskrit word yoga Although originally devised for
IN CONTEXT is used to describe a those who had taken an ascetic
range of practices, both path, yoga was later developed
KEY TEXT
physical and mental, which are as a set of practices that could be
The Yoga Sutras
used to help achieve spiritual used by everybody. The physical
WHEN AND WHERE insight and escape the limitations postures and techniques for
2nd century BCE, India of the physical body. breath control are not an end in
Ideas about yoga are found themselves. They aim to calm
BEFORE in the 6th century BCE in the early the mind and make it singular
Before 1700 BCE An Indus philosophical Hindu texts known in its focus—single-pointed. The
Valley clay tablet showing a as the Upanishads, and there is mind can only become calm once
person sitting cross-legged a section on yoga in the ancient the senses have been controlled.
suggests a yoga posture. Sanskrit scripture, the Bhagavad- It is only then that inner freedom
1000 BCE Indian Ayurvedic Gita. The first systematic account and insight may arise.
of yoga is found in the Yoga Sutras.
medicine analyzes the body
Some scholars attribute this text to A path to release
and promotes exercise.
the philosopher Patanjali, who lived According to the Yoga Sutras,
6th century BCE Daoism and in the 2nd century BCE. However, it yoga enables the practitioner to
Buddhism promote mental is now generally agreed that it was avoid mental afflictions, such as
and physical discipline as written between the 2nd century CE
aids to harmony and insight. and the 4th century CE by more than
one author, and that it includes
AFTER traditions and practices from earlier
12th century In Japan, periods. The Yoga Sutras comprise
Zen Buddhism refines the a set of techniques to promote
pursuit of mental stillness mental calmness and concentration,
and focused thinking. which are deemed necessary for
gaining greater insight.
20th century In the West,
yoga becomes popular in a
secular context for its physical Physical postures and breath control
and mental health benefits. techniques are used in yoga to still
both body and mind. More advanced
techniques can lead to the attainment
of higher consciousness.
HINDUISM 113
See also: Aligning the self with the dao 66–67 ■ Seeing with pure
A godless philosophy
consciousness 116–21 ■ Zen insights that go beyond words 160–63
Yoga does not require belief
in any external deity, but is
a natural process of clearing
Both body and mind must be calm and focused away the entanglements of
to be freed from earthly concerns. physical experience, releasing
the true self to realize its
identity with the absolute. But
this makes sense only in the
context of the philosophy upon
Body and mind influence one another. which it is based—Samkhya.
One of the oldest schools
of Indian philosophy, Samkhya
argues for an absolute dualism
of prakriti (matter) and purusha
(pure consciousness). Some
Thoughts and feelings Posture and control philosophies contrast the
can affect our can promote physical with the mental,
physical well-being. mental alertness. but Samkhya sees the mind
as a refined form of matter.
A person therefore comprises
three elements—a physical
body, a worldly self (with all
Combining both mental and physical discipline its mental activity and sense
with yoga will help us escape our limitations. experience), and a pure and
eternal self, which is identified
with the eternal purusha,
and is free and beyond any
ignorance, ego-centered views, and on that object, and arriving at a limitations of time and space.
extremes of emotion. It also offers state of absorbed concentration. In Samkhya, rather than
freedom from the “three poisons” These steps are progressive, devoting the self to any god,
of greed, anger, and delusion (a leading to the final release from the aim is to release the
goal that Buddhism shares). a mundane awareness of self and self to appreciate its pure
spiritual nature, freed from
The Yoga Sutras set out the world, with its mental afflictions,
the limitations of the physical,
practice of yoga in eight steps. The into a higher consciousness. and the vehicle that is used
first two are preparatory and show Today, yoga is widely practiced to achieve this is yoga.
the context in which yoga becomes as a healthful physical regime that
effective. First is the practice of a also promotes inner calm. But it is
morality of restraint, particularly of important to remember that in the
ahimsa (not taking life). The second context of Hindu religion, the term
focuses on personal observances, yoga encompasses disciplines and
such as the study of philosophical practices not only of posture, but of
works and contemplation of a god morality, meditation, knowledge,
in order to gain inspiration. The and devotion, and that taken
next three steps aim to control the together, their aim is to release the Yoga is the practice of
body and senses: adopting physical true self or consciousness (purusha) quieting the mind.
postures (asanas) to control the from the entanglements of matter Patanjali
body, controlling breathing, and (prakriti), thereby restoring it to its
withdrawing attention from the natural condition. So, while many
senses. Finally, there are three in the West think of yoga as a form
mental steps: concentrating the of physical exercise, for Hindus it
mind on a single object, meditating is a path to ultimate freedom. ■
114
WE SPEAK TO THE
GODS THROUGH
DAILY RITUALS
DEVOTION THROUGH PUJA
T
here has always been
IN CONTEXT an element of ritual and
worship in Hindu religion.
KEY MOVEMENT
In the earliest traditions prescribed
The development of bhakti
by the sacred Vedic texts, it was
WHEN AND WHERE vital that sacrifices made at the
6th century CE, India sacred fires be performed in
exactly the right way, and solely
BEFORE by the brahmins or priestly class.
From prehistory Making However, in the early centuries CE,
offerings before images of the approach to worship became
deities characterizes worship less exclusive, and this evolved
in many cultures. into the practice of bhakti (loving
From 1700 BCE In Vedic devotion). Temples were built
housing images of the gods, which
religion, as in other early
could be visited by worshippers,
civilizations, a priestly class
and gradually, alongside the
performs religious rites on priestly rituals connected with
behalf of the people. birth, coming of age, marriage, and
6th century BCE The death, there developed a tradition
Upanishads introduce more of making personal acts of worship,
or puja, to the deities that was A devotee performs puja by
abstract concepts to Hindu offering food to the image of a deity,
religious thought. open to all, irrespective of class. as if enticing it to eat. Images such
as this are believed to be filled with
From 2nd century BCE In Honoring the gods the deity’s spiritual energy.
Mahayana Buddhism, images Puja involves making a simple
of buddhas and bodhisattvas offering—vegetarian food, incense, the deity that results from it. At the
(enlightened beings) are used or flowers—before the image of a end of an act of puja, worshippers
as devotional aids. god or goddess. It can take place may receive any food that has been
in a temple or in the home, and the offered. The nature of the offering
AFTER people performing it often mark is less important than the intention
15th century Sikh worship their foreheads with powder or behind the offering. Sometimes it
is based on devotional songs. paste in acknowledgment of the is enough simply to go to a temple
act of puja and the blessing of and look at the image of the deity.
HINDUISM 115
See also: Sacrifice and blood offerings 40–45 ■ Living the Way of the Gods 82–85 ■ The Protestant Reformation 230–37
■ Devotion to the Sweet Lord 322
Divine love
In worship, the god or goddess
The Vedas said that the (made visible in his or her image,
rituals performed by But it is possible to speak or murti) is seen as a person with
brahmins were important to to the gods directly, without
recourse to a priest. whom the worshipper can have
maintain the world order. a relationship. Through bhakti,
the devotee develops an intense
emotional bond with a chosen
deity; the divine is then seen
as dwelling within the heart of the
devotee. Bhakti came to dominate
Hinduism by the 12th century:
Through devotion and temple worship involved singing
We speak to the gods offerings, we can develop
through daily rituals. personal relationships and dancing, and the relationship
with the gods. between the devotee and his or
her god or goddess was likened
to a relationship between lovers.
Although practiced widely,
many forms of bhakti were
Through puja, people can both pay requests and thanksgiving. It may particularly focused on the god
respects to the gods and ask favors be performed by a large gathering Vishnu (see below left), who is
of them. Hindu gods are frequently of people at a festival, such as the depicted in the great epics of the
referred to according to the tasks Durga Puja. This annual, nine-day Ramayana and Mahabharata as
they perform, such as “Ganesh, celebration of the goddess Durga, coming down to earth to help
remover of obstacles.” This enables who embodies the female aspect humankind in the guise of one of
Hindus to choose the goddess or of divine power, commemorates her his many avatars (embodiments
god most appropriate to the help slaying of Mahishasura, the terrible of a god). The eighth avatar of
they need, and to ask them for it buffalo-demon. Devotees make Vishnu is Krishna, whose followers
through puja. However, puja is not offerings, say prayers, sing hymns, see bhakti as the highest path
always connected with personal dance, fast, and feast in her honor. toward liberation. ■
T
hrough the work of may be mistaken for a snake, or
IN CONTEXT the Indian philosopher vice versa. Further, a person may
Adi Shankara, a branch know it is possible to be fooled by
KEY FIGURE
of Hindu philosophy known as what is seen, heard, or touched—
Adi Shankara
Vedanta (“the end of the Vedas”) but what if the whole enterprise
WHEN AND WHERE developed in the 9th century. It of gathering information from the
788–820, India sought to systematize and explain senses is itself a form of illusion?
material found in the ancient
BEFORE scriptures of the Vedas, and to An unknowable Brahman?
6th century BCE The explore the nature of Brahman The Upanishads had taught
Upanishads describe Brahman as discussed in the philosophical that there is a single ultimate
as the ultimate reality. works, the Upanishads (the last reality, Brahman, with which
4th century BCE The Greek section of the Vedas). the innermost self, the atman,
philosopher Plato contrasts the There are various branches of is identified. However, the
Vedanta, but the one established problem is that Brahman is
objects of sense experience
by Shankara is called Advaita not an object of sense experience
with reality itself; in some later
(non-dualist) Vedanta. It states because it is not part of reality
Platonic thought, this ultimate that there is only one reality, even (as worldly objects are)—it is
reality becomes identified with if we may experience it in different reality itself. Ordinary objects
a “transcendent One,” or God. ways. This non-dualist belief can be known because they are
2nd century CE Nagarjuna lies in contrast to later forms of distinguished from one another
founds the Madhyamaka Vedanta in which the deity by qualities that the senses can
school of Buddhist philosophy, assumes a personal role. detect. Brahman, by contrast,
which is centered on the key Shankara argued that human because it has no physical
idea of emptiness. reason is limited to the objects attributes, cannot be grasped
of sense experience: that is, it by rational interpretation of what
AFTER is not possible to get outside or is known through the senses.
13th century Soto Zen aims beyond the senses to see the world So what should be made of
to go beyond awareness of as it really is. Even within the the idea of a supreme being, or
the world of sense experience world of experience it is possible of the divinities used in religion?
with the development of to be mistaken, because all sensory There appears to be a profound
pure consciousness. knowledge is ambiguous. To use difference between what the
Shankara’s example, a coil of rope Upanishads have to say in terms
SO MANY FAITHS,
SO MANY PATHS
GOD-CONSCIOUSNESS
IN CONTEXT
Each person on a spiritual quest may worship a particular god
KEY FIGURE or follow a particular path or religion.
Sri Ramakrishna
WHEN AND WHERE
19th century, India
BEFORE
From 3rd century BCE As But just as the different Hindu gods and goddesses all represent
Buddhism spreads, devotional different aspects of Brahman, so different religions are all
images and practices diversify. ways to approach a single spiritual reality.
T
he idea that all religions with which the self (atman) is
AFTER lead to the same God identified. The starting point for
20th century Interfaith was put forward by Ramakrishna’s thinking was the
dialogue becomes common. Sri Ramakrishna, a 19th-century idea that, in meditation, a person
mystic who practised bhakti comes to appreciate the divine
20th century A plethora (Hindu religious devotion) and within, and that, to whichever god
of new religious movements followed the philosophy of Advaita or goddess they might be devoted,
offer a spiritual path open to Vedanta, as originally taught by there is only one spiritual reality.
all, irrespective of cultural Adi Shankara (p.121)—built Therefore, within Hinduism, each
and religious background. around the notion of of a single person is free to worship in his or
underlying reality, Brahman, her own way, while recognizing
HINDUISM 123
See also: The ultimate reality 102–105 ■ Class systems and faith 302–303
■ Cao Ðài aims to unify all faiths 316 ■ A faith open to all beliefs 321
NONVIOLENCE
IS THE WEAPON
OF THE STRONG
HINDUISM IN THE POLITICAL AGE
I
t was while working to oppose injustice, a person should simply
IN CONTEXT racial discrimination in South retire into private spirituality and
Africa that Gandhi coined the avoid confrontation. Hinduism had
KEY FIGURE
term satyagraha—“holding on to long been divided between those
Mahatma Gandhi
the truth.” It was to become the who thought that they should follow
WHEN AND WHERE key theme of his campaigns of their social duty, as determined
1869–1948, India nonviolent civil disobedience, by their class and stage of life,
both there and later in India. and those who opted out of society
BEFORE Although raised a Hindu, in order to follow an ascetic path
From 6th century BCE Gandhi was deeply influenced of personal religious discipline.
Ahimsa or nonviolence is the by Jainism, with its emphasis on Gandhi felt committed to seek
key ethical principle of the Jain nonviolence and the welfare of all political and social justice, while
and Buddhist religions. creatures. However, he was opposed at the same time maintaining the
3rd century BCE The Emperor to the idea that, in the face of social fundamental ascetic value of
Asoka converts to Buddhism
and initiates social reforms
inspired by nonviolence. Inactivity and detachment allow social
injustice to continue unchecked.
2nd century BCE The Hindu
Bhagavad-Gita explores the
dichotomy between ahimsa
and the duty of the warrior
class to fight in a just war.
But violence only leads to retaliation and
AFTER further violence, which is self-defeating.
1964 The Baptist minister
Martin Luther King preaches
the use of nonviolent means
to oppose racial inequality
in the United States. Therefore social and political change is best achieved
through nonviolent protest and a determination to
stand by the truth, whatever the consequences.
HINDUISM 125
See also: Self-denial leads to spiritual liberation 68–71 ■ Selfless action 110–11 ■ Let kindness and compassion rule 146–47
■Dying for the message 209 ■ Striving in the way of God 278
Mohandas Karamchand Born in 1869 in Porbandar, India, which he was imprisoned for
(“Mahatma”) Gandhi Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi two years. He continued to
(known as “Mahatma” or “great- promote similar campaigns, and
souled”) qualified as a lawyer in suffered a further term in jail.
London. After a brief time back in He wanted to see an India free
India, he spent 21 years in South from British rule, in which all its
Africa giving legal support to the religious groups could have a
Indian community, during which stake, and when independence
time he launched a program of was finally agreed in 1947, he
passive resistance against the opposed the partition of India
compulsory registration and because it conflicted with his
fingerprinting of Indians. vision of religious unity.
In 1914, he returned to India, Gandhi was assassinated
where he opposed injustices in Delhi in 1948 by a Hindu
imposed by the British rulers. fanatic who accused him of
During the 1920s, he initiated being too sympathetic to the
civil disobedience campaigns for needs of the nation’s Muslims.
BUDDHIS
FROM 6TH
CENTURY BCE
M
128 INTRODUCTION
Siddhartha
Gautama Emperor Asoka A collection of the teachings
(later known as The First Buddhist of India converts to of Buddha, the Pali Canon,
Buddha) is born Council is held in Buddhism and calls is written down in Sri Lanka
in northeast the year following the Third Buddhist and forms the basis of
India. Buddha’s death. Council. Theravada Buddhism.
C.563 BCE 5TH CENTURY BCE 3RD CENTURY BCE 1ST CENTURY BCE
5TH CENTURY BCE 4TH CENTURY BCE 3RD CENTURY BCE 1ST CENTURY CE
B
uddhism is regarded incorporated Hindu belief in the after his death, that Gautama’s
by some as more of a idea of samsara—a soul caught teachings first appeared in
philosophical system in an eternal circle of birth and written form, in the Tipitaka. This
than a religion because it does rebirth. Buddhism proposed a was written in Pali, a Sri Lankan
not explicitly involve a god or radically different view of how dialect, rather than Sanskrit,
gods. Its origins are also atypical: the cycle could be broken. Instead the language of the scholars.
its founder, Siddhartha Gautama, of relying on Hindu religious The so-called Pali Canon was
the Buddha (“awakened one”), practices, such as worship and followed by commentaries, such
based his teachings not on any ritual, Gautama advocated a as the Mahayana Sutras, which
mystical vision or appearance, change of lifestyle; instead of interpreted Buddha’s teaching.
but on conclusions he reached after sacred texts giving divine What Buddhism lacked in
a long period of experience and guidance and authority, Buddhism theology, it made up for in its
thought—enlightenment, rather offered its founder’s teachings as analysis of the reasons a soul
than revelation. Gautama neither a starting point for meditation. might get caught up in samsara;
affirmed nor denied the existence it explored how one could achieve
of deities, since they were irrelevant Basic tenets enlightenment and nirvana—the
to his ideas, but some branches of The doctrine of Buddhism was ultimate extinction of desire,
Buddhism have since become passed by word of mouth, at first aversion, and disillusionment.
more theistic, even if deities are to Gautama’s immediate group of Gautama explained that the main
not central to their practice. followers, and then through the obstacle to escape from the cycle of
The India in which Gautama teachers of the monastic order samsara was human suffering,
grew up was dominated by the that he founded. It was not until the caused by desires and attachments
Brahmanic religions, and 1st century BCE, hundreds of years that can never be satisfied. He set
BUDDHISM 129
Theravada Buddhism
Vajrayana, spreads from Sri Zen Buddhism
The Mahayana or Tantric, Buddhism Lanka into Burma, emerges in Japan from
Sutras are develops in India, from Thailand, Laos, the Chinese tradition of
composed. the Theravada tradition. and Cambodia. meditation Buddhism.
out “Four Noble Truths”—the Theravada, with its conservative Later divisions within these two
central doctrine of Buddhism—to and austere approach, remained major traditions also occurred.
explain the nature of suffering and closer to Buddha’s original These gave rise to such contrasting
how it could be overcome: dukkha teachings, but became increasingly branches as Zen Buddhism, which
(the truth of suffering), samudaya localized to southern India and aims to clear the mind in order to
(the truth of the origin of suffering), especially Sri Lanka. Theravada allow spontaneous enlightenment
nirodha (the truth of the ending was revitalized in the 12th century without ritual, scripture, or
of suffering), and magga (the truth of when trade took it into Burma, reasoning; and the various forms
the path to the ending of suffering). Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia. of Tibetan Buddhism that are
This last Noble Truth alludes to Mahayana Buddhism had a characterized by colorful temples,
the Middle Way—the lifestyle more overtly religious following, images, and rituals.
advocated by the Buddha, which is offering its adherents temples and Today, Buddhism is estimated
simple in concept but hard to attain. rituals, as well as rich symbolism to have more than 500 million
and images of the Buddha. Like adherents, and is considered to be
Spread and diversification Theravada, Mahayana also the fourth largest religion in the
Buddhism spread rapidly from dwindled in India, but it was world (after Christianity, Islam,
northern India southward across enthusiastically adopted in Tibet, and Hinduism). However, despite
the subcontinent and northward China, Vietnam, Korea, and Japan. growing Western interest in it as
into China. Different traditions of A key element of Mahayana is the both a religion and a philosophy,
Buddhism began to emerge. The concept of religious leaders known it has been in decline since the
two main branches, Theravada and as bodhisattvas, who have achieved latter half of the 20th century, falling
Mahayana, continue to the present enlightenment but remain on earth from its position as the largest single
day, much along regional lines. to show the way to others. religion in the early 1950s. ■
FINDING
THE MIDDLE WAY
THE ENLIGHTENMENT OF BUDDHA
132 THE ENLIGHTENMENT OF BUDDHA
I
n northern India, the 6th
IN CONTEXT century BCE was a time of
radical social and political
KEY FIGURE
change. There was terrible
Siddhartha Gautama
bloodshed as local rule by tribal
WHEN AND WHERE groups gave way to the rise of new
6th century BCE, kingdoms. Cities were expanding,
northern India drawing people away from the
simplicity of agricultural village life,
BEFORE and trade was flourishing. At the
From 1700 BCE A multitude same time, people were starting to
of gods are ritually worshipped ask fundamental questions about
in the Vedic religion of life and the basis of religion.
northern India. On the one hand, there was the
established Vedic religion, based
6th century BCE In China,
on sacrifice and the authority of the
Daoism and Confucianism
Vedic texts, to which few outside
present philosophies in the brahmin, or priestly class of Enlightenment came to Siddhartha
which personal spiritual Indian society, had access. This was after meditation beneath the Bodhi Tree.
development is cultivated. a formal and conformist religion; it A descendant of the original tree was
required obedience to tradition and planted in Bodh Gaya in 288 BCE and is
6th century BCE Mahavira now a site of pilgrimage for Buddhists.
rejects his destiny as an maintained class differences. On
Indian prince and becomes an the other hand, many wandering
extreme ascetic; his teachings teachers were challenging formal materialist philosophy, rejecting
form the sacred texts of Jainism. religion. Some of these withdrew conventional spiritual teachings in
from society to practice asceticism favor of a life based on pleasure,
AFTER (the self-denial of material comforts), in the belief that there is nothing
1st century CE The first texts opting for simplicity and deprivation beyond the physical world.
containing Siddhartha as a means of spiritual development.
Gautama’s teachings appear, They rejected both physical comfort Siddhartha seeks answers
soon followed by the spread of and social norms, and lived outside One wealthy man, Siddhartha
Buddhism into China. the class system. Other wandering Gautama, decided, on reaching
teachers followed the Lokayata adulthood, that his comfortable
Siddhartha Gautama Born in 563 BCE into the ruling Siddhartha set up communities
family of the Shakya clan of of monks and nuns, and also
northeast India, Siddhartha gained a growing number of lay
Gautama was expected to take followers. He also engaged in
a prominent place in society. discussions with princely rulers
Brought up in comfort and well and religious teachers of other
educated, he was married at 16 faiths. By the time he died, aged
and had a son.
80, Buddhism had become a
However, at the age of 29,
he became dissatisfied with his substantial religious movement.
life and left home, spending years
as a religious ascetic. Following Key work
an experience he described as
enlightenment, he became a 29 BCE The Dhammapada, an
wandering teacher and soon accessible summary of Buddha’s
attracted many followers, mainly early teachings, forms part of
in the cities of the Ganges Plain. the Pali Canon (p.140).
BUDDHISM 133
See also: Aligning the self with the dao 66–67 ■ Self-denial leads to spiritual liberation 68–71 ■ Wisdom lies with the
superior man 72–77 ■ A rational world 92–99 ■ A faith open to all beliefs 321
T
he central aim of Buddha’s by suffering. The nature of this
teaching—the dhamma— suffering is very broad, meaning
is to overcome suffering. not necessarily intense pain, but
Everything that does not contribute also lesser, more widespread
to this aim is considered irrelevant. feelings of dissatisfaction. It
The ideas of Buddhism are not to may be the emotional suffering
be taken as ends in themselves, nor caused by the death of a loved
are they the result of dispassionate one, an enduring sense that life
speculation about the nature of the is somehow pointless or empty,
world. They are observations about or simply a feeling of being stuck
life and principles that are to be put in an unpleasant situation, such
into practice. as a traffic jam. Dukkha is the
feeling that arises in situations
People are often moved to tears
The Noble Truths that cause stress, discomfort, or at funerals and other sad events, but
The Buddhist dhamma starts with dissatisfaction. It makes us feel Buddhists regard such suffering as
four statements, known as the that we want to be somewhere, deriving from a mistaken wish to
“Four Noble Truths,” which give or even someone else. hold on to something or someone.
BUDDHISM 139
See also: Aligning the self with the dao 66–67 ■ A rational world 92–99 ■ Physical and mental discipline 112–13
■ The enlightenment of Buddha 130–35 ■ Sufism and the mystic tradition 282–83 ■ Tenrikyo and the Joyous Life 310
Finding nirvana
For Buddhists, everything arises Suffering can be ended Nirodha
from existing conditions. This by detaching oneself from The truth of the
means that something must craving and desire. ending of suffering.
cause suffering; and if that cause
is removed, suffering will cease.
The Second Noble Truth identifies
craving as the cause—so Buddha
The way to stop craving Magga
said that if the craving were to is to follow the Noble The truth of the path to
stop, the suffering would cease. Eightfold Path. the ending of suffering.
The Third Noble Truth, nirodha
(the cessation of suffering and the
causes of suffering), refers to the
absence of craving. Putting an Rather, the triple fires of greed, an unconditioned, uncaused state
end to craving does not involve hatred, and illusion—three and is therefore an absolute truth
stopping life’s normal activities characteristics that perpetuate for Buddhists. This blissful state
—Buddha himself carried on human suffering—are blown out of being is accessible to us on earth
teaching for 45 years after his like a candle. In other words, by and in our lifetimes. Unlike most
enlightenment, and was subject to letting go of destructive craving, religions, which encourage people
all the usual problems that afflict the mind is liberated from suffering to live a moral life in the present in
human beings. Rather, it refers and unhappiness. This leads to order to attain happiness in a world
to a state in which a person a state of engaged happiness: a beyond this one, Buddhism says
understands and deals with life, form of happiness that results that a true end to suffering is
without the emotional need to from good moral conduct. possible immediately, in this world.
crave for it to be other than it is. Unlike everything else, nirvana Buddha himself attained a state
With the Third Noble Truth is not thought to be the result of of nirvana at the age of 35, and
comes a point of peace called, in cause and effect, but stands through his teachings sought to
Sanskrit, nirvana. This is a state beyond or outside it. It is said show others how to reach this
beyond craving or desire for to be permanent and unchanging: enlightenment. The Fourth Noble
anything or anyone. It is not the while everything in the world Truth describes “the path that leads
same as extinction; Buddha was around us, and we ourselves, are to the end of suffering.” This is
critical of those who tried to escape temporary and have arisen because magga, the Middle Way, also known
reality by craving annihilation. of certain conditions, nirvana is as the “Noble Eightfold Path.” ❯❯
140 ESCAPE FROM THE ETERNAL CYCLE
Material goods such as shoes may be
advertised as must-have items, in an
attempt to create a desire or craving
in us. This desire, which can never
be fully satisifed, leads to suffering.
part of the path). The fifth step The Noble Eightfold Path, or Middle
also supports an ethical approach, Way, sets out the eight characteristics
suggesting that we must pursue that we need to encourage in ourselves
to bring an end to our suffering.
a “right livelihood.” This is the
requirement to earn a living in
a way that does not go against ng and Com
Buddhist moral principles. standi mi
tm
der w Ri g en
Un tVie ht Int t
Cultivating right mind h en
Rig tio
The last three steps advise on n
1 2
how to carry out the right mental
training for reaching nirvana. Step
on
ati
Rig
six says that “right effort” should
ntr
ht S
be applied. This requires a person
nce
8 3
pe e c
to be conscious of and set aside
o
Right C
h
they arise, replacing them with
their positive equivalent. So, for
The Noble
Eightfold
Trainin
Pr ight A
g
tic
R
es
ac
Finding themselves
threatened by danger,
people take refuge in spirits,
shrines, and sacred trees,
but these are not
a true refuge.
Dhammapada
TEST BUDDHA’S
WORDS AS ONE
WOULD THE
QUALITY OF GOLD
THE PERSONAL QUEST FOR TRUTH
I
n most religions, beliefs are
IN CONTEXT based on authority, whether
that of a particular leader,
KEY SOURCE
a priestly class, or sacred texts.
The Pali Canon
People who accept these beliefs
WHEN AND WHERE may seek to defend them rationally, Accept as completely true
6th century BCE, while those who feel unable to
only that which is praised
northern India assent to the beliefs of their culture
may be branded as heretics.
by the wise and which
BEFORE Buddhism is different. It pays
you test for yourself
From 1000 BCE Traditional great respect to Buddha and other and know to be good
Hindu thought is based on religious teachers, and some for yourself and others.
Vedic texts and the teachings Buddhist traditions make much of Buddha
of the brahmin priests. the value of having a teacher with
a particular lineage or tradition.
6th century BCE Jains and However, the faith also values
Buddhists reject the Vedas debate and discussion; teachers
and brahmins as authorities. and intellectual convictions are
AFTER seen as only a starting point.
From 483 BCE For more than Buddha argued that people should meditation, the search for truth
four centuries after his death, not take any of his teachings on and spiritual growth, and putting
the teachings of Buddha are trust, but should test them out, Buddhist teachings into practice.
both rationally and also in terms Early followers of Buddha
passed on by word of mouth
of personal experience. achieved enlightenment by seeking
among his followers.
Buddhist wisdom is therefore understanding of his teaching, not
29 BCE A written collection acquired in three stages: from just by believing his word. Buddhism
of Buddha’s teachings and teachers or by reading scriptures; still argues that beliefs should be
sayings is made at the Fourth from personal reflection and thought; based on personal conviction and
Buddhist Council in Sri Lanka. and as a result of spiritual practice. experience, rather than simply
The third stage generally involves trusting external authority. ■
12th century Zen Buddhists
reject the need for authoritative See also: Wisdom lies with the superior man 72–77 ■ Buddhas and bodhisattvas
scriptures of any sort. 152–57 ■ Man as a manifestation of God 188
BUDDHISM 145
RELIGIOUS
DISCIPLINE IS
NECESSARY
THE PURPOSE OF MONASTIC VOWS
T
hroughout his life, Buddha About a hundred years after
IN CONTEXT had two kinds of followers: Buddha died, debates began about
monks and householders. how strictly the monastic rules
KEY SOURCE
The monks were wandering should be obeyed. As Buddhism
Early Buddhist Councils
preachers like Buddha at first, spread, it developed different
WHEN AND WHERE but later they settled in monastic traditions, some of which,
From 5th century BCE, communities. Here, they followed particularly in China and Japan,
northern India disciplines that aimed to benefit placed less emphasis on monastic
their own spiritual progress as well life. Nevertheless, monasticism
BEFORE as the community. Householders remains an important feature of
From prehistory Most too could achieve enlightenment, Buddhism, especially in Sri Lanka
religions combine spiritual since they practiced Buddhism and and Thailand, which follow the
development with awareness helped the community of monks. Theravada tradition (p.330).
of a person’s place in society In Buddhism, monastic vows
or the religious group. are taken for a limited period, rather
than for life. The vows are not an
7th century BCE A new end in themselves, but aim to create
ascetic tradition of extreme conditions that assist Buddhist
self-denial arises in Hinduism. practice. They are not essential,
c.550 BCE Buddha advocates but helpful, in following the Middle
a Middle Way between Way. However, individuals must
asceticism and hedonism. not simply strive for personal
enlightenment, because that
AFTER would be self-defeating, implying a
From 12th century CE In measure of selfishness incompatible
Japan, Pure Land Buddhism, with Buddhist teaching. Rather,
Young Buddhist monks accept
and Nichiren Buddhism insist monastic discipline for a short period. In
they must attempt to develop
that faith in Amida Buddha their path toward greater personal and universal compassion and good
and chanting, rather than social awareness, they are required to will, which have a social as well
following a particular lifestyle follow some, but not all, monastic rules. as a personal dimension. ■
or discipline, are the way to
gain enlightenment. See also: The four stages of life 106–109 ■ The enlightenment of Buddha 130–35
■ Writing the Oral Law 182–83 ■ Serving God on behalf of others 222–23
146
RENOUNCE KILLING
AND GOOD WILL
FOLLOW
LET KINDNESS AND COMPASSION RULE
B
uddhism arose out of
IN CONTEXT Hinduism, a faith that had
always been ambivalent
KEY EVENT If people are killed, their
family, relatives, and about killing. On the one hand,
The conversion
friends will suffer. Hinduism promoted the principle
of Emperor Asoka
of ahimsa (not killing); on the other,
WHEN AND WHERE Hindu society required animal
3rd century BCE, sacrifice, allowed meat eating,
northern India and regarded fighting in a just
war as an inescapable duty. Like
BEFORE many other teachers of his day,
From 2000 BCE The Vedic Therefore the good leader including Mahavira, founder
religion, then Hinduism, abstains from killing of the Jain religion, Buddha
develop the doctrine of living beings and orders emphasized the principle of not
ahimsa, or nonviolence, others to do likewise. killing, and it became the first of
but justify war in certain the Five Precepts, principles that
circumstances . form the ethical basis for those
following the Buddhist way of life.
6th century BCE Buddha
enjoins his followers to abstain Five rules for living
from killing; Mahavira founds The Five Precepts forbid the taking
Jainism, which forbids the He builds a better society of life, stealing, sexual misconduct,
taking of any life. through cultivating an
attitude of loving-kindness lying, and the consumption of
AFTER and fostering it in others. mind-dulling intoxicants such as
17th century Sikhism alcohol. Each of these precepts has
a positive counterpart, effectively
allows killing in defense of
generating five rules relating to
the oppressed and the faith.
things one should do. The first of
19th century Mohandas these is to treat all beings with
Gandhi, raised as a Hindu, loving-kindness (metta); indeed,
adopts nonviolence as a Renounce killing and one of the principal meditation
political strategy. good will follow. practices in Buddhism is the
cultivation of goodwill toward
everyone—treating friends,
BUDDHISM 147
See also: Living in harmony 38 ■ Self-denial leads to spiritual liberation 68–71 ■ Selfless action 110–11 ■ Hinduism in the
political age 124–25 ■ Dying for the message 209 ■ The Sikh code of conduct 296–301
The Emperor Asoka Asoka was born in India in in Buddhism and, on finding
304 BCE. He was the son of the them, became a fervent convert.
Mauryan emperor Bindusara and His conversion was marked by
came to the throne of the kingdom a dramatic change in attitude:
of Magadha in 268 BCE, having he began to promote Buddhist
killed his brothers and other principles throughout his
potential rivals in order to secure empire, issuing edicts on
his position. He embarked on a moral matters, banning animal
brutal campaign of expansion, sacrifice, and increasing the
extending his rule to establish provision of welfare. He sent
an empire that included all but missionaries to promote
the most southerly part of India. Buddhism abroad, but he
After one particularly bloody also took a positive view of
battle, the sight of the dead and all religions, issuing only
the grieving inspired him to moral precepts that would
pledge never to fight a battle be acceptable to all religious
again. He looked for answers groups within his empire.
148
IN CONTEXT
WE CANNOT
KEY FIGURE
Nagasena
WHEN AND WHERE
SAY WHAT A
1st century CE, India
BEFORE
6th century BCE The Hindu
Upanishads make a distinction
PERSON IS
between the physical body, the
self made up of thoughts and
experience, and an eternal self.
6th century BCE Buddha
argues that everything is
THE SELF AS CONSTANTLY CHANGING constantly changing and
nothing has a fixed essence.
AFTER
12th century CE Teachers
of Zen Buddhism distinguish
between the small mind, or
ego, and the Buddha-mind.
20th century Existentialist
thinkers, like Buddhists, argue
that individuals shape their
lives through the decisions
they make.
T
he idea that a human being
comprises a physical body
and a nonphysical self, or
soul, is deeply ingrained in almost
all religious traditions. It forms the
basis of speculation about life after
death—whether we survive in
some form in heaven or hell, or are
reincarnated as the nonphysical self
takes on a new body. Belief in an
immortal soul and in God seem the
very essence of religion. Both,
however, were rejected by Buddha,
who believed we have no fixed self.
The idea that we do not have
a permanent self, but are constantly
changing, is absolutely central
to Buddhist teaching, and sets
Buddhism apart from most other
BUDDHISM 149
See also: Preparing for the afterlife 58–59 ■ The ultimate reality 102–105 ■ Seeing with pure consciousness 116–21
■ The enlightenment of Buddha 130–35 ■ Immortality in Christianity 210–11
belief systems and philosophies. Analyzing the self So where is the chariot, Nagasena
It is implied by Buddha’s teaching Milinda starts by innocently asking asks, if it is not the wheels, or the
of the Middle Way (pp.130–35), whether the person he is greeting axle, and so on? Clearly, there is
and also reflects his teaching of is indeed Nagasena, whereupon no chariot over and above the parts
the interconnectedness of all things. Nagasena launches straight into from which it is constructed.
However, nowhere is the idea of the the discussion by stating that Chariot is a name applied to the
changing self better illustrated than although the name Nagasena collection of those parts when they
in The Questions of King Milinda, is conventionally used to refer to are put together to make the vehicle.
written anonymously in the 1st himself, there is actually nothing In the same way, Nagasena argues,
century CE. This text describes the that corresponds to it. The word there is no fixed or permanent self
discussions between a Buddhist is a designation, a “mere name,” over and above the various parts
sage known as Nagasena, and because “no real person is here of which we are made. Nagasena
King Milinda—the Indo-Greek ruler apprehended.” In an absolute does not represent anything that
of northwestern India, c.150 BCE. sense, Nagasena does not exist. Milinda could point to. ❯❯
Bewildered, the King asks
how that can be the case, since
Nagasena is clearly standing there
in front of him. To answer this,
Nagasena uses an analogy. He
observes that the King arrived in
a chariot, so it is obvious that a I am known as Nagasena.
chariot exists. But he then starts But the word ‘Nagasena’ is
to analyze the various parts of the only a designation or name
chariot: the axle, the wheels, and in common use. There is no
so on, and asks the King if any of permanent individuality
these “are” the chariot—eliciting (no soul) involved in the matter.
the answer that they are not. Nagasena
A meeting of cultures
The meeting between King Milinda—or Menander, as he is only appearance in literature
Milinda and Nagasena occurred known in Greek—was one such is his dialogue with the King
in the context of a meeting of king. He ruled a region known in The Questions of King
cultures. Buddhism had spread as the Indo-Greek Kingdom—in Milinda, a widely respected
to northern India through the present-day northwestern India text in Theravada Buddhism
teachings of missionaries sent —in the 2nd century BCE, so we that was written in the 1st
by the Emperor Asoka around may assume that Nagasena lived century CE. One legend about
100 years earlier. Meanwhile, in that area sometime between Nagasena states that while
the influence of classical Greece the 2nd and 1st century CE. living in Pataliputra (modern-
was spreading eastward from While evidence of Milinda day Patna, India), he created
the Mediterranean, and, when exists in the form of coins and the Emerald Buddha, a jade
it reached northern India, it references by classical writers, statue of Buddha clothed in
was adopted by local rulers (a we know very little about the gold, which is now in Wat Phra
process known as Hellenization). philosopher-monk Nagasena. His Kaew, Bangkok, Thailand.
BUDDHISM 151
butter only exists because milk Which of these parts is the chariot? Nagasena
exists; it depends on the existence would answer that none of them are. Likewise,
of milk. In the same way, says whatever constitutes “me” cannot be pointed chariot?
to, but nonetheless continues to affect things
Nagasena, “do the elements of in the universe now and in the future.
being join one another in serial
succession: one element perishes,
another arises, succeeding each chariot?
other as it were instantaneously.”
A category mistake
In the 20th century, the British
philosopher Gilbert Ryle attacked
the idea that the material body is chariot?
linked to a nonphysical mind. In
doing so, he used an argument that
is exactly parallel to Nagasena’s.
A visitor to the city of Oxford who chariot?
has been shown various colleges,
libraries, and so on, asks, “But
where is the university?” Ryle
claims that there is no university
over and above its constituent parts.
Likewise, there is no mind
that exists separately from the
body. People who suppose that Toward the end of the 20th century, sense of purpose. Existentialism
there is are making a category and into the 21st, most Western suggests that we shape our lives by
mistake—where things of one kind philosophers have argued for a the choices we make, and should
are presented as though they materialist (or physicalist) view of acknowledge our responsibility for
belong to another. It is wrong to the mind: that mind is simply a doing so: we are what we choose
treat the mind as though it is an word that describes brain function. to do—we do not have an internal
object of substance, when mind For modern science, there is no self real self or essence.
refers to a collection of capacities over and above the body; the brain
and dispositions. performs a complex processing of Absolute truth
experience and response, which we This discussion of the self
think of as our mind, or self. highlights an important feature of
This differs from Nagasena only Buddhist teaching: the difference
in the way that the sage applies between conventional and absolute
a closer analysis of the way in truth. In order to function normally,
which we experience ourselves as we have to assume a pragmatic
What we are today comes thinking, feeling, and responding or practical approach and refer
from our thoughts of beings. As he pointed out to King to objects as though they have
yesterday, and our present Milinda, even the fact that we do a recognizable, permanent, and
thoughts build our life this does not mean that there is a independent existence.
of tomorrow: our life is the separate thing called the self. It would be impossible to
creation of our mind. The other modern philosophy communicate if everything had
Buddha that unwittingly builds on this to be described in terms of its
Buddhist idea is existentialism. It constituent parts. Buddhism
is often summed up in the phrase therefore accepts the need for
“existence precedes essence,” such conventional truth, but
meaning that we are born and exist constantly guards against
before our lives have obtained any mistaking it for absolute truth. ■
ENLIGHTENMENT
HAS MANY
FACES
BUDDHAS AND BODHISATTVAS
154 BUDDHAS AND BODHISATTVAS
IN CONTEXT
KEY EVENT A bodhisattva is an
Each image of a buddha
The development of enlightened being
or bodhisattva represents
Mahayana Buddhism who vows to remain in
one or more qualities of
the world to help all
WHEN AND WHERE an enlightened mind.
other creatures.
2nd–3rd centuries CE, India
BEFORE
From 1500 BCE The Hindu
Vedas refer to many gods and
goddesses, each depicting an
aspect of nature and life.
From 2nd century BCE If we visualize or pay
Buddhist images are respect to an image,
Devotional practices become aids to spiritual we are helped to
influential in Hinduism. development, not gods develop the quality
to be worshipped. represented by it.
AFTER
7th century CE Mahayana
Buddhism, using elaborate
images and ritual, is
established in Tibet.
8th century CE Images of
Buddhist teachers are used
as a source of inspiration, as
well as those of buddhas and Enlightenment has
bodhisattvas. A popular image many faces.
is that of Padmasambhava, the
Precious Guru, who introduced
Tantric Buddhism into Tibet.
T
he teachings that Buddha Buddha figures—of different colors, Buddha’s previous lives, and the
encapsulated in his Four male and female, some fearsome, actions and characteristics he
Noble Truths and Noble others in calm meditation—appear must have displayed in those lives
Eightfold Path (pp.136–43) were to be the objects of devotion in a to move toward nirvana. These
straightforward and rational. To way that, to the external observer, musings led to the compilation
follow them required mental training appears not unlike devotion to the of Jataka tales or “birth stories,”
and analysis of experience, but did gods and goddesses of other involving characters, sometimes
not entail metaphysical speculation religions. Since Buddhism still often human and sometimes animal,
(thinking about what does or does claims to be rational, how did this that depicted the Buddhist qualities
not exist), religious ritual, or—at imaginative transformation come of love, compassion, and wisdom
least for the first few centuries—any about, and how is it justified? deemed necessary for progress
use of images. However, a modern- toward enlightenment. In turn,
day visitor to a Mahayana Buddhist The bodhisattva path these stories led to the idea of
temple in China or Tibet would Given the general Indian belief in the “bodhisattva”: a being who
see many elaborate images and reincarnation, it was not long before is capable of enlightenment—or
forms of devotional worship. people started to speculate about of buddhahood—but who chooses
BUDDHISM 155
See also: The ultimate reality 102–105 ■ Physical and mental discipline 112–13 ■ Seeing with pure consciousness 116–121
■ Zen insights that go beyond words 160–63 ■ Man as a manifestation of God 188
May I be an unending
treasury for those desperate
and forlorn. May I manifest
as what they require and
wish to have near them.
Shantideva
Buddhists may offer incense or However elaborate or not these that requires sustained personal
flowers before a buddha image as an images may be, and however far attention to the qualities and ideals
act of devotion. This is not worship of removed they may appear to be that the image represents.
a god but respect for an enlightened from the straightforward teaching
human being, imaginatively expressed.
of the historical Buddha, they are The impermanent mandala
all taken to represent aspects of The mandala is another Buddhist
Known to Tibetans as Chenrezig, enlightenment. They are not gods image created for the purpose of
Avalokiteshvara takes on a female to be worshipped, although it may spiritual development, whether
form as Kuan Yin in China, and be hard to remember this when used for meditation or instruction.
Kannon in Japan. Avalokiteshvara observing Buddhists paying tribute A mandala is a geometric pattern
is most commonly depicted as to them in temples and shrines. in which various shapes, letters,
having four arms: two are crossed and images of buddhas and
over his heart, a third holds a lotus Focuses for meditation bodhisattvas are intricately
flower, and a fourth holds a rosary. Images of bodhisattvas and buddhas interwoven in a complex image.
The crossed arms symbolize the are regarded as aids to spiritual The patterns are carefully
boddhisattva’s compassionate progress. In meditation, a person created out of colored sand,
outpouring from his heart to earthly may become adept at visualizing displayed at festivals, and then
beings. The lotus flower represents his or her chosen image, being destroyed. Their destruction is
enlightenment and pure wisdom, able to construct it imaginatively important because it reinforces the
while the rosary symbolizes at will. So, the practitioner of idea that everything is temporary.
his desire to liberate earthly meditation has an ongoing To attempt to retain the images
beings from their endless cyclical relationship with a particular would encourage clinging and
existence. The 14th Dalai Lama image. It is often selected for craving, which are counter to
(p.159) is traditionally thought that purpose, on the advice of Buddhist teachings since they lead
of as an incarnation of this a teacher, in order to address a to frustration and suffering. It is
Bodhisattva of Compassion. particular quality—represented only through letting go—embracing
Not all Mahayana images are by the image of a bodhisattva detachment—that the journey to
elaborate in appearance. Each of or buddha—that the individual enlightenment can begin.
the dhyana or “meditation” buddhas needs or wants to develop. The
such as Buddha Amitabha, for benefit of such a practice is Emptiness and buddhas
example, are depicted sitting cross- generally only apparent over a The Buddhist philosopher
legged, wearing a very plain robe, period of time; it is not seen as Nagarjuna (see facing page)
their eyes closed in meditation. an automatic process, but one argued that everything is empty
BUDDHISM 157
which sees earthly items and
beings as having no essence (or
“own being”) because they are all
dependent on the prior existence
of something else. Given that we
ourselves have no independent,
If you want others to
underlying essence, the aim of
be happy, practice meditation is to see beyond our
compassion. If you senses and the ideas we have
want to be happy, gained from them, to look directly
practice compassion. upon ultimate truth.
The Dalai Lama Given that the buddhas and
bodhisattvas may be conjured
up in meditation, this suggests Nagarjuna
that they are neither substantial
(in other words, they do not have a Nagarjuna is considered the
physical embodiment), nor located most important Buddhist
philosopher after Buddha
somewhere else in the universe.
himself. He was born in the
of inherent existence. By this he Each of the images conjured up 2nd century CE to a brahmin
meant that nothing in the world, is not a representation of a person, (priestly) family, probably
including all living beings, has a but part of the ultimate truth about in southern India. An oracle
self or, therefore, an underlying the person who sits in meditation. predicted his early death at
essence (or “inherent existence”). The vast array of buddha and the age of eight, so when he
He maintained that this idea was bodhisattva images are merely was seven, his parents sent
implied by Buddha’s original temporary aids to assist a him to a monastery to study
teaching about the concept of person in recognizing that every under the great Buddhist
interconnectedness (pp.130–35), individual is a potential Buddha. ■ teacher Saraha. It is said that
he avoided death by reciting
a mantra without interruption
There are three types of on the eve and dawn of his
bodhisattva, who approach their eighth birthday. He then took
task of helping others reach monastic vows.
enlightenment in different ways. Nagarjuna is best known
Ship’s Captain for the teaching of Buddha’s
“I will carry others Perfection of Wisdom sutras.
with me so that According to legend, he
we may become rescued these from nagas
enlightened (half-worldly spirits), gaining
together.” the name Nagarjuna (master
of the nagas). He also wrote
King many sutras himself, and
“I will become founded the Madhyamika
enlightened and (middle position) school
then lead and help of Buddhist philosophy.
others toward
enlightenment.” Shepherd Key works
“I will guide
everyone toward c.200 CE Fundamental Verses
enlightenment and of the Middle Way; The
only then seek it Treatise on the Great
for myself.” Perfection of Wisdom
158
ACT OUT
YOUR BELIEFS
THE PERFORMANCE OF RITUAL AND REPETITION
IN CONTEXT
KEY MOVEMENT These aim to engage
Tibetan Buddhism
the Buddhist emotionally
Tibetan Buddhism uses colorful and
and physically, not just
imaginative rituals.
WHEN AND WHERE intellectually.
From 8th century CE, Tibet
BEFORE
300 CE Tantric rituals that
use dramatic forms to act
out spiritual realities start to
This allows the
develop within some branches Buddhist to experience
of Hinduism in India.
Act out
your beliefs. what it would feel like to
4th–5th century CE Yogacara be enlightened.
Buddhist philosophy argues
that all we know of reality
is in fact an interpretation
made by the mind; therefore
I
n most forms of Buddhism the performances and dancing, with
imaginative and symbolic rituals are simple (perhaps just huge images on cloth spread out
actions are real for us. making an offering before a or hung on temple walls, and the
AFTER Buddha image), while Tibetan creation and destruction of intricate
19th century Western Buddhism is colorful and dramatic. sand patterns, known as mandalas
Orientalist scholars take an During worship, monks may chant (p.156). How is all of this, which
repeated phrases (mantras), wear seems so different from the early
interest in Tantric yoga.
striking headdresses, blow horns, simplicity of the Buddhist path,
1959 Following the Chinese and use elaborate hand gestures explained and justified?
invasion of Tibet, lamas start (mudras)—often while holding small For more than a thousand years,
teaching Tantric Tibetan symbolic objects (vajras) and Buddhism and Hinduism coexisted
Buddhism in other parts of bells. Lay Buddhists may also in India and influenced one another.
the world, particularly the chant, turn prayer wheels, and When Padmasambhava, revered as
US and Europe. set out colorful prayer flags. At the founder of Tibetan Buddhism,
festivals, there may be dramatic took the religion to Tibet in the
BUDDHISM 159
See also: Symbolism made real 46–47 ■ Living the Way of the Gods 82–85 ■ Devotion through puja 114–15 ■ Buddhas and
bodhisattvas 152–57 ■ Sufism and the mystic tradition 282–83 ■ Devotion to the Sweet Lord 322
Tibetan lamas
In Mahayana Buddhism, a a sign that he is indeed the
bodhisattva is someone who reincarnation. There are
remains on earth to help others, hundreds of tulku: perhaps the
perhaps through many lifetimes best known is the Dalai Lama,
(p.155). Tibetan Buddhism refines considered the incarnate form
the idea to a tulku, or “reincarnate of Avalokiteshvara, a bodhisattva
lama”—lama being the title given of compassion and the patron
to a senior Buddhist teacher in deity of Tibet. While he is
Tibet. When a great lama dies, it is regarded as the bodhisattva’s
thought that another will be born latest manifestation, he remains
The Dalai Lama is the 14th in line to carry on his work. A search is an ordinary human, albeit one
from Tsongkhapa, who founded the made for the new lama, and the with the extraordinary vocation
Gelugpa sect of Tibetan Buddhism child candidate is expected to of expressing Avalokiteshvara
in the 15th century. identify objects from his past life as in today’s world.
160
IN CONTEXT
DISCOVER YOUR
KEY EVENT
The development
of Zen Buddhism
BUDDHA NATURE
WHEN AND WHERE
12th–13th century CE, Japan
BEFORE
ZEN INSIGHTS THAT GO BEYOND WORDS 6th century BCE The Buddha
teaches meditation leading
to insight and enlightenment.
6th century CE The Buddhist
monk Bodhidharma brings
meditation Buddhism (Ch’an)
to China, and is said to have
instigated martial arts training
at the Shaolin monastery.
AFTER
1950s–1960s Zen ideas
become popular in Western
counterculture, as seen in
the work of the Beat poets and
Robert Pirsig’s Zen and the
Art of Motorcycle Maintenance.
Many Zen meditation groups
and California’s first Zen
monastery are founded.
Z
en and its Chinese
equivalent, Ch’an, simply
mean “meditation.” As
a tradition of Buddhist practice,
it is generally regarded as having
been founded by an Indian monk,
Bodhidharma, who brought it to
China in 520 CE, and is credited
with the definition of Zen as “a
direct transmission of awakened
consciousness, outside tradition
and outside scriptures”.
This definition highlights the
key features of Zen: it seeks to
allow enlightenment to happen
naturally, as a result of a clearing
of the mind, and does so without
the need for rational argument,
texts, or rituals. In other words,
BUDDHISM 161
See also: Aligning the self with the dao 66–67 ■ Sufism and the mystic
tradition 282–83 ■ Life-energy cultivation in Falun Dafa 323
Nishida Kitaro
Moses leads his Babylon conquers A written version of The Golden Age of
people from captivity David’s kingdom Jewish Oral Law, Jewish culture in
in Egypt to Canaan, of Israel and in the Mishnah, Spain expands;
the Promised 586 BCE destroys the is compiled. the philosopher
Land, and receives First Temple of Maimonides writes
the Torah. Jerusalem. influential works.
O
ne of the oldest surviving faith with a son, Isaac; he in turn Solomon built a permanent temple
religions, Judaism evolved had a son, Jacob, who, the Tanakh in Jerusalem, symbolizing the
from the beliefs of the relates, was the father of the Twelve claim of the Jewish people on the
people of Canaan in the southern Tribes of Israel. Together Abraham, Land of Israel. But twice the Jews
Levant region, more than 3,500 Isaac, and Jacob are known as the were forced from their “Promised
years ago, and is closely connected Patriarchs—the physical and Land” and the temple destroyed:
to the history of the Jewish people. spiritual ancestors of Judaism. first by the Babylonians in the 6th
The Hebrew Bible, the Tanakh, The Tanakh recounts how Jacob century BCE, and again after they
tells not only the story of God’s and his descendants were enslaved had returned and fallen under
creation of the world, but also the in Egypt, and then led to freedom Roman rule, in the 1st century CE.
story of his special relationship by Moses at God’s command in
with the Jews. the Exodus. As part of Moses’s The Diaspora
God’s agreement, or covenant, covenant with God, he received As a result of foreign rule, the
with the Jewish people began with the Torah (the Five Books of Moses) Jewish people became a widespread
God’s promise to Abraham that on Mount Sinai. Moses took his diaspora. Some Jews, later known
he would be the father of a great people back to the Land of Israel, as the Sephardim, settled in Spain,
people. God told Abraham that his where they settled once again. Portugal, North Africa, and the
descendants must obey him and Later, God appointed David—the Middle East, but the majority, the
adopt the rite of circumcision as a anointed one or “messiah”—as king, Ashkenazim, formed communities
sign of the covenant; in return, God from which came the belief that a in Central and Eastern Europe.
would guide them, protect them, descendant of his, the Messiah, Inevitably, the geographical
and give them the land of Israel. would come to bring in a new age separation led to differences in the
Abraham was rewarded for his for the Jewish people. David’s son way Judaism developed between
JUDAISM 167
Hasidism is The Jewish Thousands of Jews Nazi Germany The first female
founded in Eastern Enlightenment are killed and persecutes and rabbi is ordained
Europe as a (Haskalah) occurs; millions more executes millions within the Reform
reaction against Jews in western Europe displaced in waves of Jews in the movement.
the austerity of integrate more fully into of pogroms in Holocaust.
legalistic Judaism. their adopted societies. Russia and Ukraine.
the groups, and various different Torah, which was considered to be attacks. From the 18th century
religious traditions evolved. In divine in origin, while Reform and on, countries such as the US and
Spain, a Golden Age of Jewish Conservative Judaism took a less France granted them full rights,
thinking flourished between the rigorous approach, regarding the and there was a movement toward
10th and 12th centuries, which Torah more as a set of guidelines greater integration. However, this
produced great philosophers such rather than obligations. An issue posed a question of identity. Were
as Moses Maimonides. This was that divided the different branches the Jewish people a religious,
also the center, in the Middle Ages, of Judaism in the 20th century was ethnic, cultural, or national group?
of interest in the more mystical the status of women. In spite of the Zionism, which arose in response,
aspects of Judaism, known as doctrine ruling that Jewish identity pressed for the formation of a Jewish
kabbalah. In eastern Europe, a is passed down solely through the state, and matters were brought to
number of the more isolated small maternal line, women were not able a head in the aftermath of the
Jewish settlements, the shtetls, to play an active part in religious Holocaust with the formation of
found that the scholarliness of ceremonies until recently. the State of Israel in 1948. Today,
their religion did little to promote it is difficult to assess how many
strong community ties, and a Oppression and identity followers of Judaism there are,
more spiritual movement, Largely because of their position because many who identify
Hasidism, emerged as a result. In as displaced immigrants and themselves as Jewish are not
the following centuries, there were their distinctive faith, Jews have actively religious. However, it is
further divisions in Judaism, largely been widely persecuted throughout estimated that there are more than
over matters of interpretation of their history. In many places, they 13 million Jewish people in the
Jewish Law. Orthodox Judaism have been isolated in ghettos, and world, the majority of them living
advocated a strict adherence to the suffered violent vilification and in either North America or Israel. ■
I WILL TAKE YOU AS
MY PEOPLE,
AND I WILL BE
YOUR GOD
GOD’S COVENANT WITH ISRAEL
170 GOD’S COVENANT WITH ISRAEL
IN CONTEXT
KEY TEXT God asked Abraham to leave his home and
family, and go to another land.
The Torah
WHEN AND WHERE
c.1000–450 BCE,
the Middle East
BEFORE
c.1300 BCE Hittite royal treaties
provide a model for the Torah’s If he did so, God promised to reward him;
description of the covenant. this promise became known as the covenant
AFTER
200–500 CE The Mishnah and
Talmud codify the oral law, or
received body of rabbinic
learning, and are used to offer
further Biblical interpretation This promise was that as long as Abraham
and guidance on the covenant. and his descendants obeyed God, God
1948 In the aftermath of World would protect his descendants and
give them the land of Canaan forever.
War II, the State of Israel is
founded, allowing Jewish
people to return to their
historical homeland.
1990 US theologian Judith
Plaskow urges Jews to
reinterpret traditional texts “I will take you as my people,
that exclude women from and I will be your God.”
the covenant.
T
he covenant, or contract, roughly equivalent to modern The first covenant
with God is the central Israel and Palestine, perhaps as Like many peoples in the ancient
concept of Judaism, and early as the 15th century BCE. In Middle East, the Israelites were
dates back to the beliefs of the around 1200 BCE, during a period polytheists, but worshipped a
Israelites, an ancient Middle when this part of the world was national god, one whom they
Eastern people. In fact, Jews view under Egyptian rule, an inscription viewed as offering their people
themselves as bound to God by a was carved that contains the first particular protection. Jews were
series of covenants. The Abrahamic mention of Israel as a people. later to deem their God’s name
covenant was the first, specifically In the 6th century BCE, many too holy to pronounce and did not
singling out the Israelites as God’s of the Israelites were forced into preserve its original vowels, so it
chosen people, while the later exile in Babylonia. During this became known only by its four
Mosaic covenants (mediated by period of exile, much of the Hebrew, consonants: YHWH (probably
Moses) renewed this initial bond. or Jewish, Bible was composed. pronounced “Yahweh”). YHWH
The Israelites, sometimes It sets down the history of the was also known by several other
called Hebrews, were a people Israelite people and the origin names, including El and Elohim,
who occupied part of Canaan, of their religious beliefs. meaning God.
JUDAISM 171
See also: Animism in early societies 24–25 ■ Sacrifice and blood offerings 40–45
■ The burden of observance 50 ■ A challenge to the covenant 198
The commandments
The most famous commandments
in the Sinai covenant are the Ten
Commandments, or the Decalogue.
The Decalogue comprises the
most fundamental rules of Israel’s
covenant. It prohibits the worship
of other gods or the depiction of
God in physical form; it says that
each week the Israelites must
observe a sacred day of rest,
the Sabbath; and it prohibits
certain actions, such as murder
and adultery.
In addition to the Decalogue,
the Torah includes numerous laws
that God is said to have conveyed
to the Israelites indirectly through
Moses, both at Sinai and on other
occasions. These laws also form
part of the covenant. According
to a calculation in the Talmud
(rabbinic interpretation of
BESIDE ME
THERE IS NO
OTHER GOD
FROM MONOLATRY TO MONOTHEISM
T
he earliest authors of the
IN CONTEXT YHWH is the Jewish Bible seem to
greatest god; his power have acknowledged the
KEY SOURCE is supreme, universal, existence of many gods, but
Second Isaiah and eternal. insisted that the one whose name
WHEN AND WHERE is rendered as YHWH was the
c.540 BCE, Babylon/Judea greatest among them, and that
Because he is the Israelites should worship only
BEFORE YHWH. It appears, then, that at
omnipotent he needs
1400–1200 BCE The prophet no subordinates. some time during the biblical
Zoroaster forms a new religion period, the Jewish people moved
with one supreme god. from this exclusive worship of
c.1000 BCE The “Song of the one god among many (known as
Sea,” a poem in the Bible’s No other being can monolatry) to the belief that only
countermand his wishes. one god existed (monotheism).
Exodus, proclaims YHWH
supreme over other gods.
YHWH rules all nations
c.622 BCE King Josiah of In addition to the views of the
Judah abolishes worship Bible’s authors, archaeological
Even events that harm his
of gods other than YHWH. evidence suggests that the early
people—the Israelites—are
orchestrated by him. Israelites worshipped a variety
AFTER of regional gods. The prophets of
c.20 BCE–40 CE Philo of the god YHWH, whose writings
Alexandria argues that biblical comprise a large portion of the
monotheism had anticipated Bible, harshly rebuked the people
later Greek philosophical Both the evil and good of the for this practice. It is not clear
conceptions of God. world are part of his plan. whether the prophets were all
7th century Islam is revealed true monotheists, but they did
to the Prophet Muhammad, believe that YHWH was supremely
powerful and ruled over all nations.
and monotheism supplants
In 722 BCE, the Assyrians
polytheistic beliefs held There are no other gods conquered the northern kingdom of
among the tribes of Arabia. but YHWH. Israel and exiled its people. Around
130 years later, the Babylonians
JUDAISM 177
See also: Beliefs for new societies 56–57 ■ The battle between good and evil 60–65 ■ God’s covenant with Israel 168–75
■ Defining the indefinable 184–85 ■ The unity of divinity is necessary 280–81
Second Isaiah
The biblical Book of Isaiah
claims to be the work of a
prophet by that name who
lived in the late 8th and early
7th centuries BCE. However,
the latter portion of the book
deals with the Jews’ return
from exile in Babylon in the
6th century BCE. Modern
scholars refer to this section as
Second Isaiah or Deutero-
Isaiah and attribute it to one
or more 6th-century writers.
Second Isaiah echoes
the language and themes
of the first part of the book,
while also introducing new
ideas and motifs, including
explicit monotheism. Like
earlier prophetic works, it
The people of Israel were Around this time, the earliest clear interprets Israel’s exile as
vanquished by the Assyrians during articulation of monotheism in the punishment for the people’s
the 8th century BCE and led away to Bible emerged, in a collection of
exile, as shown on this relief from the sins, but proclaims that the
writings known as Second Isaiah. punishment has ended and it
palace of Sennacherib at Nineveh.
It emphasizes that YHWH created, will be followed by everlasting
and rules over, the world alone. glory when Israel finally
conquered the southern lands of Israel’s restoration is a sign of embraces YHWH alone.
the Jewish people, known as the YHWH’s control over history, which Many scholars believe that
Kingdom of Judah. In the ancient is both transcendent and personal: the final portion of the book
Middle East, such conquests were he determines the actions of kings was written later still and
usually interpreted as victories but also leads his people to salvation constitutes a Third Isaiah.
by the conquering people’s god like a shepherd guiding his flock.
over that of the defeated people—
so the supremacy of YHWH The problem of evil
appeared to be challenged. Yet the Monotheism raises the problem
prophets insisted that these events of evil: namely, if there is only
were all, in fact, YHWH’s doing: he one God, who is just and merciful,
was using the other nations to as the Bible insists, then how can
punish the Israelites for violating he preside over a world in which Before Me no God
their covenant with him (pp.168–75). the righteous suffer? This is the was formed, nor shall
theme of the biblical book of Job, there be any after Me.
No God but YHWH which tells of a righteous man who Isaiah 43:10
The Jews returned from exile in questions how God could have
Babylon to their homeland in 538 BCE, allowed his terrible misfortune. God’s
under the decree of Cyrus the Great, response suggests that there is no
emperor of Persia, where the answer: his rule over the world is
Zoroastrian faith predominated. beyond human understanding. ■
178
IN CONTEXT
THE MESSIAH
KEY TEXTS
The Dead Sea Scrolls
WHEN AND WHERE
WILL REDEEM
c.150 BCE–68 CE, Palestine
BEFORE
c.1005–965 BCE King David
reigns over Israel as God’s
ISRAEL
anointed one, or Messiah.
586 BCE The Babylonian
conquest and exile of the
Jews ends David’s dynasty.
AFTER
THE PROMISE OF A NEW AGE 1st century CE Jesus is
proclaimed the Messiah.
2nd century CE Simeon
Bar Kokhba is hailed as
the Messiah.
20th century CE Menachem
Mendel Schneerson, leader
of a Hasidic sect, promotes
Jewish observance as a way
to bring the Messiah; he is
himself hailed as the Messiah
by his followers.
T
hroughout much of their
recorded history, the people
of Israel were ruled by
kings. A ritual called anointing,
in which oil was poured on the
monarch’s head, functioned much
like a coronation and served to
indicate God’s election of the
ruler, who was referred to as
God’s anointed one, or in Hebrew,
Messiah. Originally, the term
Messiah was used for any anointed
leader, but over time it came to
refer to a specific ruler who would
arise in the future and rescue Israel
from its enemies, ushering in a
golden age—the Messianic Era.
Jewish tradition offers much
speculation as to the events that
JUDAISM 179
See also: God’s covenant with Israel 168–75 ■ Faith and the state 189
Israelites and Jews
■ The origins of modern political Zionism 196–97
Abraham’s son Isaac fathered
two sons, Esau and Jacob;
the Bible relates that God
changed Jacob’s name
to Israel. The families of
Perfect harmony Jacob’s 12 sons grew into the
and abundance 12 tribes of Israel (Israelites),
in nature. occupying an area roughly
All Jews return equivalent to the modern
Peace among territory of Israel. In the late
from exile
all nations. 10th century BCE, the Israelites
to Israel.
were divided into two
kingdoms—the southern
tribes formed the Kingdom
of Judah, while the northern
tribes formed the Kingdom
The Messianic Era of Israel. These two kingdoms
were subsequently conquered
and broken up—Israel by the
Assyrians in 722 BCE, and
Judah by the Babylonians in
586 BCE. However, the people
Universal of Judah endured as a distinct
Reinstatement
acceptance of group with a distinct religion.
of the Temple.
the Jewish God. From this point, they were
No sin or called “Jews” and their religion
evil; all Israel “Judaism”, although they still
will obey the thought of themselves as
commandments. Israelites. Modern citizens
of Israel are called Israelis.
RELIGIOUS LAW
CAN BE APPLIED
TO DAILY LIFE
WRITING THE ORAL LAW
J
ewish tradition maintains
IN CONTEXT that God gave Moses a body
Each page of the Talmud holds
the text of the Mishnah—a of laws and teachings, which
KEY TEXT
Hebrew account of the Oral Law he passed on to the people of Israel
The Talmud
(pp.168–75). Many of these are
WHEN AND WHERE recorded in the first five books
2nd–5th century CE, of the Hebrew Bible, the Torah,
Palestine and Babylonia but some Jews also believe
that Moses received additional
BEFORE The text of the Mishnah is
explained and discussed in teachings (transmitted verbally to
140 BCE –70 CE The Pharisees the community’s leaders, and then
the surrounding Gemara.
espouse belief in an Oral Law. from generation to generation),
2nd century CE Rebellions which became known as the Oral
against Roman rule prompt Law. This Oral Law included
additional details about, and
the destruction of many of the
interpretations of, the biblical laws.
Yeshivot (places for the study Texts of the Mishnah and From the 2nd century CE, Jewish
of the Torah); Rabbis write Gemara are then surrounded rabbis (a word meaning “scholars”
down the Oral Law. by other layers of text or “teachers”) set out to record the
and commentaries from Oral Law. The result was a large
AFTER a later period.
11th century CE Rabbi new body of literature. Many of
Solomon ben Isaac (Rashi) the rabbis’ writings are collected
produces a commentary on in a set of books called the
the Talmud, which becomes Talmud which, for observant
standard in printed editions. Jews, is the most important and
The text of the Talmud
authoritative religious text after
c.1170–80 The Jewish is a discussion.
the Bible itself.
philosopher Maimonides Part of the reason the Oral
composes the Mishneh Law is important is that the Bible’s
Torah, a work describing laws are frequently ambiguous.
and reviewing the laws For example, the Bible prohibits
Its arguments guide the reader working on the Sabbath, but it
mentioned in the Torah.
to the kernel of the truth. does not explain what kind of
work is prohibited. The Talmud
JUDAISM 183
See also: God’s covenant with Israel 168–75 ■ Progressive Judaism 190–95 ■ The pathway to harmonious living 272–75
GOD IS INCORPOREAL,
INDIVISIBLE, AND
UNIQUE
DEFINING THE INDEFINABLE
S
ince biblical times, belief in Middle Ages, a number of Jewish
IN CONTEXT one God has been a central philosophers in the Muslim sphere
feature of Jewish religion. Yet of influence sought to demonstrate
KEY THINKER
the idea that God is one may be that the oneness of God, properly
Moses Maimonides
understood in a variety of ways: understood, excluded all of these
WHEN AND WHERE that is, God could be the greatest of other possibilities.
12th century, North Africa many divine beings, or God could Moses Maimonides was a
be a single being composed of particularly influential philosopher
BEFORE several different elements. In the of this school. He explained the
30 BCE–50 CE The Jewish
philosopher Philo describes
the God of the Bible in Greek
philosophical terms, as lacking
God has no physical or God is all-powerful,
Aristotelian attributes. mental attributes that we because there can be
933 CE Rabbi Sa‘adia Gaon’s can describe, as these cannot nothing over which he
Book of Beliefs and Opinions exist outside his oneness. does not have control.
proposes several arguments
for God’s unity.
AFTER
13th century The Zohar,
a Jewish mystical text, God has a unity and nature unlike
propounds the idea that an anything that we can comprehend.
infinite and unified Godhead
became manifest in creation
and in ten emanations.
c.1730 Rabbi Moshe Chaim
Luzzatto’s The Way of God
states that God encompasses God is infinite, because we God is eternal, because we
all perfections, but these cannot imagine any limits to cannot conceive of a time at
exist in him as a single, his presence and power. which he did not exist.
essential attribute.
JUDAISM 185
See also: From monolatry to monotheism 176–77 ■ Mysticism and the kabbalah
188 ■ The unity of divinity is necessary 280–81
GOD AND
HUMANKIND ARE
IN COSMIC EXILE
MYSTICISM AND THE KABBALAH
T
he texts of Judaism include, teacher Isaac Luria, whose
IN CONTEXT along with the Hebrew interpretation of the Zohar gave
Bible (p.171) and the a unique description of the
KEY FIGURE
Talmud (a compendium of rabbinic creation that was applicable to
Isaac Luria
interpretations), a body of mystical the experience of Jews in exile.
WHEN AND WHERE knowledge known as kabbalah. It provided an explanation of good
16th century, Palestine Originally an oral tradition, it was and evil, and the way to redemption.
collected in the Zohar (“Divine In Luria’s interpretation, before
BEFORE Splendor”) in the late 13th century the creation only God existed. In
From 1200 BCE Zoroastrians in Spain. The Zohar and its order to make space to create the
believe that every act of right kabbalistic ideas took on a special world, he contracted or withdrew
moral conduct by humans significance for exiled Jews— into himself (tzimtzum): a form of
collectively aids the cosmic in particular for the scholars of self-imposed exile for the sake
struggle of good against evil. Safed in Palestine—after their of creation. A divine light streamed
expulsion from Iberia (present-day into the created space in the shape
10th–15th century CE Spain, Portugal, and Andorra) in of 10 sefirot—emanations of the
Christian mysticism flourishes the 1490s. Among them was the divine attributes of God. Adam
in Europe in the Middle Ages. Kadmon (meaning primordial
AFTER man) formed vessels to contain
18th century In Europe, the sefirot. But the vessels were too
as the Haskalah (Jewish delicate to hold the divine light: the
Enlightenment) dismisses upper three were damaged, and the
lower seven completely destroyed,
mysticism, Israel ben Eliezer
scattering the divine light. This
founds Hasidic Judaism in
destruction of the vessels (known
Ukraine, based on Isaac Luria’s
as shevirat ha-kelim or shevirah)
exposition of kabbalah. upset the process of creation and
1980s In Los Angeles, the divided the universe into those
Kabbalah Center attracts elements that assisted, and those
celebrity followers with that resisted, the creation: good and
Jewish men at penitential prayers,
teachings derived from the the Selichot, in Jerusalem. According evil, and the upper and lower worlds.
Judaic mystical tradition. to kabbalah, observance of the This damage can be repaired,
commandments will help lead Luria explained, by detaching the
people from exile to redemption. holy sparks of divine light to which
JUDAISM 187
See also: The promise of a new age 178–81 ■ Man as a manifestation
Isaac Luria
of God 188 ■ Sufism and the mystic tradition 282–83
Isaac ben Solomon Luria
Ashkenazi was born in 1534
in Jerusalem. His German
God contracted himself to make a void in which to father died when Isaac was
create the world yet maintain his transcendence. a child, so he moved with his
mother to stay with her brother
in Egypt. There he studied
rabbinical literature and
Jewish law with some of
the foremost scholars of the
day, including Rabbi Bezalel
There then followed But the vessels Ashkenazi, and traded as a
10 emanations, the containing the sefirot merchant. He married aged
sefirot, which together formed were not strong enough 15, but continued his studies.
a divine light revealing and were destroyed in Six years later he moved to an
God’s purpose. a catastrophe, shevirah. island on the Nile to study the
Zohar and the early kabbalists,
barely speaking to anyone,
and then only in Hebrew.
During this time, he said he
This is the source of both good and evil, had conversations with the
and is embodied in the Fall of Adam. long-dead prophet Elijah, who
told him to move to Safed,
a center of kabbalistic study
in Ottoman-ruled Palestine.
Working with Moses
Cordovero, Luria became
The damage cannot be repaired until the sparks of known for his teaching of the
the divine light are reunited, and until then… kabbalah, and his disciples
dubbed him HaARI, “the
Lion,” from the initials, in
Hebrew, of “holy Rabbi
Yitzhak.” He died in
Safed in 1572.
…God and humankind are
in cosmic exile.
the forces of evil in the lower world Although Luria did not leave a record
are clinging, and restoring them to of his interpretation of kabbalah, his
their source in the upper world: a esoteric teachings were preserved
process of tikkun olam—repairing by his followers. After his death, The Torah is concealed.
the world. The responsibility for his ideas spread quickly throughout It is only revealed to
this rests on the Jewish people, who Europe. Because of the rational, those who have reached
rescue a holy spark each time they comprehensive nature of Lurianic the level of the righteous.
obey a holy commandment, and kabbalah, kabbalistic study became The Talmud, Hagigah
pass one back to universal evil when a mainstay of Jewish thought, and in
they sin. Until all the divine sparks the 18th century it formed the basis
are reunited in the world of the good, for the Hasidic movement (p.188),
there can be no redemption, and which places particular emphasis on
humanity will live in cosmic exile. a mystical relationship with God. ■
188
THE HOLY
SPARK DWELLS
IN EVERYONE
MAN AS A MANIFESTATION OF GOD
H
asidic Judaism, founded They offered worshippers not only
IN CONTEXT by Israel ben Eliezer (known guidance, but also an opportunity to
as Baal Shem Tov, or the participate more actively in religious
KEY FIGURE
Besht) in the 1740s, is characterized observances. Where rabbinical
Israel ben Eliezer
by enthusiasm and rituals of mass teaching had become detached from
WHEN AND WHERE ecstasy, performed under the the people, charismatic leaders such
1740s, Ukraine guidance of a spiritual leader, or as Baal Shem Tov explained that the
zaddik. One of its main teachings Torah was not the exclusive realm of
BEFORE is that the divine dwells within the rabbis. Spiritual learning was
16th century Isaac Luria everyone. It is now one of the major available to all: the holy sparks,
and other teachers reawaken branches of ultra-Orthodox Judaism. or divine light—a manifestation
interest in the mystical The movement emerged from of God—outlined in the mystical
elements of the kabbalah. the Jewish communities of Central tradition of the Lurianic kabbalah
and Eastern Europe during the 18th could be found in everyone. ■
AFTER century. These communities were
19th century Hasidism often small and isolated, and their
gains adherents in reaction lifestyle was very different from that
to the intellectualization and of urban Jews living elsewhere.
secularization of Judaism. Mainstream Jewish philosophy had,
1917 The Bolshevik Revolution by then, become more intellectual,
in Russia breaks up many and theology more legalistic. This
Hasidic communities. development was at odds with the
needs of the inhabitants of small
1930s With the rise of Nazism, villages, or shtetls, especially in
Jews from Germany, Eastern areas such as southern Poland.
Europe, and Russia flee to the To maintain cohesion in these
US; all Hasidic communities in Hasidic men dance at a wedding
communities, especially in the celebration. The distinctive clothing of
Europe are destroyed during face of persecution by the Cossacks Hasidic Jews, drawn from earlier styles
World War II. (East Slavic people), religious leaders of Eastern European dress, sets them
traveled around from place to place. apart from other branches of Judaism.
1948 The State of Israel is
founded. Many displaced
See also: Mysticism and the kabbalah 186–87 ■ Mystical experience in
Hasidic Jews settle there. Christianity 238 ■ Sufism and the mystic tradition 282–83
JUDAISM 189
JUDAISM IS A
RELIGION, NOT
A NATIONALITY
FAITH AND THE STATE
F
ollowing in the wake of the
IN CONTEXT Enlightenment in Europe,
the Haskalah movement,
KEY FIGURE
or Jewish Enlightenment, was
Moses Mendelssohn
inspired largely by the work
WHEN AND WHERE of the German Jewish philosopher
The state has physical power
Late 18th century, Germany Moses Mendelssohn. He believed
that the persecution endured by the
and uses it when necessary;
BEFORE Jews was largely a result of their
the power of religion is
135 CE The Romans drive the separateness from the societies love and beneficence.
Jews from the Land of Israel. in which they lived. Moses Mendelssohn
His criticism of the separation
AFTER
of Jews and Gentiles (non-Jews)
1770s–1880 The Haskalah or
also raised the issue of what it
Jewish Enlightenment: Jews, meant to be Jewish. In his opinion,
especially in western Europe, Judaism was a religion that should
become increasingly integrated be treated in the same way as any
into their adopted societies. other in a tolerant, pluralistic part in secular cultural life. In
1791 The emancipation of society, and its followers should be particular, he promoted the idea
Jews in France during the allowed freedom of conscience as of Jews learning the local language
French Revolution is followed citizens of the country in which —as he had done—to help integrate
by emancipation in Holland, they lived; conversely, being themselves better into non-Jewish
a Jew did not imply belonging societies, and published his own
and later in the countries
to a separate nation or people. translation of the Torah into German.
conquered by Napoleon.
In his book Jerusalem: or On Although Mendelssohn was
1896 Theodor Herzl publishes Religious Power and Judaism (1783), himself a practicing Orthodox
The Jewish State and starts Mendelssohn argued not only for Jew, his ideas and the Haskalah
the modern Zionist movement. emancipation of the Jews, but also movement he inspired built the
that they should “come out of the foundation for Reform Judaism in
19th century Reform Judaism
ghettos” and play a more active the 19th century. ■
is inspired by the Haskalah.
1948 The State of Israel See also: God’s covenant with Israel 168–75 ■ Progressive Judaism 190–95
■ The origins of modern political Zionism 196–97
is founded.
DRAW FROM THE PAST,
LIVE IN THE PRESENT,
WORK FOR THE
FUTURE
PROGRESSIVE JUDAISM
192 PROGRESSIVE JUDAISM
J
ewish emancipation in
IN CONTEXT Europe began in Germany in
the 18th century. Previously,
KEY MOVEMENT
Jews had been restricted in where
Progressive Judaism
they could live, and had been The Talmud speaks with
WHEN AND WHERE barred from entering universities
the ideology of its own time,
19th century, and the professions, but the force
of European Enlightenment led to
and for that time it was right.
Europe and US I speak for the higher ideology
them being given equal rights as
BEFORE citizens. Yiddish-speaking Jews of my own time, and for
19th century The German learned German, became part of this age I am right.
Enlightment offers Jews the the modern world, and began to Extreme reformers in
possibility of secular education feel the freedom of individuality. 19th-century Germany
and participation in society. Many Jews started looking to
secular education—rather than
AFTER Jewish tradition—as a means
1840 The West London of achieving their potential.
Synagogue is established. Progressive Judaism, which
1872 The Reform Academy began with the Reform movement that had kept them apart from
Hochschule für die Wissen- in Germany, was a response society. The authority of the classical
schaft des Judentums is to these changes, to modernity, rabbis was now seen to be a
established in Berlin. and to the new freedoms. function of its time, and was
The earliest and most visible also called into question.
1885 Reform Judaism reforms emerged in Berlin and Some, faced with this new
flourishes in the US. The Hamburg. They concerned the insight and the opportunities
Pittsburgh Platform defines synagogue service: the sermon it gave rise to, abandoned their
the principles of Reform. would be given in German, and Judaism in favor of secular
men and women would sit together nationalism. Others sought instead
20th century Progressive
rather than being segregated. More to modernize Judaism in the
synagogues and communal radically, the impact of modern light of historical, academic study
organizations are established biblical scholarship led some Jews of the religion (Wissenschaft des
throughout the world. to question the divine authority of Judentums). The pace of change
the biblical texts, and the traditions was too rapid for some, and various
Abraham Geiger Abraham Geiger was born in was appointed as second rabbi
Frankfurt-am-Main, Germany, in Breslau, in 1838, Geiger found
in 1810. He was educated in the his authority disputed by the
Jewish and German classics, and existing, traditionalist rabbi:
studied Arabic for his dissertation, both were officially rabbis of the
“What Did Muhammad Take from whole community, but eventually
Judaism?”. A passionate advocate each served his own faction.
of Wissenschaft des Judentums, Geiger later presided as the
the academic study of Judaism, he rabbi in Frankfurt and then in
set out to distill Judaism’s eternal Berlin, and also taught at the
spiritual and ethical core through new Reform Academy for two
groundbreaking scholarship. He years before his death in 1874.
sought to modernize Judaism
as a whole rather than to create Key works
a separate movement, rejecting
practices if their historical reason 1857 The Original Text and
was no longer relevant. When he Translations of the Bible
JUDAISM 193
See also: The promise of a new age 178–81 ■ The origins of modern political Zionism 196–97 ■ The Protestant Reformation
230–37 ■ The rise of Islamic revivalism 286–90 ■ The compatibility of faith 291
IN CONTEXT
The solution to the
KEY FIGURE Since being driven into
“Jewish question” is not
Theodor Herzl exile, Jews have dreamed
assimilation, but the
of returning to Zion,
establishment of a
WHEN AND WHERE the Land of Israel.
Jewish nation state.
1896, Austria-Hungary
BEFORE
586 BCE King Nebuchadnezzar
of Babylon destroys the Temple
in Jerusalem and drives the
Jews into exile. From 538 BCE … and if there are
This requires sufficient numbers of
the Jews start to return to the lobbying of the Jewish people who want it,
Land of Israel, in accordance international community… it can be achieved.
with a decree from Persian
emperor Cyrus the Great.
70 CE The Romans destroy the
second Temple; the Jews are
exiled again.
635 The Islamic Caliphate If you will it, it is no dream.
conquers Palestine; in 1516 the
Ottoman Empire takes control
of the region.
E
ver since their expulsion hopes were consolidated into a
AFTER from their homeland by political movement, Zionism, which
1882–1948 Jews from the the Babylonians and the aimed to establish a nation state in
diaspora immigrate to the Romans, many among the Jewish Palestine for the Jewish people.
Land of Israel in waves. diaspora had dreamed of a return to During the Haskalah, or
Eretz Yisrael, the Land of Israel, also Jewish Enlightenment, Jewish
1948 The State of Israel known as Zion after Mount Zion in thinkers inspired by Moses
is founded. Jerusalem. It was not until the late Mendelssohn (p.189) had urged
19th century, however, that their Jews to assimilate themselves
JUDAISM 197
See also: God’s covenant with Israel 168–75 ■ Faith and the state 189
■ Ras Tafari is our Savior 314–15
A Jewish homeland
In Herzl’s short book The Jewish
I consider the Jewish
State, published in 1896, which
question neither a social he described as a “proposal of
nor a religious one… a modern solution for the Jewish
It is a national question. question,” he set out the argument
Theodor Herzl for establishing a Jewish homeland. Theodor Herzl
The obvious choice for this was
the Land of Israel, then a part of Theodor Herzl was born in
Ottoman-ruled Palestine. This 1860 in Pest, part of modern-
day Budapest. He moved to
proposal marked the beginning
Vienna with his family when
of modern Zionism as a political he was 18. There he studied
movement, rather than a theological law, and, in 1839, after a brief
into the culture of their adopted aspiration. The following year, legal career, he moved to
countries as a way to overcome the 1897, Herzl set up an international Paris. Here he worked as a
persecution they had suffered. In conference, the First Zionist correspondent for the Neue
much of western Europe and the Congress, at which it became clear Freie Presse (New Free Press)
US, emancipation had allowed that the political will for a Jewish and as a theater writer.
middle-class Jews, in particular, state existed, and was achievable After reporting on the
to integrate into society. if Jews in sufficent numbers were Dreyfus Affair of the 1890s,
One such Jew, the journalist to put pressure on the international in which a Jewish officer
and writer Theodor Herzl, firmly community for its foundation. A was framed for treason by
believed in Jewish assimilation, phrase from Herzl’s novel Old New the military, he concluded that
until he experienced extreme Land was adopted as the Zionist the establishment of a Jewish
homeland in Zion, the Land
anti-Semitic feeling in France, movement’s rallying cry: “If you
of Israel, was essential. He
an ostensibly liberal country. He will it, it is no dream”. ■
outlined his arguments in The
came to realize that ghettoization Jewish State and elaborated
and anti-Semitism were inevitable: on them in his novel, Old New
Jews tended to gravitate to places Land. Herzl worked tirelessly
where they were not likely to be to promote the ideals of
persecuted, but once they had Zionism: he organized the first
immigrated in significant numbers congress of Zionism in Basel,
to these places, anti-Jewish feeling Switzerland, in 1897, and was
arose, and persecution followed. president of the World Zionist
Similarly, even where Jews had Organization until his death
tried to blend in with the local in 1904. In 1949 his remains
community and behave as loyal were moved from Vienna
citizens, they were still treated as and reburied in Jerusalem.
aliens and driven into isolation.
Key works
He concluded that the solution
Israel’s flag, adopted in 1948, is
to these problems lay not in derived from a design produced for the 1896 The Jewish State
assimilation, but in the large-scale First Zionist Congress. It is inspired 1902 Old New Land
separation of Jewish people into by the tallit, or blue-bordered prayer
one place. Anti-Semitism could not shawl, and the Star of David.
198
E
ver since their expulsion
IN CONTEXT from Israel by the Romans
in 70 CE, the Jews have
KEY MOVEMENT
endured exile and persecution.
Holocaust theology
However, the Holocaust, or Sho’ah
WHEN AND WHERE (catastrophe)—the systematic Never shall I forget those
Mid-20th century, Europe genocide of around 6 million Jews, moments that murdered
or two-thirds of the European my God and my soul.
BEFORE Jewish population—was an event Elie Wiesel
1516 The Republic of Venice of unprecedented horror that tested
establishes the ghetto, which the faith of the Jewish people in
becomes the model for ghettos their covenant with God. This
created across Europe to challenge raised an important
isolate Jewish communities. question: was the Holocaust God’s
doing, or did he stand aside and
1850s Anti-Semitism in
allow it to happen? Jewish theology others saw it as punishment for
Europe takes on a more
struggled to provide answers, and a the sin of abandoning God and his
secular, racist stance.
number of Jews lost faith, believing laws, which God had responded to
1880s Beginning of a series of God had abandoned his people. with his own temporary absence.
pogroms—violent anti-Jewish A further group saw the Sho’ah as
mob attacks—in Russia. The greatest test separate from God, an example of
Different groups of Jews offered a human free will and its fallibility,
1930s Hitler becomes German range of other interpretations of the perhaps explained in kabbalistic
Chancellor, and begins a Holocaust. Some saw it as being no terms as a stage of God’s tzimtzum,
campaign of harassment and different from the persecutions they or contraction, from the world.
genocide against Jews. had already suffered, except in A whole new field of Holocaust
AFTER scale. They defined it as an extreme theology has since emerged,
1945 Jews are liberated from example of suffering in the world, examining these various responses,
concentration camps at the end a test of faith, and a revelation and reappraising the covenant in
of World War II and resettled, calling for an affirmation of survival; the light of the Sho’ah. ■
many in the US and later in
See also: God’s covenant with Israel 168–75 ■ Mysticism and the kabbalah
the newly formed State of Israel.
186–87 ■ The origins of modern political Zionism 196–97
JUDAISM 199
WOMEN CAN
BE RABBIS
GENDER AND THE COVENANT
P
aradoxically, while Jewish allowing women to participate
IN CONTEXT identity is traditionally in rituals and as witnesses, and
transmitted matrilineally bringing in bat mitzvah ceremonies
KEY MOVEMENT
(p.175), women have been excluded (the female equivalent of the bar
Feminism in Judaism
from participation in the observance mitzvah). Women were finally
WHEN AND WHERE of Judaism for much of its history. admitted into rabbinical schools in
Late 20th century, Until the 19th century, the idea the 1980s. Today, only Orthodox
US and Europe of women reading from the Torah Judaism still holds out against the
to a congregation, for example, ordination of women rabbis, but in
BEFORE or leading prayer as a cantor was all branches of the faith, women are
19th century The Reform considered heretical; the notion of taking an increasingly active, if not
movement emerges in a female rabbi was unthinkable. leading, role in the synagogue. ■
Judaism, and with it the However, with the foundation
question of women taking of liberal Reform Judaism, and
a fuller role in the covenant. especially in the progressive
Reconstructionist movement,
1893 The National Council
the subject of women’s role in the
of Jewish Women is founded
covenant became an issue of
after the World Parliament increasing importance. The first
of Religions in Chicago. woman rabbi was ordained in the
1912 The Women’s Zionist Reform movement in Germany in
Organization of America, 1935. In the US, the UK, and
Hadassah, is founded. elsewhere in Europe, real pressure
for change came with the rise of
1922 The idea of ordaining feminism in the 1970s. The Reform
women rabbis is discussed at movement in the US ordained
the Central Conference of The festival of Hanukkah is
its first woman rabbi in 1972, and celebrated here by Barbara Aiello, the
American Rabbis, but no three years later a female cantor. first female rabbi in Italy. Granting girls
agreement is reached. Following this lead, other branches equal access to religious education has
1935 The first woman rabbi, of Judaism began to initiate reforms, transformed their role in Judaism.
Regina Jonas, is ordained in
See also: God’s covenant with Israel 168–75 ■ Writing the Oral law 182–83
Berlin, Germany.
■ Progressive Judaism 190–95
CHRISTI
FROM 1ST
CENTURY CE
ANITY
202 INTRODUCTION
Jesus is baptized by All but one of the The Nicene Creed During the Great
John the Baptist and apostles, John, is established at the Schism, Christianity
his ministry begins. are martyred. Council of Nicea and is divided into Western
later ratified as the (Roman Catholic) and
universal creed of Eastern (Orthodox)
the Christian Church. branches.
C
hristianity takes its Christians give great significance sacraments. Especially significant
name from the Greek word to the story of Jesus’s crucifixion, are the sacraments of baptism and
christós, a translation of resurrection, and ascension to the Eucharist—the taking of bread
the Hebrew word for messiah, or heaven. It is the central belief of and wine, as Jesus instructed his
anointed one. This title was given Christianity that Jesus suffered, followers at the Last Supper. Others
to Jesus by a Jewish sect who died, and was buried, before being include confirmation, holy orders
considered him to be the Messiah resurrected from the dead—in (the ordination of ministers),
—the savior prophesied in the order to grant salvation to those confession, the anointing of the
Tanakh, the Hebrew Bible—and who believe in him—and that sick, and matrimony—although
the Son of God in human form. he then ascended to heaven not all of these are accepted by
Christians believe that Jesus’s to rule alongside God the Father. every Christian denomination.
arrival on earth heralded a New Implicit in this belief is the
Covenant or New Testament acceptance that Jesus was, as the Persecution to adoption
with God that followed the Old Son of God, God incarnate, both From its beginnings in Roman
Testament covenants between human and divine, and not merely Judea to its status as the religion
God and the Jewish people. a prophet. This led to the concept with most adherents in the world
The main beliefs of Christianity of the Trinity, that the one God today, Christianity has shaped
are based on the life and teachings exists in three distinct forms—the the culture of much of Western
of Jesus as recorded by his Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. civilization. The early Christians
followers in the 1st century CE The life of Jesus also provides were persecuted by both Jewish
in the Gospels (meaning “good a framework for the rituals of authorities and the Roman Empire,
news”) and the Epistles (or letters) Christian worship, the most and many were put to death.
of the New Testament. important of which are known as Nevertheless, the faith persisted
CHRISTIANITY 203
A series of religious
wars, the Crusades, Martin Luther
is launched by the initiates the Protestant John Wesley
Catholic Church to A rival papacy Reformation in Germany founds the Methodist
recapture Jerusalem to Rome is by publishing his movement, and other
from Muslim established in 95 Theses, criticizing Protestant Churches
occupation. Avignon, France. clerical abuses. emerge in Europe.
Thomas Aquinas The Spanish Inquisition, Catholics and The Scopes Monkey
publishes Summa the most notorious of the Protestants wage Trial pits evolutionary
Theologica, which inquisitions instituted to war in France theory against
becomes the basis for suppress heresy, is founded (known as the Biblical Creation.
official Catholic dogma. by King Ferdinand and Wars of Religion).
Queen Isabella.
under the leadership of the early Church over papal authority—the initially condemned: only centuries
Church. Gradually, Christianity so-called Great Schism—divided after his death was it adopted as
came to be tolerated by Roman Christianity into two distinct official Catholic dogma.
leaders, and, after the Council of branches, the Western (Roman The Renaissance of the 14th
Nicea, where a universal Christian Catholic) Church and the Eastern and 15th centuries heralded a new
creed was agreed, it was eventually (Orthodox) Church. Christianity challenge to the authority of the
adopted as the official religion of also faced a challenge from the Church in the form of humanism
the Roman Empire in 380 CE. Islamic Empire from the 8th and the beginnings of a scientific
From then on, Christianity century on, and, through the Golden Age. The revival of interest
became a powerful force in the 12th and 13th centuries, fought in classical learning prompted
political and cultural life of Europe a series of Crusades to recapture criticism of the Catholic Church,
and the Middle East. Its influence Jerusalem from the Muslims. and the Protestant Reformation
spread rapidly and produced such was triggered by publication of
thinkers as Augustine of Hippo, Church power Martin Luther’s 95 Theses in 1517.
a convert to Christianity, who The Catholic Church retained Protestantism began to flourish in
integrated Greek philosophical its influence in Europe, and its northern Europe and paved the way
ideas into the doctrine. With the dogma dominated learning and for new Christian denominations.
decline and fall of the Roman culture throughout the Middle Of the roughly 2.2 billion Christians
Empire, power in Europe moved Ages. Philosophical and scientific worldwide today (around a third of
to the popes, who were considered ideas were often seen as heretical, the world’s population), more than
the natural successors of the and even the great Thomas Aquinas half are Catholic, roughly one third
apostles and the first bishops. found his application of Aristotelian are Protestant, and the remainder
In the 11th century, a split in the reasoning to Christian theology are Orthodox. ■
204
IN CONTEXT
JESUS IS THE
KEY FIGURE
Jesus of Nazareth
WHEN AND WHERE
BEGINNING
4 BCE–30 CE, Judea
BEFORE
c.700 BCE The Jewish
prophet Isaiah foretells
OF THE END
the coming rule of God.
6th century BCE During the
exile of the Israelites in
Babylon, the prophet Daniel
has a vision of the end of
A new religion
Jesus invited those who heard
him to allow God’s kingdom and
its values into their own lives
Jesus’s core message was that God was now king, and the lame without delay. He taught that the
God’s long-awaited kingdom was would jump for joy. The biblical kingdom of God is both now, and
now arriving. Some people who accounts of Jesus’s ministry are full not yet, here, that it has begun
heard his message thought that he of stories of healings just like these. and continues to grow whenever
intended to raise an army to expel In addition, Jesus said there was people choose to live by the rule
the Romans. However, his goal was no longer any barrier to entering of God, embracing his values
not Israel’s political independence, God’s kingdom. Until that time, the and experiencing healing and
but the liberation of the entire Jewish faith had viewed non-Jews forgiveness. However, Jesus also
world from all evil. According to as beyond salvation, along with acknowledged that there would
a collection of Jesus’s teachings, those people who failed to adhere be a future moment when, at the
known as the Sermon on the Mount to God’s laws (sinners), but Jesus climactic end of the present world
(found in the Gospel of St. Matthew said that even these groups would order, God’s rule would triumph
in the New Testament), Jesus be welcomed into the kingdom. over all other kingdoms. When this
announced that God’s kingdom Jesus demonstrated the forgiveness day of judgment arrived, it would
now held sway over both heaven of sinners by sharing meals—one of be too late to decide to be part of
and earth, and that under this new the most intimate and meaningful
rule the distorted values of human of Jewish activities—with social
kingdoms would be overturned. outcasts and religious renegades.
God’s kingdom, he said, belonged The future was likened to a
not to the greedy, the self-assured, banquet prepared by God, to
and the warriors, but to the poor, which people from all over the
the meek, and the peacemakers. world would be invited. Blessed are the poor in
But people were confused: wasn’t spirit, for theirs is the
All are welcome the kingdom of God supposed to kingdom of heaven.
Jesus’s message was manifested be the climax of world history? Jesus (Matthew 5:3)
in his actions. Centuries earlier, the If so, why did the world not end
Jewish prophet Isaiah had said that with Jesus’s announcement? The
when God’s kingdom came, there answer that Jesus gave them was
would be wonderful miracles of that the kingdom would not arrive
healing: the blind would be able to all at once, as most people had
see, and the deaf able to hear that expected. In one of his many
CHRISTIANITY 207
How can the end have a beginning? Jesus said
that the final replacement of our present world with
the kingdom of God would be delayed, giving people
time to secure themselves a place in that kingdom
by believing in him.
God’s new world. This gave his the Lord’s Prayer, taught by Jesus champion movements for social
message a note of urgency. People himself, asks that God’s kingdom change; for example, Martin Luther
needed to make a decision now; far come on earth “as it is in heaven.” King and the civil rights movement
from being a distant dream, the In offering this prayer, Christians in the United States, Gustavo
end had already begun. are asking for the earthly advent of Gutiérrez and the liberation of the
The idea that Jesus marked the God’s kingdom now, even as they poor in South America, and
beginning of the end led directly wait for it to arrive in fullness at Desmond Tutu and the end of
to the separation of Christianity the end of present world history. apartheid in South Africa.
from its Jewish roots. The early
followers of Jesus claimed that God’s kingdom today The end of all things
they no longer had to wait to Historically, the Christian church The idea that Jesus’s ministry
discover who God’s Messiah has sometimes understood the marked the beginning of the
would be, because Jesus was “kingdom of God” or “kingdom of end is known in theology
that Messiah—the one God had heaven” as a purely spiritual realm by the term inaugurated
appointed to bring his kingdom to that leaves the physical world eschatology. Eschatology is a
earth. However, Jesus’s opponents unaffected. But in the early 20th word that itself evolved from two
refused to believe this and decided century, New Testament scholars Greek words meaning “last” and
to silence him by killing him. When began to take a new interest in the “study,” and it refers to the study
Jesus’s followers did not give up Jewish context of Jesus’s ministry, of the end of things, or the end of
their beliefs even after Jesus died, and since then Jesus’s message all things—the end of the world.
and in fact enlarged on them—by about the kingdom of God has had To Christians, Jesus’s message
claiming that God had confounded an especially prominent place in about God’s kingdom gives
Jesus’s opponents by raising him Christian theology. By paying Christianity an inaugurated
from the dead—it became clear closer attention to the background eschatology: the end of all things
that their faith, led by a figure who of Jesus’s original message, the was inaugurated (begun but not
could not be conquered by death, political and economic implications completed) by his message. The
was something new and distinct of the arrival of God’s kingdom fact that the presence of God’s
within the catalog of religions. have become clearer. Christians kingdom today in the lives of
From the earliest days, now believe that the kingdom Christians can still only be
Christianity has been defined by occurs wherever present reality called the beginning of the end
the conviction that Jesus’s ministry and its values are transformed is a reminder that the Christian
was the beginning of the end. One by the rule of God, a belief that faith still looks toward a final,
of the key prayers of Christianity, has inspired many Christians to definitive action by God. ■
208
M
any ancient kings and humankind—through the symbolic
IN CONTEXT emperors claimed that to the literal. The last of these was
they had been adopted claimed by the first Christians as
KEY BELIEVERS
by the gods, thereby giving the truth. They pointed to the
Early Christians
themselves divine legitimacy extraordinary miracles of Jesus’s
WHEN AND WHERE to rule. On their deaths, some, ministry decribed in the Gospels,
1st century CE, communities such as Julius Caesar, were and especially to his resurrection
around the Mediterranean elevated to divine status—a from the dead, as evidence of his
process that was known as unique place in God’s plan.
BEFORE apotheosis—and worshipped.
From c.500 BCE Jewish In the Gospels, Jesus calls God God has become human
scriptures use the term son his Father many times, in ways that The early Christians also claimed
of God to describe God’s are open to many interpretations, that Jesus’s divine status was
earthly representative. from the broadest—that God, as unlike that of other rulers. Jesus
the creator, is the Father of all was not adopted by God as
c.30 CE Jesus is arrested
a reward for his obedience; rather,
and accused of blasphemy
Jesus had always been God’s Son,
by the Jewish authorities for
even from before his birth, and so
claiming to be the son of he shared God’s divine nature
God. He is sent for trial by the throughout his human life.
Roman governor Pontius Pilate This idea, known as the
on charges of sedition, and You are the Christ, incarnation, became a central
condemned to death. the Son of the belief of Christianity. It is the
AFTER
living God. opposite of apotheosis; in the
325 CE The Nicene Creed
Matthew 16:15 incarnation, the eternally divine
Son of God took on humanity in
states that Jesus is the
the person of Jesus. God had
divine Son of God, using the
sent his divine Son into the world
phrase “of one substance
as a human in order to bring his
with the Father.” kingdom from heaven to earth. ■
451 CE The Chalcedonian
Creed affirms Jesus as both See also: Beliefs for new societies 56–57 ■ The promise of a new age 178–81
■ A divine trinity 212–19 ■ The Prophet and the origins of Islam 252–53
fully God and fully human.
CHRISTIANITY 209
O
n 9 March 203 CE, two
IN CONTEXT young mothers—a Roman
noblewoman, Perpetua,
KEY DEVELOPMENT
and her slave Felicity—were led
Persecution of the
into the arena at Carthage with
early Christians
other Christians, where they were
WHEN AND WHERE flogged, mauled by wild beasts,
c.64–313 CE, Roman Empire and finally executed. The story
of these two female martyrs was
BEFORE recorded in The Passion of Perpetua
c.30 CE Jesus is crucified, and Felicity, in order to inspire
having told his followers to other Christians to stay committed The early martyrs went to their
expect persecution in turn. to their faith even when threatened deaths willingly, believing that their
with persecution and death. example would seed Christianity’s
1st century CE In response message into other hearts and minds.
to oppression by the Roman
Death brings life
authorities in Jerusalem,
The theologian Tertullian, writing were willing to be put to death
Christianity becomes an
in Carthage at that time, developed rather than renounce their belief
underground movement, and a Christian understanding of that Jesus was the world’s divinely
Christians leave the city and martyrdom, noting that “The blood appointed and rightful ruler,
spread out across the Empire. of the Christians is the seed.” The both intrigued and attracted
AFTER Roman emperors intended their nonbelievers.
3rd century A breakaway waves of persecution to deter This understanding of
Christian sect opposes citizens from embracing a faith martyrdom assisted the growth
readmitting to the Church that put the authority of Jesus of Christianity throughout history,
above that of the state. However, because it gave Christians the
those who had renounced their
as Tertullian argued, far from confidence that even the most
faith to avoid persecution.
being an obstacle to the growth of violent opposition to their message
16th century Catholic and Christianity, persecution helped it was not a sign of failure, but rather
Protestant factions in Europe to spread. The fact that Christians the seed of success. ■
persecute each other, each
seeing their suffering as proof See also: God’s covenant with Israel 168–75 ■ Faith and the state 189
■ The Protestant Reformation 230–37 ■ The rise of Islamic revivalism 286–90
of their faithfulness.
210
W
hat happens when we
IN CONTEXT die? Do we continue
God does not change. to exist in some form or
KEY FIGURE
does our entire being disintegrate
Origen
like our bodies? Many thinkers in
WHEN AND WHERE the ancient world considered these
3rd century CE, Egypt and questions and the issues arising
Palestine from them. Greek thought was
God’s relationship influential in the Roman Empire,
BEFORE with humans therefore and Plato’s ideas on these subjects
4th century BCE The Greek will not change.
gained widespread support in the
philosopher Plato popularizes centuries before Jesus’s birth,
Socratic teaching that death is death, and resurrection.
the separation of the immortal Plato’s thinking was dualist.
soul from the mortal body. He believed there were two parts
Human bodies die, so God’s to human life: the physical body,
c.30 CE At the time of Jesus’s which constantly changes and
unchanging relationship
death, Jewish thought is cannot be with them. eventually dies; and the thinking
divided: the Pharisees believe soul, which exists eternally.
in an actual, bodily resurrection In the third century CE, the
after death for God’s faithful, theologian Origen of Alexandria
while the Sadducee sect explained elements of the Christian
denies any form of afterlife. Humans must have message using terms from Greek
immortal souls, so that philosophy. In particular, he
AFTER
their relationship with developed Plato’s thinking into
13th century Dante’s Divine God can go on. a Christian understanding of the
Comedy encapsulates the soul that would last for centuries.
medieval view of the soul’s
journey after death. Only souls matter
1513 The Fifth Lateran Like Plato, Origen believed that
Council of the Church declares The body may while human bodies are mortal
the immortality of the soul to die but the soul and die, souls are immortal. For
be orthodox Christian belief. will live on. Origen, however, the immortality
of the soul is a direct implication
CHRISTIANITY 211
See also: Physical and mental discipline 112–13 ■ Man as a manifestation of
God 188 ■ The ultimate reward for the righteous 279
I
n a math test, it is safe to A standardized way of speaking Judaism is monotheistic, so is
assume that 1 + 1 + 1 = 3, but about God, known as the doctrine Christianity—Christians, like Jews,
not so in a theology exam. One of the Trinity, was settled upon by believe in just one God. But how
of the most notorious conundrums of members of the early Church some could the first Christians claim to
the Christian faith is that to describe 300 years after the death of Jesus. be monotheistic if they worshipped
God, 1 + 1 + 1 = 1, not 3. Some of A range of ideas had emerged as both Jesus as God and the God
the greatest Christian theologians the faith spread across the Roman whom Jesus called Father? And
have struggled to explain how Empire and beyond, so Church how did this relate to the Spirit,
God can be three distinct persons leaders articulated the doctrine whom Jesus said he would send, so
(Father, Son, and Holy Spirit) yet as a response. that God’s presence would remain
remain only one God. However, with Christians? Since the Spirit
this idea, which is known as the Rooted in Judaism was also worshipped as God, did
doctrine of the Trinity, is a central The roots of Christianity are in this mean that Christians were
plank in Christian theology, Judaism—the religion into which tri-theists (believing in three gods)
setting its understanding of Jesus was born and of which he rather than monotheists?
God apart from other religions. claimed to be the Messiah. Just as The doctrine of the Trinity is an
CHRISTIANITY 215
See also: From monolatry to monotheism 176–77 ■ Jesus’s divine identity 208 ■ The unity of divinity
is necessary 280–81
ot
Defining principle
The doctrine of the Trinity is
often considered one of the most
obscure and complicated aspects
of Christian theology. Nonetheless,
Christians hold to the doctrine
because they believe it reflects a
vital characteristic of God. Just as
in the debates with the Arians and
Sabellians in the 4th century CE, the
idea of the Trinity is essential to
orthodox Christian faith. Groups,
such as the Jehovah’s Witnesses and
the Unitarians, who hold conflicting
views on this issue are generally not
considered authentically Christian
by the mainstream Church.
One interesting development in
recent times has been the notion
of the social Trinity, in which the
cooperation of the three persons of
GOD’S GRACE
NEVER FAILS
AUGUSTINE AND FREE WILL
D
o we choose God, or does theologian Augustine to come up
IN CONTEXT God choose us? This with a way of explaining how God’s
question has troubled choice relates to human choice.
KEY FIGURE
Christian thinkers since the
Augustine of Hippo
earliest days of the Church. At its The Pelagian controversy
WHEN AND WHERE heart is the tricky philosophical Augustine was propelled into the
354–430 CE, issue of free will, translated into debate over free will in the early
present-day Algeria the context of the Christian faith. 5th century when Pelagius, a Celtic
It took the brilliant mind of the monk, arrived in North Africa. The
BEFORE
From c.1000 BCE The Jews
understand themselves to
be chosen by God because Salvation is by God’s grace,
of his grace, not by virtue of not human capability.
their inherent goodness.
c.30 CE Jesus teaches his
followers about grace: “You
didn’t choose me. I chose you.” The human will is weak. God’s grace cannot fail.
AFTER
418 CE Augustine’s teaching
on grace is accepted by the
Church and Pelagius is
condemned as a heretic at
The weak human will God gives grace to
the Council of Carthage. always choose sin people to enable them
16th century Calvin develops over God. to choose him.
Augustine’s thought in his
doctrine of predestination,
which becomes a central
element of the theology of
the Protestant Reformation. Humans are thus not
free to choose God.
CHRISTIANITY 221
See also: God’s covenant with Israel 168–69 ■ Why prayer works 246–47
■ Striving in the way of God 278
IN THE WORLD,
BUT NOT OF
THE WORLD
SERVING GOD ON BEHALF OF OTHERS
N
owadays, monasteries
IN CONTEXT are sometimes thought
Christians have to live
of as relics from a bygone
KEY MOVEMENT in the world.
age. However, when they began
Monasticism
to flourish in the early medieval
WHEN AND WHERE period, after the collapse of the
From 3rd century CE, Roman Empire in the 5th century,
Mediterranean they were at the forefront of
The world is full of society. In a Europe that, culturally
BEFORE distractions from God. speaking, was entering what
2nd century BCE–1st we now know as the Dark Ages,
century CE Within Judaism, monasteries became beacons of
ascetic Essenes gather in learning and innovation. These
monastery-type communities powerful institutions embodied
in order to live lives of purity a central idea in Christianity:
and abstinence. By retreating from the world, that some people can be set apart
monks and nuns can focus from the demands of conventional
AFTER on their spiritual life. living in order to focus on leading
529 CE St. Benedict establishes a spiritual life that will be of benefit
a monastic community in Italy; to others as well as themselves. An
in 817 his Rule becomes the important aspect of monasticism
authorized set of precepts for has always been praying for people
all monks in Western Europe. Without distractions, they can in the wider world.
pray for and seek to better
11th century St. Francis and the world around them.
St Clare found the Franciscan From caves to cloisters
Monasticism has its roots in the
order of monks, and the Order
lives of the “fathers and mothers”
of St. Clare for nuns.
who lived in the Egyptian desert,
16th century Monasteries from the 3rd century CE. These early
that are seen as too wealthy Monasticism is about monks and nuns had retreated from
and corrupt are closed during being in the world, the world in order to live simple
the Protestant Reformation but not of the world. lives of devotion and prayer. They
in Europe. took Jesus’s words seriously—
“What good is it to gain the whole
CHRISTIANITY 223
See also: Self-denial leads to spiritual liberation 68–71 ■ Higher levels of teaching 101 ■ The purpose of monastic vows 145
■ Immortality in Christianity 210–211 ■ The Protestant Reformation 230–37
Eastern monasticism
While Western European practices, they still embody
monasticism is renowned for the idea of separation from the
its great communal buildings, world for the sake of a spiritual
many Eastern monasteries follow life, and for the benefit of others.
an older tradition of monks and One of the holiest places in
nuns living in relative isolation Eastern monasticism is Mount
from each other, inspired by Athos in Greece, the Holy
St. Anthony. Another extreme, Mountain, which has some of
early Eastern monastic tradition the oldest monastic buildings
was practiced by the Stylites, in the world. This isolated
In the Eastern Christian church such as St. Simeon, who lived on peninsula is completely
there is only one monastic order, the top of pillars, fasting, praying, autonomous and set apart
which follows the instructions for and preaching. Although Eastern from the world; women are not
monastic life written by St. Basil. monasteries have slightly different permitted access to the land.
224
IN CONTEXT
THERE IS NO
KEY MOVEMENT
The Fourth Lateran
Council
SALVATION
WHEN AND WHERE
1215 CE, Rome
BEFORE
1st century CE The first
OUTSIDE
Christian communities form.
313 CE The Roman Emperor
Constantine publishes the
Edict of Milan, allowing
THE CHURCH
Christians to worship freely.
1054 The Great Schism divides
the Roman Catholic and
Eastern Orthodox Churches.
AFTER
ENTERING INTO THE FAITH 1545–63 The Council of Trent
reaffirms the seven sacraments
against Protestant calls for two.
20th–21st century The
ecumenical movement affirms
that all Christians, regardless
of denomination, are part of
one worldwide Church.
I
s it possible to be a Christian
without also being a member
of the Church? Many people
today would answer “yes,” pointing
out that Jesus did not provide his
disciples with instructions for
setting up a religious institution.
Some would contend that, in order
to be a Christian, it is sufficient to
have a personal belief in Jesus,
without even belonging to the
Church, in any of its denominations.
Despite this argument, being
a member of the Church has been
considered an essential element
of Christian faith for most of
its history. At first, in the years
following Jesus’s death and
resurrection, Christians simply
CHRISTIANITY 225
See also: God’s covenant with Israel 168–75 ■ Faith and the state 189
■ The central professions of faith 262–69 ■ Awaiting the Day of Judgment 312–13
THIS IS MY
BODY, THIS
IS MY BLOOD
THE MYSTERY OF THE EUCHARIST
IN CONTEXT
In the sacrament of
But the elements in the
KEY FIGURE the Eucharist, Christians
Eucharist are bread and
Thomas Aquinas experience the real
wine, not flesh and blood.
presence of Jesus.
WHEN AND WHERE
1225–74 , Europe
BEFORE
From 300 BCE Jews add the Aristotle distinguishes
drinking of a cup of wine that The accidents of the
between substance and
has been blessed to the eating bread and wine are
accidents (the form or
clearly unchanged.
of unleavened bread during attributes of something).
the Passover meal.
1st century CE St. Paul writes
with instructions for the early
Christians as they regularly So it must be the substance
celebrate Jesus’s last meal that is converted from bread This is the mystery
with his disciples. and wine into the body and of the Eucharist.
blood of Jesus.
1215 CE The Fourth
Lateran Council defines the
Eucharist as one of seven
essential sacraments for
B
the Catholic faithful. efore his arrest and eventual of Bread. But over the centuries,
crucifixion, Jesus shared the meaning and significance of
AFTER a Passover meal of bread his words have been the subject
16th century The Protestant and wine with his disciples, saying, of huge controversy. In what sense
Reformers reject the concept of “This is my body” and “This is my does the bread and wine change
transubstantiation, generally blood.” Since then, this ritual has into the body and blood of Jesus?
favoring a more symbolic been celebrated by Christians in In the 13th century, the great
understanding of Jesus’s words. an act of worship known variously medieval theologian Thomas
as the Eucharist, Holy Communion, Aquinas developed the theory
the Lord’s Supper, and the Breaking of transubstantiation. He drew
CHRISTIANITY 229
See also: Beliefs for new societies 56–57 ■ Entering into the faith 224–27 ■ The Protestant Reformation 230–37
T
he Roman Catholic Scripture, and maintained that
IN CONTEXT Church was a formidable salvation could only come from
institution in the late personal faith rather than from
KEY MOVEMENT
Middle Ages. From his palace in following the Church’s decrees.
The Reformation
Rome, the Pope had power not only
WHEN AND WHERE over Europe’s religious life, but Renaissance Europe
16th century, also over its politics and economics. By the 16th century, Europe had
Western Europe The Church was a major landowner, begun to shake off the old ideas of
and, through the feudal system, medieval life. The horizons of the
BEFORE many peasants found themselves known world were expanding
1382 John Wycliffe publishes indebted to it for their homes and rapidly, with Spanish, Portuguese,
the first major translation of livelihoods, as well as for the care and French explorers following in
the Bible into English. of their souls. At the other end of the wake of Columbus’s voyage to
1516 The Christian Humanist the spectrum, it was in the best the Americas in 1492. Transport
interests of nobles and rulers to and trade were flourishing as a
thinker Erasmus publishes a
maintain good relations with the result of advances in seafaring,
new edition of the Greek New
Church, obeying its laws, and including a new route around
Testament, which includes his paying tithes and taxes. Africa to India.
new Latin translation. However, in the first decades In Europe, the feudal system
AFTER of the 16th century, a spiritual and was being abandoned in favor
1545–63 The Council social revolution shifted power of new kingdoms and city-states
of Trent is convened. As away from the Catholic Church, controlled by rulers interested in
representatives of the Catholic initiating a new chapter in the improving the economic prosperity
Church, the group condemns history of Christianity in Europe. of their territories. Culturally,
the Protestant movement. This revolution, now known as the artists, philosophers, and scientists
Protestant Reformation, was based were rediscovering the classical
1563 The Heidelberg on the idea that God could be learning of the past, in a loosely
Catechism is published, known and worshipped directly, connected movement known as
offering a Protestant statement without the need for an authorized the Renaissance. In short, a new
of faith for both Calvinists and hierarchy of priests to act as world was arriving and it seemed
Lutherans. It becomes an intermediaries. The reformers that the Church, with its ancient
influential Reformed catechism. placed the teachings and traditions traditions and structures, was set
of the Church under the authority of to have a smaller role within it.
Martin Luther preaches from the the churches be certain that their which claimed to release people
pulpit in this painting in the Church priests were teaching them what from the threat of suffering for their
of St. Mary in Wittenberg. The presence the Bible really contained? How sins in purgatory after their death.
of the crucified Christ is a symbol of a could they check the truth of Indulgences had been available
direct relationship with God.
what they heard? in the Catholic Church for many
centuries, but Luther was appalled
Misunderstanding God Conflict with Rome at Tetzel’s blatant sales tactics,
Church services in the Middle Ages The Reformation began because which frightened people with
were held in Latin, a language that a German monk, Martin Luther, terrible images of how much their
most people did not understand. believed that people were being deceased loved ones were suffering
The authorized version of the deceived—sometimes unwittingly in purgatory. “As soon as the coin
Bible—a 4th-century translation —by the priests and leaders of the in the coffer rings, the soul from ❯❯
from the original Hebrew and Greek Catholic Church of the day.
by St. Jerome known as the Luther was angered by the
Vulgate, meaning “commonly used” preaching of the Dominican Johann
—was also written in Latin. As a Tetzel, who had arrived in the
result, most churchgoers relied villages near Wittenberg, Saxony,
upon their priests to explain the where Luther was a parish priest
truths of Christianity to them. and university professor. Tetzel A Christian is a
Priests held considerable power was essentially on a fundraising perfectly free lord of all,
over their congregations and mission for the Church: in Rome, subject to none. A Christian
tended to advocate the traditions of Pope Leo X was raising money to is a perfectly dutiful servant
the Catholic Church, rather than build a vast church, the Basilica of all, subject to all.
going back to the original texts. of St. Peter; and, closer to home, Martin Luther
Although this meant that there the German Cardinal Albrecht
was a consistency to Catholic needed to repay a loan taken out to
teaching across Europe, there defray the expenses of his position.
were obvious dangers as well. Tetzel had been authorized to sell
For instance, how could people in certificates, called indulgences,
234 THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION
Pope Julius II is shown in this
19th-century painting in the process
of instructing Bramante, Michelangelo,
and Raphael to start work on the
Vatican and St. Peter’s Basilica.
GOD IS HIDDEN
IN THE HEART
MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE IN CHRISTIANITY
F
rom the earliest days of reciting authorized prayers, mystics
IN CONTEXT Christianity, Christians advocated silent contemplation of
believed that Jesus had God. This often led to overwhelming
KEY FIGURE
made it possible for them to have experiences of God’s love. Mysticism
Teresa of Avila
a direct relationship with God. has been embraced by many
WHEN AND WHERE However, some Christians struggled Christians because it requires
16th century, Spain with worship in churches, finding neither priests nor prayer books
it too ritualistic. A quest for an to guide the believer, only a
BEFORE intensely personal experience of personal communion with God.
From 3rd century CE Monks God emerged in the later Middle
and nuns adopt lives of Ages, as a reaction to formalized The interior journey
solitude in the desert in order worship. It became known as One of the classic works on mystical
to escape worldly distractions Christian mysticism. Rather than experience was written by Teresa
and focus solely on God. following the usual pattern of of Avila (1515–1582), a Spanish
Carmelite nun. In The Interior
c.1373 The English mystic
Castle, Teresa narrates the journey
Julian of Norwich recounts
of the Christian soul through six
her visions in Sixteen
rooms in a castle until it reaches
Revelations of Divine Love. the seventh, innermost room, where
16th century A new emphasis God dwells. Each room represents
on personal communion with a more intimate level of prayer until
God, instead of ritual, leads to the soul achieves the goal of perfect
the Protestant Reformation. union with God’s life, which Teresa
described as “spiritual marriage.” ■
AFTER
1593 Teresa of Avila and fellow
Spanish mystic John of the In a male-dominated Church, some
of the most renowned mystics were
Cross, a major figure in women, such as Teresa of Avila (left),
the Counter-Reformation, Catherine of Siena (1347–1380), and
establish the Discalced, or Julian of Norwich (c.1342–1416).
Barefoot, Carmelites, a more
contemplative form of the See also: Self-denial leads to spiritual liberation 68–71 ■ Man as a manifestation
monastic order. of God 188 ■ Sufism and the mystic tradition 282–83
CHRISTIANITY 239
T
he Industrial Revolution
IN CONTEXT posed a new challenge for
Christianity. While a select
KEY FIGURE
few enjoyed unprecedented wealth,
John Wesley
thousands of people in towns and
WHEN AND WHERE cities endured perilous working
conditions and suffered ill health
By salvation I mean not barely
18th century, UK deliverance from hell or going
and extreme poverty. In Britain,
BEFORE brothers John and Charles Wesley, to heaven, but a present
1st century CE Jesus preaches both Anglican priests, responded to deliverance from sin.
to open-air gatherings, which the needs of a changing society with John Wesley
anyone may attend. He a message of social holiness. John
reportedly urges his followers Wesley described social holiness as
to feed the hungry, clothe the a faith that was not just private and
naked, and care for the sick. internal, but publicly engaged with
the social issues of the day.
Late 17th century
The Pietist movement in The Christian message that experience of Christianity
Continental Europe stresses In May 1738 the Wesleys were could transform individuals and
practical Christian living. deeply moved by reading the society. They were at the forefront
AFTER works of Martin Luther and came of important movements, such as
19th century In the US, the to a new understanding of the the abolition of the slave trade,
necessity of faith for salvation. the trade union movement, and
Wesleyan and Free Methodists
The experience had a profound the provision of free education
are active in the anti-slavery
effect on their ministry and caused for working-class children. The
abolitionist movement. them to join a growing number of Wesleys’ followers became
1865 William Booth, a evangelicals who took the Christian known as Methodists, after
Methodist minister, founds message out of churches, preaching the methodical, practical way
the Salvation Army with the in marketplaces, fields, and homes. in which they applied their faith
mission of saving bodies Evangelicals fervently believed to meet the needs of others. ■
as well as souls.
See also: Living in harmony 38 ■ Let kindness and compassion rule 146–47
■ The Sikh code of conduct 296–301
SCIENTIFIC
ADVANCES
DO NOT DISPROVE
THE BIBLE
THE CHALLENGE OF MODERNITY
242 THE CHALLENGE OF MODERNITY
IN CONTEXT
Science uses human The Bible records the
KEY MOVEMENT reason to discover facts religious experience
Protestant Liberalism about the world. of its authors.
WHEN AND WHERE
19th century, Europe/US
BEFORE
From late 17th century
Pietism develops within the
Lutheran Church. Science describes Christian experience
From 1780s Immanuel Kant’s “how” the world exists explains “why” the
philosophy champions reason. as it does. world is as it is.
T
he idea that the earth The positions of the Church and In the 13th century, for instance,
revolves around the sun, of Galileo differed because of the medieval theologian Thomas
rather than the other the different ways in which they Aquinas (p.229) had encouraged
way around, is today accepted arrived at truth. According to the the systematic exploration of the
as fact. However, in the early Church, truth was revealed by God, natural world. He took it for granted
17th century, this theory, which and was supported by passages in that a deeper understanding of
had been published by the Polish the Bible that suggested the earth creation would lead to a better
astronomer Copernicus in 1543, was at the center of the universe. knowledge of the creator.
was in direct opposition to the Science, on the other hand, used This mutual respect was
teachings of the Catholic Church experimental observations— conceivable as long as the results of
and sparked a controversy that Galileo was a pioneer of using the scientific reasoning coincided with
embroiled the finest natural telescope in astronomy—to build the concept of “divine revelation”
scientists of the day. Most notably, theories about the workings of the (truth communicated by God to
Galileo Galilei, a mathematician in world. Until well into the medieval humans through Scripture) but not
Florence, was condemned as a period, these two methods had when the two thought systems
heretic for supporting the theory. existed happily side by side. reached different conclusions.
CHRISTIANITY 243
See also: The Protestant Reformation 230–37 ■ The compatibilty of faith 291
■ Jewish Science 333 ■ The Church of Christ (Scientist) 337
Key works
A record of experience
In the mid-19th century, a number
of scholars, primarily based in
Germany, were using a form of
analysis known as historical
criticism to look at biblical texts.
They studied the Bible’s original
sources from the Middle East to
reinterpret its content within a
historical context. By focusing
on the ways in which the Bible
had been composed and compiled
He emphasized that science and and feeling belongs to religion. as a set of human documents,
faith were not in competition: they Schleiermacher believed that the this analysis appeared to strip
should be seen as complementary problem facing Christianity was the sacred text of its supernatural
because they both focused on that it had often focused too heavily
different aspects of human life. on knowledge and action, and
too little on feeling. In doing this,
Redefining religion Christianity had opened itself up
Schleiermacher’s most significant to attack by the rationalism of the
idea was his redefinition of the modern world. On the one hand,
nature of religion. In his first scientific reason disputed some The self-identical essence
important book on the subject, of Christianity’s fundamental of piety is this: the
Religion: Speeches to its Cultured beliefs, such as the miracles consciousness of being
Despisers (1799), he discussed three and resurrection of Jesus. On the absolutely dependent, or,
realms of human life: knowledge, other hand, the philosophy of Kant which is the same thing, of
action, and feeling. Although he and others saw morality as based being in relation with God.
recognized that these three realms on universal principles, rather Friedrich Schleiermacher
are necessarily related to each than on the contents of the Bible.
other, he was convinced that they The challenge to Christianity posed
ought not to be confused: according by science and philosophy did not,
to him, knowledge belongs to however, disturb Schleiermacher;
science, action belongs to ethics, on the contrary, it presented an
CHRISTIANITY 245
origins (the belief that it was of relegated to history while science
divine authorship). The result was moved forward to shape the future
that, for many people, the Bible of the world. By assigning religion
could no longer be referred to as and science to different spheres
the inspired word of God. of human life (religion to feeling,
Friedrich Schleiermacher’s view, and science to knowledge), he
however, helped to rescue the Bible was successful in establishing a
from what some perceived to be means by which they could coexist.
irrelevance. He claimed that since However, while many Christians
religion relates fundamentally to embraced Schleiermacher’s
experience, the Bible is supremely thesis as a solution to the friction
important as a record of religious between science and religion,
experience. It can therefore be used others were dissatisfied with
as the ultimate guide to Christian what they saw as the relegation
experience, as believers compare of Christian faith to the sphere of
their own feelings of dependence feelings. They also identified Clergymen carry a symbol of peace,
on God with those described an unintended consequence: indicating their opposition to nuclear
within the sacred text. Christianity could no longer claim arms. Critics of theological liberalism
This approach to the Bible to have an authoritative voice in the argued that an emphasis on personal
feelings encouraged indifference to
became known as the liberal public sphere if it was associated important issues in the world.
view, as opposed to the more most strongly with an individual’s
conservative view, which insisted feelings, since feelings are always
—in the face of this historical personal. This seemed to be at misuses of science and knowledge
criticism—that the Bible contained odds with the original message —such as genocide, the arms race,
facts about God, and not just facts of Christianity, which concerned and nuclear armament—in the
about human experience. Tension the arrival of God’s kingdom in modern world, Christian theology
between these two views has the whole world (not just in private would need to be based on more
shaped Protestantism ever since. religious experience) and indicated than private feelings.
an important societal role. Today, Christian thinkers still
Unintended consequences face the challenge of explaining to
Schleiermacher developed his idea Taking a stand peple how they can trust what the
of religious experience in order to In the 20th century, the liberal Bible says about God, when what
protect Christianity from being movement was strongly criticized it says about the world is often
by a new generation of scholars, disputed by scientific reasoning.
including the eminent Swiss Many Christians would answer
theologian Karl Barth. He was with a modified form of
particularly appalled that his liberal Schleiermacher’s argument. The
theology teachers had failed to take Bible talks about the same reality
a principled stand against the rise as that described by science,
Christian doctrines of Nazism in Germany in the 1930s, history, politics, and other social
are accounts of and claimed that this was because sciences. However, it simply
the Christian religious Schleiermacher’s theology had answers different questions:
affections set been allowed to become far too not, “how did this come to be?”
forth in speech. influential within the Church. but “why did this come to be?”
He maintained that a private Science and faith—the “how?”
Friedrich Schleiermacher
Christian experience could be and the “why?”—do not disprove
too easily indifferent to the needs each other, but complement each
of the world outside. other. They help Christians to reach
Barth argued that for a more complete understanding
Christianity to be successful of the universe that Galileo
in opposing some of the obvious observed through his telescope. ■
246
WE CAN
INFLUENCE GOD
WHY PRAYER WORKS
F
from the earliest times, that every detail of the future is
IN CONTEXT Jewish and Christian mapped out in advance. In this
theologians have latter representation, God is
KEY MOVEMENTS
wrestled with complex issues immune to appeals from humans
Process theology
surrounding the nature of God for help because he has absolute
and open theism
and the relationship of God to prior knowledge of the outcome
WHEN AND WHERE humankind. To some he is a of every situation.
Late 20th century, vengeful God, who not only
US and Europe stands in judgment at the end of The relevance of prayer
time, but also chooses whether or How the relationship between
BEFORE not to respond to those who pray. God and the things that happen is
From prehistory Many To others, he is perceived as an understood has deep implications
primal belief systems use all-knowing presence who has for the role of Christian prayer.
prayer and ritual to seek decided the course of world history If God already knows the past,
the favor of supernatural and has reasons for all events, so present, and future, then prayer—
forces or beings.
First millennium BCE
The Bible tells that God
answered Moses’s prayer The future hasn’t
to change his mind about God knows everything happened yet, so it
destroying the Israelites after that exists. doesn’t exist.
they worship the golden calf.
AFTER
1960s The Liberation
Theology movement in
South America emphasizes
social and economic justice,
maintaining that God We can influence what
Therefore, the future is still
responds especially to the the future becomes by our
open to change.
prayers of the poor and prayers and actions today.
oppressed in society.
CHRISTIANITY 247
See also: The battle between good and evil 60–65 ■ Divining the future 79 ■ Devotion through puja 114–15
■ Jesus’s message to the world 204–207 ■ Augustine and free will 220–21
Theologians of hope
The rejection of traditional God, and open theism. In the
theological concepts such later 20th century, a group
as God’s foreknowledge (his of theologians emerged who
God…is so related to awareness of future events), have been loosely termed the
the world that there is immutability (his unchanging “theologians of hope.” These
between him and that nature), and impassibility include, in Germany, Jürgen
world a “give-and-take”… (his freedom from emotion Moltmann and Wolfhart
He is influenced by and independence from other Pannenberg, and in the US,
what happens. beings) was not confined to any Robert Jenson. One of their
W. Pittenger one school of theology during principal arguments was that
the 20th century. The ideas because the future does not
have been labeled in various yet exist—even for God—the
ways, including process essential characteristic of
theology, the openness of Christianity is hope.
communicating with God by he has prior knowledge of it, but on earth, since he lived a human
offering verbal praise or requests, takes no preventive action—as life, with all its limitations.
through thoughts and meditations, may be evident, for example, in his Consequently, if the future does
or in the form of deliberate acts of knowledge, even before the creation, not yet exist for either humans
worship—seems irrelevant. Merely that humans would bring suffering or God, then it can be truly open.
telling God what he already knows and wickedness into the world. Seen from this perspective, God
would carry no hope of changing is not a distant observer but an
what will happen. However, if the The future is open active participant in the historical
future is not already determined The classic Christian view of process, a presence who listens
by God and is truly open, then God’s foreknowledge depends to the prayers and appeals
prayer becomes an essential part upon the belief that God exists of people, responding to their
of shaping that future. outside of time, so that what is needs and walking beside them
in the future for human beings in their journey through life. ■
Inside the mind of God (and hence is nonexistent and
Although Christian theology unknowable) is in the past for
has traditionally regarded God as God (and therefore both exists
omniscient, possessing a complete and is knowable). However, this
knowledge of all things past, present, view owes more to ancient Greek
and future, in the 20th century some philosophy than genuine Christian
theologians began to reject the idea thinking. The Bible describes a
of his foreknowledge (knowledge God who actively accompanies his
of the future). If God knows what people through time, not simply
will happen, then the future must watching them from a distant
already be set in stone, which, they position outside of time. Moreover,
argued, would remove true freedom Christians believe that the coming
The misuse of weapons of war,
and spontaneity from history. This of Jesus as a human being should such as nuclear bombs, indicates the
would also raise questions about be understood as the clearest human capacity for evil—in the future
God’s essential goodness, and indication that God is not outside as well as the past. Does God know
whether he is complicit in evil if of time or the reality of human life about this and choose to do nothing?
ISLAM
FROM 610
CE
250 INTRODUCTION
The Umayyad
The beginning of dynasty rules the Al-Mahdi, the Hidden
the revelation Muhammad dies growing Islamic One of Shi‘a Islam,
of the Qur’an in Medina at Empire; Shi’a disappears, not to return
to Muhammad. the age of 63. Islam emerges. until the end of the world.
Muhammad makes a The sayings (hadith) The Abbasid Ibn Sina attempts
pilgrimage to Mecca, of Muhammad are dynasty rises and to reconcile rational
followed by the passed down by word begins an Islamic philosophy with
conquest of the of mouth. These are Golden Age. Islamic theology.
holy city. later gathered into
large collections.
F
ounded in the 7th century, and the way a person lives their life interpretation. From the judgments
Islam is nevertheless will be assessed on the Day of of theologians on the holy books
regarded by its followers Judgment. The central professions and an examination of the life
as an ancient faith—one that has of the faith are summed up in the of the Prophet Muhammad, has
always existed as God’s intended Five Pillars of Islam. Religious life emerged a system of religious law
religion. Along with Judaism and revolves round the mosque, which, and moral codes known as shari‘a,
Christianity, it is an Abrahamic as well as being a center of worship which informs the civil law of many
religion, tracing its roots back to and teaching, acts as a focus for Islamic countries.
Ibrahim (Abraham), the first of a the social life of the community. From its origins, Islam has been
line of prophets sent to reveal the entwined with civil and political
faith—a line that also includes The last prophet life. Muhammad himself was as
Musa (Moses) and Isa (Jesus). The revelation to Muhammad is much a political as a religious
Muslims believe the last in this line considered the final and complete leader and thinker. Because of his
is the Prophet Muhammad, who revelation from God. Memorized by preaching of monotheism, he and his
received the revelations contained Muhammad’s immediate followers, followers were forced to flee Mecca
in the Qur’an and established it was written in the form of the (an event known to Muslims as the
Islam as it is known today. Qur’an—Islam’s holy scripture and Hijra, commemorated annually) for
Islam is a strongly monotheistic the ultimate and unquestionable Medina, where he established the
religion, emphasizing the oneness word of God. Beyond the Qur’an, first Islamic city-state, with himself
of an incomparable God, Allah there also exist sayings attributed as spiritual, political, and military
(Arabic for “the God”), and people’s to Muhammad, collectively known leader. He then led his people back
duty to serve him. Islam teaches as the hadith. The scriptures have to Mecca, conquering the city and
that human life is a gift from God, inspired a rich tradition of scholarly establishing the beginnings of an
ISLAM 251
Muhammad ibn
Tumart founds the Mongol invasions The Islamic The Iranian
Al-Muwahhidun led by Genghis Mughal Empire Revolution replaces
movement (“those who Khan end the is established Iran’s Westernizing
emphasize unity”). Abbasid era. in India. government.
Islam comes under Mehmed II The State of Israel is The Arab Spring:
attack in a series of of Turkey conquers established, leading democracy is
Crusades, blessed by the Constantinople to the start of the established, allowing
Catholic Church, to regain and founds the Arab–Israeli conflict, the election of
Christian control of Ottoman Empire. which continues to Islamist parties in
the Holy Land. the present. several countries.
empire to unite the disparate tribes and Damascus became centers populations. Indonesia is the
of Arabia. Within a century of his of scientific inquiry and learning. country with the largest number
death in 632, the Islamic Empire Islamic writing and poetry also of Muslims, followed by Pakistan,
had expanded across northern flourished, along with decorative India, and Bangladesh.
Africa and into Asia. Despite arts, including calligraphy. Approximately 25 percent of
disputes over who should succeed The Islamic Empire eventually Muslims live in the Middle East
Muhammad, which led to the fragmented, but Islam remains and North Africa, and there are
division between Sunni and Shi‘a one of the largest of all religions, now Muslim communities in almost
Islam, the Islamic Caliphate—the practiced by some 25 percent every other country in the world.
Muslim political and religious state of the world population. About Islam has come into conflict,
ruled by a caliph—wielded great three-quarters of adherents both ideologically and politically,
political unity and power. are Sunni, and 10 to 20 percent, with the Christian world since the
Shi‘a. Around 50 countries have Crusades, and following colonial
The Islamic Golden Age a Muslim majority: of these, a domination by the West. Recent
Soon, the Islamic Empire extended handful, including Saudi Arabia, tensions have given rise to a radical
over a wider area than Christian Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iran interpretation of jihad (struggle) by
Europe. However, in contrast to are considered Islamic states, some fundamentalist Muslims as a
Christianity, which saw scientific based on religious law; a large religious duty to defend their faith
thought to be a threat to its dogma, number of other countries, mainly through conflict. However, Islam is
Islam saw no incompatibility in the Middle East, have Islam as essentially a peaceable religion, and
between its theology and the their official state religion; others most Muslims identify more closely
disciplines of philosophy and still have secular governments, with the compassionate principles
science. Cities such as Baghdad but predominantly Islamic of their faith. ■
252
MUHAMMAD IS
GOD’S FINAL
MESSENGER
THE PROPHET AND THE ORIGINS OF ISLAM
A
ccording to Islamic
IN CONTEXT tradition, in around 582 CE
God revealed His Word a Christian hermit,
KEY FIGURE
to Moses and Jesus. Bahira, was living in the Syrian
Muhammad
desert when, one day, a boy passing
WHEN AND WHERE by with a camel train caught his
570–632 CE, Arabia attention. After talking with him,
Bahira concluded that the sign of
BEFORE prophecy was upon the boy. He
c.2000–1500 BCE In the Humanity misinterpreted was destined for greatness, Bahira
Hebrew Bible, God makes a and corrupted the message foretold, and should be cared for well.
covenant with the patriarch of the revelations.
The young boy was Muhammad
Abraham; Islam will recognize ibn ‘Abdallah, who became the
this figure (in Arabic, Ibrahim) prophet of Islam and, according
as one of the first prophets. to Muslims, God’s final messenger.
This implies, of course, that there
c.14th–13th century BCE
God now transmits His Word were messengers sent by God (in
In Jewish, Christian, and
directly to Muhammad. Arabic, Allah) before Muhammad;
Muslim tradition, Moses, these include notable figures
leading the Israelites, receives such as Musa (Moses) and Isa
commandments from God (Jesus). To Musa, God revealed
on Mount Sinai. the Tawrat, or Torah, to guide the
1st century CE Jesus, later Jews. To Isa, God gave the Injil,
The pure message of Islam a lost scripture with a name that
recognized by Muslims
is His final message translates as Gospel, although it did
as a prophet, foretells the to humanity.
coming of a final prophet not resemble in its form the four
or messenger of God. canonical Gospels of Christianity.
Muslims consider Jews and
AFTER Christians to be People of the Book,
19th century In India, Mirza because, like Muslims, they are also
Ghulam Ahmad claims to Muhammad is monotheists with a holy scripture
be a prophet bringing a new God’s final messenger. that was revealed to them by God.
message that will reform Islam. Muslims honor, in some ways, the
revelations God gave to messengers
ISLAM 253
See also: God’s covenant with Israel 168–75 ■ Jesus’s message to the world
204–207 ■ The origins of Ahmaddiya 284–85
HEAVEN
GOD REVEALS HIS WORD AND HIS WILL
256 GOD REVEALS HIS WORD AND HIS WILL
A
ccording to the Islamic
IN CONTEXT faith, God has revealed
his will to humankind
KEY TEXT
through nature, history, and, most
The Qur’an
importantly, his word. Nature, or
WHEN AND WHERE God’s creation, is a sign pointing Recite! In the name
610–632 CE, Arabia to God’s existence. In history, of your Lord who
the rise and fall of empires are created, created man
BEFORE signs of God’s sovereignty over
c.2000–1500 BCE Muslims
from a blood clot. Recite!
humankind. But of greatest Sura 96:1–5
believe Moses is given the significance is that God’s will
Torah on Mount Sinai. is revealed through his word and
10th–9th century BCE Dawud conveyed by his messengers.
(King David of Israel) receives In Islam, God’s ultimate word
and will are contained in the
the Zabur, a second holy book,
Qur’an, the book that was revealed
from God; this may be the
to the Prophet Muhammad, chosen for Gabriel) appeared to him in
biblical book of Psalms. by God as His final messenger the cave, summoning Muhammad
1st century CE In Islamic (pp.252–53). Within it are ayat— to prophethood and demanding
tradition, God bestows a book verses, or signs, that reveal to the that he “Recite!” (p.253). What
of revelation and truth on Jesus. world what God desires and followed was the first revelation of
commands. Another name for the the Qur’an. The whole of the Qur’an
AFTER Qur’an is al-Tanzil, the Downsent. was revealed to Muhammad at
c.7th century CE The For Muslims, the Qur’an is God’s intervals over a prolonged period
companions of the Prophet literal word that has been sent of time so that he could gradually
produce the first Qur’anic text. down to humankind from heaven. recite it (the Arabic word qur’an
means recitation) to others.
8th–9th century CE The
The recitation The revelations, many of which
scholar al-Shafi‘i enshrines
According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad was to receive in a
the Qur’an as the primary Muhammad spent many days trancelike state, began in
reference for shari’a, or meditating in a cave on Mount 610 CE and continued over the
Islamic law. Hira overlooking Mecca. One night next 22 years. At first, Muhammad
the angel Jibrail (the Arabic name memorized the revelations and
A
ccording to a tradition these five practices lie at the core the first pillar, and central creed of
narrated by Abdallah ibn of the faith, and all branches of Islam, is a simple acknowledgment
‘Umar ibn al-Khattab, one Islam accept and perform them. of the distinctiveness of the one,
of Muhammad’s companions, the true God and the unique place of
Prophet summarized Islam by The profession of faith his messenger, Muhammad. This
saying that the religion is based While not summarizing the whole profession of faith, known as the
on five principles: “To testify that of Islam as a religion, the pillars shahada (witness), is the only
there is no god but God and serve as a kind of outline of means by which a person may
Muhammad is God’s messenger; minimal obligations for Muslims become a Muslim. The shahada
to offer the prayers dutifully and to abide by. Their simplicity and is whispered in a Muslim’s ear at
perfectly; to pay the obligatory straightforwardness are intentional, birth and at death. It is also offered
alms; to perform the pilgrimage for Muslims are intended to follow as a testimony throughout the day
to Mecca; and to observe the fast God unencumbered by the heavy when Muslims are called to prayer.
during the month of Ramadan.” burden of religious stipulations. Although succinct, the shahada is
Known as ‘ibadat (acts of As the Qur’an confirms, “[God] made up of two significant parts.
worship) to Muslims, and often has not laid upon you in religion In the first part, Muslims bear
referred to as the pillars of Islam, any hardship.” With this in mind, witness to the absolute oneness
ISLAM 265
See also: The burden of observance 50 ■ Self-denial leads to spiritual liberation 68–71 ■ From monolatry to monotheism
176–77 ■ Writing the Oral Law 182–83 ■ The emergence of Shi‘a Islam 270–71
during the pilgrimage. On the other God, asking for forgiveness for What if the direction of prayer
hand, the great variety shown in the sins of the entire Muslim cannot be established? What if a
female pilgrims’ clothing reflects community. From here, pilgrims Muslim is unable to fast on one of
the diverse character of the global return to Mecca, to the Grand the days of Ramadan? God offers
Muslim community coming Mosque, where they circle the a simple solution to such obstacles:
together in spiritual unison at Kaaba again in a farewell tawaf. “And to God belong the east and
the Grand Mosque. The pilgrimage ends with the west, so wherever you turn
a feast commemorating Ibrahim there is the face of God. Surely God
Rites of Mecca and his obedience to God. Even is All-Sufficient for his creatures’
Once pilgrims enter the Grand Muslims who have not made the needs, All-Knowing.”
Mosque they perform the tawaf, pilgrimage celebrate this feast, The essential point for Muslims
walking around the Kaaba in an which lasts for three days. Much is to turn toward God in worship in
conterclockwise direction seven food is eaten, with the leftovers the best way that they know how,
times. They will try to get as close distributed to the poor and needy. until such a point in time when
as they can to the structure, and, Those who have made the they may worship him just
if possible, will kiss or touch the journey to Mecca honor the as their fellow believers. ■
black stone exposed in one of faithfulness shown by Ibrahim
the Kaaba’s corners. During the by symbolically stoning the devil:
following seven days, pilgrims they throw stones at three pillars
pray in the Grand Mosque and representing evil. Finally, many
take part in other ceremonies. pilgrims end their pilgrimage
For example, pilgrims drink water by visiting the city of Medina and
drawn from the Zamzam well the mosque in which the Prophet
inside the mosque. According to Muhammad is buried.
Muslim tradition, this well was
miraculously created by God in Lightening the burden
order to sustain Ismail as a baby The five pillars of Islam may be
when he was stranded in the seen to be representative of the
desert with his mother, Hajar faith as a whole, and to reflect the
(Arabic for Hagar). Some pilgrims light burden that God places on his
run between two hills, Safa and followers. However, although they
Marwa, to commemorate Hajar’s show the simplicity of Islam, any The Kaaba in Mecca is a square,
search for water. They may also number of practical difficulties may stone building that predates Islam
travel beyond Mecca, to Mina and be encountered in attempting to by many centuries. The Grand
Mount Arafat, where they pray to follow the necessary stipulations. Mosque was built around it.
270
THE IMAM IS
GOD’S CHOSEN
LEADER
THE EMERGENCE OF SHI‘A ISLAM
W
hen the Prophet Muhammad was considered to
IN CONTEXT Muhammad, founder of have a divine right to rule, but
Islam, died in 632, he this prerogative ended with him.
KEY FIGURE
had established Islamic authority The majority of Muslims believed
‘Ali ibn Abi Talib
over the entire Arabian peninsula that the small group known as the
WHEN AND WHERE through a campaign of warfare and Companions of the Prophet were
c.632–661, Arabia conquest. However, Muhammad best suited to leadership, since
had no sons who survived him, they were the people most closely
BEFORE and on his death the Muslim guided by Muhammad and they
From 1500 BCE The Hebrew community was divided over who were also the compilers of the
Bible identifies Abraham was to succeed him as their leader. Qur’an. One of Muhammad’s
and his successors as having
been chosen by God to
lead the Israelites.
1st century CE After his Who should succeed the Prophet Muhammad?
death, Jesus is known as
Jesus Christ, the Messiah
or anointed one. His mother
Mary becomes a major
devotional figure. Many followers believe The Shi‘a ‘Ali party believe
that electing a leader is in that God has indicated
c.610 CE In Islam, Muhammad accordance with the Sunna— a line of rightful
is chosen by God to receive the teachings and sayings succession within the
the revelation of the Qur’an. of Muhammad. Family of the Prophet.
AFTER
c.1500 The Persian Safavid
dynasty converts from Sunni
to Shi‘a Islam, and Iran
develops as the major bastion Sunni Islam is therefore Shi‘a Islam is therefore
of Shi‘ism, while Arabia headed by a leader headed by an imam who
remains mainly Sunni. chosen by consensus. is chosen by God.
ISLAM 271
See also: God reveals his word and his will 262–69 ■ Striving in the way
Further divisions in
of God 278 ■ The origins of Ahmaddiya 284–85
Shi‘a Islam
The first imam, ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib, The succession from ‘Ali, first
and his sons were members of the imam of Shi‘a Islam, has been
Household of the Prophet, so were marked by further divisions
seen to have divine knowledge, here caused by disagreement over
depicted as shining down from heaven. succession. Disputes after the
deaths of the fourth and sixth
imams led to the formation of,
son-in-law and cousin ‘Ali ibn respectively, the Five-Imam
Abi Talib, because Muhammad Shi‘as, or “Fivers,” and Seven-
had publicly honored ‘Ali’s ability Imam Shi‘as, or “Seveners.”
to lead the community. Shi‘a The Seveners, also known
Muslims take their name from ‘Ali, as Ismaelite Shi‘as, divided
whom they see as the Prophet’s yet again over the question of
rightful heir—they are known as which Family member was the
the Shi‘a ‘Ali (Party of ‘Ali). rightful successor in the eyes
‘Ali was eventually appointed to of God; their largest branch
lead the whole Muslim community is known as Nizari Ismailism,
currently led by the Aga Khan.
in 656, after the death of Uthman,
Twelve-Imam Shi‘as, or
but when ‘Ali died, Muslims were “Twelvers,” are by far the
again divided; Shi‘as supported largest group within Shi‘a
closest companions, Abu Bakr, was ‘Ali’s son as successor, while Islam. They believe that their
adopted as his successor. Abu Bakr Sunnis supported the election of last imam, the six-year-old
was to be succeeded in turn by two Muawiyah I, a powerful governor of Muhammad al-Qa’im, did not
more of the Companions, Umar and Syria. To this day, Shi‘as remain a actually die but went into a
Uthman, as caliph, or ruler, of the minority group within the Muslim hidden existence in 874, and
Islamic territories. These caliphs community, dedicated to ‘Ali and will eventually return as
were recognized as wise leaders his successors. These descendants the messianic figure known
and the best of Muslims. Their of Muhammad, known as imams, as the Imam al-Mahdi. His
followers believed that choosing a have absolute religious authority— reappearance will signal the
leader by community consensus their knowledge is considered to be beginning of the ultimate
best accorded with the ideas in the divine and infallible. The largest struggle for good that, in Islam,
Sunna, Muhammad’s teachings branch of Shi‘a Islam, whose imam marks the end of the world.
and sayings. These early caliphs is currently absent (see right), is led
were therefore appointed or elected, by proxy figures, or marjas—for
and the supporters of Abu Bakr and example, Iran’s Ayatollah Khomeini.
his two successors became known Since the dispute concerns
as Sunni Muslims. the issue of leadership, Shi‘a Islam
is considered a movement within
An alternative choice Islam, not a separate belief system. God intends only to remove
A minority group of believers However, it does have its own from you the impurity [of sin],
disagreed with Abu Bakr’s original emphases. To the Five Pillars of Oh People of the [Prophet’s]
appointment; they believed that the Islam Shi‘as add another five: Household, and to purify
rightful leader should have been a making offerings for the benefit of you with purification.
close relative of Muhammad, and, the community, commanding good,
Sura 33:33
in particular, a member of a special forbidding evil (all beliefs shared by
group known in the Qur’an as the many non-Shi‘as), plus two unique
Household (family) of the Prophet. to Shi‘a Islam—loving the Household
This group claimed that Muhammad of the Prophet, and turning away
had suggested a successor: his from those who do not. ■
272
IN CONTEXT
GOD GUIDES
KEY FIGURE
Abu ‘Abdallah Muhammad
ibn Idris al-Shafi‘i
US WITH
WHEN AND WHERE
767–820 CE, Arabia
BEFORE
1500 BCE The Torah records
SHARI‘A
the Ten Commandments:
religious and ethical laws
given to Moses by God.
7th century CE The Prophet
Muhammad receives the
I
n Islamic thought, to submit
oneself to God’s guidance
(islam means submission)
is the mark of a true Muslim. To
help followers navigate life in ways
that are pleasing to him, God has
offered a pathway known as shari‘a,
meaning literally “the road to the
watering hole.” In the context of
Arabia’s deserts, a road to water
is a great treasure and, similarly,
shari‘a is the pathway, by God’s law,
to harmonious living. It is a system
of ethics and a science of law (fiqh)
that is meant to govern humankind
and guide everything people do.
This system required sources to
refer to, and, early on, Muslims relied
on Muhammad’s revelations (the
ISLAM 273
See also: Living in harmony 38 ■ Wisdom lies with the superior man 72–77 ■ The personal quest for truth 144
■ Writing the Oral Law 182–83 ■ God reveals his word and his will 254–61
Qur’an) and his example (Sunna) for By the 8th century, Muslims differed
direction. With his death, however, widely on the application of shari‘a.
this guidance ceased. As it was, the Scholar Abu ‘Abdallah Muhammad
question of how to apply existing ibn Idris al-Shafi‘i, seen by many as
revelations to everyday life, across the father of Islamic jurisprudence,
the various cultures of the growing came to the fore to offer unifying
Muslim community, was a delicate thought on the legal concerns of
matter. Despite the emergence of the day. According to al-Shafi‘i,
Islamic judges who could rule on there were four sources of law: the
public and private concerns, there Qur’an, the Sunna, the consensus
was a call for more uniform and of the community (ijma), and
clearly defined shari‘a. analogical reasoning (qiyas).
Believed to be the literal word
Defining Islamic law of God, the Qur’an is the primary
Scholars keen to standardize Islamic source for Islamic principles and
jurisprudence emerged in many values. In many passages, it directly
Muslim communities, leading to addresses matters such as murder,
disagreement over how to apply the exploitation of the poor, usury, theft,
“The road to the watering hole”—
law. Should its scope be restricted to and adultery, clearly condemning the literal translation of shari’a—
the teachings of the Qur’an and the them. In other instances, the Qur’an is a concept that has considerable
Sunna, or could jurists incorporate works to curb certain behavior resonance for believers who came
their own analysis and reason? over time. For example, early ❯❯ from an unforgiving desert climate.
274 THE PATHWAY TO HARMONIOUS LIVING
revelations on alcohol suggest that authority to the traditions of the
while some good may be found Prophet. However, collections of
in it, it may also have a connection Muhmmad’s sayings, actions, and
to sin (2:219). Later revelations what he prohibited and allowed
prohibit Muslims from praying while grew in number, requiring the
drinking (4:43), and the latest plainly application of a strict process of There has come to
condemn the use of alcohol (5:93). validation. As a result of this,
you from God a light and
The Qur’an also guides Muslims legitimate traditions of Muhammad
in personal and community affairs. —that is, those with a proper chain
a clear book by which
For instance, while it does not of authority and not contradicting
God guides those who
expressly prohibit slavery, it does the Qur’an—can be brought to bear pursue his pleasure
offer guidance on how to treat on legal matters. to the ways of peace…
slaves. Marriage concerns such as Sura 5:15–16
polygamy, dowry, and inheritance Legal interpretation
rights for women are also governed. Even with al-Shafi‘i’s definitions,
Stipulations such as these are situations could arise that are not
explicit in the Qur’an and offer specifically addressed in either the
clear guidance. However, while Qur’an or Sunna. With Muhammad
the Qur’an treats other matters of no longer alive to offer guidance
morality and civic duty in a similar on such legal matters, the role behalf of wider Muslim society.
fashion, much of its treatment of of interpretation became crucial. There remained some situations
legal concerns tends to be generic. Al-Shafi‘i therefore sought to give where no authoritative text existed,
In these cases, the example of authority to legal interpretations and when consensus could not be
Muhammad given in the Sunna reached by consensus among reached. Initially, jurists used their
supplements the Qur’anic material. the Muslim community. Early own judgment to arbitrate new legal
While the Sunna cannot replace the on, this was a practical way for concerns. This was known as
Qur’an’s authority, the belief that solving problems on which the ijtihad, or striving intellectually,
Muhammad was inspired by God Qur’an and the Sunna were silent; and incorporated a judge’s personal
led to the acceptance of his example majority opinion would help in opinion or reasoning. Al-Shafi‘i
as authoritative. Al-Shafi‘i refined reaching decisions. Over time, restricted the role of personal
the use of the Sunna in legal however, “the community” came reasoning in ijtihad to the use
matters by restricting the use of the to be defined in legal terms as a of deductive reasoning to find
term Sunna to Muhammad. Doing collective body of legal scholars analogous situations in the Qur’an
so eliminated any confusion with and religious authorities whose or Sunna from which new legal
local customs, and added greater decisions would be made on rulings could be derived. For
example, the Qur’an prohibits
making a sale or a purchase
during the call to Friday prayers:
Muslims are instead urged to cease
trading so that they may gather
for worship (62:9–10). What about
other contracts that might be made
during the call to prayer? Should a
marriage, for example, be arranged
during this time? The Qur’an is
silent on the matter, but analogical
IN CONTEXT
KEY FIGURE We are told that We do not know how,
Abu al-Hasan al-Ash‘ari all bounty is in or in what sense,
the hand of God. this is true.
WHEN AND WHERE
10th century, Arabia
BEFORE
c.990 CE Syrian philosopher
Abu al-‘Ala al-Ma‘arri uses
rationalism to reject religious
dogma, denouncing its Questioning it would
lead to innovation, We must just believe
claims as “impossible.” and accept it.
which is forbidden.
AFTER
11th century Ibn Sina
(known in the West as
Avicenna) attempts to
reconcile rational philosophy
with Islamic theology. We can think about God, but
11th century Al-Ghazali we cannot comprehend him.
writes The Inconsistency
of the Philosophers on
the use of philosophy in
I
slam teaches that God is actions. This was the conclusion
Islamic theology.
transcendent, or beyond reached by Abu al-Hasan al-Ash’ari
12th century Ibn Rushd human comprehension. While in the 10th century, when Islam
(known in the West as this does not prevent Muslims from entered a controversy stirred up
Averroes) publishes a thinking about God, and reflecting by philosophical speculation about
response to al-Ghazali’s on aspects of who he is and what the nature of God.
work: The Inconsistency he does, they must never do so In the 8th century, caliphs (civil
of the “Inconsistency.” in the expectation of being able and religious heads of the Muslim
to understand his nature or his state) of the Abbasid dynasty
ISLAM 277
See also: Defining the indefinable 184–85 ■ The pathway to harmonious living 272–75 ■ The unity of divinity is
necessary 280–81
which was the greatest sin. The he asserted that God might be
Mu‘tazilites proposed that such described as having hands without
references are metaphorical. So, for Muslims knowing how this might
example, a reference to God’s hand be possible. Al-Ash‘ari and his
could be interpreted as indicating group of fellow-thinkers, known
his power. They then applied Greek as the Ash‘arites, left the words
God…is unlike whatever logic to other theological issues, of the Qur’an intact, but also kept
occurs to the mind or is such as free will, predestination, theological thinking about God
pictured in the imagination… and determining the nature of pure, by refraining from speaking
‘Ali al-Ash‘ari the Qur’an itself—whether it had about him in human terms, since
existed eternally, or had been God is beyond comprehension. ■
created by God at some point.
Before long, however, the
wide-ranging speculation of
the Mu‘tazilites began to attract
censure and turn public opinion
had encouraged the development against them. Theological and
of scholarship and the arts in philosophical speculation about
the Islamic world, and Arabic God is permissible and indeed
translations of works by Greek important to Islamic thought, but
philosophers, such as Aristotle, seeking answers to questions not
became available to Muslim specifically addressed by the Qur’an
theologians. Some of these scholars or Muhammad is, according to
applied the new Greek ways Islam, not only unnecessary, but also
of thinking to the content of the a sin—bid‘ah, the sin of innovation.
Qur’an. They formed a group called One Mu‘tazilite thinker,
Islamic scholars are free to think
the Mu‘tazilites, which became al-Ash‘ari, refused to reduce the about God and reflect on aspects of
a prominent force in Islamic Qur’an’s descriptions of God to who he is and what he does, but they
theology in the 9th century. metaphors, but he also refused must never expect to understand his
to anthropomorphize God. Instead, nature or his actions.
Radical thinkers
The Mu‘tazilites were inspired by Abu al-Hasan Mu‘tazilite theologian until the
the idea that Greek philosophical
al-Ash‘ari age of 40, when he abandoned
methods could be used to resolve much of Mu‘tazilite thought.
apparent contradictions in the Abu al-Hasan al-Ash‘ari Some say this followed a
Qur’an. The Qur’an stresses the was born in around 873 CE theological dispute with his
unity of God—he is indivisible, in Basra, in present-day Iraq. teacher, others that he realized
and so cannot have any kind of He is credited with much of there were contradictions
body, made up of parts, as humans the development of kalam (the between Islam and Mu‘tazilite
have. Yet there are passages in science of discourse on divine theology. He died in 935.
the Qur’an that specifically refer, topics), and taught many of
for example, to God’s hands and Islam’s greatest scholars. Key works
eyes. To take descriptions such Through his thinking and the
as these literally would lead to work of his pupils, Ash‘arite 9th–10th century Theological
anthropomorphism (attributing theology became the dominant Opinions of the Muslims; The
school of theology for orthodox Clarification of the Bases of
human characteristics to God)
Muslims. He remained a the Religion
and might be seen as comparing
God with the beings he created,
278
JIHAD IS OUR
RELIGIOUS DUTY
STRIVING IN THE WAY OF GOD
D
espite the guidance given
IN CONTEXT by the Qur’an, Muhammad,
and shari‘a, maintaining a
KEY FIGURE
focus on God and a disciplined life
Shams al-A’imma al-Sarakhsi
remains a challenge for Muslims.
WHEN AND WHERE Disobedience is always a temptation
11th century, Persia and evil is a constant presence.
Muslims, therefore, must constantly
BEFORE strive to stay close to God and
7th century CE Muhammad’s struggle against evil. This striving
armies conquer and unite or struggling is known as jihad.
much of Arabia under the For most Muslims, jihad is used
banner of Islam. in two different ways. The “greater
8th century Islamic expansion jihad” is the most common. This
is the constant struggle against
continues into Spain in the
personal sin, involving repentance Even the youngest students learn
west and Persia in the east. the importance of striving to be a good
and seeking God’s mercy, avoiding
8th century Legal scholar temptation, and pursuing justice for Muslim by upholding the faith, seeking
others. The “lesser jihad”, although God’s mercy, avoiding temptation, and
Abu Hanifa argues that Islam pursuing justice for others.
only permits defensive war. less common for Muslims, is the
more widely known. It involves the
AFTER legitimate use of force, sometimes stage, Islam should be defended
12th century Ibn Rushd militarily, against those who do evil. with peaceful argument. The third
(Averroes), an Islamic In the 11th century, one of Islam’s stage allowed for followers to defend
philosopher, divides jihad most noted legal scholars, Shams the Muslim community against
into four types: jihad by the al-A’imma al-Sarakhsi, discussed injustice. In the fourth stage,
heart, by the tongue, by the lesser jihad as a four-stage process. Muslims are called on to engage in
hand, and by the sword. He argued that in the first stage, armed conflict, within specific legal
jihad toward others should be and Qu’ranic guidelines, when the
1964 Egyptian author Sayyid
peaceful and passive. In the second Islamic faith is under threat. ■
Qutb argues for jihad as
the mission to make Islam See also: Augustine and free will 220–21 ■ The pathway to harmonious living
dominant in all the world. 272–75 ■ The rise of Islamic revivalism 286–90
ISLAM 279
THE WORLD IS
ONE STAGE OF THE
JOURNEY TO GOD
THE ULTIMATE REWARD FOR THE RIGHTEOUS
A
ccording to the Qur’an, paradise in a treatise entitled
IN CONTEXT the end of the world will The Book of Fear and Hope. He
be accompanied by the argued that those who truly fear
KEY FIGURE
Day of Judgment, when the fate of God will run toward him, longing
Abu Hamid Muhammad
every person will be determined by for his mercy. Al-Ghazali likens
al-Ghazali
the scales of justice. Those whose the desire for a meeting with
WHEN AND WHERE good deeds on earth outweigh their God to a farmer who sows seed
1058–1111, Persia bad deeds will proceed to jannah in tilled ground, faithfully waters
(paradise), depicted in Islam as a the seed, weeds the ground
BEFORE luxurious garden; while those regularly, and rightly hopes for
500 BCE The Hebrew Bible whose bad deeds outweigh their a harvest. Similarly, the Muslim
describes humankind’s first good deeds will be relegated to the who believes in God, obeys his
existence in a heavenly garden. fiery torments of jahannam, or hell. commands, and pursues morality
This idea of divine judgment is can expect both compassion from
1st century CE Jesus set against the Qur’an’s pervasive God and the rewards of paradise. ■
announces the inauguration descriptions of God’s mercy and
of God’s kingdom on earth. forgiveness. Indeed, Muslims are
From 874 Shi‘a Muslims distinguished clearly from non-
believe that the hidden imam Muslims as those who hope for
will return in the future to God’s mercy. They also hope
usher in the end of days. for a meeting with God (the Day And nothing but the
of Judgment is often referred reins of hope will lead to
1014–15 Muslim philosopher to as this in the Qur’an), when the vicinity of the Merciful
Ibn Sina (Avicenna) writes they will receive his clemency. and the joy of the Gardens.
his most important work on
Al-Ghazali
eschatology, Al-Adhawiyya. Hope and paradise
The Muslim scholar Abu Hamid
AFTER Muhammad al-Ghazali focused
1190 Muslim philosopher on the relationship between the
Ibn Rushd (Averroes) discusses Muslim concepts of hope and
the Day of Judgment in his
On the Harmony of Religions See also: Preparing for the afterlife 58–59 ■ The promise of a new age 178–81
and Philosophy. ■ Jesus’s message to the world 204–207
280
GOD IS
UNEQUALED
THE UNITY OF DIVINITY IS NECESSARY
I
slam is a monotheistic religion of tawhid features widely in the
IN CONTEXT and one of its central tenets Qur’an and forms the first part
is tawhid (literally “oneness”) of Islam’s central creed, the
KEY FIGURE
—the doctrine of divine unity. shahada: “There is no god but
Muhammad ibn Tumart
According to Muslim thought, there God.” Conversely, the doctrine
WHEN AND WHERE is only one God, and he is single of divine unity also forms the
1082–1130, North Africa in nature; he is not a trinity, as basis for the greatest sin in
Christians believe. The notion Islam, and one that is unforgivable:
BEFORE
c.800–950 CE Aristotle’s works
are translated into Arabic.
10th century Muslim Reason tells us that things
However, at the beginning
scholar al-Farabi discusses in the world (including
of all events and beings, there
humans) are changing,
the First Cause (God). must be something that was
impermanent, and were
not itself caused by
1027 Persian philosopher Ibn created by something
any other thing.
Sina (known in the West as that preceded them.
Avicenna) argues that reason
requires God’s existence.
AFTER
c.1238 Ibn ‘Arabi, a prominent The unique creator did not
Sufi teacher, reflects on the “begin” and will not end— This is God, the
“Oneness of Being.” God has existed and unique creator.
will exist forever.
1982 The Palestinian thinker
Ismail al-Faruqi writes
Tawhid: Its Implications
for Thought and Life.
1990 Ozay Mehmet argues The absolute creator
that tawhid is the basis is the only being that God is one being, that has
for Muslim religious and is unchanging, eternal, and no partners or equals.
the First Cause of everything.
secular identity.
ISLAM 281
See also: Defining the indefinable 184–85 ■ A divine trinity 212–19 ■ The
Muhammad
central professions of faith 262–69 ■ Theological speculation in Islam 276–77
ibn Tumart
I
f shari‘a law is, for Muslims, an Muslim elite as they gained in
IN CONTEXT exterior pathway leading to the power, disenchanted Muslims
true worship of God, then Sufi wished to return to what they felt
KEY FIGURE
mysticism is an interior path helping was the purity and simplicity of
Jalal al-Din Rumi
its practitioners not only to follow Islam during the time of Prophet
WHEN AND WHERE God, but to be closer to him. In the Muhammad. They pursued an
13th century, Persia early stages of Islam’s development, ascetic lifestyle by removing
simple obedience to the will of God themselves from the material world
BEFORE was not a strict enough doctrine for and seeking a direct, personal
8th century An early Sufi some Muslims. In response to the experience of God. Some Sufi
poet, Rabi‘a al-‘Adawiyya, growing indulgence of the ruling Muslims even declared that God
from Basra, Iraq, fuses was within them.
asceticism and devotion in As Sufism developed, groups,
her development of Sufism. or orders, were founded, in which
religious masters taught the doctrine
10th century Persian master
to students. At the heart of many of
al-Hallaj declares in a trance
these orders lay the belief that the
“I am the Truth”; his words are
self must be renounced in order to
interpreted as a claim to be fully abide in God. Accordingly, Jalal
God, for which he is executed. al-Din Rumi, a 13th-century Sufi
AFTER master, wrote of an impoverished
13th century Some Sufi Arab and his greedy wife who live
practices, such as reciting in the desert. The woman urges her
God’s names, are incorporated husband to offer their filled water pot
into Jewish worship. to God, hoping they might receive
something in return. Although
19th century Emir ‘Abd reluctant, the husband succumbs
al-Qadir, a Sufi scholar, leads to his wife’s urgings and offers the
the struggle against the pot—and, in return, it is filled with
French invasion of Algeria. gold. This treasure is, however, of
Revered for his ascetism and
little use to them in the desert and
21st century More than a kindness, Sufi saint Nizamuddin
Awlia’s tomb is visited by thousands therefore acts as a reminder that the
hundred Sufi orders exist.
of Muslims and non-Muslims each day, pursuit of wealth and self-interest
where they light incense and pray. detracts from the correct focus on
ISLAM 283
See also: The performance of ritual and repetition 158–59 ■ Zen insights that go
beyond words 160–63 ■ Mystical experience in Christianity 238
I
n 1882, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad
IN CONTEXT declared himself to be a minor
prophet, or divinely appointed
KEY FIGURE There can be no prophet reformer, of Islam. He had come, so
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad after Muhammad. he claimed, to rejuvenate Islam and
WHEN AND WHERE to return it to its pure foundations.
Late 19th century, India The movement that formed around
him came to be called Ahmadiyya.
BEFORE In orthodox Muslim thinking,
632 The Prophet Muhammad, the Prophet Muhammad is the
the final prophet of Islam, final prophet of Islam, and anyone
dies in Medina. else claiming the status of prophet
But Islam’s followers have
872 The Mahdi, the Hidden lost the pure message should therefore be denounced. But
One of Shi‘a Islam, disappears, from God that he brought. Ghulam Ahmad did not claim to
bring a new revelation beyond the
supposedly not to return until
Qur’an. Rather, he simply offered a
the end of the world.
new interpretation, with the aim of
19th century The anti- bringing the Muslim community
British Indian independence back to its roots. As such he was
movement grows in strength, comparable with other, minor
with some militant elements. A new message is needed prophets who did not bring the law,
to steer Muslims back to the but restored it: Aaron, for example,
AFTER pure path of the faith. who is thought by Muslims to
1908 Hakim Noor-ud-Din have been sent by God to revitalize
assumes Ahmadiyya leadership. the message given to Musa (Moses).
1973 Ahmadiyya splits into Ghulam Ahmad had previously
developed some unorthodox
Qadiani and Lahori groups.
teachings. Part of his message was
1983 A Qadiani Ahmadiyya that Isa (Jesus) did not die on the
conference attracts 200,000 Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, as cross, nor was he—as Muslims
participants; the following renewer and minor prophet, traditionally believed—saved from
year, restrictions are placed brings that message. death on the cross by being raised
on the group in Pakistan. up to heaven by God. Ghulam
Ahmad claimed that Jesus merely
ISLAM 285
See also: The Prophet and the origins of Islam 252–53 ■ The emergence of Shi‘a Islam 270–71 ■ Striving in the
way of God 278 ■ The rise of Islamic revivalism 286–90
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad Mirza Ghulam Ahmad was born a set of rules to guide all who
in 1835 in Qadian, a village near joined his movement. Ghulam
Lahore in India. His twin sister Ahmad traveled widely across
died shortly after their birth. In northern India, spreading his
a society where the majority was message and debating with
illiterate, Ghulam Ahmad studied Islamic leaders. He died in 1908,
Arabic and Persian, and learned leaving the leadership of the
aspects of medicine from his Ahmadiyya movement to a
father, a physician. As a young companion, who eventually
man, he took a position with the passed it to Ahmad’s eldest son.
government, while continuing
his religious studies. Key works
He announced his divine
mission in 1882, and in 1888 he 1880–84 The Arguments
asked his followers to formally of the Ahmadiyya
pledge allegiance to him. Some 1891 Victory of Islam
40 did so, and in 1889 he published 1898 The Star of Guidance
ISLAM MUST
SHED THE INFLUENCE OF
THE WEST
THE RISE OF ISLAMIC REVIVALISM
288 THE RISE OF ISLAMIC REVIVALISM
IN CONTEXT
KEY FIGURE Islam grows weak Islam must be strong to
Sayyid Qutb under the influence of offer itself as the best
Western powers and system of living for
WHEN AND WHERE
ideas. the world.
20th century, Egypt
BEFORE
1839–97 Activist and writer
Jamal al-Din al-Afghani
criticizes the colonial presence
in Islamic countries.
1849–1905 Egyptian
scholar, jurist, and reformer Muslim countries We must return to the
and communities example of Muhammad
Muhammad ‘Abduh decries must be governed and the Qur’an to
Western influence. well, according to regain Islam’s
1882 British forces occupy Islamic principles. purity.
Egypt. The British presence
and influence grow with time.
AFTER
1903–79 Abul A’la Mawdudi,
a revivalist thinker, becomes
one of the most widely read
Muslim writers. Such governance will
guide Muslims back
Islam must shed
1951 Ayman al-Zawahiri, a the influence of
to the message of
friend of Sayyid Qutb, plays the Qur’an. the West.
a major role in the militant
group al-Qaeda.
B
y the end of the 18th century, that science and technology, each had their own contexts and
the world’s great Muslim Western politics and economics, emphases, they were all aware of
powers were in decline. and even fashion had in their lives. the weakness of the global Islamic
The Ottoman and Mughal empires Some wished simply to protect community at the time, and felt
had lost political influence, and Islam against the secularization that Muslims straying from Islam
Western powers were colonizing that came with modernization; under Western influence were
the predominantly Muslim areas others were more militant and responsible. As a result, they sought
of northern Africa and parts of anti-Western, seeking to overthrow to revive the role of Islam as the
Asia—French North Africa, British imperialist governments; others dominant influence in their societies.
India and the Middle East, and still were prepared to accept a Many Muslim revivalists felt
Dutch Indonesia. Some Muslims degree of Western influence, but that the best way forward was to
welcomed the changes and sought clear dictinctions between restore Islam by not only shedding
modernizations that came with what was Islamic and un-Islamic. the influence of the West, but by
the Western presence. For others, Out of this context emerged a emphasizing the superiority of
however, the influence of the West number of very influential Islamic Islam as well. To do this, they
forced them to consider the place thinkers and reformers. Although argued for the central role of jihad
ISLAM 289
See also: God reveals his word and his will 254–61 ■ The pathway to
Sayyid Qutb
harmonious living 272–75 ■ Striving in the way of God 278
Born in 1906 in Qaha, a
farming town just north of
and corrupt under British colonial
Cairo, Sayyid Qutb attended
rule. Having become disillusioned a local school, where he
by his experience of the West and memorized the Qu’ran by
its cultural influence, Qutb sought to the age of 10. He went on to a
lead fellow Muslims out from under British-style education in Cairo
foreign control and back to Islam. He and began work as a teacher.
wrote extensively on the Qur’an and At first enamored with
its interpretation, as well as matters Western culture, he developed
of religion and the state, and joined an interest in English literature
the Muslim Brotherhood, a group and studied educational
formed in Egypt in the 1920s, administration in the US.
which aimed to use the Islamic However, his experience
faith as a means of “ordering the of what he considered the
life of the Muslim family, individual, irreligious culture of the US,
along with his view of British
community…and state.”
policies during World War II,
soured his vision of the West.
Ages of ignorance Back in Egypt, he joined the
Egyptian workers are searched by Qutb’s interpretation of jihad was Muslim Brotherhood, began
British soldiers during the Suez Crisis consistent with the perception of writing on Islamic topics, and
in 1956. Religious insensitivity and Islam as a religion that provides the advocated an Islamic ideology
poor treatment by the British troops perfect model for living. He believed
fed Islamic revivalism.
in place of Western influences.
that Muslims had an obligation to In 1954, Qutb was arrested
establish their moral standards on along with other Muslim
(p.278) in religious and political life. earth so that everyone could benefit Brotherhood members for
Taken in this sense, jihad became from them. Jihad, then, became a conspiring to assassinate
a revolutionary struggle against continual struggle against unbelief Egypt’s president, Gamal
un-Islamic forces, eliminating and injustice, or what Qutb called Abdel Nasser. After serving
perceived evil in pursuit of what jahiliyya. This term was traditionally a 10-year sentence, he was
revivalists believed was justice used to describe the age of ignorance released, only to write his
most controversial work,
and righteousness. Likewise, the —the period before the revelation of
Milestones, in which he called
revivalists thought that immoral the Qur’an—but it was applied by for a re-creation of the Muslim
governments should be replaced Qutb to everything he considered ❯❯ world based on Qur’anic
by Islamic systems established principles. In so doing, he
according to divine principles. In rejected forms of government
many Muslim revivalists’ minds, a that were not truly Islamic. He
government based upon the Qur’an was arrested and sentenced to
and Islam would provide the perfect death for plotting to overthrow
social system, and the best way the Egyptian state. In August
to achieve it was by a jihad that I went to the West and saw 1966, he was executed and
expressed itself through militant Islam, but no Muslims; I got buried in an unmarked grave.
action, resistance, and revolution. back to the East and saw
Muslims, but not Islam. Key Works
Egyptian activism Muhammad ‘Abduh
1949 Social Justice in Islam
Sayyid Qutb, a Muslim activist in
1954 In the Shade of the
20th-century Egypt, became one Qur’an
of the most influential revivalist 1964 Milestones
thinkers. From Qutb’s perspective,
Egypt had grown increasingly weak
290 THE RISE OF ISLAMIC REVIVALISM
He strongly opposed any system
of government in which people
were in “servitude to others,”
considering this to be a violation
of God’s sovereignty. This included
We…believed once in English communist nations (because of …Islam possesses or is
their state-imposed atheism) as
liberalism and English capable of solving our basic
well as polytheist nations such as
sympathy; but we believe India, and Christian and Jewish
problems…without doubt
no longer, for facts are states. Qutb also argued that
it will be more capable than
stronger than words. Your many Muslim countries lived in any other system we may
liberalness we see plainly a state of jahiliyya because they seek to borrow or imitate,
is only for yourselves… accepted alien—and in particular to work in our nation.
Sayyid Qutb Western—ideas and tried to Sayyid Qutb
incorporate them into their
governments, laws, and cultures.
For Qutb, the only effective way
to rid society of jahiliyya was by
implementing an Islamic way of
life with its superior strategies and
alien to Islam. For him, jahiliyya beliefs for governing humanity. exerted their influence. This
was not just a period of time, but meant that Muslim scholars
a state of being that was repeated Renewed jihad who interpreted the Qur’an in
every time a society strayed from This line of thinking about such ways as to suggest that its
the path of Islam. jahiliyya led Qutb and his followers discussions of jihad were no longer
to advocate the implementation of applicable in the modern world
Islamic governance jihad. Understood this way, jihad were misled. Qutb argued that
Qutb applied the concept of might be necessary for each new jihad was meant to be enforced
jahiliyya to governments that he generation of Muslims, at least as in his day in the same way it was
did not consider properly Islamic. long as foreign, un-Islamic forces when the Qur’an was revealed; this
might not mean eliminating every
non-Muslim from power, but it did
mean shedding the influence the
West had upon the world. Muslims
should do what was necessary
to ensure that a pure Islam as
a system of governance could
flourish uninhibited by un-Islamic
pressures. In this way, Qutb helped
to shape not only how future
Islamic revivalists would see
the world but how the people in
the West would come to perceive
Islam in the late 20th century. ■
ISLAM CAN BE A
MODERN RELIGION
THE COMPATIBILITY OF FAITH
O
ne of the most significant
IN CONTEXT questions faced by
Muslims today is how
KEY FIGURE
to relate Islamic faith to secular,
Tariq Ramadan
modern life. This question becomes
WHEN AND WHERE more pressing when people from
1960s, Switzerland Muslim countries move to the
West, bringing with them not just
BEFORE their religion, but their religion as
711 CE Muslims begin raids practiced in a specific cultural
on the Iberian Peninsula. context. As a result, many Muslims
827 Muslims begin conquest face a disconnection between what
of Sicily and establish an is Islamic and what is modern,
Emirate in 965. secular, or Western. Tariq Ramadan advises European
The idea developed by Tariq governments on Muslim relations;
15th century Islamic Ramadan—an Islamic scholar, he is a prominent communicator
whose family went into exile from and advocate of Muslim integration.
Ottoman Empire expands
in the Balkans. Egypt to Switzerland because of
his father’s membership of the take the traditional sources referred
AFTER Muslim Brotherhood (p.289)—is that to by Islamic scholars—the Qur’an
1960s Large-scale Muslim it is possible to be at once a Muslim and Sunna—and to interpret them
emigration begins from and an American or a European: in the context of their own cultural
Turkey and northern Africa religion and national culture are background, taking responsibility
to Europe. separate concepts, and it is the for their faith in the environment
1979 The Iranian Revolution duty of a Muslim not only to respect they inhabit. Ramadan’s goal is to
leads to the overthrow of Iran’s the laws of the host country’ but to help Muslims contextualize many
“contribute, wherever they are, to modern issues facing Islam, so that
Westernizing government.
promoting good and equity within they are able to become Western
2008 Rowan Williams, the and through human brotherhood.” Muslims whose culture and religion
Archbishop of Canterbury, Ramadan encourages Muslims to are compatible. ■
states that the adoption of
aspects of shari‘a law is See also: Faith and the state 189 ■ Progressive Judaism 190–95
■ The central professions of faith 262–69
inevitable in the UK.
MODERN
RELIGIO
FROM 15TH
CENTURY
NS
294 INTRODUCTION
Guru Nanak founds Claiming guidance Mirza Husayn ‘Ali Western trade in
Sikhism in the Punjab from God and the angel Nuri proclaims the Pacific region
region of India during Moroni, Joseph Smith, himself a messenger leads to the rise of
a time of tension Jr. translates the Book of of God, adopts the the so-called cargo
between Hindus Mormon and founds the title Baha’u’llah, and cults in Melanesia
and the Muslim Church of Jesus Christ of founds the Baha’i and New Guinea.
Mughal Empire. Latter-day Saints, US. Faith in Persia.
Creole religions evolve A number of new The Watch Tower Tract After a revelation
within communities of religions emerge Society, part of the Bible from the Supreme
African slaves in the in Japan, including Student Movement in the Being, Ngô Van
Caribbean. Tenrikyo, Oomoto, US, lays the foundations Chiêu founds the
and Kurozumikyo. for what becomes known as Cao Ðài religion
the Jehovah’s Witnesses. in Vietnam.
M
ost of the world’s major in Europe, and the exploration and Their status as new religions
religions evolved out of colonization of new lands—gave depends greatly on how much
the ancient civilizations, rise to a number of new religious they are accepted or rejected
with their foundations in the folk movements fueled by reluctance to by the parent religions.
traditions that preceded them. compromise in the face of change. In some cases, syncretic
The Abrahamic religions (Islam, religions—amalgams of two
Judaism, and Christianity), for New faiths very different faiths—have evolved,
example, trace themselves back to It is often difficult to determine especially among displaced or
the stories of Noah and the Flood, whether a breakaway group is oppressed people. For example,
long before any Middle Eastern a branch of an older religion, or a while Africans taken to the
civilizations, and, similarly, the completely new faith. Mormons Caribbean as slaves were forced to
various branches of Hinduism and Jehovah’s Witnesses, for adopt their masters’ Christianity,
are based on beliefs that predate example, both believe in the they used it as a framework for
Indian civilization. divinity of Jesus, but many of their practicing the religions of their
As philosophical and scientific other beliefs separate them from homelands, resulting in creole
thinking became increasingly mainstream Christianity. Similarly, faiths, such as Santeria (also
sophisticated over the millennia, Tenrikyo and other new Japanese known as Regla de Ocha or
these faiths faced a choice: to religious movements bear many Lukumí), Candomblé, Orisha-
adapt with the times and embrace similarities to both Buddhism Shango, and Vodun (or Voodoo),
change, or denounce anything and Shinto, and both the Hare depending on the tribe they had
new as heretical. Breakaway sects Krishna and Transcendental come from. In the 20th century, a
emerged, and—driven by events Meditation movements are Jamaican religion, the Rastafari
such as the Industrial Revolution obviously derived from Hinduism. movement, grew out of the Black
MODERN RELIGIONS 295
A.C. Bhaktivedanta
The Rastafari Maharishi Mahesh Swami Prabhupada
movement begins Based on L. Ron Yogi founds the takes the Hindu
in Jamaica, after Hubbard’s theories of Transcendental tradition of chanting
Ras Tafari becomes Dianetics, Scientology Meditation movement, to the US, where he
Emperor Haile is developed as a using traditional Hindu founds ISKCON, the Hare
Selassie I of Ethiopia. religion in the US. meditation techniques. Krishna movement.
Consciousness movement, building the indigenous American people. such as ISKCON, Transcendental
a mythology around the Emperor Other modern religions have been Meditation, and Falun Gong; while
Haile Selassie of Ethiopia, a country established with the aim of uniting others, notably Scientology and
that Rastafarians consider to be all faiths, or at least recognizing some modern Japanese religions,
Judah. Western influence in the the validity of other beliefs and have grown out of loosely science-
Pacific region also led to new embracing them in their own faith: based beliefs. Many of these
varieties of traditional folk religions, these, which include Baha’i, Cao Ðài, new religions were founded by a
known as the cargo cults. and Unitarian Universalism, have charismatic leader or prophet who
Many other new religions have arisen in various areas of the world claimed divine revelation, and have
emerged as specific to a particular where a variety of major faiths have been dismissed as cults designed
location. Sikhism, for example, is historically coexisted. for the glorification of their leaders.
associated with the Punjab region Some such faiths have declined in
of Pakistan and India; the religion Search for the spiritual popularity, but others have gained
was founded as a reaction to the A quest for mystical enlightenment a strong following and an eventual
hostility between Hindus and produced the Hasidic movement in acceptance as new religious
Muslims in the area, and was Judaism, and Sufism in Islam, and movements in their own right.
based on a peaceful, democratic some Christian denominations Before dismissing them, it is as
social foundation. The Church of have become more charismatic in well to remember that Christianity
Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints recent years. Others in the West was initially considered a cult
in its Book of Mormon provided a have drifted away from religious by the Romans and Jews, and
specifically US addition to the tradition: some to the past and that Muhammad was driven out
Christian Bible, with a mythology neopagan religions such as Wicca; of Mecca with his small group of
of saints and angels among others to movements from the East followers for his heretical beliefs. ■
WE MUST
LIVE AS
SAINT-SOLDIERS
THE SIKH CODE OF CONDUCT
298 THE SIKH CODE OF CONDUCT
T
he Sikh religion was the first of a succession of 10
IN CONTEXT founded by Guru Nanak, Sikh gurus, whose teachings are
a devoutly spiritual man collected in the Sikh holy book,
KEY FIGURE
who became disillusioned with the Adi Granth. This book came
Guru Nanak
the Hinduism that had surrounded to be considered as the 11th and
WHEN AND WHERE him when he was growing up in final guru of Sikhism, and is known
15th–16th century, India a village near Lahore (in modern as the Guru Granth Sahib (p.303).
Pakistan) in the 15th century. Nanak’s followers became known
BEFORE Islam had also influenced this as Sikhs, from the Sanskrit word for
6th century BCE Jainism and area since the 10th century, learner or disciple, guided in their
Buddhism reject the Hindu and its importance grew as the way of life by God and the gurus.
concept of a just war, arguing Mughal empire in India expanded.
for absolute nonviolence. Guru Nanak viewed the Hindu Finding God in a good life
7th century CE The Qur’an emphasis on ritual, pilgrimage, Like Hindus, Sikhs believe in the
and reverence for prophets and cycle of death and rebirth. However,
contains verses that suggest
holy men as a hindrance to what they take a different view of the
war in the defense of the faith
he considered most important—our purpose of human life. For the Sikh,
and the faithful is righteous. relationship with God. Although the aim is not to attain a place in
AFTER he used many different names paradise, since there is no final
1699 The Sikh Khalsa order for God, he recognized him as destination of heaven or hell.
sets out the conditions and one omnipresent, transcendent Instead, Sikhism teaches that
principles justifying conflict. divinity, similar to the concept of being born human is a God-given
Brahman in Hinduism. Following opportunity to take the path to
18th century Sikh armies a revelation from God when he salvation, which follows five stages,
engage in war with the was around 30 years old, Nanak from sinning to achieving freedom
Mughal and Afghan empires. devoted his life to preaching the from the cycle of death and rebirth.
1799 The Sikh kingdom path to salvation. He argued that The five stages are: wrongdoing;
of Punjab is established. the way in which believers conduct devotion to God; spiritual union
their lives is an integral part of with God; attainment of eternal
1947 The partition of India achieving unity with God and bliss; and freedom from rebirth.
and Pakistan splits Punjab and finding salvation. After accepting To make the most of this
sparks religious tension. the title of guru, or teacher, from his opportunity, Sikhs follow a strict
followers, he went on to become code of conduct and conventions,
Defend the
Conquer the Wear the five Keep God in faith and protect
five vices. articles of faith. mind at all times. the weak and
oppressed.
which was formally laid down by sipahi, or saint-soldier, who first opposite: they were asked to play
the 10th guru, Guru Gobind Singh, and foremost led the life of a saint an active part in it by commitment
when he created the order of the in his devotion to God, but would to family and community, and by
Khalsa, the community of all Sikhs act as a warrior to defend his faith demonstrating a social conscience,
baptized into the faith, in 1699. or prevent injustice, if necessary. which is considered one of the
The Khalsa would protect the highest of all the Sikh virtues.
Virtue and courage weak, and dedicate themselves to Guru Gobind Singh stressed
The idea of social justice lies at the a virtuous lifestyle of chastity and that a Sikh should act like a
heart of the Khalsa order (the name temperance, ridding themselves of warrior only out of necessity in
means “the pure” or “the free”). the five vices—lust (kaam), anger leading a saintly life: he should
Members are encouraged not only (krodh), greed (lobh), emotional be a soldierlike saint rather than
to share with others, but also to attachment (moh), and egotism a saintlike soldier, and all Sikhs
protect the poor, the weak, and (ahankar)—and keeping God in should act on the principle of “fear
the oppressed. This was a crucial mind at all times. Guru Gobind not, frighten not.” Singh likened
part of Guru Nanak’s original Singh codified a lifestyle that the courage needed to behave
philosophy, and it was reinforced was appropriate to all Sikhs when in this way to that of the lion,
during the period of the Ten Gurus, he established the Khalsa order: and suggested that Sikhs being
when Sikhs were persecuted both not only did he prohibit rituals, baptized in the Khalsa order
by their Muslim rulers and by pilgrimages, and superstitious should adopt the surname
Hindus, who regarded the Sikh practices, but he also outlined Singh (“lion”) or Kaur (“lioness”).
faith as heretical. Guru Gobind the virtues necessary to a life
Singh’s intention in forming the devoted to God, such as honesty, Five articles of faith
Khalsa was to establish an order simplicity, monogamy, and After they are baptized in the
of Sikhs that embodied the twofold avoidance of alcohol and drugs. Khalsa order, Sikhs are expected
virtues of bhakti (spirituality, or The Khalsa were not asked to wear the five articles of faith,
devotion) and shakti (powerfulness). to renounce the world in their commonly known as the “five Ks”,
He envisioned an ideal of the sant- devotion to God, in fact quite the as an outward expression of ❯❯
300 THE SIKH CODE OF CONDUCT
their status as saint-soldiers. Each articles of faith. Nevertheless,
of these—kesh (uncut hair), kangha it has become an essential item
(comb), kara (bracelet), kachera of Sikh clothing and has helped
(undergarment), and kirpan (sword) to give its wearers a strong sense
—has a deep symbolic meaning, of identity and social cohesion.
as well as distinctively identifying The turban was adopted at the
God approves not the
the wearer as a Sikh. suggestion of Guru Gobind Singh,
Hair is considered by Sikhs who pointed out that all the gurus
distinction of high
to be a gift from God, and kesh had worn a turban, and that doing
caste and low caste.
(the practice of leaving the hair likewise would help the wearer None has he made
and beard uncut) is seen, in to concentrate on following their higher than others.
part, as the avoidance of vanity. example. The primary purpose Sri Guru Granth Sahib
However, it is also a symbolic of the turban, however, is to pull
representation of the ideal of back and protect the uncut hair
leading a life in a way that God of male Sikhs.
intended, without interference,
and in harmony with his will, and Proofs against temptation
as such is an important outward Just as important as the positive
sign of the Khalsa code of conduct. virtues is the avoidance of vice. any action. Similarly, the kachera,
Sikhs are expected to keep The steel bracelet known as a cotton undergarment—worn
their hair clean and well-groomed, the kara is a symbol of the vows by both men and women—that
combing it twice daily with the taken by a Sikh during baptism to resembles loose-fitting shorts,
kanga, a special comb that is also refrain from the five vices. Because ostensibly acts as a warning to
used to hold it in place under a it is worn on the wrist it is often control sexual passion and desire,
turban. This regular grooming is visible to the wearer, and therefore but is also a symbolic reminder that
a constant reminder of the Sikh’s acts as a frequent reminder to Sikhs should strive to overcome
duty to lead a virtuous life devoted consider carefully whether his desires of all kinds and lead a
to God, which is why the kanga or her actions will lead to evil or faithful life in a broader sense.
is also considered one of the five wrongdoing. The Jain faith uses
articles of faith. a very similar device, in the form Defending the faith
The most easily identifiable of its emblem of the raised palm The soldierly aspect of Sikhism
aspect of a male Sikh, his turban, (p.70): a reminder to stop and is encapsulated in the kirpan,
is not actually one of the five consider the intention behind the ceremonial sword, which
symbolizes courage and dignity.
It encourages its wearer to be
constantly determined to defend
the Sikh faith and its moral values,
and protect the downtrodden
from tyranny.
Sikhism has at various times
been associated with nationalist
political movements in the Punjab,
where it originated. The region
has often suffered from religious
conflicts, which Sikhs have
S
ikhism is one of the most Guru Gobind Singh, established
IN CONTEXT egalitarian of all religions, the Khalsa order, into which most
quite free of division or Sikhs are initiated (p.299), he
KEY FIGURE
discrimination by race, class, or made the order open to everyone.
Guru Nanak
sex. All are welcome in gurdwaras Controversially, for the time, he
WHEN AND WHERE (Sikh temples) regardless of faith; denounced the caste system and
From 15th century, India there are no priests—decisions are gender discrimination. He also
made by the community—and abolished the priesthood in
BEFORE both men and women may read Sikhism, which he felt had become
From 1700 BCE The Vedic from the Sikh holy book. This corrupt and self-serving—guilty of
scriptures divide society into inclusiveness can be traced to the very vices the faith seeks to
four varnas, or classes, with Sikhism’s origins, when Guru overcome. Instead, he appointed
brahmins (priests) at the top; Nanak (p.301) received a revelation custodians of the holy book, the
this rigid social hierarchy from God, and announced: “There Guru Granth Sahib, at each temple,
pervades Indian society to is no Hindu or Muslim, so whose while also permitting all Sikhs,
the present day. path shall I follow? I shall follow male or female, to read from it in
the path of God.” worship at the gurdwara or at home.
AFTER Disillusioned about the existing
c.1870 Indian sage Sri religions of India at that time, and
Ramakrishna advocates by the social divisiveness he saw in
religious tolerance, stating all religions, Guru Nanak considered
that all religions may lead to that, from the divine perspective,
God via a heightened state religious labels—such as Hindu
of consciousness. or Muslim—were irrelevant. In their
1936 Indian philosopher and place, Guru Nanak offered an
alternative, all-embracing faith
political leader Mahatma
based on devotion to God rather
Gandhi propagates the notion
than the observance of ritual and
of sarvadharma samabhava,
reverence for individual holy men.
the equality of all religions,
and speaks out against the Both Sikhs and non-Sikh visitors
A legacy of equality are welcome to join in communal meals
Indian caste system. Guru Nanak’s teachings were at Sikh temples. Everyone, whatever
consolidated by subsequent Sikh their race, class, or sex, sits on the floor
gurus, and when the 10th guru, to eat, to emphasize the equality of all.
MODERN RELIGIONS 303
See also: God-consciousness 122–23 ■ Gender and the covenant 199 ■ The Sikh
The Guru Granth
code of conduct 296–301 ■ Cao Ðài aims to unify all faiths 316
Sahib
The central religious text
of Sikhism is a collection of
Guru Gobind Singh hymns and verses compiled
abolished all social divisions and written by the succession
in the order of Khalsa, so that of 10 Sikh gurus, the leaders of
Sikhism is open to… the faith, who lived between
1469 and 1708. This collection
consists of some 1,430 pages,
or angs, of their teachings.
The first version of the book,
…people of all castes …both men known as the Adi Granth,
and nationalities. and women equally. was compiled by the fifth
guru, Guru Arjan Dev, from
the sayings and writings of
his predecessors, and was
added to by subsequent
gurus. Guru Gobind Singh,
Sikhs believe that all religions the 10th guru, completed the
that worship one God are valid... text and nominated it, rather
than another human leader,
as his successor, calling it
“the embodiment of the
gurus,” and giving it the title
Guru Granth Sahib. Unlike its
predecessors, this “11th guru”
…and that the salvation shown is available for all to consult,
in the Guru Granth Sahib and a copy takes a place of
is available to all. pride in every gurdwara, or
Sikh temple. Originally written
in a specially devised script,
Gurmukhi, in a mixture of
dialects collectively known
as Sant Bhasha, it has since
been translated into several
All may enter our gateway to God. modern languages.
Sikhs do not need to perform any follows the same path as Sikhism,
particular rituals or undertake and their faith deserves respect.
pilgrimages, but they are expected Sikhs regard an individual’s
to show their devotion to God in religion to be largely the result
their everyday lives. It is not even of the culture in which he or All beings and creatures
a requirement to worship at the she was brought up: Hindus, are His; He belongs to all.
gurdwara. These temples serve as Muslims, Christians, and Sikhs Guru Granth Sahib
social centers and exemplify the have a common inspiration, but
notion of community spirit that is the particular form this takes is
such an important component of determined by society. For this
Sikhism. For Sikhs, anyone who reason, Sikhs do not attempt to
believes in and worships one God convert people of other faiths. ■
304
MESSAGES TO
AND FROM HOME
THE AFRICAN ROOTS OF SANTERIA
S
anteria is a religion that that were established following
IN CONTEXT combines traditional the Spanish colonization of the
western African religion islands. The Yoruba people of
KEY BELIEVERS
with Catholicism. This blended, present-day Nigeria and Benin
Displaced Yoruba people
or syncretic, religion developed in formed the majority of those taken
from western Africa
Cuba between the 16th and 18th to the Cuban sugar plantations.
WHEN AND WHERE centuries. During this period, huge These slaves came from the well-
From 16th century, Cuba numbers of people from western established Oyo Empire, which had
Africa were enslaved and taken to a sophisticated religious tradition.
BEFORE work on the Caribbean plantations This was outlawed by the Spanish.
From prehistory African
tribal mythologies incorporate
strong links to the land and to
the ancestors. Slaves taken from western Africa to the Caribbean
9th–6th centuries BCE The
people of the kingdom of
Judah maintain their faith
while in exile in Assyria, …took their religion with them and incorporated it into
Babylon, and Egypt. the Christianity of their owners, initially to conceal its
15th–19th centuries nature from them.
European colonial conquests
are accompanied by forcible
conversions to Christianity.
AFTER However, they retained the elements of communication
19th century The slave trade with their gods, spirits, and ancestors in Africa through
is abolished; Creole religions trances and possession.
are practiced more openly in
the Caribbean and Brazil.
1970s Santeria becomes
In this way, believers continued to transmit
established in the US.
messages to and from home.
MODERN RELIGIONS 305
See also: The power of the shaman 26–31 ■ The spirits of the dead live on 36–37
■ Living the Way of the Gods 82–85 ■ Ras Tafari is our Savior 314–15
Hybrid religions
Santeria is just one of many
A Santeria altar often blends Creole religions—hybrids
imagery from both Catholicism of African and European faiths
and western African beliefs, with —that had their origins in
particular saints identified with slavery. Yoruba (the dominant
particular African deities, or orishas. culture of the area plundered
by slave traders in western
Africa) figures largely in many
saint, the Yoruba slaves would Creole religions: Candomblé in
communicate with an orisha with Brazil, Santeria in Cuba, and
similar characteristics. This hybrid Orisha-Shango in Trinidad
religion allowed the Yoruba to and Tobago. However, other
maintain contact with their culture African peoples, including
and a link with their homeland, and, the Igbo from Nigeria, added
they believed, to communicate with their cultures to the mix, in
their ancestors through the spirits. religions such as Umbanda
and Obeah. Perhaps the
Hybrid elements of the religion
best-known African-European
include the adoption of numerous
faith emerged in Haiti, where
Spanish words and the addition of French, rather than Spanish,
images of Catholic saints alongside Catholicism was incorporated
the traditional portrayals of orishas, into African vodun beliefs as
and in some cases, the retention voodoo. This also made its
of the traditional framework of a way into the southern United
However, the Yoruba slaves soon Catholic service. Rituals are presided States. The religions of the
learned to conceal the worship of over by a priest or santeros. Hymns African diaspora gained some
their African gods by appearing are replaced with drumming and political significance after the
to practice Catholicism. Unaware chanting, with the aim of inducing abolition of slavery, especially
of this, the Spanish slave-owners a trance state. While in a trance, as Pan-African and black civil
dismissed the religious practices the believer may become possessed rights movements grew in the
of their slaves as merely a simplistic by spirits conveying messages from 20th century, giving rise
form of Christian worship, and their ancestral home. The drums to another hybrid religion
in Jamaica: the Rastafari
sarcastically dubbed it Santeria, convey messages to the orisha.
movement (pp.314–15).
the “way of the saints” (a term now Although there is a strong
viewed as pejorative by some). element of the supernatural and
magic in Santeria, and some
The Rule of Osha ceremonies call for ritual sacrifice
The Yoruba religion, known as (usually of a chicken), believers
Regla de Ocha or “Rule of Osha” are insistent that black magic
(Regla Lucumí, in the Yoruba is not involved. They maintain
language), already had similarities that their beliefs are distinct from I humble myself before the
to Catholicism. The Yoruba believe other syncretic religions of the mysteries of Eshu-Elegba.
in one God, Olorun (or Olodumare), Caribbean, such as Haitian voodoo. You are the messenger
the source of all spiritual energy— The relationship between of Olodumare and Orisha
analogous to Catholic worship of Santeria and Catholicism still and the Ancestors.
the one God. They also believe in exists today, although the need
Prayer to the orisha Eshu
a lesser pantheon of spirits known for secrecy no longer remains.
as orishas, each with an area of Adherents of Santeria are often
responsibility—akin to Catholic baptized in the Catholic faith and
reverence of the saints. So, while practice separate ceremonies for
ostensibly praying to a Catholic the saints and orishas. ■
306
ASK YOURSELF:
“WHAT WOULD
JESUS DO?”
FOLLOWING THE EXAMPLE OF CHRIST
IN CONTEXT
KEY FIGURES …the original Church
After the ascension of
Joseph Smith, Jr., turned away from
Jesus and the martyrdom
the Gospel in the
Brigham Young of the apostles…
Great Apostasy.
WHEN AND WHERE
1830, US
BEFORE
1790–mid-19th century The
Second Great Awakening, a In a series of revelations,
Protestant revival movement …who take as their
model Jesus himself, priesthood authority
in the United States, leads was restored to Joseph
rather than the dogma
to the formation of several of any existing church. Smith, Jr. and his successors,
Adventist churches, based the Latter-day Saints…
on belief in the imminent
Second Coming of Christ.
AFTER
Late 19th century In
the US, the Bible Student Ask yourself: “What would Jesus do?”
Movement advocates a return
to the earliest teachings of
the Christian Church. This
I
movement will become n reaction to the rationalism of of the established church and
the Jehovah’s Witnesses. the Enlightenment that spread incorporated charismatic elements of
from Europe to the American the faith—“gifts of the spirit,” such as
1926 Following what is
colonies in the 18th century, a prophecy and visions. There was also
claimed to be a new phase of Christian revival occurred in the a move to restore Christianity to the
revelations from God, the Cao United States at the beginning of principles of the New Testament.
Ðài religion is founded, with the 19th century. Many breakaway It was against this background
Jesus as one of its saints. Christian groups were formed at this that Joseph Smith, Jr. had the first
time. They rejected the traditions of a series of visions, in which God
MODERN RELIGIONS 307
See also: Jesus’s message to the world 204–207 ■ Jesus’s divine identity 208 ■ A divine trinity 212–19
■ God reveals his word and his will 254–61 ■ Awaiting the Day of Judgment 312–13
Joseph Smith, Jr. The son of tenant farmers, Joseph by ancient inhabitants of
Smith, Jr. was born in 1805 in America. With divine guidance,
Vermont, but in 1820 moved with Smith supposedly located and
his family to western New York, a translated the scriptures, the
center of the Protestant revival Book of Mormon, and published
movement known as the Second it in 1830, the year that he also
Great Awakening. Confused as founded his Church.
to which of the numerous Persecuted for his heretical
denominations he should follow, beliefs, he moved around
he prayed for guidance and had a frequently, establishing Latter-
vision in which God the Father day Saint communities in Ohio
and Jesus appeared to tell him all and Missouri before finally
the Churches had “turned aside settling in Nauvoo, Illinois. He
from the gospel.” He later said he was arrested for inciting a riot
had been visited by the angel in Carthage, Illinois, in 1844,
Moroni, who told him of scriptures but was killed by an angry mob
inscribed on golden plates, written before he could stand trial.
308
WE SHALL KNOW
HIM THROUGH
HIS MESSENGERS
THE REVELATION OF BAHA’I
AFTER
1921 In Lahore (modern
Pakistan), Mirza Ghulam We shall know him
Ahmad claims to bring a new through his messengers.
message from God for Islam.
MODERN RELIGIONS 309
See also: The promise of a new age 178–81 ■ The Prophet and the origins of Islam 252–53 ■ The emergence of Shi‘a Islam
270–71 ■ Cao Ðài aims to unify all faiths 316 ■ A faith open to all beliefs 321
I
n Shi‘a Islam, most followers messengers including Moses,
believe that the Mahdi, the Buddha, Jesus, and Muhammad.
descendant of Muhammad Throughout history, he explained,
who will come to restore the religion religions have been established by
of God, is Muhammad al-Mahdi, these messengers, with each one in
the Twelfth Imam, who lived on turn bringing the religious truth All peoples and
earth until 941. His return to bring in a manner that was well-suited nations are of one
peace and justice to the world is a to the time and place. Each family, the children of
cornerstone of the branch of Shi‘a messenger has also prophesied the one Father, and should
known as the Twelvers (p.271). This coming of another messenger, in a be to one another as
belief was especially prevalent in progressive revelation, a continual brothers and sisters
19th-century Persia, where Shi‘a unfolding of the message of God. Baha’u’llah
Islam had for centuries been the
state religion. It was here, in 1844, The nature of the message
that Siyyid ‘Ali Muhammad Shirazi In his writings, Baha’u’llah explains
(1819–50) declared that he was that God has two reasons for
the Bab (Gate), and had come sending these prophets to the
to establish a faith in readiness world: “The first is to liberate the
for the coming of “He whom God children of men from the darkness peace, unity, and justice. Central
shall make manifest.” of ignorance, and guide them to to his message was the concept
The Islamic authorities the light of true understanding. of unity of religion, acceptance of
persecuted his followers, known The second is to ensure the peace the validity of all the world’s major
as Babis, for their beliefs. Among and tranquillity of mankind, and religions, and respect for their
them was Mirza Husayn ‘Ali Nuri, provide all the means by which prophets as messengers of God.
who came to believe he was the one they can be established.” With this teaching he hoped to
whose coming had been predicted Baha’u’llah’s own mission, avoid what had before now become
by the Bab. He adopted the title as the messenger prophesied by a source of religious conflict, while
Baha’u’llah (Glory of God) in 1863, previous prophets, was to bring a promoting the unity of humankind
proclaiming that he was a messenger message that was relevant to the and rejecting inequality, prejudice,
of God, the latest in a line of such modern world, one of worldwide and oppression. ■
Baha’u’llah The founder of the Baha’i faith Most of the Babis believed his
was born Mirza Husayn ‘Ali Nuri claims, and, as his followers,
in Tehran, Persia, in 1817, but is became known as Baha’is. In
better known by his adopted title 1868, Baha’u’llah again fell foul
of Baha’u’llah (“Glory of God”). He of the Ottoman authorities,
was brought up as a Muslim, but and was sent to a penal colony
became one of the first followers in ‘Akka, in Palestine. He was
of the Bab, Siyyid ‘Ali Muhammad gradually permitted greater
Shirazi. In the 1850s, he came to freedom, but nevertheless
believe that he was the fulfillment remained a prisoner in ‘Akka
of the Bab's prophecies. He was until his death in 1892.
imprisoned for his heretical Followers of the Baha’i
beliefs, then banished to Baghdad faith consider it more respectful
and later to Constantinople to depict Baha’u’llah not with
(modern Istanbul), where, in 1863, an image, but with a stylized
he declared himself as Baha’u’llah, version of his name in Arabic
God’s latest messenger on earth. calligraphy, as shown left.
310
T
enrikyo is one of the
IN CONTEXT so-called Japanese New
Religions that appeared
KEY FIGURE
in the 19th century and were
Nakayama Miki
regarded as sects of Shinto.
WHEN AND WHERE Tenrikyo was founded by a peasant
Throughout the world,
From 1838, Japan woman, Nakayama Miki, following
revelations to her from Tenri-O-no-
God is the broom
BEFORE Mikoto, God the Parent, during
for the sweeping of
6th century Buddhism a Buddhist exorcism ritual in 1838. the innermost heart.
spreads to Japan, bringing She recorded the substance of these The Ofudesaki
with it ideas of reincarnation revelations in the Ofudesaki (“Tip
derived from Hinduism. of the Writing Brush”), Tenrikyo’s
sacred text, and became known
8th century In response to to her followers as Oyasama (“the
increasing Buddhist influence, Parent”) or the Shrine of God.
traditional Japanese beliefs in Tenrikyo followers believe in a
gods and spirits are codified single, benevolent God, who wishes in order to follow the joyous life
in the Kojiki and the Nihon humans to find happiness in their successfully: oshii (miserliness),
Shoki, the first texts of Shinto. lives on earth. A major part of huoshii (covetousness), nikui
AFTER Tenrikyo practice is to follow the (hatred), kawai (self-love), urami
Late 19th century Tenrikyo Joyous Life, avoiding what are seen (grudge-bearing), haradachi
as negative tendencies. What other (anger), yoku (greed), and koman
believers attach themselves
religions consider as sins, Tenrikyo (arrogance). Hinokishin is also
to a Buddhist sect to avoid
describes as mental dust that practiced to give thanks to Tenri-
persecution, but Tenrikyo is needs to be swept away by O-no-Mikoto for allowing believers
forcibly incorporated into the hinokishin—the performing to borrow their bodies in a cycle of
official state religion of Shinto. of acts of kindness and charity. reincarnation based on the notion
1945 After World War II, State Believers identify eight mental of kashimono-karimono (“a thing
Shinto is disestablished and dusts that need to be swept away lent, a thing borrowed”). ■
Tenrikyo is classified as a
separate religion. See also: Living the Way of the Gods 82–85 ■ Escape from the eternal
cycle 136–43 ■ Let kindness and compassion rule 146–47
MODERN RELIGIONS 311
THESE GIFTS
MUST BE
MEANT FOR US
CARGO CULTS OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS
W
estern trade and They developed the idea of a golden
IN CONTEXT colonialism during the age to come, when—by propitiating
19th century brought their ancestors and deities with
KEY BELIEVERS
modern goods in abundance to the religious rites—the cargo would be
Pacific islanders
islands of the Pacific and, despite restored to them, and the Westerners
WHEN AND WHERE the work of Christian missionaries, would be driven out of their lands.
Late 19th century, Pacific this had an unexpected impact on These cults sprang up in parts
indigenous belief systems. Islanders of Melanesia and New Guinea,
BEFORE came to believe that this material and proliferated in the 1930s as air
Precolonial times Tribes wealth, the cargo of the Western transport increased. Their spread
in Melanesia, Micronesia, and traders, was of supernatural origin, accelerated during World War II,
New Guinea hold a variety and had been sent to them as a when the islands were used as
of beliefs involving ancestral gift from their ancestral spirits, but bases by American and Japanese
spirits as well as deities. had been seized by the white men. forces, bringing in large quantities
of equipment and supplies. The
1790s The first Christian
cult figure John Frum, revered
missionaries arrive in the
on the island of Tanna in Vanuatu,
Pacific islands.
is often depicted as an American
AFTER serviceman. As well as developing
1945 The term cargo cult special religious ceremonies that
is coined in the colonial news frequently mimicked military drills,
magazine Pacific Islands with flags and uniforms, cult
Monthly, and is popularized followers built wharves, landing
by anthropologist Lucy Mair. strips, and sometimes even life-
size models of aircraft to attract
1950s Some Tanna islanders the bringers of goods.
in Vanuatu start to worship Followers of the John Frum cult
figure “drill” with model weapons to Cargo cults persist in some
Prince Philip, husband of attract well-stocked military vessels. remote areas of the Pacific, but
Britain’s Queen Elizabeth II, Some say the name “John Frum” was have been largely superseded as
believing him to be John originally “John From” America. Western influence has spread. ■
Frum’s brother, who “married
a powerful lady overseas.” See also: Making sense of the world 20–23 ■ Social holiness and evangelicalism
239 ■ The African roots of Santeria 304–305
312
T
he Jehovah’s Witnesses complete destruction in the battle
IN CONTEXT emerged from the Bible at Armageddon with Satan, when
Student movement in only true Christians—Jehovah’s
KEY FIGURE
the United States in the 1870s. Witnesses—will be spared.
Joseph Franklin
They see their faith as a return to According to the movement,
Rutherford
the original concepts of 1st-century the present world era is nearing its
WHEN AND WHERE Christianity, and refer to this early end, having entered its “last days”
From 1931, US and interpretation of the Bible as “the in October 1914. This was first
Western Europe Truth.” The group believes that thought to be the beginning of the
all other religions, and all forms battle at Armageddon, but is now
BEFORE of present-day government, are accepted as the time when God,
1st century CE Jesus controlled by Satan, and face known as Jehovah, entrusted the
announces the arrival of
God’s Kingdom; in the
Book of Revelation, St. John
describes the apocalypse In 1914, Jesus Christ …where he has corrupted
that will precede God’s began his rule of God’s the world and fights
final judgment. heaven and expelled the true believers,
Satan to earth… Jehovah’s Witnesses.
19th century According
to the Plymouth Brethren’s
Dispensationalist view of Bible
teachings, all who accept
Jesus will be swept up into
God will establish his
heaven by a “rapture” that will The world is now in its last kingdom on earth after
precede global tribulation. days before the battle destroying the world
at Armageddon. ruled by Satan.
1881 Charles Taze Russell
founds what is originally called
the Zion’s Watch Tower Tract
Society; his Bible Student
movement predicts Christ’s The end of the world
advent on earth. is nigh.
MODERN RELIGIONS 313
See also: The battle between good and evil 60–65 ■ The end of the world as we know it 86–87 ■ Jesus’s message to the
world 204–207 ■ A divine trinity 212–19 ■ Entering into the faith 224–27 ■ The ultimate reward for the righteous 279
Joseph Franklin
Rutherford
Born in rural Missouri in
1869, Joseph Rutherford
came from a poor farming
family and was raised as
a Baptist, but became
disillusioned with religion
after he left home. He studied
law and had a successful legal
career in Missouri and New
York. His interest in religion
was renewed in the 1890s
by the work of Charles Taze
Russell, founder of the Bible
Student movement, and he
became actively involved
Judgment Day is near, according to released into the world. Only with the Watch Tower Society,
Jehovah’s Witnesses, who believe that true believers, a select 144,000 becoming its second president
those not of their faith can soon expect Jehovah’s Witnesses, will remain in 1917, after Russell’s death.
a reckoning, as depicted here in John Dramatic changes were made
when Jesus passes the rule of the
Martin’s The Great Day of His Wrath. to the organization under his
Kingdom back to God. leadership, and the doctrines
Because of their dismissal of of present-day Jehovah’s
rule of the Kingdom of Heaven to other faiths (even other Christian Witnesses were established.
Jesus Christ, who then expelled denominations) as corrupted by He remained president of
Satan to earth. During this final Satan, Jehovah’s Witnesses have the Society, increasing its
phase, Jesus, aided by a “faithful been rejected by most other membership by introducing
and discreet slave” in the Governing religions. Public opinion has been door-to-door evangelizing,
Body of Jehovah’s Witnesses, will adversely affected by their insistent among other things, until his
maintain his invisible rule over door-to-door evangelizing and the death from cancer in 1942.
earth. For Jehovah’s Witnesses there selling of their publications The
is no literal second coming; rather, Watchtower and Awake!—which
Jesus will at some unknown point nevertheless command high
begin the battle against Satan, after circulation figures worldwide.
which God will extend the Kingdom But their rejection of “corrupt”
of Heaven, creating an earthly government has had surprising
paradise under Christ’s Millennial results. Many Jehovah’s Witnesses
Reign. They believe Christ to be who would not fight for the Nazis The Lord declares he has
God’s representative ruler and not ended up in concentration camps. entrusted his people with
part of a Trinity. Similarly, the Holy Elsewhere, their refusal to engage the privilege and obligation
Spirit is not part of the deity, but in the wars of secular governments of telling his message.
manifests in forces such as gravity. helped to bring about changes to The Watchtower
During the thousand-year reign the laws of conscientious objection,
of Christ on earth—a prolonged and their refusal to compromise
judgment day—the dead will be their beliefs has led to many court
resurrected and judged by Jesus, cases and influenced civil rights
facing a final test when Satan is legislation in several countries. ■
314
THE LION OF
JUDAH HAS
ARISEN
RAS TAFARI IS OUR SAVIOR
U
nlike the Creole religions
IN CONTEXT The black peoples of Africa that developed among
have been exploited for the black slaves in
KEY FIGURE
centuries by “Babylon,” the Caribbean (pp.304–305),
Haile Selassie
the white men… Rastafari has little to do with
WHEN AND WHERE traditional African religions.
From 1930s, Jamaica Instead, the movement is largely
based on the Christian Bible.
BEFORE It nevertheless emphasizes its
…but it was prophesied that
18th–19th century Creole, binding links to Africa.
a savior from the family of
or syncretic, religions arise Judah would come to “Zion” Rastafari (followers dislike the
among slave communities, (Africa) to free them term Rastafarianism, and indeed
fusing African beliefs with the from oppression. all “isms”) is as much a political
Christian faith that slaves are or social movement as a religious
forced to adopt by their masters. faith. It emerged during a period
of increasing awareness of the
1920s Written in Anguilla, the
“African-ness” of the black
Holy Piby identifies Ethiopians The savior appeared in population of the New World.
as God’s chosen people, and the form of Ras Tafari, Pan-Africanism—the movement to
Marcus Garvey as a prophet; God’s chosen king on earth…
unite and inspire people of African
it becomes an influential descent—was also on the rise. This
Rastafari text. movement had begun in the 19th
AFTER century, but gained momentum in
Mid-20th century In the US, the 1920s and 1930s, particularly
…who became Emperor through the work of the political
the Nation of Islam movement Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia, activist Marcus Garvey (1887–1940).
proclaims W. Fard Muhammad the Holy Land for Rastafarians. He was especially influential in his
to be the messiah predicted
native Jamaica, which at that time
by both Judaism and Islam.
was still under British rule.
While fighting for African– Garvey’s denunciation of
American and black Muslim oppression and exploitation
rights, the movement becomes The Lion of Judah chimed with many Jamaicans,
heavily politicized. has arisen. especially as large numbers lived
in poverty. The vast majority of
MODERN RELIGIONS 315
See also: Jesus’s message to the world 204–207 ■ Social holiness and evangelicalism 239 ■ The African roots
of Santeria 304–305 ■ The Nation of Islam 339
Haile Selassie Born Tafari Makonnen, inheriting Ethiopia, returning in 1941 after
the title “Ras” (analagous to the British liberation. Although
Duke) as the son of Ethiopian respected around the world, he
nobility, Haile Selassie became became increasingly unpopular
Regent of Ethiopia in 1916. He in his home country, and in 1974
replaced the heir to the throne, was deposed and imprisoned by
Iyasu, whose links with Islam and members of the armed forces
general misconduct precluded his calling themselves the Derg
becoming head of state. On the (Committee). Many members of
death of the Empress Zewditu in his family and government were
1930, Tafari, a devout member of imprisoned or executed, and,
the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, in August of the following
was crowned Emperor, and took year, it was announced that
the regnal name of Haile Selassie, the ex-Emperor had died of
“Might of the Trinity.” He spent respiratory failure, although
some years in exile in England there was some controversy
following Mussolini’s invasion of around the causes of his death.
316
ALL RELIGIONS
ARE EQUAL
CAO ÐÀI AIMS TO UNIFY ALL FAITHS
I
n 1920, a Vietnamese civil Sun Yat-sen. In unifying the world’s
IN CONTEXT servant, Ngô Van Chiêu, stated faiths and removing the religious
that during a seance he was differences that lead to aggression,
KEY FIGURE
contacted by the Supreme Being, Cao Ðài hopes to achieve world
Ngô Van Chiêu
who informed him that the time peace. Despite this ambition,
WHEN AND WHERE had come to unite all the world’s the movement became associated
From 1926, Vietnam religions into one. Referring to in the mid-20th century with the
himself as Cao Ðài (Supreme Palace Vietnamese nationalist movement,
BEFORE or Altar), God explained that in the and was involved in political
6th century BCE In China, past, his message had been and military resistance to French
Confucius teaches a philosophy revealed through prophets colonialism and, later, Communism. ■
of morality, respect, sincerity, in two periods of revelation and
and justice. salvation, which had given rise
3rd century BCE Buddhism, to all the world’s major religions.
He had now chosen, in a third
founded in India by Siddhartha
period, to reveal his truth via
Gautama, spreads to China.
seance ceremonies. Ngô Van
1st century CE Jesus, revered Chiêu, along with others who Because of the very
as a saint in Cao Ðài, promises had received similar revelations, multiplicity of religions,
to return to earth to complete founded the Ðài Ðao Tam Ky Pho humanity does not always
God’s purpose for humankind. Ðo (“Religion of the Third Great live in harmony. That is
Period of Revelation and Salvation”), why I decided to unite
6th century Muhammad commonly known as Cao Ðài. all…into one.
receives the Qur’an, and says Combining elements of several God’s message to
it is a renewal of the message religions, especially Buddhist and Ngô van Chiêu
given to Moses and Jesus. Confucian philosophy, Cao Ðài
reveres the prophets of all the
AFTER
major world faiths, along with more
1975 The Communist regime
surprising figures such as Joan of
in Vietnam proscribes Cao Ðài.
Arc, Shakespeare, Victor Hugo, and
1997 Cao Ðài is granted
formal recognition by the See also: God-consciousness 122–23 ■ Jesus’s message to the world 204–207
■ The origins of Ahmadiyya 284–85 ■ The revelation of Baha’i 308–309
Vietnamese authorities.
MODERN RELIGIONS 317
WE HAVE FORGOTTEN
OUR TRUE NATURE
CLEARING THE MIND WITH SCIENTOLOGY
S
cientology as a religious
IN CONTEXT philosophy evolved from the
work done by science-fiction
KEY FIGURE
author L. Ron Hubbard in the 1930s
L. Ron Hubbard
and 1940s on Dianetics. This was a
WHEN AND WHERE self-help system based on elements
From 1952, US of psychotherapy with an emphasis
on dealing with past traumatic
BEFORE experiences to achieve spiritual
1950 L. Ron Hubbard sets up rehabilitation. This process of
the Hubbard Dianetic Research counseling, known as auditing, Scientology headquarters in Berlin,
Foundation and publishes an is at the heart of Scientology. Germany, displays the eight-pointed
article on Dianetics in the sci-fi Followers of Scientology believe cross, representing the eight dynamics
magazine Astounding Science that man’s true spiritual nature of existence that are defined in the
movement’s theology.
Fiction, followed by his book is embodied in an eternal spirit
Dianetics: The Modern Science known as the Thetan, which has
of Mental Health. been reborn continually in human Operating Thetan, and rediscover
form, and has consequently lost their original potential. Hubbard
AFTER its true nature of spiritual purity. was keen to secure celebrity
1982 A Religious Technology By undergoing one-to-one auditing, endorsement for Scientology, and
Center is established to oversee using an E-meter (an instrument this, along with the high cost of
Scientology technology; some for detecting electric current, one-to-one auditing sessions and
members see this as against designed by Hubbard), practitioners study materials, led to accusations
original Scientology principles can free their unconscious minds that it was a moneymaking cult.
and form a breakaway group, of images of trauma, known as After protracted court cases in the
which they call the Free Zone. engrams, and return to the state US and elsewhere, Scientology now
of Clear—their true spiritual has tax-exempt status as a religion
1993 Scientology is formally
identity. Progressing through in some parts of the world, but
recognized as a religion various levels of auditing, they is still not recognized in
in the US. eventually reach the level of many countries. ■
See also: The ultimate reality 102–105 ■ Escape from the eternal cycle 136–43
■ Purging sin in the Unification Church 318
318
FIND A SINLESS
WORLD THROUGH
MARRIAGE
PURGING SIN IN THE UNIFICATION CHURCH
T
he Holy Spirit Association
IN CONTEXT for the Unification of World
Christianity, commonly
KEY FIGURE
known as the Unification Church,
Sun Myung Moon
or more pejoratively as the Moonies,
WHEN AND WHERE was founded by Sun Myung Moon
From 1954, South Korea in Seoul, South Korea, in 1954.
His family had converted from
BEFORE Confucianism to Christianity when
1st century St. Paul affirms he was ten years old, and, as Wedding Blessing ceremonies,
that all humankind inherits a teenager, Moon had a vision of often with hundreds of couples
sin from the Fall, and also that Jesus asking him to complete participating, are not legal marriages,
marriage is a sacred state. his mission of redemption. but are believed to free the couple’s
offspring from original sin.
From 2nd century The early To do this, Moon established the
Christian Fathers formulate Unification Church, which he saw
the doctrine of original sin, but as a Christian denomination based Children born without sin
dispute whether Adam or Eve on the Bible and on his own book The path to complete redemption
the Divine Principle, but offering for humankind, Moon maintained,
was more responsible for it.
a radically different interpretation would begin with his own marriage
4th century St. Jerome uses of the Christian story of the Fall that to Hak Ja Han in 1960, and be
the example of Jesus to argue led to original sin: Moon believed followed by the mass weddings
that celibacy is the preferred that Eve’s spiritual relationship with and rededications that became
state for a truly holy life. Satan before her sexual one with characteristic of the Unification
Adam led to all of her progeny being Church and are its core ceremonies.
7th century The notion that
born with defective, sinful natures, Children of these marriages, in
Mary, mother of Jesus, was and, crucially, that Jesus came which premarital and extramarital
herself conceived free from to rectify this, but was crucified sex are prohibited, would then be
original sin gains ground. before he had the opportunity to born without fallen natures,
16th century Martin Luther marry—and therefore he only thus heralding the advent of
reasserts that all humans are achieved a partial redemption. a sinless world. ■
born sinful, with the exception
of Mary, mother of Jesus. See also: The battle between good and evil 60–65 ■ Wisdom lies with the
superior man 72–77 ■ Augustine and free will 220–21
MODERN RELIGIONS 319
SPIRITS REST
BETWEEN LIVES
IN SUMMERLAND
WICCA AND THE OTHERWORLD
P
robably the best known of Although Wiccans believe in an
IN CONTEXT the 20th-century neopagan afterlife, they emphasize making
(new pagan) religions, the most of the present life in
KEY FIGURE
Wicca originated in England, and nature-based rituals. These include
Gerald Gardner
was popularized by a retired civil celebrations of the seasons, and
WHERE AND WHEN servant, Gerald Gardner, in rites of passage such as initiation,
From 1950s, UK the 1950s. Although he referred wiccaning (similar to baptism),
to the religion as witchcraft, and and marriage or sexual union.
BEFORE its adherents as the Wica, the Because of some apparent
Pre-Christian era Celtic and version he founded and its various resemblances to Satanism (the
Norse mythologies include the subsequent branches or traditions Horned God, for example), Wicca
idea of otherworlds such as are today known as Wicca. has often been confused with black
Asgard, where the Norse Wiccan beliefs are centered on magic cults, and has, until recently,
heaven Valhalla is situated. the principles of masculine and suffered prejudice and persecution,
feminine, as embodied in the especially in Christian countries. ■
19th century Spiritualists
complementary Horned God and
and Theosophists coin the
Moon Goddess, and the existence
name Summerland to describe
of an otherworld known as
an astral plane where virtuous Summerland where souls spend the
souls rest in bliss. afterlife. Many branches of Wicca
1920s Anthropologist also believe in reincarnation, and
Margaret Murray publishes see Summerland as a resting place I do not remember
work on the Christian for souls between lives, where they my past lives clearly;
persecution of witches in can examine their previous life and I only wish I did.
history, identifying witchcraft prepare for the next. These souls Gerald Gardner
as a pagan religion separate are sometimes contacted by
from black magic cults. Wiccans in magic ceremonies
similar to those of spiritualism,
AFTER involving mediums or ouija boards,
1970s In the US, feminist but this practice is not universal.
politics is incorporated into
Wicca by practitioners of See also: Animism in early societies 24–25 ■ Man and the cosmos 48–49
■ The power of the great goddess 100
Dianic Witchcraft.
320
NEGATIVE THOUGHTS
ARE JUST RAINDROPS
IN AN OCEAN OF BLISS
FINDING INNER PEACE THROUGH MEDITATION
I
n 1958, Maharishi Mahesh
IN CONTEXT Yogi traveled to the West
to teach Transcendental
KEY FIGURE
Meditation (TM), with the original
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi
intention of founding a Hindu
WHEN AND WHERE revival movement. His methods
From 1958, Europe evolved from Hindu mantra
meditation techniques, with
BEFORE the similar aim of transcending the
From 1700 BCE Meditation confines of physical consciousness
techniques are found in early to tap into a creative force.
Indian Vedic practices.
From 6th century BCE Cultivating inner peace
Meditation is practiced The practice of TM involves sitting Maharishi Mahesh Yogi founded
in meditation for 20 minutes, twice TM as the Spiritual Regeneration
in Buddhism in India and Movement. Today it is an organized
a day, using a personal mantra. This
Confucianism in China. international movement with its
is believed to result in improved
headquarters in the Netherlands.
19th century European psychological and physical well-
intellectuals discover Eastern being and increased potential for
philosophy and arouse general creativity, allowing the individual to Bhagavad-Gita. Today, proponents
interest in Buddhist and Hindu experience “communion with the of TM offer it as a scientific method
meditation and yoga. wellspring of life” and overcome for self-development that is open
negative thoughts, which become to all. TM techniques have been
AFTER merely “raindrops falling into the adopted not only by individuals, but
1967 The Beatles meet ocean of your bliss.” also by business institutions, and
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi in At first, TM initiates were even in some medical practices,
London and visit his ashram encouraged to give thanks to posing the question as to whether
in India for TM training. the Hindu deities for providing the it should be considered as religion,
knowledge behind the method or simply a form of therapy based
1976 TM promotes its
and to study the Vedas and the on traditional Indian techniques. ■
Siddhi program with
the claim that it enables See also: Physical and mental discipline 112–13 ■ Zen insights that go beyond
practitioners to levitate. words 160–63 ■ Life-energy cultivation in Falun Dafa 323
MODERN RELIGIONS 321
WHAT’S TRUE
FOR ME IS
THE TRUTH
A FAITH OPEN TO ALL BELIEFS
T
he Unitarian Universalist This notion of respect runs through
IN CONTEXT Association (UUA) was the UUA philosophy and its “Seven
formed in 1961 by the Principles”: the inherent worth and
KEY MOVEMENT
merger of two movements founded dignity of every person; justice,
Unitarian Universalism
in the 19th century: the Universalist equity, and compassion in human
WHEN AND WHERE Church of America and the relations; the acceptance of one
From 1961, US American Unitarian Association. another and encouragement to
and Canada Although it emerged from a largely spiritual growth; a free, responsible
Christian tradition, and some search for truth and meaning; the
BEFORE members have beliefs that are right of conscience, and the use
6th century BCE Confucius Christian in nature, the UUA aims of the democratic process within
asserts that virtue is not sent to be a “non-creedal, non-doctrinal congregations and in society at
from heaven, but can be religion which affirms the large; the goal of world community;
cultivated in the self. individual’s freedom of belief.” and respect for the interdependent
Members acknowledge the need for web of all existence. ■
1st century CE Angering the
a spiritual and religious dimension
Jews, who consider themselves
to life and believe individuals can
the chosen people, Jesus
learn from all the world’s religions.
asserts that God’s kingdom They place more emphasis on
is open to all who accept him. a humanist search for truth and
16th century In Protestant meaning in this life than on belief
Christianity, the authority of in a supreme being and salvation in The freedom of the
Rome is replaced by spiritual an afterlife. Some followers are in mind is the beginning
self-examination. fact agnostic or even atheist. of all other freedoms.
For the Unitarian Universalist, Clinton Lee Scott
19th century The Baha’i personal experience, conscience,
Faith emerges as one of and reason form the basis for
the first universalist new religious faith; the opinions and
religions, open to all. beliefs of all men and women
should therefore be respected.
20th century Cao Ðài is
founded on the principle See also: God-consciousness 122–23 ■ Why prayer works 246–47 ■ The
that all religions are equal. revelation of Bahá’i 308–309 ■ Cao Ðài aims to unify all faiths 316
322
CHANTING HARE
KRISHNA CLEANSES
THE HEART
DEVOTION TO THE SWEET LORD
T
he Hare Krishna movement Chaitanya taught that by using this
IN CONTEXT or International Society for mantra anyone, even if born outside
Krishna Consciousness the Hindu class system, could
KEY FIGURE
(ISKCON) is best known for the achieve Krishna consciousness.
A.C. Bhaktivedanta
practice of chanting the Maha In the 1960s, one of Chaitanya’s
Swami Prabhupada
Mantra. ISKCON has its roots in the followers, A.C. Bhaktivedanta
WHEN AND WHERE Gaudiya Vaishnava movement in Swami Prabhupada, traveled to
From 1960s, US and Hinduism, founded by Chaitanya the US and founded ISKCON.
western Europe Mahaprabhu (1486–1534), in which Its ideas dovetailed well with the
believers use devotional practices hippie culture and a new interest
BEFORE known as bhakti to please and to in Eastern spirituality, and spread
4th century BCE First develop a loving relationship with to Europe after being popularized
evidence of worship of Lord the god Krishna, believed to be the by celebrities such as the Beatles. ■
Krishna, a key figure in the Supreme Personality of Godhead.
Hindu epics, appearing as
an avatar of the god Vishnu The Maha Mantra
in the Mahabharata. The mantra is chanted as a means
of clearing the mind and cleansing
6th century The bhakti the heart. The repeated use of
tradition of devotional worship the holy name enables Krishna Lord Krishna provides
develops in Hinduism. consciousness to emerge from everything we need
16th century The Gaudiya the soul, free of the distraction of to bring the spiritual
Vaishnava movement in India sensual or physical consciousness. world into our lives.
sees Krishna as the original The chant “Hare Krishna, Hare A.C. Bhaktivedanta
form of God—the source of Krishna, Krishna Krishna, Hare Swami Prabhupada
Vishnu, and not his avatar. Hare, Hare Rama, Hare Rama,
Rama Rama, Hare Hare” calls upon
1920 Srila Bhaktisiddhanta the energy of God (Hare), the
Sarasvati Thakura Prabhupada all-attractive (Krishna), and the
founds the Gaudiya Math, an highest eternal pleasure (Rama).
organization to spread the
Gaudiya Vaishnava message See also: A rational world 92–99 ■ Devotion through puja 114–15 ■ Buddhas and
around the world. bodhisattvas 152–57 ■ The performance of ritual and repetition 158–59
MODERN RELIGIONS 323
THROUGH QIGONG
WE ACCESS
COSMIC ENERGY
LIFE-ENERGY CULTIVATION IN FALUN DAFA
T
here was a revival of but also a way to put practitioners
IN CONTEXT interest in the meditative in touch with the energy of the
exercises known as qigong universe in order to elevate them
KEY FIGURE
(literally “life-energy cultivation”) in to higher levels of existence.
Li Hongzhi
China in the second half of the 20th In his book Revolving the
WHEN AND WHERE century, and while the Communist Wheel of Law, Li describes five
From 1992, China authorities saw it as a way to core exercises to cultivate the
improve public health, others found mind, body, and spirit. He explains
BEFORE spiritual meaning in the practice. that the Falun (the law wheel) is
c.2000 BCE Various movement Among them was Li Hongzhi, who situated in the lower abdomen,
and breathing exercises are founded the Falun Dafa movement and its rotation—in sympathy
developed for meditation and (popularly known as Falun Gong) in with the revolving of the universe
healing in China, and are later the early 1990s. He advocated the —rids the practitioner of negative
collectively known as qigong. practice of Falun Gong (“Practice of influences, allowing access to
the Wheel of Law”) as not only a cosmic energy. Complementing
5th century BCE Qigong
means of cultivating life-energy, these exercises is a philosophy
exercises are incorporated
based on the virtues of zhen-shàn-
into the philosophies of
ren (truthfulness, benevolence, and
Daoism, Confucianism, forbearance), similar to traditional
and Buddhism in China. Confucian, Daoist, and Buddhist
1950s The Chinese ideas, which governs the conduct
Communist government of Falun Dafa practitioners.
adopts qigong techniques Viewed by some as a new
as part of a secular health- religion, but by others as a practice
improvement program. continuing in the Chinese tradition
of cultivation of the mind, body,
AFTER and spirit, Falun Dafa has attracted
Qigong exercises aim to rebuild or
1990s Li Hongzhi moves to the rebalance qi, the essential life force or many followers in China, where
US; the Chinese Communist energy, through controlled movement, its religious overtones have,
Party declares Falun Dafa a breathing, and mental awareness. however, led to it being outlawed. ■
heretical organization, while
in the West, the practice of See also: Aligning the self with the dao 66–67 ■ Physical and mental discipline
qigong gains in popularity. 112–13 ■ Escape from the eternal cycle 136–43
DIRECTO
RY
326
DIRECTORY
D
espite the apparent prevalence of atheism in the West, the
number of people professing some kind of religious belief is
increasing worldwide. Christianity and Islam, both proselytizing
religions, are now espoused by more than half of the world’s total
population. Other faiths, such as Hinduism, have also continued to attract
followers into the 21st century. Religions spread for all kinds of reasons,
such as the missionary activities of their adherents, population increases,
and the need to fill “belief vacuums” that occur when primal or other local
religions go into decline. So, while many people in Africa have left behind
traditional beliefs to embrace new Christian churches, in Europe
dissatisfaction with Christianity and interest in ideas from the East has
led to a modest growth in Buddhism and other Eastern religions.
Baha’i Faith Tehran, Persia, Baha’u’llah One God, revealed through 5–7 million
1863 various religions
Cao Ðài Vietnam, Ngô Van Chiêu One God, and reverence for founders 8 million
1926 of other faiths (including Buddhism,
Daoism, and Christianity)
Christianity Judea, Jesus Christ One God, in the form of the Holy 2,000 million
c.30 CE Trinity: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit
Church of Jesus New York, Joseph Smith, Three separate beings: God the 13 million
Christ of Latter- 1830 Jr. Father; Jesus Christ the Son;
day Saints and the Holy Spirit
(Mormons)
Confucianism China, 6th–5th Confucius None, although Confucius believed 5–6 million
centuries BCE in the Great Ultimate, or dao
DIRECTORY 327
Falun Dafa China, 1992 Li Hongzhi Many gods and spiritual beings 10 million
Islam Saudi Arabia, Muhammad, the One God, Allah 1,500 million
7th century CE final Prophet
Jainism India, c.550 BCE Mahavira No gods, but devotion to some 4 million
divine beings
Rastafari Jamaica, 1930s Haile Selassie I One, Jah, incarnate in Jesus 1 million
movement and Haile Selassie
Santeria Cuba, early None; a More than 400 deities 3–4 million
19th century syncretic faith
Unification South Korea, Sun Myung God, the heavenly parent of 3 million
Church 1954 Moon all humanity (official figure)
Wicca Britain, 1950s, Gerald Gardner Usually two: the Triple Goddess 1–3 million
based on and the Horned God
ancient beliefs
BRANCHES OF HINDUISM
T
he Hindu faith is thought to have originated in the Indus Valley
(Pakistan and northwest India) more than 3,000 years ago. Today,
it has almost a billion followers, most of them in India. Hindus all
worship a supreme being, though the identity of this deity differs according
to sect. There are four principal denominations: Vaishnavites, for whom
Vishnu is god; Shaivites, who are devoted to Shiva; Shaktis, who worship
the goddess Shakti; and Smartas, who can choose their deity. These and
other branches of Hinduism share many beliefs; the Vedas (pp.94–99) are
their most sacred texts, and central to Hindu belief is the idea that a person’s
deeds affect their future in an endless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.
The darshanas follow sacred texts They reject the authority of the
written in early Indian history, and Brahmin caste and of the sacred ARYA SAMAJ
each branch relates to a different texts, the Vedas, promoting 1875, India
sphere. The six darshanas are a message of social equality and
Samkhya (cosmology), Yoga (human reform. The movement retains a Arya Samaj is a modern religious
nature), Vaisheshika (scientific laws), large following in southern India. and social reform movement
Nyaya (logic), Mimamsa (ritual), founded by Swami Dayananda,
Vedanta (metaphysics and destiny). a religious leader who sought to
SWAMINARAYAN reaffirm the supreme authority of
SAMPRADAY the ancient Hindu texts, the Vedas
SMARTISM Early 19th century, western India (pp.94–99). He built a number of
9th century, India schools throughout India in the late
Swaminarayan Sampraday was 19th century designed to promote
One of the four major sects of founded by the religious reformer Vedic culture. Similar projects
Hinduism, Smarta derives its name Swami Narayan at the beginning continue today, including the
from the Sanskrit word smriti, which of the 19th century, largely as a establishment of colleges and
refers to a group of sacred Hindu response to alleged corruption orphanages, and activities that
texts. This orthodox Hindu sect among other Hindu sects. Rituals, focus on social reform and the
draws from Advaita Vedanta laws, observances, and prayers alleviation of injustice and
philosophy, which propounds the are based on Hindu tradition and hardship. The sect is opposed to
unity of the the self and Brahman, the teachings of the movement’s the caste system, but has been
and the teachings of the monk- founder. By following these moral criticized for intolerance of other
philosopher Adi Shankara, who and spiritual codes in everyday faiths. Arya Samaj upholds the
is thought to have founded the life, the aim is to become an ideal doctrines of karma and samsara
movement in India in the 9th satsangis (adherent) and thereafter and the centrality of rituals
century. Followers uphold the rules attain ultimate redemption. The connected with major events
of conduct outlined in the ancient movement has several million in life. The movement is popular
texts, known as the sutras, and followers throughout the world. in northern and western India.
worship the supreme god in any
form (Shiva, Shakti, Vishnu,
Ganesha, or Virya); for this reason, BRAHMOISM SATYAT SAI BABA
they are considered liberal and 1828, Calcutta, India SOCIETY
nonsectarian. 1950, India
Brahmoism is a Hindu reform
movement that can be traced to Sathyanarayana Rajuin (born 1926) is
LINGAYATISM the Brahmo Samaj (Divine Society), thought to have performed numerous
12th century, southern India founded by Ram Mohan Roy in miracles. At age 14 he was stung by
Calcutta in 1828, which aimed a scorpion and went into a trance.
Followers of the Lingayat sect take to reinterpret Hinduism for the On waking he claimed to be a
their name from the linga, emblem modern age. Brahmoism differs reincarnation of the guru Shirdi Sai
of the god Shiva, which devotees from orthodox Hinduism in its Baba, and was henceforth known as
wear around their necks. The adherence to one universal and Satya Sai Baba. His fame spread in
movement is thought to have been infinite deity. It rejects the authority the 1950s due to his miracles; he
established in southern India in of the Vedas (pp.94–99) and, attracted several million devotees
the 12th century by the teacher in some cases, belief in avatars who are guided by four principles:
and religious reformer, Basava. (incarnations of deities) and karma truth, satya; duty, dharma; peace,
Lingayats are distinctive for their (effects of past deeds). One of shanti; and divine love, prema.
worship of Shiva as the sole deity; its key features is social reform. Unlike many Hindus, he did not
in their monotheistic belief, Shiva Brahmoism has a following in attach a specific dharma to each
and the self are one and the same. Bengal, India, and in Bangladesh. social class—all are said to be equal.
330
BRANCHES OF BUDDHISM
N
ow followed in many parts of the world, Buddhism originated
in northern India over 2,500 years ago with the teachings of
Siddhartha Gautama. Buddhism arose within Hinduism, which, at
the time, was producing some of its most deeply philosophical and abstract
texts, and Buddhism is dominated by ideas, not deities and doctrines. It has
one aim—to guide each person on to the path that leads to enlightenment,
or spiritual liberation from the worldly self. Buddha himself taught that any
means by which this aim could be achieved was valid, and as Buddhism
spread geographically, it also diversified to suit local traditions of worship.
It now takes several forms, from the ascetic to the highly ritualized.
BRANCHES OF JUDAISM
J
udaism is the religion of the Jews. Dating back to around 2000 BCE,
it is the oldest of the three main monotheistic faiths (the others being
Christianity and Islam), all of which have roots in the Middle East.
According to Moses, the patriarch to whom God revealed the tablets of the
law, the Jews were God’s chosen people and received his guidance in the
form of the Torah. For much of their history the Jews were exiled from their
homeland, so followers of Judaism may be found far beyond the Jewish state
of Israel, giving rise to geographical branches of the faith. Jews interpret
their faith in different ways, with varying emphasis on the centrality of the
Torah and Oral Law to their beliefs and observances.
BRANCHES OF CHRISTIANITY
T
he world’s largest religion, with more than two billion adherents,
Christianity is based on the teachings of Jesus Christ, which are
chronicled in the Gospels—four books in the New Testament of the
Bible. Christianity is a monotheistic religion that has common roots with
Judaism. However, Christians believe that Jesus was the Messiah promised
in the Old Testament. For centuries the main religion of Europe, Christianity
spread around the world with European colonization from the 15th century.
Political and doctrinal differences saw Christianity diversify into Eastern
and Western branches in the Great Schism of 1054, and then into numerous
denominations following the Reformation, which began in the 16th century.
Amman, but now mostly live in of gold tablets bearing the word of
the eastern US. Of several groups SHAKERS God by an angel. He translated them
of Amish that exist today, the most c.1758, Great Britain as The Book of Mormon (1830), which,
distinctive is the Old Order, who together with other Mormon texts,
adopt traditional clothes, shun The Shakers’ name is derived and the Bible, form the religion’s
recent developments such as from the trembling experienced by writings. Smith claimed the right
motorized transport, and run their members in religious ecstasy. Their to guide the Church through further
own schools, preferring to help each founder, Ann Lee, claimed she had revelations, including permission
other than to accept state funding. revelations that she was Christ’s for polygamous marriages and the
Worship takes place in their homes, female counterpart. Persecuted possibility for all men to become
with different homeowners taking in England, she and her followers gods. After his death in 1844, the
turns to host the Sunday service. emigrated to America, where they Mormons followed a new leader,
held their possessions in common Brigham Young, to Utah, where the
and were celibate. Although the Church remains strong.
MORAVIAN BRETHREN group was popular in the 19th
1722, Saxony, Germany century, membership declined
in the 20th century, and today PLYMOUTH BRETHREN
In 1722, German Count Nikolaus there are few members. However, 1831, Plymouth, England
von Zinzendorf invited a group of the Shakers are still respected
Protestants from Moravia (now in for their austere lifestyle and the The Plymouth Brethren began
the Czech Republic) to form a simple furniture they created. as a group of Christians who
community on his estate in Saxony. rejected the sectarian nature of
Owing their origins to the earliest the existing Protestant churches,
Protestants, the followers of reformer UNITARIANISM seeking a less formal religion.
Jan Hus, who was burned at the 1774, England They believed that all should have
stake in 1415, they became known equal access to their faith, and did
as the Moravian Brethren. Their Unitarians believe in one God but not ordain priests. Enthusiastic
Church looks to the Scriptures for not the Holy Trinity (pp.212–19), preachers, they emphasized the
guidance on faith and conduct, with and they seek truth based in human importance of regular worship,
little emphasis on doctrine. A key experience rather than religious Bible study, and missionary work.
part of their worship is the sharing of doctrine. Unitarian ideas began to In 1848, they divided into two
a communal meal called a lovefeast. emerge in Poland, Hungary, and broad groups, the Open and the
They are evangelical, sending England in the 16th century, but the Exclusive Brethren, differing in
missionaries throughout the world. first Unitarian Church was founded their interpretation of certain
in England only in 1774, and in the theological issues and their
US in 1781. Numbers declined in attitudes toward outsiders.
METHODISM the 20th century, but there are still Today, there are an estimated
1720s–30s, England thriving congregations in the US two million members of the
and Europe. Congregations are group around the world.
Methodism was founded by John independent of one another
Wesley in England in the 18th and there is no Church hierarchy.
century. It is now one of the four CHRISTADELPHIANISM
largest Churches in Britain and has 1848, Richmond, VA
more than 70 million adherents MORMONISM
worldwide. Methodists believe that 1830, New York The name Christadelphians
Christians should live by the method (“Christ’s brothers”) reflects a desire
outlined by the Bible, and place The Church of Jesus Christ of of the Church’s English founder,
major emphasis on Scripture and Latter-day Saints was founded by John Thomas, to return to the faith
little on ritual. Preaching is American Joseph Smith, Jr. He of Jesus’s first disciples. He rejected
considered especially important. claimed to have been guided to a set the term Christianity, believing that
DIRECTORY 337
BRANCHES OF ISLAM
T
he most recently founded of the three great monotheistic religions,
Islam spread quickly from its roots in the Middle East and has
been hugely influential in scholarship and politics all over the
world. The most significant division within Islam is that between Sunni
and Shi‘a, two branches that developed when the early Muslim community
disagreed over who was to succeed their first leader, Muhammad. Later
conflicts over leadership led to further subdivisions, but there are also
groups within Islam that are set apart by doctrinal differences: Sufism, or
mystical Islam, for example, is vigorously opposed by some more orthodox
Muslim groups that consider its practices un-Islamic.
Those who considered his son spiritual teacher and seek a direct
Ismail to be the rightful successor and personal experience of God, SALAFISM
established a breakaway group, which is often characterized by Late 19th century, Egypt
and became known as Ismailis. intense, ecstatic experiences,
Although there are variations including trancelike states. The Salafism is a modern, conservative
within Ismailism, its followers spinning of the Whirling Dervishes, movement within Sunni Islam that
generally uphold fundamental a Sufi order, is an expression of looks to the Salaf, or predecesors,
Muslim belief with respect to this attempt to experience God. the earliest Muslims, for guidance
the unity of God, the Prophet Because Sufism involves such on exemplary Islamic conduct. The
Muhammad, the Qur’an, and practices, which are thought to movement is considered to have
shari‘a law. However, among their lead to the union of the individual emerged as a reaction to the
principal doctrines is a belief that with God, Sufis have been accused spread of Western, specifically
the religion has exterior and of turning their backs on Islam. European, ideology in the late
interior aspects, and that the However, they insist that their 19th century; Salafists believe in
exterior features hold hidden, experience of the love of God is eliminating foreign influence to
inner truths that will be made the anchor of their Islamic faith, ensure a return to the pure faith.
clear via the imams. The imams’ and that adherence to shari‘a law They have a strict interpretation
interpretations of the Qu’ran’s (pp.272–73) is as vital to them as of the sins of shirk (idolatry) and
hidden truths are regarded as it is to other Muslims. bida’h (innovation), and reject
binding in the community. kalam, or theological speculation.
Followers uphold the precedence
AHMADIYYA of shari’a law (pp.272–73) and the
DRUZE 1889, Punjab, India literal truth of the Qu’ran. Salafism
11th century, Middle East is said to be Islam’s fastest-
Controversy has surrounded the growing movement worldwide.
The beliefs of the sect known Ahmadiyya movement since its
as the Druze developed out of establishment in Punjab toward
Ismailite doctrine. This small sect the end of the 19th century. The THE NATION OF ISLAM
is characterized by extreme founder of the movement, a Sunni 1930, US
secrecy: many of its teachings Muslim named Mirza Ghulam
and practices have been withheld, Ahmad, claimed not only to have Arising out of the Depression of
not only from the outside world, been divinely inspired, but also to the 1930s in African-American
but also from its own members. be a messiah figure (pp.284–85). areas in the US, the Nation
The Druze community is divided This conflicted with the accepted of Islam was founded by Fard
into the ukkal (initiated) and the idea of Muhammad as the last true Muhammad, to whom some have
juhhal (uninitiated); only the ukkal prophet, and as a result most other ascribed divinity. Other key
have access to the faith’s sacred Muslims regard followers of the figures have included the civil
texts and may participate fully Ahmadiyya movement as heretics. rights activist Malcolm X and
in rituals and ceremonies. The The movement does, however, Louis Farrakhan. The theology
majority of Druze now live in share many traditional beliefs of of the movement combines core
Lebanon, with smaller groups Sunni Islam and accepts the Islamic beliefs with a strong
in Syria and Israel. Qur’an as its holy text. Adherents political agenda focused on
believe that the message about African-American unity and
their version of Islam should be rights. The Nation of Islam has
SUFISM conveyed to non-Muslims as well been accused of being both black
13th century, Turkey as Muslims, and the movement supremacist and anti-Semitic, but
has spread throughout the world, has nevertheless been effective in
The mystical and ascetic branch building centers of worship and spreading ideas about faith and
of Islam is known as Sufism learning in Africa, North America, equality among black people, and
(pp.282–83). Devotees follow a Asia, and Europe. upholds a strict code of ethics.
340
GLOSSARY
Key Arhat (B) A perfect being who has includes the Jewish books of the law,
(B) Buddhism attained nirvana. Jewish history, and the prophets; and
(C) Christianity the New Testament, which deals
(D) Daoism and other Artha (H) The pursuit of material with the life and work of Jesus, his
Chinese religions wealth, one of the duties of a person followers, and the early Church.
(H) Hinduism in the “householder” stage of life, the See also Hebrew Bible.
(I) Islam second phase of the ashrama.
(J) Judaism Bodhisattva (B) Someone on the
(Jn) Jainism Ashkenazim (J) Jews from path to becoming a buddha, who
(S) Sikhism Eastern and Central Europe, and puts off final enlightenment to help
(Sh) Shinto their descendants around the world. other people to reach the same state.
(Z) Zoroastrianism
Ashrama (H) The stages of life, of Brahma (H) The creator god, one of
Adi Granth (S) See Guru which there are four, in the Hindu the Hindu Trimurti.
Granth Sahib. social system: student; householder;
retiree; and ascetic. Brahman (H) The impersonal and
Advaita Vedanta (H) A school of unchanging divine reality of the
Hindu philosophy developed in the Atman (H) The individual self. universe. All other gods are aspects
9th century, which gives a unified of Brahman.
explanation of the Vedas, and Avatar (H) An incarnation of a
focuses on the idea of Brahman. Hindu deity; especially the various Brahmin (H) A priest or seeker of
incarnations of the god Vishnu. the highest knowledge; the priestly
Ahadith (I) See Hadith. class and custodians of dharma.
Avesta (Z) The principle sacred
Ahimsa (B, H, Jn) A doctrine texts of Zoroastrianism. Buddha (B) An enlightened being.
of nonviolence of both thought
and action. Ayat (C) The smallest entries in Canonization (C) The process by
the Qu’ran, which are short verses which the Christian Church declares
Akhand path (S) A complete and or “signs.” that a person is a saint.
uninterrupted oral rendition of the
Guru Granth Sahib. Baptism (C) The sacrament that Charismata (C) Spiritual gifts
admits a person to the Christian conferred by the Holy Spirit of God
Allah (I) The name of the one God. Church in a ritual that involves being on believers, manifesting in forms
sprinkled with, or immersed in, water. such as the ability to heal, or speak
Amrit (S) Sweetened holy water in tongues.
used in religious ceremonies; the Bar/bat mitzvah (J) The ceremony
specific Sikh ceremony of initiation. marking a Jewish boy’s or girl’s Christ (C) Literally, “anointed one”;
admission to the adult religious title given to Jesus.
Analects (D) The collected sayings community; the state of having
of Confucius and his contemporaries, reached religious adulthood. Confirmation (C) A ritual in which
written by his followers. those who have been baptized
Bhakti (B, H) An active religious confirm their Christian faith.
Ananda (H) A state of bliss. devotion to a divinity leading
to nirvana. Covenant (J) An agreement
Anata (B) A state of freedom from ego between God and the Jewish people
to which Buddhists aspire. Bible (C) The collection of books in which the Jews are identified as
that constitute the sacred text of the group he has chosen to play
Anicca (B) The impermanence Christianity. The Christian Bible a special role in the relationship
of existence. comprises the Old Testament, which between himself and humanity.
GLOSSARY 341
Dao (D) The path or way that Gathas (Z) The most sacred texts Haram (I) Conduct that is forbidden;
an individual aims to follow; the of Zoroastrianism, supposedly something sacred or inviolate.
underlying way or pattern governing composed by Zoroaster himself.
the working of nature. Hasid (J) A member of a Jewish
Gentile (J) A non-Jew. group founded in the 18th century
Darshan (H) The worshipping of a that places a strong emphasis
deity by means of viewing an image Gospels (C) The four books of on mysticism.
of the god or goddess. the New Testament of the Bible,
attributed to the apostles Matthew, Haskalah (J) The Jewish
Dhamma (B) A variant of dharma, Mark, Luke, and John, which tell of Enlightenment, a movement
most commonly used in Buddhism. Jesus’s life and teachings; Gospel among European Jews in the
(good news) can also refer to the 18th–19th centuries.
Dharma (H) The underlying path or content of Christian teaching.
pattern that characterizes the cosmos Hebrew Bible (J) A collection of
and the earth; it also refers to the Granthi (S) An official who takes sacred writings that form the basis
moral path that a person must follow. care of the Guru Granth Sahib and of Judaism, including the Torah,
the gurdwara. A granthi is also a revelations of prophets, and other
Dukkha (B) Suffering or skilled reader of the sacred book. sacred texts; the equivalent of the Old
dissatisfaction; the idea that all Testament in the Christian Bible.
life is suffering, the first of the Four Gurdwara (S) A Sikh temple; the
Noble Truths defined by Buddha. place where the Guru Granth Icon (C) A sacred image, usually
Sahib is housed. depicting Christ or one of the saints,
Eightfold Path (B) The path of which is used as a focus for devotion,
disciplined living that Buddhists Guru (H) Teacher; (S) One of the especially in the Orthodox Churches.
follow in the hope of breaking free 10 founder-leaders of Sikhism.
from the cycle of death and rebirth. Imam (I) Leader of prayers in a
Followers aim to achieve correct Guru Granth Sahib (S) The Sikh mosque; or, one of the great leaders of
understanding, intention (or thought), sacred book, also known as the the Muslim community in the Shi‘a
speech, conduct, occupation, effort, Adi Granth. branch of the faith.
mindfulness, and concentration.
Hadith (I) Traditional accounts of the Incarnation (C) The belief that in
Enlightenment (B) Discovery of the deeds and teachings of the Prophet the person of Jesus Christ, divine and
ultimate truth, and the end of dukkha. Muhammad; the second source of human natures were made one.
Islamic law and moral guidance after
Eucharist (C) One of the main the Qur’an. Jihad (I) A religious duty to struggle
sacraments, involving the taking against evil in the name of God,
of wine and bread as the blood and Hafiz (I) A term of respect for a whether spiritually or physically.
body of Christ; it is known as Mass in person who has memorized the
Catholicism, Holy Communion in the Qur’an. Jina (Jn) A spiritual teacher.
Anglican Church, and the liturgy in See tirthankara.
the various Orthodox churches. Haggadah (J) The body of teaching
of the early rabbis, containing Kaaba (I) One of Islam’s most sacred
Fatwa (I) A nonbinding judgment legends, historical narratives, and buildings, sited in Mecca inside the
on a point of Islamic law given by a ethical precepts. Masjid al-Haram mosque; a principal
recognized religious authority. destination for those on hajj.
Hajj (I) The pilgrimage to Mecca, the
Four Noble Truths (B) A central fourth of the five pillars of Islam; all Kabbalah (J) An ancient Jewish
teaching of Buddhism, explaining Muslims hope to make this journey mystical tradition based on an
the nature of dukkha, its causes, once in their lives. esoteric interpretation of the
and how it can be overcome. Hebrew Bible.
Halal (I) Conduct that is permitted;
Fravashi (Z) A guardian angel who specifically, the correct method of Kaccha (S) Long shorts worn under
protects the souls of individuals as slaughtering livestock, and the meat other garments by Sikhs; one of the
they struggle against evil. from correctly slaughtered animals. distinguishing “five Ks” of Sikhism.
342 GLOSSARY
Kalam (I) Discussion and debate, or other training, or one who is Murti (H) An image or statue of
especially relating to Islamic theology. considered to be the reincarnation a deity, seen as the dwelling place
of a previous spiritual leader. or embodiment of the deity.
Kami (Sh) A spirit or deity in Shinto
religion. There are many thousands Mandala (B) A sacred diagram, Nirvana (B) The state of liberation
of kami in the Shinto pantheon. usually depicting a conception from the round of death and rebirth.
of the cosmos, used as a focus for
Kangha (S) A small comb worn in meditation and in other rituals, Puja (H) Worship through ritual.
the hair by Sikhs; one of the “five Ks” especially in Tibetan Buddhism.
of Sikhism. Puranas (B, H, Jn) Writings not
Mantra (B, H) A sacred sound or included in the Vedas, recounting
Kara (S) A steel bangle worn by word used to bring about a spiritual the birth and deeds of Hindu gods
Sikhs on the right wrist. One of the transformation; in Hinduism, the and the creation, destruction, or
“five Ks” of Sikhism. metrical psalms of Vedic literature. re-creation of the universe.
Karma (B, H) The law of moral cause Matha (H, Jn) Monastic and similar Pure Land (B) The paradise where,
and effect that influences our rebirth religious establishments. according to some forms of Buddhism,
after death. the souls of believers go after death;
Matsuri (Sh) A festival or ritual in known in Japanese Buddhism as jodo.
Kesh (S) Uncut hair; one of the “five Shinto. Many feature processions
Ks” of Sikhism. of shrine-bearing worshippers. Purusha (H) The eternal and
authentic self that pervades all
Khalsa (S) The community of Maya (H) The illusion of the world things in the universe.
initiated Sikhs, founded by Guru as experienced by the senses.
Gobind Singh. Qi (D) The life force or active
Mihrab (I) A niche in the prayer hall principle that animates things in
Khanda (S) A two-edged sword of the of a mosque, indicating the qibla. the world, according to traditional
kind used by Guru Gobind Singh in a Chinese philosophy.
ritual that marked the founding of the Mishnah (J) The first major written
Khalsa; now a symbol of Sikhism. redaction of the Jewish oral traditions Qibla (I) The direction that a Muslim
and also the first major work of should face when praying—that of the
Kirpan (S) A sword worn by Sikhs; rabbinic Judaism. Kaaba in Mecca.
one of the “five Ks” of Sikhism.
Mitzvah (J) A commandment from Qigong (D) A system of breathing
Kirtan (S) Hymn singing that forms God, specifically either one of the and exercise for physical, mental, and
an important part of Sikh worship. 10 principal commandments, or spiritual health.
one of the 613 instructions found
Koan (B) In Zen Buddhism, a in the Torah. Qur’an (I) The words of God as
problem or riddle without logical revealed to the Prophet Muhammad
solution, which is intended to Moksha (H) The release from the and later written down to form the
provoke an insight. round of life, death, and rebirth; also sacred text of Islam.
known as mukti.
Kojiki (Sh) The sacred text of Shinto. Rabbi (J) A teacher and spiritual
Mool mantra (S) A statement leader of a Jewish community.
Kosher (J) Sanctioned by religious of Sikh belief in the oneness of god,
law; especially food deemed fit to eat, composed by Guru Nanak; also called Rabbinical (J) Of, or relating
according to Jewish dietary laws. the mool mantar. to, rabbis.
Kundalini (H) Life force or energy Mudra (B, H) A symbolic gesture, Ramadan (I) The ninth month of
that is coiled at the base of the spine. usually with the hands. the Islamic calendar; a month of daily
fasting from dawn until sunset.
Lama (B) An adept spiritual teacher Mullah (I) An Islamic religious
in Tibetan Buddhism, specifically one scholar, who may also preach and Ren (D) Benevolence or altruism
who has undergone particular yogic lead prayers in a mosque. in Confucianism.
GLOSSARY 343
Sabbath (J) The rest day of the Shari‘a (I) The path to be followed Torah (J) The first five books of the
Jewish week, lasting from sunset in Muslim life and, therefore, Islamic Hebrew Bible, seen as representing
on Friday to sunset on Saturday. law, based on the Qur’an and on the teaching given by God to Moses
the Hadith. on Mount Sinai.
Sacraments (C) The solemn rites
of Christianity. The Catholic and Shi‘a (I) One of the two main groups Trimurti (H) The trio of principal
Orthodox Churches recognize seven: of Muslims, consisting of those who Hindu gods—Brahma, Vishnu, and
baptism, Eucharist, penance, believe that Muhammad’s cousin ‘Ali Shiva—or a threefold image of them.
confirmation, ordination, extreme was his rightful successor as caliph.
unction (last rites), and marriage. See also Sunni. Trinity (C) The threefold god,
Most Protestant Churches recognize comprising Father, Son, and Holy
only two: baptism and the Eucharist. Shirk (I) The sin of idolatry or Spirit in a single divinity.
polytheism.
Sadhu (H) A holy man who has Upanishads (H) Sacred texts
dedicated his life to seeking God. Sruti (H) The Vedas and some of containing Hindu philosophical
the Upanishads. teachings; also known as the
Salat (I) Prayer; the second of the five Vedanta, the end of the Vedas.
pillars of Islam. Muslims are expected Sufi (I) A member of one of a
to pray five times each day. number of mystical Islamic orders, Vedas (H) Collections of hymns
whose beliefs center on a personal and other writings in praise of
Samsara (B, H) The continuing relationship with God. Sufi orders can the deities.
and repeating cycle of birth, life, be found in Sunni, Shi‘a and other
death, and rebirth. Islamic groups. Sufism is associated Wa (D) Harmony, in which the group
with the ecstatic whirling dances of takes precedence over the individual.
Samskara (H) Imprints left on the the dervishes.
mind by experience in current or Wuwei (D) Uncontrived and
past lives; Hindu rites of passage. Sunna (I) Muhammad’s way of life, effortless doing.
taken as a model for Muslims and
Sawm (I) Fasting, especially during recorded in the hadiths. Yin–yang (D) The two principles of
the month of Ramadan; the fourth of the cosmos in Chinese philosophy,
the five pillars of Islam. Sunni (I) One of the two main seen as opposite but complementary
groups of Muslims, followers of those and interacting to produce a whole
Sangha (B) An order of Buddhist who supported an elected caliphate. greater than either separate part.
monks and nuns. See also Shi‘a.
YHWH (J) The four letters that
Satya (H) Truth, or what is correct Sutra (B, H) A collection of represent the name of God in
and unchanging. teachings, especially sayings Judaism, considered to be too holy
attributed to Buddha. to utter, but pronounced “yahweh.”
Sefirot (J) The 10 emanations, the
attributes of God in kabbalah. Talmud (J) Text made up of a body Yoga (H) A form of physical and
of discussion and interpretation of mental training. One the six schools
Sephardim (J) Jews who come from the Torah, compiled by scholars and of Hindu philosophy.
Spain, Portugal, or North Africa, or rabbis, and a source of ethical advice
their descendants. and instruction, especially to Zakat (I) The giving of alms in
Orthodox Jews. the form of a tax to help the poor;
Seva (S) Service to others, one of the the third pillar of Islam.
important principles of Sikhism. Tantra (B) Text used in some
kinds of Buddhism (mainly in Tibet) Zazen (B) Seated meditation.
Shahada (I) The Muslim profession to help users to reach enlightenment,
of faith, translated as, “There is or the practices based on such a text. Zurvan (Z) The God of time; in some
no God but God; Muhammad is the forms of Zoroastrianism, the primal
messenger of God”; the first and Tirthankara (Jn) One of the 24 being, from whom were derived the
most important of the five pillars spiritual teachers or jinas who have wise lord Ahura Mazda and the
of Islam. shown the way of the Jain faith. hostile spirit Angra Mainyu.
344
INDEX
Numbers in bold refer to main entries. Baha’i faith 295, 308–309, 326 Buddhism, beliefs (cont.)
Baiga 19, 32 Four Noble Truths 128–29, 135,
Baptists (Christianity) 335 138–39, 140, 142, 154
Bar Kokhba, Simeon (Judaism) 181 human cravings and needs 138–39
T
Talib, ‘Ali ibn Abi (Islam) 271
Tantric Buddhism 129, 154, 158–59,
W
331 Wahhabism (Islam) 269
Tenrikyo 294, 310, 327 Warao 18, 39
Teresa of Avila (Christianity) 238 Wesley, John (Methodism) 203, 239, 336
Theravada Buddhism 129, 140, 145, Whirling Dervishes (Islam) 339
150, 155, 330 Wicca 295, 319, 327
Thomas Aquinas (Christianity) 203,
228–29, 242
Tibet, Mahayana Buddhism 114, 128,
129, 154–57, 330–31
Tikopians 19, 50
Transcendental Meditation (TM)
(Hinduism) 294, 295, 320
XYZ
Trimurti trinity (Hinduism) 91, 97 /Xam San (San peoples) 19, 21–23
Triratna Buddhist Community 331 Yogacara Buddhism 158
Twelvers (Islam) 271, 309 Yoruba religion see Santeria
351
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