T H E ARCH A EO LO G Y O F TR A D IN G S IT E S

IN T H E IN D ONESIAN A R C H IPELA G O
IN T H E S IX T E E N T H AND S E V E N T E E N T H C E N T U R IE S :
P O S S IB IL IT IE S AND L IM IT A T IO N S O F T H E E V ID EN C E

W IDYA NAYATT

A THESIS SUBMITED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT THE EQUIREMENTS

FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTERS OF ARTS OF

THE AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

MAY 1 9 9 4
T h is th e s is r e p r e s e n ts th e r e s u lts o f m y ow n r e s e a r c h .
W h ere I h a v e d ra w n o n th e w ork o f o t h e r s c h o la rs ,
a c k n o w le d g m e n t h a s b e e n m a d e in th e te x t.

W idya N ay ati
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT i

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iii

1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. TRADING CENTRES AND VISITORS IN THE INDONESIAN

ARCHIPELAGO 1511-1680 9

A. The Trading Networks o f Sumatra and

the Straits of M alacca 12

B. The Trading Networks o f Java 18

C. The Trading Networks in the eastern parts o f the Archipelago 25

3. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF TRADING SITES IN THE

INDONESIAN ARCHIPELAGO 1511-1680 32

A. Classification of Trading Sites in the Indonesian

Archipelago 33

A. 1. Direct Exchange Sites 33

A.2. Complex Entrepot Sites 37

A. 3. Fort Regulated Sites 40

B. A Descriptive Model of Trading Sites in the

Indonesian Archipelago 42

B. 1. Barus 42

B. 2. Bauten 44

B. 3. Batavia 45
4. DIRECT EXCHANGE SITES 48

A. History of Barns 50

B. Archaeological Research in Barns 53

C. Problems 56

D. Conclusion 65

5. COMPLEX ENTREPOT SITES 67

A. History of Bauten 68

B. Archaeological Research in Bauten 77

C. Problems 82

D. Conclusion 96

6. FORT REGULATED EXCHANGE SITES 105

A. History of Batavia 106

B. Historical Study of Batavia 112

C. Problems 115

D. Conclusion 122

7. CONCLUSION 124

BIBLIOGRAPHY 133
 ABSTRACT

T ra d e n e tw o rk s in th e I n d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e la g o c h a n g e d
d r a s tic a lly d u r in g th e s ix te e n th and s e v e n te e n th c e n tu r ie s .

A fter th e P o rtu g u e s e c o n q u e re d M e lak a in 1 5 1 1 , A ceh, B an te n ,

G re sik a n d M a c a ss a r (M a k a s a r/U ju n g P a n d a n g ) b e c a m e m o re
im p o r ta n t n o t o n ly in e c o n o m ic b u t a ls o in p o litic a l te rm s .
T ra d in g s ite s in M alu k u a n d o n th e w e st c o a s t o f S u m a tra , th e

s o u rc e s o f sp ic e s, a t t r a c t e d m o re A sian a n d E u ro p e a n tra d e rs . In
th e e a rly s e v e n te e n th c e n tu r y , f u r th e r changes d e v e lo p e d
b e c a u s e o f in te n s e c o m p e titio n b e tw e e n E n g lish and D u tc h

tr a d e r s , e s p e c ia lly in im p o r ta n t tr a d in g p la c e s s u c h a s th e w e st

c o a s t o f S u m a tra , B a n te n and M aluku. D u rin g th o s e tw o

c e n tu r ie s , th r e e ty p e s o f tr a d in g p la c e s c a n be id e n tifie d in th e

I n d o n e s ia n A rch ip elag o : D ire c t T ra d in g s ite s , C o m p le x E n tre p o ts

a n d F o r t R e g u la te d s ite s . T h e p o p u la rity o f d if f e r e n t s ite s ro se

a n d fell in re la tio n to h ig h c o m p e titio n in th e sp ic e tr a d e a n d a s

lo ca l r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s [P anglim a] b e c a m e m o re in d e p e n d e n t.

T h e re a re gaps b e tw e e n h is to r ic a l a n d a rc h a e o lo g ic a l d a ta

w hen in te r p r e tin g tr a d in g a c tiv itie s in th e In d o n e s ia n

A rc h ip e la g o d u rin g th o s e tw o c e n tu r ie s . H is to ric a l and

a rc h a e o lo g ic a l d a ta p ro v id e d if f e r e n t ty p e s o f in fo rm a tio n a b o u t
tr a d in g a c tiv itie s d u r in g th is p e rio d . H is to ric a l s o u rc e s b a se d on

th e r e c o rd s of E u ro p e a n tr a d e r s o fte n p ro v id e v a lu a b le
in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f c itie s , e s p e c ia lly in te rm s
of m aps an d illu s tra tio n s . T hese s o u rc e s a lso give m uch

in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e p ro c e s s o f tra d in g , s u c h a s th e ty p e o f

m e r c h a n d is e , th e c o in a g e , w e ig h t s y s te m s , c o m p e titio n in

tr a d in g b e tw e e n tra d e r s , fa c ilitie s p ro v id e d by th e lo c a l ru le rs ,

lo c a l c u s to m s a n d a g r e e m e n ts b e tw e e n lo c a l ru le rs a n d th e

E u ro p e a n tr a d e rs . Also, th e y p ro v id e d e ta ile d d e s c rip tio n s o f th e

v o y a g e s a n d o f th e p o litic a l a n d e c o n o m ic a c h ie v e m e n ts o f th e

E u ro p e a n tr a d e rs . In c o n tr a s t, a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e from
B aru s, B a n te n a n d B a ta v ia p ro v id e s m o re lim ite d d a ta a b o u t

c o n ta c t b e tw e e n lo c a l p e o p le and fo re ig n e rs , b a se d on
in f e r e n c e s t h a t c a n be d ra w n from e x c a v a tio n a n d a r te f a c ts . In
p a rtic u la r, th e r e a re a b u n d a n t e x a m p le s o f lo c a l a n d im p o rte d
p o tte r y o f d if f e r e n t ty p e s a n d fo rm s, a s w ell a s re m a in s o f p a rts

o f e q u ip m e n t a n d iro n w o rk , a ll o f w h ic h can be u se d for

in te r p r e tin g lo c a l a c tiv itie s a s w ell a s tr a d e a c tiv itie s .

A m o re c o m p re h e n s iv e u n d e r s ta n d in g o f tr a d in g a c tiv itie s

in th e In d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e la g o in th e s i x t e e n t h a n d s e v e n t e e n t h
c e n tu r ie s c a n be o b ta in e d by c o m b in in g th e s e tw o s o u rc e s o f
v

d a ta a n d u s in g o n e s o u rc e to c o n firm or e x te n d th e in fo rm a tio n

p ro v id e d by th e o th e r.
 ACKNOWLED GMENTS

D u rin g m y p e rio d o f s tu d y a t th e ANU m a n y p e o p le h e lp e d ,

e n c o u r a g e d a n d s u p p o rte d m e. F irs tly , I w ish to a c k n o w le d g e
m y g r a titu d e to m y tw o su p e rv iso rs, Prof. C a m p b e ll M a c k n ig h t

a n d D r. P e te r B ellw ood, for t h e ir g u id a n c e a n d c o m m e n ts o n m y

w ork. T h e ir frie n d ly a n d w ise a s s is ta n c e in th e a re a o f h is to r ic a l
a rc h a e o lo g y w as e x tr e m e ly h e lp fu l, a s w as th e ir c o n c e rn in
m a k in g a d m in is tr a tiv e a r r a n g e m e n ts to e n a b le m e to fin is h m y
stu d y .

My s p e c ia l a p p re c ia tio n to Mrs. B rigid B a lla rd for h e r

a s s is ta n c e in fo rm u la tin g m y th e s is to p ic a n d w ith m y E n g lish ,

b o th in th is th e s is a n d in p a p e rs d u rin g m y s tu d ie s in ANU. My

d e e p g r a titu d e to h e r a lso for h e r e n c o u r a g e m e n t, c a re a n d

th o u g h tf u ln e s s w h ile I w as in A u stra lia , e s p e c ia lly w h e n I w as

d o w n h e a rte d a n d d u r in g re c o v e ry from m y su rg e ry . T h a n k s a lso

for th e o p p o rtu n ity to u se 'th e B J' h o u s e s b o th in A inslie a n d

M o llym ook for fo rm u la tin g a n d w ritin g p a r t o f th is th e s is . My

d e b t to h e r c a n n o t be re c k o n e d .
 JV

I m u s t a lso th a n k m y c o lle a g u e Mr. D au d T a n u d irjo for

p u ttin g m e in c o n t a c t w ith m y tw o s u p e rv is o rs b e fo re I h a d c o m e
to th e ANU, a n d for h is c o n s id e r a tio n in c o m in g b a c k to G a d jah

M ada U n iv e rs ity o n tim e a n d ta k in g o v e r m y 'a d m in is tr a tiv e jo b '

so I, in tu r n , c o u ld s tu d y a t ANU. Y our u n d e r s ta n d in g m a d e m y

d re a m c o m e tru e , m a te .

My t h a n k s a lso to A1DAB for th e s c h o la rs h ip to th e ANU.

As w ell, m y a p p re c ia tio n to th e D e a n o f th e F a c u lty o f L e tte r s

a n d th e H e ad o f th e A rc h a e o lo g y D e p a r tm e n t, F a c u lty o f L e tte rs ,
G a d jah M ada U n iv e rsity , w ho gave m e p e rm is s io n to s tu d y a t th e
ANU. F u r th e r m o r e , m y th a n k s to P rof. Is a b e l M cB ryde, H ead o f
th e A rc h a e o lo g y a n d A n th ro p o lo g y D e p a r tm e n t, ANU, to Mrs.
H e le n N icol, th e s e c r e ta r y in th e A rc h a e o lo g y D e p a rtm e n t, ANU,
a n d to M rs. A licia C u rtis, m y lia iso n o ffic e r in AIDAB, w ho m a d e
m a n y a r r a n g e m e n ts on m y b e h a lf.

My th a n k s a re a ls o d u e to C la u d ia M cC ain, D en y H id a y a ti,
D ew i P ra w ira d ila g a , M elody L ig h tb o d y , P ra d o n o , P a u lin e

S to n e b rid g e (th e G ra d u a te H ouse M anager), R io R in i S u se n o ,

S o n y a -A h m ad i S a tria w a n , S u n a rti-S o e b a g y o , W iw ien W ibowo,

Y an i-M u h ad i S u g io n o , a n d o th e r frie n d s w ho a re n o t m e n tio n e d

h e re , for t h e ir su p p o rt, c a re a n d frie n d ly r e la tio n s h ip d u r in g m y

s ta y in C a n b e rra , e s p e c ia lly w h e n I w as in h o s p ita l a n d w h ile

f in is h in g th is th e s is . Also m y th a n k s to G r e tc h e n E n g e l a n d m y

s is te r P u d a k N ay ati, w ho b o th p ro m ise d to give m e 'fu n life' a f te r

fin is h in g m y th e s is . You a ll m a k e m y life in A u s tra lia b e c o m e

c o m p le te a n d fun.

Also m y a p p re c ia tio n is d u e to a ll m e m b e rs o f KAGAMA

(G adjah M ada U n iv e rs ity A lum ni) in C a n b e rra w ho s u p p o rte d m e

d u r in g m y le a d e rs h ip b e tw e e n 1992 a n d 1 9 9 4 . My th a n k s , too,
to th e C o m m o n R oom C o m m itte e in G ra d u a te H ouse ANU a n d

th e B o o m e ra n g S o ftb a ll te a m w ho give m e o p p o rtu n itie s to

e x p re s s m y t a l e n t s a n d re f r e s h m y s e lf d u rin g th e h ig h te n s io n o f

w ritin g m y th e s is .

My th a n k s to Dr. John C h ira g a k is w ho s u c c e s s fu lly

o p e ra te d o n m e (e sp e c ia lly o n m y b irth d a y ) so I w as a b le to
c o n tin u e m y s tu d ie s a n d r e t u r n to o u td o o r a c tiv itie s . Also m y
g r a titu d e to a ll frie n d s a n d I n d o n e s ia n fa m ilie s in C a n b e rra w ho
lo o k ed a f te r m e a n d v is ite d m e d u rin g m y re c o v e ry b o th in th e
W o d en V alley H o sp ita l a n d a f te r m y d is c h a rg e . You a ll m a d e m e
sm ile e v e n in m y d is tre s s .

My th a n k s due to Mrs. M a c k n ig h t and Mrs. C la u d ia

B ellw ood w ith th e ir h e lp , a n d s u p p o rt w h ile I w as n o t in good

c o n d itio n b o th in C a n b e rra a n d L a u n c h e s to n . My th a n k s a lso to

M rs C lair M illn er w ho r e a r r a n g e m y p la n e t ic k e t w h e n I m isse d

th e flig h t.

F in a lly , and m ost im p o rta n tly , my s p e c ia l and deep

g r a titu d e goes to m y P a r e n ts w ho s u p p o rte d m e w ith t h e ir

p ra y e rs, 'r e s tu ', tra n s m is s io n o f d a ta , tr a n s la tio n s o f p a r t o f th e

D u tc h so u rc e s , a n d fin a n c ia l a s s is ta n c e . Also m y t h a n k s for th e

 VJ

s u p p o rt from m y b r o th e r s a n d s is te rs . T h is th e s is is s p e c ia lly

d e d ic a te d to m y b r o th e r Ir. G ede P ra b a w a (RIP) a n d to Prof.

S u ra s to p o H a d is u m a rn o (RIP), m y u n d e rg r a d u a te su p e rv iso r, b o th
o f w h o m in tr o d u c e d m e to th e e x c itin g p o s s ib ilitie s in A erial

P h o to g ra p h y .
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

In th e c o u rs e o f th e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y th e In d o n e s ia n
A rc h ip e la g o becam e an in c re a s in g ly im p o r ta n t s o u rc e of
c o m m o d itie s for w orld tr a d e (van L eu r, 195 5 ; Is ra e l, 1989;
T a rlin g , 1992). In th e e a rly p a r t o f th e c e n tu r y , th e P o rtu g u e s e
w e re in v o lv e d in th e sp ic e tra d e , t o g e th e r w ith w e s t A sian,
M alay, C h in e s e and lo c a lly -b a se d tr a d e r s (C o rtesao , 194 4 ;
M eilin k -R o elo fsz, 1962). T h e P o rtu g u e s e e s ta b lis h e d t h e i r m a jo r
tr a d in g p o s t in M e lak a a n d a ls o b u ilt w a re h o u s e s in M alu k u

(C o rtesao , 1944; van L eu r, 195 5 ; M eilin k -R o elo fsz, 1962;

M englio, 197 0 ; H a n n a a n d D es Alwi, 1990). T h e S p a n is h a rriv e d

in M alu k u in th e m id d le o f th e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y a n d c o m p e te d

w ith th e e s ta b lis h e d tr a d e r s to g e t p e rm is s io n from lo c a l r u le r s

to b u ild d w e llin g s t h a t c o u ld b e u se d for s to r in g m e r c h a n d is e

(M eilink-R oelofsz, 196 2 ; H a n n a a n d D es Alwi, 1990).
 2

S e v e ra l s ite s in th e In d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e la g o b e c a m e w ell

k n o w n to tr a d e r s in th e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y . F irs tly , th e M alu k u

Is la n d s , w ith T id o re , T e r n a te and B anda, w ere know n as

im p o r ta n t c e n t r e s for n u tm e g , m a c e a n d c lo v e s (D am es, 1921;

C o rte sa o , 1944). S e c o n d ly , sa n d a lw o o d su p p lie s from T im o r a n d

F lo re s w e re e x p lo ite d by th e C h in e s e tr a d e r s (D am es, 1921;

C o rte sa o , 194 4 ; M e ilin k -R o elo fsz, 1962), w h o w ith d re w in th e

e a r ly s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y from th e fie rc e tr a d e c o m p e titio n in th e
M a lu k u Is la n d s . In th e s a m e p e rio d , s e v e ra l p la c e s a lo n g th e
e a s t a n d w e s t c o a s ts o f S u m a tr a a n d a ls o a lo n g th e J a v a c o a s t
b e c a m e m o re im p o r ta n t for th e w e s t A sian a n d C h in e s e tr a d e r s

w h o w e re d is p la c e d a f te r th e P o rtu g u e s e c o n q u e s t o f M e lak a in
1511 (M eilink-R oelofsz, 1962; D ja ja d in in g ra t, 1983). T h o se
a r e a s p ro d u c e d p e p p e r, fo re s t p ro d u c ts a n d fo o d stu ffs (C o rtesao ,
1 9 4 4 ) a n d , a lth o u g h th e P o rtu g u e s e tr a d e r s w ere in te r e s te d a ls o
in p e p p e r, th e lo c a l r u le rs d id n o t a lw a y s w e lc o m e th e m
(C o rtesao , 1944; K a th irith a m b y -W e lls, 1 9 6 9 ; 1987; K a rto d ird jo ,

1987).

In th e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y th e r e w ere a lre a d y m a n y c o a s ta l

s e t tl e m e n ts w ith m a r k e ts w h ic h b e c a m e th e foci for lo c a l tra d e .

T hese s e ttle m e n ts in c lu d e d A ceh, P a sa i, J a m b i, P a le m b a n g ,

B ar us, T ik u , P a ria m a n , B an te n , P o n ta n g , S u n d a K e lap a , T u b a n ,

G resik , A m bon, T e r n a te a n d T id o re (C o rtesao , 1944). H ow ever,

so m e o f th e s e m a r k e ts w h ic h w e re s itu a te d in lo c a tio n s w ith

good p o rt fa c ilitie s , s u c h a s P a sa i, B ar us, B an te n , G re sik a n d

B a n d a t h e n d e v e lo p e d in to larg e a n d im p o r ta n t tr a d in g c e n tr e s .
 3

T h e s e c e n t r e s b e c a m e th e c o lle c tin g p o in ts for lo c a l p ro d u c ts

th r o u g h o u t a w ide a r e a a n d a t t r a c t e d b o th lo c a l m id d le m e n a n d
fo re ig n tr a d e r s (C o rtesao , 1944; van L eu r, 1 955; M eilin k -

R o elo fsz, 196 2 ; B ro n so n , 1977).

The in v o lv e m e n t o f th e D u tc h fro m th e tu r n o f th e

se v e n te e n th c e n tu ry changed th e tr a d e s y s te m of th e

A rc h ip e la g o . T h e D u tc h to o k o v e r th e c o n tr o l o f tr a d e from w e s t

A sian a n d C h in e s e tr a d e r s d u r in g th e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n tu r y a n d

b u ilt e x c lu s iv e s e t t l e m e n t s for th e m s e lv e s in o rd e r to c o n tr o l

th e flow o f s p ic e s in to th e w orld m a rk e t. T h e D u tc h E a s t I n d ia
C o m p a n y (VOC) a ls o c a m e to r e g u la te th e flow o f C h in e s e ,
Jap an ese and A sian m e r c h a n d is e in to th e In d o n e s ia n
A rc h ip e la g o (Sen, 1962; B ro n so n , 197 7 ; A d h y a tm a n . e t, a l.
1984). W hile th e w e st A sian a n d lo c a lly -b a se d tr a d e r s b e c a m e
le s s im p o rta n t, in c o n tr a s t th e C h in e s e g a in e d s ig n ific a n tly ,
b e in g u s e d by th e D u tc h a s m id d le m e n .

A lth o u g h th e r e is p le n ty o f e v id e n c e for th e ra p id g ro w th

o f m a jo r s e t t l e m e n t s in th e s i x t e e n t h a n d s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r ie s
in th e I n d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e la g o , a rc h a e o lo g ic a l r e s e a r c h , w h ic h

h a s o n ly se rio u sly b e e n e n c o u ra g e d s in c e 1974 (L aporan PELITA

n, 1985), is s till in a v e ry e a rly s ta g e o f d e v e lo p m e n t in t h is

re g io n . A rc h a e o lo g ic a l r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n o rg a n is e d by p e rio d

in to th r e e d iv isio n s, n a m e ly P re h is to ry , C la s sic a l (H indu-

B u d d h ist), a n d Isla m ic (K a rto d ird jo , 1977). T hese d iv is io n s

r e f le c t t h e in tr o d u c tio n o f n e w re lig io u s b e lie fs a n d a ls o th e
p o litic a l in flu e n c e o f d if f e r e n t k in g d o m s . The I n d o n e s ia n
 4

P r e h is to r ic p e rio d is c o n s id e re d to e n d in th e fo u rth c e n tu r y , th e

d a te o f th e in s c rip tio n s fo u n d in K u te i (E ast K a lim a n ta n ) a n d

P a s ir An gin (w est J a v a ) w h ic h m e n tio n th e H in d u p a n th e o n a n d

th e n a m e s o f th e r u le r s (K a rto d ird jo , 1977); th e s e m a rk th e s t a r t

o f t h e c la s s ic a l p e rio d . F ro m t h a t tim e to th e f if te e n th c e n tu r y

th e r e w e re b o th H in d u and B u d d h is t in f lu e n c e s in th e

I n d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e lag o , so th is p e rio d is k n o w n a s th e H in d u -

B u d d h is t o r C la s sic a l p e rio d . T h is p e rio d w as follow ed by th e

Is la m ic p e rio d w h ic h r u n s from th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a new

Is la m ic k in g d o m in D e m a k w h ic h w as fo u n d e d in th e la s t
q u a r te r of th e f if te e n th c e n tu r y (R ick lefs, 19 8 1 ) to th e
e ig h t e e n t h c e n tu r y , w h e n th e D u tc h g ra d u a lly e x te n d e d th e ir

p o litic a l a n d c u ltu r a l ro le in In d o n e s ia .

T h e re a re , h o w e v e r, so m e d iffic u ltie s w ith th is

p e rio d is a tio n . A rc h a e o lo g ic a l r e s e a r c h in In d o n e s ia h a s b e e n
c o n c e n tr a te d in J a v a , N usa T e n g g a ra B a ra t (in c lu d in g L om bok,
S u m b a w a a n d S u m b a) a n d S u m a tr a (L aporan PELITA II, 1985;

L a p o ra n PELITA III, 1992), a n d th e P re h is to ric a n d C la ssic a l

p e rio d s h a v e b e e n m o re c lo s e ly s tu d ie d t h a n th e Is la m ic p e rio d .
A lth o u g h th e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l fin d in g s from b o th su rv e y a n d

e x c a v a tio n a re a b u n d a n t, th e re c o rd is c o n c e n tr a te d o n c e r ta in

p e rio d s a n d m a n y fo rm a l re p o r ts h a v e n o t y e t b e e n p u b lis h e d .

M oreover, th e p e rio d is a tio n m odel its e lf n e e d s to be

r e c o n s id e re d . F irs tly , th e r e is a p ro b le m in a n y a t t e m p t to

d iv id e a c u ltu r e in to tim e p e rio d s, b e c a u s e th e r e is alw ay s

o v e rla p b e tw e e n o n e p e rio d a n d th e n e x t. F o rm e r e le m e n ts o f
 5

c u ltu r e w ill c o n tin u e a lo n g s id e th e n ew , s u c h a s th e C la s sic a l

a r t s w h ic h h a v e s till b e e n u se d in th e Is la m ic p e rio d a s sh o w n in

th e a r c h i t e c t u r a l d e s ig n o f m o sq u e s, in g rav e c o m p le x e s a n d in

th e la y o u t o f c itie s . S e c o n d ly , th e p e rio d is a tio n is b a s e d m a in ly

o n d a t a fro m J a v a , a n d ig n o re s th e e v id e n c e from o t h e r is la n d s .

F o r e x a m p le , th e d e fin itio n o f th e p e rio d is b a s e d o n th e d a ti n g

o f t h e D e m a k k in g d o m , r a t h e r t h a n t h a t o f P a s a i o n th e e a s t

c o a s t o f S u m a tr a w h ic h d e v e lo p e d in th e t h i r t e e n t h c e n tu r y

(R ick lefs, 199 3 :3 -4 ). Also, th e P re h is to ric p e rio d is c o n s id e re d to

have ended w ith th e f ir s t in s c rip tio n s , a lth o u g h p re h is to r y

c o n tin u e d u n til v e ry r e c e n tly in Iria n J a y a .

T h e e v id e n c e for I n d o n e s ia n h is to ry from th e s i x t e e n t h
c e n t u r y o n w a rd is m a in ly d e riv e d from E u ro p e a n s o u rc e s . Such
d a ta a re in e v ita b ly u n b a la n c e d and th e in fo rm a tio n about
I n d o n e s ia n s is s lig h t. T h e p u rp o se o f w ritin g jo u r n a ls w as n o t to
re c o rd lo c a l a c tiv itie s b u t r a t h e r th e s u c c e s s e s o f th e tr a d e r s
th e m s e lv e s in th e In d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e la g o . So th e r e is m u c h
in fo rm a tio n about m e r c h a n d is e , its p ro d u c tio n , s y s te m s of

w e ig h ts a n d c o in a g e a n d tr a d e c o m p e tito rs , b u t little a b o u t d a ily

life a n d lo c a l c u s to m s . W h a t a c c o u n t t h e r e is o f lo c a l m a t t e r s

r e m a in s n e c e s s a rily s u b je c tiv e . T h e d e s c r ip tio n s a re n o t a lw a y s

d e ta ile d o r a c c u r a te s in c e th e w rite rs g a th e r e d t h e ir in fo rm a tio n

ra n d o m ly from th e lo c a l p e o p le , from o t h e r fo re ig n e rs a n d a ls o

from o t h e r a c c o u n ts . T h e re a re f u r th e r d iffic u ltie s w h e n d e a lin g

w ith d a ta d e riv e d from lo c a l la n g u a g e s , a s th e t r a n s la tio n s m a y

h a v e b e e n im p e rfe c t. Also, th e w rite rs s o m e tim e s o n ly sa w p a r t
 6

of an a c tiv ity and th e n c r e a te d th e re st o f th e account

th e m s e lv e s . F o re ig n w rite rs d id n o t re c o rd th e d if f e r e n c e s
b e tw e e n in d ig e n o u s c u ltu r e s a n d th e m ix e d c u ltu r e a r is in g from

c o n t a c t b e tw e e n I n d o n e s ia n s a n d fo re ig n e rs . F o r e x a m p le , th e

ro y a l p ro c e s s io n o f th e T e r n a te k in g d o m , th e ro y a l fu n e r a l

c u s to m s o f th e A ceh k in g d o m , Jav an ese d a n c in g and th e

c o s tu m e o f B a n te n e s e s o ld ie rs (E erste 1 6 2 4 , Ito , 1 9 8 4 ; R e id ,

1 9 9 1 ) w ere d e s c rib e d a s e n tir e ly lo c a l in o rig in w h e re a s th e y

w e re c le a r ly m ix tu r e s o f in d ig e n o u s c u ltu r a l t r a i ts a n d n e w ly
e s ta b lis h e d H in d u -B u d d h is t a n d Is la m ic c o n c e p ts .

N e v e rth e le s s , th e s e h is to r ic a l s o u rc e s a re s till v a lu a b le

b e c a u s e th e y p ro v id e c o n te m p o ra ry d e s c r ip tio n s o f e v e n ts t h a t
o c c u r r e d a m o n g b o th lo c a l p e o p le a n d fo re ig n e rs . T h e y d e s c rib e
p la c e s a n d p ro d u c ts a c c u r a te ly a n d p ro v id e s u p p o rtin g m a p s a n d
illu s tr a tio n s . Also t h e r e a re a c c o u n ts o f th e a g r e e m e n ts m a d e

by E u ro p e a n s w ith lo c a l ru le rs , s u c h a s th o s e o f th e P o rtu g u e s e
a n d S p a n is h in M alu k u , th e E n g lish in A ceh, T ik u , P a ria m a n a n d
B a n te n , a n d th e D u tc h w ith th e r u le r o f S u n d a K e lap a , A ceh,

B an te n a n d th e M alu k u Is la n d s (E erste , 1 624; B ird w ood a n d

F o s te r, 1 8 9 3 , F o s te r, 1 934; 1940; 1943; K a th irith a m b y -W e lls,

1969).

T h is th e s is a tt e m p t s to in d ic a te th e v a lu e a n d lim ita tio n s

of in te g r a tin g h is to r ic a l in fo rm a tio n and a rc h a e o lo g ic a l

e v id e n c e for th is p e rio d . T h e q u e s tio n s to be in v e s tig a te d a re :
W h a t k in d s o f in fo rm a tio n c a n be m a tc h e d ? W h ic h in fo rm a tio n

is m is s in g ? A nd m o st im p o rta n tly , w hat is th e ro le of

 7

a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e in h e lp in g r e c o n s t r u c t tr a d in g a c tiv itie s
d u r in g th o s e tw o c e n t u r ie s ?

T hese a im s c a n be a c h ie v e d by c o m p a rin g h is to r ic a l

a c c o u n ts a n d th e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e . In fo rm a tio n a b o u t

v is ito rs in tr a d in g s i t e s w ith in th e I n d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e la g o

d u r in g t h e s ix te e n th and s e v e n te e n th c e n tu r ie s , a b o u t th e

c o n t a c t s b e tw e e n lo c a ls a n d v is ito rs , th e c o m m o d itie s th e y

e x c h a n g e d , a n d o t h e r in fo rm a tio n r e la te d to tr a d in g a c tiv itie s

can be c o lle c te d from v a rio u s E u ro p e a n s o u rc e s . T h is

in fo r m a tio n is c o m p a re d w ith th e r e s u lts o f a rc h a e o lo g ic a l
r e s e a r c h c a r r ie d o u t in B aru s, B a n te n a n d B a ta v ia (J a k a rta ). T h e
firs t tw o s ite s h a v e b e e n c h o s e n b e c a u s e th e y a re th e o n ly
r e l e v a n t s ite s t h a t h a v e b e e n s tu d ie d a rc h a e o lo g ic a lly , for w h ic h
r e p o r ts h a v e b e e n p u b lis h e d . B a ta v ia h a s b e e n c h o s e n b e c a u s e
it h a s a n a b u n d a n c e o f h is to r ic a l a c c o u n ts a s a m a jo r D u tc h
tr a d in g p o s t in Asia. T h e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l in fo rm a tio n for th e s e
th r e e s ite s is ta k e n from p u b lis h e d a r tic le s .

C h a p te r tw o o f th is th e s is p ro v id e s a n o v e rv ie w o f th e

tr a d in g a c tiv itie s d u r in g th e s ix te e n th and s e v e n te e n th

c e n tu r ie s , a s c o m p ile d from h is to r ic a l a c c o u n ts . A c la s s ific a tio n

o f th e d if f e r e n t k in d s o f tr a d in g s ite s t h a t a p p e a re d in th o s e tw o

c e n t u r ie s is p r e s e n te d in c h a p t e r th r e e . In th e fo llo w in g th r e e

c h a p te r s , e v id e n c e is p r e s e n te d from a rc h a e o lo g ic a l r e s e a r c h in

B a ru s, B a n te n a n d B a ta v ia . F in a lly , th e la s t c h a p te r e v a lu a te s
t h e u se o f b o th h is to r ic a l a n d a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e in th e s e
c a s e s tu d ie s . I t d ir e c ts a t t e n t i o n to th e g a p s in th e e v id e n c e
 8

t h a t m ig h t be fille d by f u r th e r a rc h a e o lo g ic a l r e s e a r c h and

s u g g e s ts how t h is c o m p a ra tiv e a p p ro a c h m ig h t form a

c o n s id e r a tio n for a t t e m p t s to re c o n s tru c t tr a d in g a c tiv itie s

e ls e w h e re in th e In d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e la g o d u r in g th e s i x t e e n t h

a n d s e v e n t e e n t h c e n tu r ie s .
 CHAPTER TWO

TRADING CENTRES AND VISITORS

IN THE INDONESIAN ARCHIPELAGO
1 5 1 1 -1 6 8 0

A fter th e P o rtu g u e s e c o n q u e re d M e lak a in 1511, th e

s t r u c tu r e o f th e sp ic e tr a d e in th e In d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e la g o
g ra d u a lly c h a n g e d . T ra d e m o v ed from M e lak a to th e tw o c itie s
o f A ceh a n d B an te n (M eilink-R oelofsz, 1962), h o w e v er, G re sik
b e c a m e m o re im p o r ta n t (Map: 1). O th e r c itie s , too, e x p lo ite d

o p p o r tu n itie s for tr a d e p r e s e n te d by lo c a l c ir c u m s ta n c e s . The

c o m p e titio n in th e sp ic e tr a d e in c re a s e d , e s p e c ia lly in th e

s e v e n t e e n t h c e n tu r y w h e n E u ro p e a n tr a d e r s a c tiv e ly s o u g h t o u t

s p ic e m a r k e ts th e m s e lv e s . T h u s d u r in g tw o c e n t u r ie s m a n y

changes o c c u rre d in th e I n d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e la g o as th e
im p o r ta n c e o f d if f e r e n t c itie s a ro s e a n d fell in r e la tio n to th e
 10

MELAKA

INDIAN OCEAN

0 500 KILOMETERS

M ap : 1

T h re e im p o r ta n t tr a d in g m a r k e ts in th e In d o n e s ia n
A rc h ip e la g o d u r in g th e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y .

e x te r n a lly d riv e n sp ic e tr a d e and as lo c a l r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s

becam e m o re in d e p e n d e n t. T h is c h a p te r , b a se d o n fo re ig n
a c c o u n ts , tr a c e s th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f v a rio u s tr a d in g s ite s in th e
I n d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e la g o d u r in g th e s i x t e e n t h a n d s e v e n t e e n t h
 11

c e n tu r ie s . T h e s e c e n t r e s a t t r a c t e d d if f e r e n t g ro u p s o f tr a d e r s a t

d iffe re n t p e rio d s because i n te r n a tio n a l tr a d e d e v e lo p e d

d if f e r e n tly d e p e n d in g on th e lo c a l p o litic a l and e c o n o m ic

s itu a tio n . T h is c h a p t e r a ls o d is c u s s e s th e i n te r n a tio n a l o rig in s

o f t h e tr a d e r s w h o w e re in v o lv e d in tr a d in g a c tiv itie s in th e

I n d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e la g o d u r in g th o s e tw o c e n t u r ie s a n d r e l a te s
t h is to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e tr a d e n e tw o rk .

T h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f tr a d in g c e n t r e s in th e I n d o n e s ia n

A rc h ip e la g o has been s ig n if ic a n t s in c e e a rly in th e f irs t

m ille n n iu m A.D. A rab and C h in e s e a c c o u n ts p ro v id e
in fo rm a tio n o n tr a d in g c e n t r e s in th e n o r th e r n p a r t o f S u m a tra ,
e s p e c ia lly B ar us a n d P a sa i (D rak ard , 1 9 8 9 , 1990). I t a p p e a rs t h a t
c a m p h o r fro m B a ru s w as d is tr ib u te d to P a s a i by w e s t A sian
tr a d e r s (C o rtesao , 1 9 4 4 :1 6 3 ; D ra k a rd , 1 9 8 9 , 1990). T ra d e o n th e
e a s t c o a s t o f S u m a tr a c h a n g e d d r a s tic a lly w h e n P a le m b a n g
b e c a m e m o re im p o r ta n t n o t o n ly a s a p o litic a l b u t a lso a s a
re lig io u s a n d e c o n o m ic c e n tr e . T h is c e n t r e w as s u s ta in e d
e c o n o m ic a lly by c o m m o d itie s from th e in te rio r, from J a v a a n d
fro m I n d ia a n d C h in a (D aw es, 1 9 1 9 ; C o rte sa o , 1944; M eilin k -

R o elo fsx , 196 2 ; B ro n so n , 1977).

T h e s h if t o f tr a d in g c e n t r e s from S u m a tr a to M e la k a
a ro u n d 1 4 0 0 A.D. c h a n g e d th e tr a d in g r o u te s in th e I n d o n e s ia n

A rc h ip e lag o . J a v a n e s e , C h in e s e , M alay a n d w e s t A sian s tr a d in g

a s fa r a s M alu k u a n d w ith m a n y p o rts in S u m a tr a a ll c a m e to

M e lak a . T h e i n te r n a t i o n a l e x c h a n g e o f m e r c h a n d is e in te g r a te d
th e s e a n d a lso o th e r lo c a l c o m m o d itie s , b o u g h t from o th e r
 12

tr a d i n g m a r k e ts a c ro s s th e A rc h ip e lag o , in to w orld tra d e

(C o rtesao , 1944; v a n L eu r, 1 955; M eilin k -R o elo fsz, 1 9 6 2 ; 1970;

K a th irith a m b y -W e lls , 1 9 6 9 ; Is ra e l, 1979). In tu rn , c o m m o d itie s

fro m C h in a , In d ia a n d e ls e w h e re w e re t h e n d is tr ib u te d w ith in
th e A rc h ip e lag o . T h e tr a d in g s y s te m , in c lu d in g m e th o d s o f

p a y m e n t a n d w e ig h ts , b e c a m e s im ila r from p la c e to p la c e in th e

A rc h ip e la g o a n d a d ja c e n t p la c e s in S o u th e a s t A sia (W icks, 1992).

F u r t h e r d e v e lo p m e n ts in th e s i x t e e n t h a n d s e v e n t e e n t h

c e n t u r ie s a re d e s c rib e d in th e fo llo w in g d is c u s s io n in r e la tio n to

t h r e e a r e a s w ith in A rc h ip e lag o .

A. T he T ra d in g N e tw o rk s o f S u m a tra a n d th e S tr a its o f
M alacca.

T h e a rriv a l o f th e P o rtu g u e s e in th e S o u th e a s t A sian tra d e

re g io n so o n h a d p o litic a l, a s w ell a s c o m m e rc ia l, c o n s e q u e n c e s .

A t firs t, in 1 5 0 9 , th e P o rtu g u e s e w e re w e lc o m e d a s tr a d e r s in
M elak a; tw o y e a rs l a te r th e y c o n q u e re d M e lak a a n d b e g a n to
c o n tr o l th e lo c a l tr a d in g a c tiv itie s , e s p e c ia lly in th e M a la c c a

S tr a its . N e x t, in s te a d o f w a itin g for th e J a v a n e s e a n d o th e r s to

b r in g in th e sp ic e s , th e y b e g a n to s e e k o u t su p p lie s o f s p ic e s
th e m s e lv e s b o th in S u m a tr a a n d M alu k u (B irch, 1 8 8 0 ; D aw es,

1 9 1 9 ; C o rte sa o , 1944). T h e P o rtu g u e s e a t t e m p t to c o n tr o l th e

r o u te a lo n g th e e a s t c o a s t o f S u m a tr a p ro d u c e d r e la tiv e ly little

b e n e f it, a n d t h e ir c o m p e tito rs , s u c h a s w e st A sians, C h in e s e a n d

o t h e r E u ro p e a n s, o b ta in e d in c re a s e d p ro fits fro m th e m a r k e ts on
 13

t h e w e s t c o a s t o f S u m a tra . T h o se e a s t S u m a tr a n , J a v a n e s e a n d

C h in e s e tr a d e rs , w h o to o k a d v a n ta g e o f th e P o rtu g u e s e p o litic a l

a n d e c o n o m ic a c tio n a n d su p p lie d fo o d stu ffs a n d p e p p e r for th e

P o rtu g u e s e in M e la k a (C o rtesao , 1 9 4 4 :1 5 5 -1 5 6 ; M eilin k -R o elo fsz,

1962), a ls o o b ta in e d le s s p ro fit t h a n th e w e s t A sian a n d C h in e s e

tr a d e r s w h o fo c u s e d o n th e w e s t c o a s t o f S u m a tra . In th e e a rly

s e v e n t e e n t h c e n tu r y , t h e P o rtu g u e s e c h a n g e d th e ir p o litic a l a n d

e c o n o m ic s tr a te g y by s e n d in g m o re s h ip s to M alu k u to c o lle c t

n u tm e g , m a c e a n d c lo v e s (D aw es. 1 9 2 1 ; C o rte sa o , 1944). T hey

a ls o re n e w e d th e r e la tio n s h ip w ith th e S u lta n o f A ceh , b u t
n e it h e r o f th e s e s tr a te g ie s w o rk e d s u c c e s s fu lly b e c a u s e th e
tr a d in g c o m p e titio n had in c r e a s e d d r a s tic a lly s in c e o th e r
E u ro p e a n s b e c a m e in v o lv e d in th e sp ic e tra d e .

In th e 1 5 2 0 s, A ceh , w h ic h h a d b e c o m e a p o w e rfu l a n d
i n d e p e n d e n t k in g d o m , o c c u p ie d a r e a s a lo n g b o th th e e a s t a n d
w e s t c o a s ts o f S u m a tr a th a t had a b u n d a n t lo c a l p ro d u c ts ,
e s p e c ia lly p e p p e r (C o rtesao , 1944; B o x e r, 1 969; K a th irith a m b y -
W ells, 1969). B e tw e e n 1 5 2 0 a n d 1 5 2 4 , A ceh d e f e a te d P a sa i,
P id ie a n d D aya, a n d by 1 5 3 0 c o n tro lle d th e n o r th S u m a tra

in te r io r (B oxer, 1 9 6 9 ; K a th irith a m b y -W e lls, 1969). T h e g ro w in g

p o litic a l p o w er o f A ceh c h a n g e d th e f u n c tio n s o f o t h e r tr a d in g

p la c e s in n o r th e r n S u m a tra . F o r e x a m p le , P a sa i, a f t e r 1 5 2 0 ,

becam e m e re ly a s o u rc e o f c o m m o d itie s for A ceh. P la c e s

a d ja c e n t to P a sa i, s u c h a s A ru a n d P id d ie , w h ic h u se d to su p p o rt

P a s a i, n o w a lso s e n t a ll th e i r lo c a l p ro d u c ts to A ceh . In
c o n tr a s t , T ik u a n d P a ria m a n o n th e w e s t c o a s t o f S u m a tra , a f te r
 14

a c t in g a s su p p ly a re a s firs t for B ar us and th e n for A ceh

(C o rtesao , 1944; K a th irith a m b y -W e lls, 1969, 1987), in th e la te

1 5 2 0 s b e c a m e in d e p e n d e n t m a r k e ts a n d sold a ll t h e ir lo c a l
p r o d u c ts d ir e c tly to w e st A sian a n d C h in e s e tr a d e r s (B irch, 1880;

D aw es, 1919; K a th irith a m b y -W e lls, 19 6 9 , 1987:27).

C o n flic t a n d c o m m e rc ia l c o m p e titio n b e tw e e n A ceh a n d

th e P o rtu g u e s e c o n tin u e d on th e east co ast of S u m a tr a

th r o u g h o u t th e 1 5 2 0 s a n d e a rly 15 3 0 s. F in a lly , A ceh a tt a c k e d
M elak a in 1 5 3 7 -1 5 3 8 . T h is a c tio n d id s e e m to w e a k e n th e
P o rtu g u e s e c o n tro l o v e r th e M a la c c a S tra its , b e c a u s e t h e r e w as

e v id e n c e t h a t a T u rk ish fa c to ry w as e s ta b lis h e d in P a sa i in 1 5 4 0
a n d t h a t p e p p e r sh ip s le ft P a sa i d ir e c tly for th e w e st A sian
m a r k e t (R eid, 1969). A ceh d id n o t h a v e a m o n o p o ly o v e r th e
su p p ly o f p e p p e r to w e st A sian m a rk e ts , h o w ev er, b ecau se
tr a d e r s from w e st A sia v is ite d n o t o n ly A ceh b u t a lso B aru s, T ik u
a n d P a ria m a n (B oxer, 1969; R eid , 1969; K a th irith a m b y -W e lls,
19 6 9 ; 1989). In th e 1 5 6 0 s, A ceh r e a c h e d a p e a k in tr a d in g
a c tiv itie s in w e st A sian m a rk e ts b e c a u s e it a lso o b ta in e d p e p p e r
from J a v a n e s e tr a d e r s w ho c o u ld now fre e ly p a ss th ro u g h th e

M a la c c a S tra its .

D ue to th e lo c a l tr a d e rs ' p re fe re n c e for tr a d in g o n ly w ith

M uslim s, th e P o rtu g u e s e h a d little s u c c e s s in th e re g io n . The

P o rtu g u e s e th e n trie d to b lo c k a d e A ceh but th e y w ere

u n s u c c e s s fu l b e c a u s e th e ir ow n pow er w as failin g . So A ceh, in

re v e n g e , a g a in a tta c k e d th e P o rtu g u e se in M elak a in 1568

(K a th irith a m b y -W e lls, 1987). T h e re a fte r, th e P o rtu g u e s e c o u ld

 15

n o t tr a d e fre e ly b u t th e y s till r e m a in e d in M e lak a b e c a u s e th e y

o b ta in e d su p p lie s o f B an te n p e p p e r a n d so m e M alu k u s p ic e s

th r o u g h th e J a v a n e s e a n d C h in e s e tr a d e r s a n d from t h e i r ow n
e x p e d itio n s to M alu k u .

C itie s a lo n g th e w e s t c o a s t o f S u m a tr a a lso d e v e lo p e d

s ig n if ic a n tly in th is p e rio d . A ceh p la c e d th e i r ow n

r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s (Panglim a) in tr a d in g c itie s s u c h a s B aru s, T ik u ,

P a ria m a n (alo n g th e w e s t c o a s t o f S u m a tra ) to c o n tr o l th e tr a d e

a c tiv itie s (K a th irith a m b y -W e lls, 1969, 1 9 8 7 :3 2 -3 3 ; D ra k a rd ,

1 9 9 0 :7 ). A lth o u g h A ceh la rg e ly tr a d e d w ith M uslim tr a d e r s , it

seem s th e y a ls o w e lc o m e d so m e w e s te rn tra d e r s . Jean
P a r m e n tie r , w ho v is ite d T ik u in 1529, re p o rte d s e e in g a
a ya h b a n d a r w h o se d u ty w as to look a fte r fo re ig n tr a d e r s
(K a th irith a m b y -W e lls, 1969; M iksic, 1979; D u m a rc a y , 1981).
T h e w e st A sian tr a d e r s b e n e f ite d from th is p o lic y b e c a u s e th e y
c o u ld a n c h o r th e r e b e fo re g o in g o n to B a n te n by th e w e s t c o a s t

S u m a tr a r o u te , w ith o u t h a v in g to s to p a n d p a y ta x e s in M elak a.

The changes in th e s ta tu s o f tr a d in g p la c e s in th e

n o r th e r n p a r t o f S u m a tr a w ere b a s e d o n p o litic a l fa c to rs . P asai

b e c a m e a s u p p o rt p la c e for A ceh a f te r A ceh h a d o c c u p ie d th e

a re a , w h e re a s T ik u a n d P a ria m a n , for e x a m p le , e v e n th o u g h
th e y w ere n o m in a lly u n d e r A ceh c o n tr o l w ere q u ite d i s t a n t fro m

A ceh a n d so it w as d iffic u lt to c o n tr o l t h e ir p o litic a l a n d

e c o n o m ic a l a c tiv itie s . In fa c t, th e c h a n g e s o f tr a d in g s t a t u s in
th o s e p la c e s w e re s u p p o rte d by I s k a n d a r M uda, th e A ceh S u lta n ,

w h o p la c e d in th e m PanglJm as w h o c o u ld ru n th e re g io n
 16

in d e p e n d e n tly , e s p e c ia lly in tra d in g . T h e A ceh S u lta n s a ls o

g av e p e rm is s io n to s o m e fo re ig n tr a d e r s to c o lle c t p e p p e r fro m

w e s t c o a s t S u m a tr a s o u rc e s (M ark h am , 187 7 ; F o s te r, 1940;

B o x e r, 1 9 6 9 ; K a th irith a m b y -W e lls , 1 9 6 9 , 198 7 ; S tr a c h a n a n d

P e n ro s e , 1 9 7 1 ) (Map: 2).

SUMATRA

\ ^ hNDRAPURA
V ÖA

»il e b a r

JAVA SEA

JAVA

INDIAN OCEAN

0 ' 500 KILOMETERS

M ap : 2

D is trib u tio n o f m e r c h a n d is e in w e s te rn I n d o n e s ia d u r in g
s i x t e e n t h a n d s e v e n t e e n t h c e n tu r ie s .
 17

In th e e a rly s e v e n te e n th c e n tu r y , A ceh w as s till a n

im p o r ta n t tr a d in g s ite for A sian a n d E u ro p e a n tr a d e r s . The

D u tc h a n d th e E n g lish h a d f a c to rie s a n d s p e c ia l h o u s e s from th e
S u lta n of A ceh. The C h in e s e , T h a i, B u rm e se , O rissa n s,

G u ja ra tis , E n g lish , D u tc h , F r e n c h a n d F le m is h p o ssib ly a lso

re c e iv e d s p e c ia l s e rv ic e s , b u t t h e ir b e n e f its w ere le ss t h a n th o s e

o f th e E n g lish a n d th e D u tc h b e c a u s e th e a m o u n t o f t h e i r tra d e

w a s le s s (E erste , 1 6 2 4 ; B irch , 188 0 ; F o s te r, 1934; 1 9 4 0 ; R eid ,

1 9 9 1 :2 5 ). T h e y a ls o p a id few er t a x e s t h a n th e E n g lish a n d th e

D u tc h tr a d e r s (E e rste , 1 6 2 4 ; F o s te r, 193 4 ; 1 9 4 0 , Ito , 1 9 8 4 :3 4 1 -

391). In c o n tr a s t, th e P o rtu g u e s e a n d S p a n is h d id n o t re c e iv e
a n y s e rv ic e s from th e S u lta n o f A ceh. H ow ever, a il tr a d e r s
e x c h a n g e d th e go o d s w h ic h th e y h a d b ro u g h t a n d b o u g h t lo c a l
p ro d u c ts , e s p e c ia lly p e p p e r, in th e A ceh m a rk e t. T h e E n g lish
a n d D u tc h s to re d t h e ir m e r c h a n d is e in t h e i r fa c to rie s , h o u s e s
and th e ir sh ip s; th e o th e r tra d e r s , except th e P o rtu g u e s e ,
p ro b a b ly k e p t t h e ir go o d s in t h e ir h o u se s. T h e P o rtu g u e s e w ould

s e n d th e ir c a rg o d ir e c tly to M e lak a a f te r c o lle c tin g so m e goods,

e s p e c ia lly p e p p e r, fro m th e A ceh m a rk e t.

S ta r tin g in th e 1 6 2 0 s, B ritish a n d D u tc h s h ip s w e re s e n t

d ir e c tly to m a r k e ts a lo n g th e w e s t c o a s t o f S u m a tra , p rim a rily to

p u r c h a s e p e p p e r in r e t u r n for t h e ir c lo th . W e s te rn a n d C h in e s e

tr a d e r s e x c h a n g e d c lo th , iro n goods, je w e lle ry a n d c e r a m ic s for

p e p p e r. C h in e s e tr a d e r s , w o rk in g for E u ro p e a n p o w ers, w ere

g iv e n o rd e rs to s h ip th e p e p p e r b o th to B a ta v ia a n d B an te n .
S o m e o f th e C h in e s e tr a d e r s a ls o trie d to c o lle c t p e p p e r for
 18

th e m s e lv e s , w h ich th e y th e n resold in B a n ten , B atavia and

o th e r sm a ll m ark ets in Java. W est Asian traders a lso c o lle c te d

pepper and o th er m erch a n d ise from m ark ets a lo n g th e w e st

c o a s t o f Sum atra, bu t th eir tra n sa c tio n s w ere on a sm a ller sc a le
th a n th o se o f C h in ese traders.

In 1 6 3 0 s, A c e h 's p o w er o n th e w e s t c o a s t o f S u m a tr a
d e c lin e d s ig n ific a n tly . A lth o u g h it w as s till a n im p o r ta n t m a r k e t

w h e re th e E u ro p e a n , A sian a n d lo c a l tr a d e r s e x c h a n g e d t h e i r

m e r c h a n d is e , A ceh b e c a m e m o re o f a b a se c a m p for th e tr a d e r s ,
b o th lo c a l a n d fo re ig n . T h e s e tr a d e r s s e n t s h ip s a lo n g th e w e s t
c o a s t o f S u m a tr a to c o lle c t p e p p e r by e x c h a n g in g it for c lo th ,
a n d t h e n s to re d th e p e p p e r in w a re h o u s e s o r in t h e ir s h ip s t h a t
w e re a n c h o r e d a t A ceh. T h e D u tc h trie d to r e s t r i c t th e p e p p e r
m a r k e t a t A ceh a f te r th e y c a p tu r e d M e lak a in 1 6 4 1 a n d , u n d e r
p re s s u re fro m th e D u tc h , th e n e w A ceh Q u e e n lo s t h e r p o w er to
c o n tr o l p e p p e r o n th e w e s t c o a s t o f S u m a tra . H ow ever, A ceh
k in g d o m s till r e c ie v e d t a x e s from v isito rs , e s p e c ia lly th e p riv a te

tr a d e r s fro m w e s t A sia, th e C h in e s e a n d th e E n g lish w h o b ro u g h t

p e p p e r from w e s t c o a s t o f S u m a tra . T h e w e s t c o a s t S u m a tr a

t h e n b e c a m e u n d e r th e D u tc h c o n tro l, e s p e c ia lly a f t e r th e

D u tc h b u ilt fo rtific a tio n in w e st S u m a tr a a re a .

B. The Trading Networks o f Java

D uring s ix te e n th c en tu ry , th ere w ere tw o im portant m ark ets on

th e north c o a st o f Java. F irstly, G resik in th e e a s t had a c te d a s
 19

a n im p o r ta n t m a r k e t s in c e th e tim e o f M a ja p a h it, w ith A sian a n d

Jav an ese tr a d e r s based th e r e b o th s e m i-p e rm a n e n tly and

p e r m a n e n tly . T h e tr a d e r s u se d t h is s ite for o b ta in in g s p ic e s

fro m M a lu k u s m a ll-s c a le tr a d e rs . In c o n tr a s t, B an t e n in w e s t

J a v a , w h ic h h a d b e e n v is ite d by A sian tr a d e r s o v e r a lo n g p e rio d ,

g ra d u a lly c a m e to b e u se d a s a b a se for tr a d e r s g o in g o n to

M alu k u . Also, B an t e n g a in e d a d v a n ta g e fro m th e c a p tu r e o f

M e la k a b y th e P o rtu g u e s e in 1 5 1 1 . T ra d e rs s u s ta in e d th e g ro w th

o f B a n te n u n til it b e c a m e th e la r g e s t m a r k e t a lo n g th e J a v a

c o a s t, e s p e c ia lly a f t e r th e p o litic a l a n d re lig io u s c e n t r e m o v ed

fro m B a n te n G ira n g in th e in te r io r to th e coast in 1552
(D ja ja d in in g ra t, 1983).

A lth o u g h G re sik a n d B a n te n w ere b o th fa m o u s a s s p ic e

m a r k e ts , th e tw o s ite s h a d d if f e r e n t s o u rc e s o f su p p ly . G re sik
p ro d u c e d fo o d stu ffs w h ic h c a m e from th e in te r io r a n d a d ja c e n t
a r e a s (C o rtesao , 1944). I t a lso o b ta in e d n u tm e g , m a c e , c lo v e s
and sa n d a lw o o d from th e e a s te r n p a rt o f th e A rc h ip e la g o
(C o rtesao , 1944). T hese goods w e re b ro u g h t by s m a ll-s c a le

tr a d e r s (van L eu r, 195 5 ; M eilin k -R o elo fsz, 1962). In c o n tr a s t,

B a n te n p ro d u c e d p e p p e r a n d fo o d stu ffs (C o rtesao , 1944), b u t a ls o
o b ta in e d o th e r m e r c h a n d is e from p la c e s a lo n g th e J a v a c o a s t,
a n d p e p p e r from S ile b a r a n d P a le m b a n g (D ja ja d in in g ra t, 1 9 8 3 ;

K a th irith a m b y -W e lls, 1 9 8 7 :2 8 -2 9 ). I t o b ta in e d n u tm e g , m a c e

a n d c lo v e s, a n d sa n d a lw o o d from tr a d e r s w ho m ig h t w ell h a v e

c o m e from G resik. Also, th e r e w as A sian m e rc h a n d is e b ro u g h t

b y A sian tr a d e r s (C o rtesao , 1 9 4 4 :1 5 9 -1 6 0 ).
 20

T h u s, in th e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y , th r e e m a jo r tr a d e c e n t r e s

d e v e lo p e d in th e In d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e la g o . A ceh a n d B a n te n
g a in e d a d v a n ta g e s from th e P o rtu g u e s e o c c u p a tio n o f M e lak a in

1 5 1 1 (M eilink-R oelofsz, 1 9 6 2 :8 0 -8 4 ), w h e re a s G re sik m a in ta in e d

its tr a d itio n a l p ro s p e rity from M a ja p a h it tim e s . A ceh and

B a n te n w e re in itia ly v is ite d by tr a d e r s w h o u se d to tr a d e in

M elak a, w h ile G re sik b e c a u s e o f its lo c a tio n o n th e im p o r ta n t

ro u te to M alu k u w a s v is ite d by tr a d e r s w h o w a n te d to c o lle c t

s p ic e s in M aluku. T h e s e w ere s m a ll-s c a le tr a d e r s w ith in th e

I n d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e la g o . T h e y b ro u g h t go o d s from t h e i r h o m e
c o u n tr ie s a n d tr a d in g s ite s a n d t h e n e x c h a n g e th e s e for lo c a l
m e r c h a n d is e , e s p e c ia lly sp ic e s , th e m o s t v a lu a b le m e r c h a n d is e

in th e w orld. T h e tr a d e r s w h o s to p p e d o v e r in B a n te n a n d
G re sik w ere tr a d e r s w h o w ere g o in g to a n d c o m in g fro m M alu k u
to c o lle c t lo c a l p ro d u c ts , e s p e c ia lly th e c lo v e s, m ace and
n u tm e g . In c o n tr a s t, th e tr a d e r s w ho v is ite d A ceh w e re tr a d e r s
w h o w a n te d to o b ta in p e p p e r o r tr a d e r s w h o trie d to p ro fit from
s e llin g m e rc h a n d is e t h a t c a m e from J a v a a n d M aluku. G re sik a s
a m a r k e t lo s t im p o rta n c e a f te r its o c c u p a tio n by M a ta ra m a n d
th e D u tc h tr a d in g s y s te m m a d e th e sm a ll-s c a le tr a d e r s s to p
v is itin g M a c a ssa r a n d G resik . S o m e c a u tio n is n e e d e d , h o w e v er,

n o t to o v e r e m p h a z is e th e d e c lin e o f G re sik in th e s e v e n t e e n t h

c e n tu r y . B e c a u se th e D u tc h a n d E n g lish c o n c e n tr a te d t h e ir

a tte n tio n on M aluku, M a c a ssa r and th e sp ic e tr a d e , t h e ir

a c c o u n ts , o n w h ic h w e so m u c h d e p e n d , a re le ss c o m p le te in

d e s c r ib in g G resik.
 21

In 1 6 0 0 in B a n te n , th e r e w ere P o rtu g u e s e , E n g lish , D u tc h ,

F le m is h , D a n ish , C h in e s e , M alay, B u rm e se , T h a i, A rab, T u rk is h ,

G q ja ra ti, In d ia n , J a v a n e s e , M a k a s sa re s e , B u g in e se , B a n ja re s e ,

T e r n a te a n a n d B a n d a n e s e tr a d e r s (S tra c h a n a n d P e n ro s e , 1843;

M a rk h a m , 1877; Ijz e rm a n 192 3 ; F o s te r, 1 9 0 5 , v a n L eu r, 1955;

B a s s e tt, 1 9 5 8 , M eilin k -R o elo fsz, 1962, N ay ati, 1985a, 1987).

T h e y w ere liv in g in sp e c ific lo c a tio n s w ith in th e c ity , in s id e a n d

o u ts id e th e c ity w all, a s a s s ig n e d by th e S u lta n (N ayati, 1 9 8 5 a ,

1985b). T h e C h in e s e h a d o c c u p ie d th e la n d to th e w e s t o f th e
c ity w all s in c e th e e a rly s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y . T h is w as a ls o th e
lo c a tio n o f a C h in e s e te m p le , a s m a ll m o sq u e a n d a m a r k e t
w h ic h o p e n e d d a ily (N ayati, 1985b). In th is a r e a to o , th e E n g lish
a n d o t h e r E u ro p e a n s, e x c e p t th e D u tc h , le a s e d h o u s e s from th e
S u lta n o f B a n te n . T h e D u tc h b u ilt a n e x c lu s iv e fo rtific a tio n on
th e n o rth -w e s t c o rn e r o f th e c ity w all. To th e e a s t o f th e
C ib a n te n riv e r, th e B u g in e se , M a k a s sa re s e , J a v a n e s e a n d o th e r

tr a d e r s from th e A rc h ip e la g o h a d e n c la v e s g ra n te d by S u lta n o f
B a n te n , a n d th e y b u ilt a s m a ll m o sq u e a n d m a r k e t (S e rru rie r,

1 9 0 2 ; N ay ati, 1 9 8 5 a). In t h is a re a , w a re h o u s e s w ere a ls o b u ilt

(N ayati, 1 9 8 5 a , 1985b). W ith in th e w all, th e B a n te n e s e lived

w ith th e w e s t A sian s, w h o h a d a s p e c ia l e n c la v e w ith a sm a ll

m o sq u e a s a g r a n t from th e S u lta n o f B a n te n (N ayati, 1985a).

T h e C h in e s e a n d w e s t A sian s fo rm e d s p e c ia l g ro u p s in

B a n te n . T h e y h a d a n im p o r ta n t ro le in th e m a r k e t a n d a ls o in

r e l a ti n g to th e ro y a l fam ily . T h e y w ere in v o lv e d in th e ro y a l

b u r e a u c r a c y a n d h e ld o ffic ia l p o s itio n s s u c h a s syahbandar (van
 22

L eu r, 1955; P u rb a tja ra k a , 1961:7; M e ilin k -R o elo fsz, 1962,

N ay ati, 1985a; K a th irith a m b y -W e lls, 1 9 89:31). T h is in d ic a te s
th a t th e y have re a c h e d h ig h e r s o c ia l s ta u tu s e s in th e
I n d o n e s ia n s o c ia l life.

B a n te n in th e e a rly s e v e n t e e n t h c e n tu r y a c te d as an

im p o r ta n t tr a d in g s ite in th e In d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e lag o . It had

th r e e m a r k e ts w h ic h w ere ru n by th e S u lta n , th e n o b le s a n d th e
C h in e s e (E erste , 1624). T h e D u tc h a n d E n g lish b o th e s ta b lis h e d

tr a d in g p o s ts a n d f a c to rie s in B a n te n (M arkham , 1877; M eilin k -

R o elo fsz, 1962), w h e re a s th e P o rtu g u e s e d id n o t h a v e a fa c to ry

th e r e b u t u se d M e lak a a s th e i r m a in tr a d in g p o st, fro m w h e re
th e y s e n t t h e ir s h ip s to c o lle c t sp ic e s . T h e P o rtu g u e s e a ls o
o b ta in e d a d d itio n a l su p p lie s o f s p ic e s a n d fo o d stu ffs from th e
C h in e s e a n d J a v a n e s e w h o b ro u g h t t h e ir g o o d s to M e lak a from
B a n te n (B urnell, 1885; M e ilin k -R o elo fsz, 1962).

T h e D u tc h in t h e i r e a rly y e a rs g o t in to d iffic u ltie s tr a d in g

w ith th e B a n te n a n d so, in 1 6 1 0 , th e y w ith d re w from B a n te n
a n d e s ta b lis h e d th e ir f a c to rie s in S u n d a K e la p a (C ator, 1936;

H e u k e n , 1982). In 1 6 1 5 -1 6 1 6 th e r e w e re c o n flic ts b e tw e e n
B a n te n , th e D u tc h a n d M a ta ra m w h ic h m a d e tr a d in g a c tiv itie s
m o re d if fic u lt for a ll th e tra d e r s . T h u s th e E n g lish to o b rie fly

o p e n e d a p o s t in S u n d a K e lap a . T h e D u tc h in 1 6 1 9 c o n q u e re d

S u n d a K e la p a a n d r e n a m e d it B a ta v ia , a n d t h is s ite so o n b e c a m e
t h e m a jo r D u tc h tr a d in g c e n t e r (C a n to r, 1936). H ow ever, B a n te n

in 1 6 1 9 w as s till v is ite d by m a n y tr a d e r s fro m F r a n c e , E n g la n d ,

H o lla n d , S p a in , C h in a , w e s t Asia, J a v a , a n d S u la w e si (S tra c h a n
 23

a n d P e n ro s e , 1971; F o s te r, 1934). A fte r 1 6 1 9 , th e D u tc h trie d to

c o n tr o l B an te n from t h e i r b a se in B a ta v ia . At th is tim e , th e

E n g lish s till c o lle c te d pepper an d so ld w e s t A sian c lo th in

B an te n , S u m a tra , M a c a ss a r a n d M alu k u , a n d w ere a b le to g a in

m o re p ro fit t h a n th e D u tc h . In p r a c tic e , th e D u tc h w e re u n a b le

to g e t c h e a p p e p p e r from th e B an te n m ark e t b ecau se th e ir

r e la tio n s h ip w ith th e S u lta n a n d th e C h in e s e w as n o t a s good a s

t h a t e n jo y e d by th e E n g lish . T h is s itu a tio n m a d e th e D u tc h

c o n c e n tr a te s in b u ild in g t h e ir p la c e in B a ta v ia .

By 1 6 3 5 th e E n g lish s till h a d a fa c to ry in B a n te n b u t it w as
n o lo n g e r s e c u re b e c a u s e f ig h tin g h a d b ro k e n o u t th e r e b e tw e e n
th e D u tc h a n d B a n te n in 1 6 3 3 . T h e E n g lish th e n s w itc h e d to
S e m a r a n g a s a s to p p in g p la c e o n th e r o u te s from M alu k u a n d
M a c a ssa r to B a n te n (B a sse tt, 1958). H ow ever, th e E n g lish w as
n o t lo n g e r u s in g S e m a r a n g a s s to p p in g p la c e , e s p e c ia lly b e c a u s e
o f th e D u tc h h a s u se d p o litic a l a c tio n in g a in in g h ig h e s t p ro fit
in s p ic e s tra d e in th e I n d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e lag o .

T h e w ar b e tw e e n th e D u tc h a n d B a n te n a ro s e b e c a u s e th e

D u tc h h a d d riv e n o u t th e B a n te n e s e from M alu k u w h o w e re, in

D u tc h e y e s, sm u g g lin g s p ic e s th e r e . Also, th e B a n te n e s e re fu s e d
t r a d in g r ig h ts to th e D u tc h in B a n te n . An a g r e e m e n t w as

r e a c h e d b e tw e e n th e m in 1 6 3 5 w h e re b y th e S u lta n o f B a n te n

a llo w e d t h e D u tc h to tr a d e in B a n te n a n d , o n th e o t h e r h a n d ,
th e D u tc h p e rm ite d th e B a n te n e s e to c o lle c t s p ic e s in D u tc h

te r r ito r y in M aluku, e s p e c ia lly in S e ra m , A m bon a n d B a n d a

(B a sse tt, 195 8 ; H a n n a a n d Alwi, 1991).
 24

In th e 1 6 4 0 s th e p o w er o f th e S u lta n o f B a n te n w as in

d e c lin e , b u t B a n te n re m a in e d a n im p o r ta n t m a r k e t for th e
E n g lish , D u tc h , P o rtu g u e s e , F le m is h , D a n ish , w est A sian,

M a c a ss a re se , B u g in e se , B im a n e s e a n d J a v a n e s e tr a d e r s (M eilink-

R o elo fsz, 196 2 ; B o x e r, 1 9 7 9 , N ay ati, 1987). T h e P o rtu g u e s e

b e c a m e le s s in v o lv e d in tr a d in g in B a n te n o n c e t h e i r t r a d in g

p o s t in M e la k a w as c a p tu r e d by th e D u tc h in 1 6 4 1 , a n d th e y

t h e n m o v ed th e ir tr a d in g c e n t r e to M a c a ssa r. A fter a w h ile ,

th e y m o v ed o u t from th e In d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e la g o b e c a u s e o f th e

D u tc h s u p re m a c y in th is p la c e .

A lth o u g h B a n te n m a r k e ts in th e 1 6 5 0 s w ere s till c ro w d e d ,

th is s ite w as n o lo n g e r im p o r ta n t a s a tr a d in g c e n t r e for th e
E n g lish . M any c o n flic ts a ro s e b e tw e e n th e m and th e ro y a l
fa m ily a n d a ls o w ith th e D u tc h . M o reo v er, th e su p p ly o f p e p p e r
to B a n te n w as g e ttin g sc a rc e r b ecau se th e o ld e r pepper
p la n ta tio n s w ere p r o d u c in g p o o re r h a r v e s ts (H e n d ra n in g s ih ,
1 9 8 7 ) a n d th e o t h e r s o u rc e s o f p e p p e r s u c h a s L a m p u n g , S ile b a r,
I n d r a p u r a b e g a n tr a d in g d ir e c tly w ith th e fo re ig n tra d e r s . T hen

B a n te n l a te r c a m e u n d e r M in a n g k a b a u p o w er a n d w ith in th e
s p h e re o f D u tc h s u p re m a c y . I t o n ly r e m a in e d p o p u la r a s a
m a r k e t for tr a d e r s from th e A rc h ip e la g o , s u c h a s B im a n e s e ,
M a c a s s a re s e a n d J a v a n e s e , a n d so m e C h in e s e a n d w e s t A sian

tr a d e r s w h o h a d b e e n liv in g in B a n te n , h o w e v e r th e E n g lis h

c o n tin u e d tr a d in g a t B a n te n m a r k e t u n til 1 6 6 5 (N ayati, 1987).

 25

C. The Trading N etworks in th e eastern p a rts o f the

Archipelago.

M alu k u w as im p o r ta n t b o th for th e A sian a n d lo c a l-b a se d

tr a d e r s . C h in e s e , w e s t A sian, M alay a n d Jav an ese tr a d e r s

c o lle c te d n u tm e g , m a c e a n d c lo v e s from th e s e is la n d s a n d th e n

re s o ld th e s e s p ic e s a t G re sik a n d B an te n (C o rtesao , 194 4 ; v a n

L eu r, 1 9 5 5 ; M e ilin k -R o elo fsz, 1962).

F ro m th e tim e th e E u ro p e a n s a rriv e d in B a n te n , th e

E n g lish a n d th e D u tc h re g u la rly s e n t s h ip s to M alu k u to c o lle c t

s p ic e s (S tra c h a n a n d P e n ro s e , 184 3 ; M a rk h a m , 1 877; F o s te r,
1940). H ow ever, th e E n g lish s h ip s w ere g e n e ra lly u n s u c c e s s fu l

because th e D u tc h d ro v e th e m aw ay and p r e v e n te d th e m
m a k in g c o n t a c t w ith th e lo c a l p e o p le . T h e D u tc h h a d d e v e lo p e d
im p o r ta n t tr a d in g a c tiv itie s h e re s in c e 1 6 0 1 (B oxer, 1965), a n d
th e y d id n o t w a n t a n o th e r E u ro p e a n c o m p e tito r in M aluku.

Y et, d e s p ite th e D u tc h d o m in a n c e in th e e a rly

s e v e n t e e n t h c e n tu r y , M a lu k u w as v is ite d by m a n y o t h e r tr a d in g

n a tio n s . T h e tr a d e r s w e re P o rtu g u e s e , S p a n is h , D u tc h , a n d

E n g lish a n d th e y a lso c a m e from T u rk e y , A rm e n ia , B e n g al,

A rabia, P e rsia , G u je ra t, C h in a a n d J a v a (E erste , 1 624; M a rk h a m ,

1 8 7 7 ; F o s te r, 1905, 1940; C o rte sa o , 1944; M eilin k -R o elo fsz,

19 6 2 ; H a n n a a n d Alwi, 1990). T h e re w e re , th e re fo re , m a n y

fo re ig n s e t tl e m e n ts in M alu k u in th e e a rly s e v e n t e e n t h c e n tu r y .

T h e P o rtu g u e s e b u ilt t h e ir fo rt in A m bon (1604) a n d th e S p a n is h

in T id o re a n d T e r n a te . T h e J a v a n e s e a n d w e s t A sia n s a lso h a d
 26

s e t t l e m e n t s w h e re th e y h a d liv ed in lo c a l v illa g e s s in c e th e

s i x t e e n t h c e n tu ry .

The a c tiv itie s o f th e D u tc h in M alu k u becam e m o re

d o m in a n t in th e e a rly s e v e n t e e n t h c e n tu r y . T h e y c a p tu r e d th e

P o rtu g u e s e fo rt in A m bon in 1 6 0 5 , b u t fo u n d it h a rd e r to

e s ta b lis h th e m s e lv e s in T id o re and T e r n a te (B a sse tt, 1958;

S u b ra h m a n y a m , 1988). N e v e rth e le s s , by 1 6 0 7 th e y h a d an

a g r e e m e n t w ith th e T e r n a te n s for su p p ly o f s p ic e s , a n d tw o y e a rs

l a t e r th e D u tc h c a p tu r e d B a n d a w h ic h had been a c tiv e in

tr a d in g w ith th e E n g lish (M arkham , 1877). T h e S p a n is h , w ho

h a d f a c to rie s in T id o re a n d T e r n a te , trie d to r e s is t th e D u tc h b u t
in 1 6 1 0 T e r n a te w as c a p tu r e d by th e D u tc h a n d th e S p a n is h
c o u ld o n ly r e t a in T id o re . T h re e y e a rs la te r th e D u tc h a lso
c a p tu r e d B acan, M a k ian and p a rt o f H a lm a h e ra . B anda,
h o w e v e r, w as s till c o n tr o lle d by th e E n g lish (B a sse tt, 1958). By
c a p tu r e d so m e is la n d s in th e M o lu c c a n s, th e D u tc h trie d to
m o n o p o liz e th e s p ic e s tr a d e in th e In d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e lag o ,
h o w e v e r, th is a im w as n o t e a s y to g a in b e c a u s e tr a d e r s (w est
A sian s, e s p e c ia lly J a v a n e s e a n d lo c a l p e o p le a n d th e E n g lish )

w ere a ls o th e r e c o lle c tin g sp ic e s . T h e D u tc h c o m p e tito rs u se d

M a c c a s a r (now U ju n g P a n d a n g ) a s a tr a d in g b a se .

T h e E n g lish in 1 6 1 3 o p e n e d t h e i r ow n fa c to ry in M a c a ssa r

fro m w h e re th e y s e n t th e i r sh ip s to M aluku, e s p e c ia lly to th e ir

p o s ts in S e ra m a n d R u n , a f te r th e E n g lish re c o g n is e d t h a t th e

D u tc h tr a d e d u n fa irly a n d a lw a y s p r e v e n te d th e M alu k u p eo p le
m a k in g c o n t a c t w ith th e E n g lish (B a sse tt, 1958). T h e E n g lish in
 27

M a c a s s a r w e re su p p lie d s p ic e s from M a lu k u by th e J a v a n e s e a n d

lo c a l s m u g g le rs (B a sse tt, 1958). M o reo v er, th e P o rtu g u e s e u se d

M a c a ss a r a s t h e ir tr a d in g p o s t a n d s e n t t h e ir s h ip s to M alu k u
a n d a ls o to S u m b a w a , S olor, T im o r, F lo re s a n d L a r a n tu k a to
c o lle c t sa n d a lw o o d a n d sa p a n w o o d (B a sse tt, 1958). The su ccess

o f th e P o rtu g u e s e c o lle c tin g c o m m o d itie s in e a s t p a r t o f th e

I n d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e la g o w as follow ed by th e D u tc h w ho s e n t

s h ip s to S o lo r (B a sse tt, 1958).

In 1 6 1 6 , th e D u tc h w ith d re w from M a c a ss a r a n d S u m a tr a

a n d c o n c e n tr a te d o n tr a d in g in M aluku. T h o se a c tio n s w ere

m a in ly b e c a u s e t h e ir m o n o p o ly p o lic y d id n o t w o rk a s th e y h a d
p r e d ic te d . B e c a u se o f it, th e P o rtu g u e s e a n d E n g lish w ere fre e ly
e x p lo re d lo c a l c o m m o d itie s in th e In d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e lag o . The
P o rtu g u e s e e x p lo re d for s a n d a lw o o d su p p lie s in th e e a s te r n p a r t
of th e A rc h ip e la g o and, th e E n g lish , c o lle c te d pepper in
S u m a tr a , B an te n a n d a ls o M aluku. T h e E n g lish a n d P o rtu g u e s e
w e re s till tr a d in g w ith Jav an ese, M a c a ss a re se , M o lu c c a n s,
C h in e s e a n d w e s t A sian tr a d e r s (M eilink-R oelofsz, 1962), so th e y
a ll have o b ta in e d so m e e ffo rt b o th in exchanges th e ir

c o m m o d itie s .

T h e D u tc h , a f t e r th e y h a d o c c u p ie d S u n d a K e la p a in 1 6 1 9 ,
tr ie d to c o n tr o l th e M alu k u re g io n a l tr a d e from h e re . F ir s t's

D u tc h a c tio n in m o n o p o lise th e s p ic e s in M alu k u w as s e n t so m e

C h in e s e fro m B a ta v ia , n o w J a k a r t a , to s e t tl e in A m bon, th e

D u tc h t r a d in g p o s t (K naap, 1991). T h e D u tc h s e e m s ta k e a n
 28

a d v a n ta g e o f th e ir good r e la tio n s h ip w ith th e C h in e s e , t h e ir

p a r tn e r s h ip in a n d o u ts id e B a ta v ia .

In 1 6 2 4 th e E n g lish b e g a n to c h a n g e th e i r tr a d in g p a tte r n ,

m o v in g t h e ir m a in c e n t r e e a s tw a rd . F irs tly , th e y a b a n d o n e d

t h e i r s e t t l e m e n t s o n th e w e s t c o a s t o f S u m a tra , a t A ceh a n d a lso

a t B a n ja rm a s in in S o u th K a lim a n ta n (B a sse tt, 1958). T hey

o p e n e d tr a d e s ta tio n s in B a ta v ia , J a m b i, J e p a r a a n d in c re a s e d

t h e i r tr a d in g a c tiv itie s in M a c a ss a r (B a sse tt, 1 958; K n a a p , 1991),

w h ile th e D u tc h trie d to d e v e lo p a tr a d in g c o n t r a c t w ith th e

S u lta n o f Oowa in M a c a ssa r.

H a s a n u d d in , S u lta n o f Oowa, h a d in c r e a s e d h is po w er by
c a p tu r in g so m e a r e a s o f S u la w e si w h ic h h a d b e e n p a r t o f T e r n a te
te r r ito r y b e fo re 1 6 2 7 , so th e D u tc h m o v ed b a c k to B a ta v ia . T h e
S u lta n o f Gow a w as t h e n so a c tiv e ly in v o lv e d in th e sp ic e tr a d e
th a t in 1628 th e E n g lis h a ls o m o v ed fro m M a c a ss a r and
r e s ta b ilis e d t h e ir tr a d in g p o s t in B an te n .

In th e 1 6 3 0 s, th e D u tc h a g a in trie d to m o n o p o lise a ll th e
sp ic e tr a d e in M aluku, p o ssib ly b e c a u s e th e y sa w th e a d v a n ta g e s

in c o n tr o llin g th is a r e a o f th e m a r k e t a n d a lso b e c a u s e th e y h a d
e n c o u n te r e d p ro b le m s in B a ta v ia . D u rin g th e 1 6 2 0 s, th e y h a d

b e e n a tt a c k e d by B an t e n a n d M a ta ra m (D ja ja d in in g ra t, 1983; d e

G ra ff a n d P ie g e a u d , 1984), a n d th e D u tc h d e p e n d e d o n th o s e

k in g d o m s for food su p p lie s. M o reover, M a ta ra m u n d e r S u lta n

A g u n g c o n tro lle d h a rb o u r c itie s a lo n g th e n o r th c o a s t o f J a v a

w h ic h th e E n g lish a n d th e D u tc h s o m e tim e s u se d a s s to p p in g
 29

p la c e s . T h e loss o f a c c e s s to J e p a r a , S e m a ra n g , T u b a n a n d

G re sik w as s ig n if ic a n t s in c e a c c e s s w as lo s t for s h ip re p a irs a n d

a re lia b le su p p ly o f ric e a n d sp ic e s.

T h e D u tc h trie d , u n s u c c e s s fu lly , to c o n tr o l th e sp ic e tr a d e

in th e e a s t e r n p a rt o f th e A rc h ip e lag o . In 1 6 3 5 th e D u tc h

c a p tu r e d B a n ja rm a s in . T h e y a ls o b lo c k a d e d M a c a ssa r a n d , a

year la te r , w ar b ro k e out b e tw e e n th e D u tc h and S u lta n

H a s a n u d d in in w h ic h th e D u tc h b u rn e d th e s h ip s a n d th e c ity .

T h e r e a s o n for th is c o n f lic t w as t h a t th e D u tc h c o u ld n o t s to p

th e sm u g g lin g a c tiv itie s a n d b la c k m a r k e t w h ic h w ere o rg a n is e d

by th e E n g lish and w e re under th e p r o te c tio n o f S u lta n
H a s a n u d d in . T h e s e D u tc h a c tio n s a ff e c te d th e E n g lish c a p a c ity
to e x p o r t sp ic e s to M acao (B a sse tt, 1958). T h e D u tc h in 1 6 3 6
fo u n d it e x p e d ie n t to re -o p e n th e ir lo c a l fa c to ry in M a c a ss a r
(B a sse tt, 1958). F irs tly , th e y w ere lo s in g p o w er b e c a u s e so m e
im p o r ta n t s o u rc e s o f tr a d e w ere n ow u n d e r th e c o n tr o l o f th e
S u lta n o f G ow a (B a sse tt, 1958), a n d a ls o o t h e r c o m p e tito rs w ere
fre e ly tr a d in g in M aluku, a lo n g th e e a s t c o a s t o f K a lim a n ta n ,
N u sa T e n g g a ra , J a v a a n d in S u m a tra , g a in in g m o re p ro fits t h a n

th e D u tc h .

In th e 1 6 4 0 s in M a c a ssa r, th e E n g lish , P o rtu g u e s e , D a n ish ,

S p a n is h , D u tc h , M alay, J a v a n e s e , M o lu c c a n tr a d e r s a n d lo c a l

p e o p le e x c h a n g e d c lo th for s p ic e s a n d ric e . In o rd e r to e x te n d

h is in flu e n c e f u rth e r, th e S u lta n o f Gow a o p e n e d up tr a d e w ith

th e P h ilip p in e s (B a sse tt, 1958). T h e M a c a ss a r tr a d in g p o rt

b e c a m e im p o r ta n t m a r k e t in th e e a s t p a r t o f th e In d o n e s ia n
 30

A rc h ip e la g o . H ow ever, th e D u tc h w as n o t a b le to jo in th e m in

M a c a ssa r. T h e D u tc h fe lt t h a t th e i r p o s itio n in M alu k u w as

in d a n g e r b e c a u s e o f th e M a c a ss a r tr a d in g m a rk e t, w h e re th e
tr a d e r s c o u ld a b le to have s p ic e s from M alu k u from th e

sm u g g le rs .

T h e D u tc h s till r e m a in e d in M aluku, e s p e c ia lly in A m bon

w h e re th e y c o m p e te d w ith th e sm u g g le rs , b u t th e y a ls o b u rn e d

th e E n g lish v e s s e ls w h ic h w ere s e n t from M a c a ss a r to s to p th e

s m u g g lin g (B a sse tt, 1958). T h e D u tc h a ls o trie d to u n d e rm in e

E n g lish s u p re m a c y in M a c a ssa r by flo o d in g th e m a r k e t w ith

c lo th (B a sse tt, 1958), in te n d in g to fo rce th e p ric e s o f c lo th a n d
s p ic e s to fall so m u c h t h a t th e E n g lish w ould n o t be a b le to
o b ta in m u c h p ro fit. H ow ever, th is s tr a te g y p ro v e d u n s u c c e s s fu l,
so th e D u tc h a g a in w ith d re w from M a c a ssa r in 16 5 2 and
c o n c e n tr a te d t h e ir t r a d in g a c tiv itie s in S u m a tr a and Java
(B a sse tt, 1 958; K a th irith a m b y -W e lls, 1969). B e c a u se th e D u tc h
c o n c e n tr a te d o n c o m p e titio n w ith E n g lish , th e P o rtu g u e s e , th e
S p a n is h a n d lo c a l r u le rs c o u ld tra d e fre e ly in T id o re u n til 1 6 5 0 ,
w h e re th e y o n ly h a d to c o m p e te w ith th e M a c a ss a re se s m u g g le rs

in o b ta in in g sp ic e s from th e lo c a l p e o p le .

S in c e th e 1 6 4 0 s th e D u tc h had been in c r e a s in g t h e ir

p o litic a l po w er in e a s t e r n p a r t o f th e In d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e la g o . In

N usa T e n g g a ra , th e y c a p tu r e d S o lo r in 1 6 4 6 (B a sse tt, 1958),

w h ic h m ade it d iffic u lt for th e C h in e s e to p ro fit from

tr a n s p o r tin g sa n d a lw o o d to M a c a ss a r w h e re th e P o rtu g u e s e w ere

th e m a in b u y e rs. F o llo w in g 1 6 6 4 th e D u tc h a ls o trie d to
 31

m o n o p o lise sa p an w o o d in B im a (B a sse tt, 1958). F in a lly , th e

D u tc h c a p tu r e d M a c a ss a r in 1 6 6 7 so t h a t a ll th e fo re ig n tr a d e r s
m o v ed aw ay; th e P o rtu g u e s e fled to F lo re s, T im o r a n d M acau;

th e D a n is h a b a n d o n e d tr a d e in th e A rc h ip e lag o ; th e S p a n is h

m o v ed to T e r n a te u n til 1 6 7 8 a n d t h e n to th e P h ilip p in e s. The

D u tc h p o litic a l a c tio n in e a s te rn p a rt of th e I n d o n e s ia n

A rc h ip e la g o e ff e c te d th e tr a d in g n e tw o rk s in th e I n d o n e s ia n

A rc h ip e lag o . T h e E n g lish m o v ed b a c k to I n d ia a n d c o n s e n tr a te d
th e i r tr a d in g in In d ia . By th e 1 6 7 0 s th e A ceh k in g d o m , th e

B a n te n k in g d o m a n d th e Is la m ic M a ta ra m k in g d o m w ere a ll
e ffe c tiv e lly u n d e r D u tc h d o m in a tio n , w h ic h m e a n s a ll p la c e s in
th e I n d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e la g o w e re under th e D u tc h c o n tro l,
u n c lu d in g th e tr a d in g n e tw o rk .

T h e lo c a l a n d th e A sian tra d e rs , w h o s e t tl e d in th e th e
I n d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e lag o , w ere c o u n tin u in g t h e ir tra d in g ,
h o w e v e r, th e y o n ly exchanged lo c a l c o m m o d itie s . T h is
s itu a tio n m a k e th e v a r ia tie s o f c o m m o d itie s in th e I n d o n e s ia n
A rc h ip e la g o w ere le ss v a rie d th a n b e fo re . I t in fe rs t h a t s in c e th e
D u tc h d o m in a te d in th e In d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e la g o , th e r e w ere

so m e c u ltu r a l c h a n g e s in c lu d in g in p e rs o n a l c o n s u m p tio n .
 CHAPTER THREE

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF
TRADING SITES
IN THE INDONESIAN ARCHIPELAGO
1511 - 1680

T h e r is in g d e m a n d for s p ic e s in th e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y w as
fo llo w ed by th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f tr a d in g s ite s a lo n g th e c o a s t o f
th e I n d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e la g o a n d c h a n g e s in tr a d in g p a tte r n s .

C h in e s e , w e s t A sian a n d lo c a l tr a d e r s s o u g h t lo c a l c o m m o d itie s
w ith in th e A rc h ip e la g o o n a s m a ll s c a le , m o v in g from one

t r a d in g s ite to a n o th e r . T h is p a tt e r n s u s ta in e d th e g ro w th o f
tr a d e c e n tr e s , e s p e c ia lly o n th e c o a s tlin e , (van L eu r, 1955;

M e ilin k -R o elo fsz, 1 9 6 2 ; R e id , 1 9 8 8 :8 5 ; 1 9 9 3 :6 2 , 65; M a n g u in ,

1 9 9 3 :2 0 1 ). S om e tr a d in g c e n t r e s p ro d u c e d a n a b u n d a n c e o f

c o m m o d itie s b u t o th e r s a c te d in s u p p o rt n e tw o rk s for b ig g e r
t r a d in g c e n tr e s . T h is c h a p te r c la s s ifie s tr a d in g c e n t r e s in th e
 33

I n d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e lag o . T h is c la s s ific a tio n w ill be u se fu l for

u n d e r s ta n d in g th e h is to ric a l in fo rm a tio n a b o u t tr a d in g c e n t r e s

w ith in th e A rc h ip e lag o . I t a ls o allo w s us to se e th e g ap s b e tw e e n

h is to r ic a l a n d a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e t h a t w ill be d is c u s s e d in

c h a p te r s fo u r, five a n d six .

A. A Classification o f Trading Sites in the Indonesian

Archipelago

T h e re w as s ig n if ic a n t g ro w th o f tr a d in g s ite s in th e
I n d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e la g o d u r in g th e s i x t e e n t h a n d s e v e n t e e n t h
c e n tu r ie s . S o m e h a d d e v e lo p e d in e a r lie r c e n t u r ie s b u t th e ir
e x is te n c e w as firs t re c o g n is e d w h e n E u ro p e a n s re c o rd e d th e m in
t h e ir a c c o u n ts . T h re e k in d s of tr a d in g s ite s m ay be
d is tin g u is h e d : D ire c t E x c h a n g e S ite s , C o m p le x E n tr e p o ts a n d

F o r t R e g u la te d S ite s . T h o se th r e e ty p e s o f tr a d in g c e n t r e s a re
d e fin e d o n th e b a s is o f th e m e th o d s o f tr a d in g u se d , th e s t a tu s
o f th e c o n tr o lle r s o f th e tr a d in g a c tiv itie s , th e fa c ilitie s in th e
t r a d in g c e n t r e s a n d th e v a rie tie s o f m e r c h a n d is e tra d e d .

A.l. Direct Exchange Sites

In th e firs t k in d o f c e n tr e , th e D ire c t E x c h a n g e s ite s ,

tr a d e r s exchanged t h e ir m e r c h a n d is e d ir e c tly for lo c a l

c o m m o d itie s . T h is is a d if f e r e n t c o n c e p t from th e 'D ire c t

T r a d in g 1 o f M e ilin k -R o elo fsz (1962:8), w h ic h re fe rs to tra d e

b e tw e e n o n e p la c e a n d a n o th e r , for in s ta n c e , b e tw e e n J a v a a n d
 34

M e lak a . D ire c t E x c h a n g e s ite s w ere c o n tro lle d by in d e p e n d e n t

r u le r s o r by a v a s s a l o f s u c h a ru le r. A d ir e c t E x c h a n g e s ite
u s u a lly h a d a n a b u n d a n c e o f o n e o r tw o c o m m o d itie s w h ic h

a t t r a c t e d tr a d e r s fro m o th e r p la c e s . T h e s e tr a d e r s s o m e tim e s

c a m e d ir e c tly to th is s ite , b u t o f te n th e y a rriv e d a f t e r s to p p in g

in m a n y o t h e r p la c e s a lo n g t h e ir ro u te . H ow ever, tr a d e r s d id n o t

a lw a y s s ta y p e r m a n e n tly in s u c h c itie s b e c a u s e th e y c a m e o n ly

to c o lle c t lo c a l c o m m o d itie s w h ic h w e re c a r r ie d to o t h e r p la c e s .

S o m e tr a d e r s p e rh a p s d id s ta y p e r m a n e n tly in D ire c t E x c h a n g e

s ite s , b u t liv e d sid e by s id e w ith th e lo c a l p e o p le a n d a d a p te d

lo c a l c u ltu r e s . T h e r u le r s d id n o t p ro v id e s p e c ia l a c tiv itie s a r e a s
for th e tr a d e r s . T h o se tr a d e r s w ho d id s ta y p e r m a n e n tly u s u a lly
w e re m id d le m e n w ho c o n n e c te d lo c a l tr a d e r s w ith th e v isito rs .

S e v e ra l D ire c t E xchange s ite s d e v e lo p e d d u r in g th e

s ix te e n th and s e v e n te e n th c e n t u r ie s in th e A rc h ip e la g o .
T ra d in g c e n t r e s a lo n g th e c o a s t w ere r e c o rd e d by E u ro p e a n s in
t h e i r a c c o u n ts , s u c h a s P a sa i, P id ie, J a m b i, B aru s, S u n d a K e lap a ,
T id o re , T e r n a te a n d B a n d a . H ow ever, m a n y D ire c t E x c h a n g e

s ite s a ls o d e v e lo p e d in la n d , and becau se of th is B ro n so n

(1977:39-52) p ro p o se d a n u p s tre a m -d o w n s tre a m tr a d in g p a tte r n .

T h e in la n d tr a d in g c e n t r e s w o rk ed h a n d -in -h a n d to s u p p o rt th e

t r a d in g c e n t r e s lo c a te d o n th e c o a s t (B ronson, 1977:44-47), from

w h e re th e sm a ll s c a le tr a d e r s m a in ta in e d , a n d to o k o v e r th e

d is tr ib u tio n o f lo c a l c o m m o d itie s (see fo rm e r c h a p te r). The

v is itin g tr a d e r s e x c h a n g e d t h e ir m e r c h a n d is e for lo c a l p ro d u c ts
u s in g c o in a g e , for in s ta n c e sa n d a lw o o d flow er c o in s , C h in e s e
 35

C a sh , lo c a l r u le r's c o in s , a n d D u tc h c o in a g e (E erste , 1624;

C o rte s a o , 1944; van L eu r, 195 5 ; M e ilin k -R o elo fsz, 1962;

W idiyoko, 1986; W icks, 1 992) (P late: 1).

P la te : 1

C o in a g e u se d in th e S o u th e a s t A sia in th e s i x t e e n t h C e n tu ry
F ro m : E e rs te , 162 4 : p la te 44 b ; W icks, 1 9 9 2 :2 5 5

Also, th e tr a d e r s e x c h a n g e d t h e ir c lo th s , iro n goods, c e ra m ic s

a n d fo o d stu ffs for lo c a l p ro d u c ts by u s in g lo c a l w e ig h t s ta n d a r d

s u c h a s th e g a n ta n g (P late: 2, 3), b a h a r a n d p i k u l (E erste , 1624;

C o rte s a o , 1944; C o rn ey , 1 8 5 5 ; F o s te r, 1905; 1943),
 36

P la te : 2
T h e s ta n d a r d Gan ta n g w e ig h t o f th e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y .
in M alu k u
A d a p ted from : De E e rs te , 1 624: p la te 14

P la te : 3
T h e s ta n d a r d Gan ta n g w e ig h t o f th e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y ,
in B an te n
A d a p ted from E e rs te , 1624: p la te 2 8 .
 37

A .2. C o m p lex E n tr e p o t s ite s .

In a C o m p le x E n tre p o t, th e tr a d in g a c tiv itie s w e re

o v e rs e e n by r u le rs w ho c o n tro lle d la rg e a re a s a n d /o r w e re

p o w e rfu l tra d e rs . T h e y c o n tro lle d a n d m o n o p o lise d v a lu a b le

lo c a l p ro d u c ts s u c h a s s p ic e s t h a t w ere su p p lie d by a d j a c e n t

s o u rc e re g io n s . T h e s e p la c e s a t t r a c t e d b o th lo c a l a n d fo re ig n

tr a d e r s b e c a u s e th e y h a d b e tte r , o r m o re s p e c ia lis e d , fa c ilitie s

t h a n th e D ire c t E x c h a n g e s ite s . C o m p le x E n tr e p o ts c o n tr o lle d

v a rio u s c o m m o d itie s , b o th lo c a l a n d fo re ig n , in b o th s m a ll a n d
la rg e a m o u n ts . In th is ty p e o f tr a d in g th e b a sic s y s te m o f tr a d e
w as s im ila r to th e in t h a t D ire c t E x c h a n g e s ite s . H ow ever, th e

p ric e s o f c e r ta in c o m m o d itie s w ere m o re e x p e n s iv e t h a n in th e

D ir e c t E xchange m a r k e ts but cheaper th a n in th e F o rt
R e g u la te d m a rk e ts d is c u s s e d below . T h is h a p p e n e d b e c a u s e th e
tr a d e r s b ro u g h t lo c a l c o m m o d itie s in to th e C o m p le x E n tr e p o t
s ite s , w h ic h m e a n s th e lo c a l c o m m o d itie s o n th e m id d le m e n
tr a d e r s ' h a n d s , th e b u r e a u c r a ts a n d th e C h in e s e . Also, th e
m e r c h a n d is e in e n tr e p o ts w as c o n tro lle d by th e m id d le m e n w ho

h a d good c o n n e c tio n s w ith th e ru le rs .

The r u le rs b u ilt f a c ilitie s to e n c o u ra g e th e tr a d in g

a c tiv itie s in th e s e C o m p le x E n tre p o ts . T ra d in g w as m o re c le a rly

r e g u la te d t h a n in th e D ire c t E x c h a n g e s ite s . T h e v is itin g tr a d e r s

k n e w th e ty p e s a n d a m o u n t o f th e ta x e s th e y h a d to p ay b e fo re

a n d a f te r tr a d in g (Ito ,1 9 8 4 ). M oreover, m a r k e ts w ere o p e n e d a t

c e r t a i n tim e s , c o m m o d itie s t h a t w e re n e e d e d by b u y e rs w e re
 38

a lw a y s in good supply, h o u s e s a n d w a re h o u s e s w ere p ro v id e d for

th e v is ito rs , and a ls o th e r e w e re h a rb o u rs and p la c e s for
r e p a ir in g th e s h ip s (E e rste , 1646; N a y ati, 1 9 8 5 , 1987). In r e tu r n ,

th e r u le r s o b ta in e d p ro fits from th e tr a d e a n d ta x e s , p a rtic u la rly

b e c a u s e th e y a ls o h a d th e po w er to c o n tr o l w ho c o u ld tr a d e in

t h e i r c e n tr e s . T h e tr a d e r s c o u ld o b ta in p riv ile g e s from th e

r u le r s if t h e y b ro u g h t l e t t e r s o f a u th o r ity from t h e ir ow n k in g s o r

t r a d in g c o m p a n ie s a s k in g p e rm is s io n to tr a d e , if th e y b ro u g h t

p r e s e n ts a n d a ls o if th e y d isp la y e d c o o p e ra tio n in th e i r tra d in g .

P la te : 4

M a rk e t in B a n te n in 1 5 9 6
F ro m : E e rs te , 1 6 4 6 , p la te 17.
 39

T h e r u le rs c o n tro lle d th e tr a d in g a c tiv itie s in s e v e ra l w ays.

T h e y m o n o p o lise d th e m a in a n d m o s t v a lu a b le m e r c h a n d is e .
Also, th e r u le rs ch o se p e o p le to w o rk on th e i r b e h a lf a s

S y a h b a n d a r ; J u r u b a h a sa (M a la y /In d o n e s ia : tra n s la to rs ), and

tr a d e r s . M oreover, th e r u le r s a lso d e v e lo p e d s p e c ia l s e t t l e m e n t s

for th e v is itin g tr a d e r s , w h ic h w ere set a p a rt from th e

a d m in is tr a tiv e , re lig io u s , a n d p o litic a l c e n tr e s . T h e v is itin g

tr a d e r s w e re n o t a llo w e d to go a ro u n d in th e c ity . B e c a u se o f it,

th e r e a re n o m u c h in fo rm a tio n a b o u t lo c a l p e o p le d e riv e d from

th e jo u r n a ls .

T h e c o m m o d itie s tr a d e d in C o m p le x E n tr e p o ts v a rie d . T h e
lo c a litie s th e m s e lv e s u su a lly p ro d u c e d few c o m m o d itie s so t h a t
th e m a r k e ts w e re su p p lie d by g o o d s from a d ja c e n t p la c e s a n d
a ls o fro m fo re ig n c o u n tr ie s . The tr a d e r s exchanged th e ir
c o m m o d itie s b o th w ith th e lo c a l tr a d e r s and a ls o th ro u g h
m id d le m e n . A fter h a v in g c o m p le te d t h e i r tr a n s a c tio n s , th e
tr a d e r s k e p t th e m e r c h a n d is e th e y h a d b o u g h t in t h e ir h o u s e s
a n d in th e w a re h o u s e s p ro v id e d by th e ru le rs . S o m e tr a d e r s
p re f e r r e d to s to re th e ir m e rc h a n d is e in t h e ir sh ip s a n d ju n k s ,

e s p e c ia lly if th e y f e lt t h a t h o u s e s a n d w a re h o u s e s w ere n o t

s e c u r e . T ra d in g a c tiv itie s w ere p u rs u e d n o t o n ly in th e m a r k e ts

and w h ile u n lo a d in g in th e h a rb o u rs , b u t a ls o o u t a t s e a ,

e s p e c ia lly w h e n th e tr a d e r s trie d to a v o id p a y in g ta x e s (N ayati,

1987 ).
 40

A. 3. F o r t R e g u la te d S ite s

The F o rt R e g u la te d s ite s w ere p la c e s th a t had

f o r tif ic a tio n s s e p a r a te from lo c a l s e t tl e m e n ts . T h e y w e re o w n e d

by E u ro p e a n s w h o b u ilt fo rts in o rd e r to p r o te c t th e m s e lv e s a n d
t h e ir m e r c h a n d is e , a s in T id o re , T e r n a te , B a n d a , B a n te n a n d

B a ta v ia . T h e P o rtu g u e s e a n d S p a n is h in M alu k u d id n o t h a v e
p o w er to c o n tr o l la rg e a re a s , b u t th e D u tc h from th e f irs t trie d

to b u ild s tr o n g a n d in d e p e n d e n t fo rts to c o n tr o l th e s p ic e tr a d e .

A fte r 1 6 1 0 th e P o rtu g u e s e a n d S p a n is h f o rtific a tio n s c a m e u n d e r

D u tc h c o n tro l.

T h e re fo re , th e c a te g o ry o f th e F o r t R e g u la te d s ite is

r e le v a n t o n ly for D u tc h tr a d in g p o s ts in th e A rc h ip e la g o . The
D u tc h to o k o v e r D ire c t E x c h a n g e s ite s from th e lo c a l ru le rs ,
th e n changed th e m in to e x c lu s iv e t r a d in g p o s ts th a t had
c o m p le te fa c ilitie s , s u c h a s B a n d a , T id o re , T e r n a te , a n d B a ta v ia .
As in th e D ire c t E x c h a n g e a n d C o m p le x E n tr e p o t s ite s , th e fo rt
o w n e rs c o n tro lle d th e v is itin g tr a d e rs .

T h e fo rt o w n e rs c o lle c te d lo c a l p ro d u c ts for th e i r c e n t r a l
m a r k e ts th e m s e lv e s . T h e y s e n t t h e ir s h ip s to D ire c t E x c h a n g e

s ite s a n d C o m p le x E n tr e p o ts to b u y s u c h m e r c h a n d is e a s w as

u se fu l a n d p ro fita b le in E u ro p e. S o m e o f th e sh ip s, a f te r lo a d in g

u p w ith In d o n e s ia n p ro d u c ts , t h e n w e n t d ir e c tly to E u ro p e o r

o t h e r a r e a s o f A sia, w h ile o th e r s r e tu r n e d to c o lle c t m o re

p r o d u c ts from th e I n d o n e s ia n m a r k e t c e n tr e s . T h e m e r c h a n d is e
t h e y b o u g h t w as t h e n s to r e d to g e th e r w ith th e goods th e y h a d
 41

brough t from th eir h om e c o u n tr ies or e lse w h e r e in Asia to trade

for lo ca l products.

A lthough th e c o m m o d itie s availab le in th e Fort R eg u la ted

m a rk ets varied, th e buyers w ere lim ited . Traders w ho

freq u en ted th e se p la c e s w ere m ain ly E uropeans and C h in ese

w h o had a lot o f m on ey a n d /o r a lot o f m erch a n d ise th a t w as in

h ig h d em an d in th e In d o n esia n A rchipelago. The fort ow ner had

n o t o n ly m o n ey but a lso lo ca l p rod u cts th a t w ere sto red in
w a reh o u ses, and a lso m o n ey and pow er to co n tro l th e buyers,

th e range o f th e m erch a n d ise and th e p rices in order to

m a x im ise profits. The p rices o f lo ca l produ cts in th e Fort

R e g u la ted m ark ets w ere m ore e x p e n siv e th an in th e D irect

E x c h a n g e and th e C om p lex E n trep ot m ark ets. T he ow n ers o f

th e s e forts, a t first, did n ot w an t to s e ll th eir In d o n esia n
m erch a n d ise in th eir m ark et b e c a u se th e y preferred to s e ll it in
E uropean m ark ets th a t y ield ed h igh er profit (Israel, 1979).
H ow ever, in a later period, w h en in d ivid u al o ffic ia ls b eca m e
in v o lv ed in trad in g a c tiv itie s, th e y sold th eir lo ca l m erch a n d ise

to o th er buyers (Boxer, 1975). B oth th e fort au th o rity and th e

v is itin g traders th e n e x c h a n g e d m erch a n d ise, w h ich w as stored

in w a reh o u ses provided by th e fort a u th o rity and ren ted to th e

visitors.
 42

B. A DESCRIPTIVE MODEL OF TRADING SITE S IN

THE INDONESIAN ARCHIPELAGO

All th e s e k in d s of tr a d in g s itu a tio n s a ff e c te d th e

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e tr a d in g s ite s . T h e s e w ere c o rr e la te d w ith

th e k in d s o f c o m m o d itie s t h a t w ere tra d e d , th e p e o p le w ho

v is ite d a n d liv ed th e r e a n d a ls o w ith th e m e th o d s th e y u se d in

tra d in g . F ro m th e h is to r ic a l d a ta a b o u t B aru s, B a n te n a n d

B a ta v ia , p re d ic tio n s a re o ffe re d c o n c e r n in g th e ty p e s o f sp e c ific

tr a d in g s ite s , th e p e a k tr a d in g p e rio d s, th e ty p e s o f p o litic a l a n d

a d m in is tr a tiv e a c tiv itie s a n d th e c o m m o d itie s tra d e d .

B .l. B a ru s

T h e B a ru s c ity la y -o u t w as s im ila r to A ceh b u t s m a lle r in

siz e . B a ru s a f te r th e 1 6 2 0 s w as u n d e r A c e h 's d o m in io n a n d a
r e p r e s e n ta tiv e Isla m ic r u le r [Panglim a] w as p la c e d th e r e . The
PangJsma's h o u se , lik e S o u th e a s t A sian h o u s e s in g e n e ra l, w as
p ro b a b ly m a d e from w ood. T h e E u ro p e a n tr a d e r s p ro b ab ly s ta y e d
o n ly for b rie f v is its , liv in g for th e p e rio d in s im ila r h o u se s.

Som e c o m m o d itie s c o u ld be le ft as a rc h a e o lo g ic a l

e v id e n c e for th e tr a d in g a c tiv itie s o f B aru s. L o cal p ro d u c ts a re

h a rd ly lik e ly to be re c o g n is e d becau se pepper and fo re s t

p r o d u c ts p e ris h q u ic k ly , a n d a n y w a y m ay h a v e b e e n tr a n s fe r r e d

to o t h e r p la c e s. In c o n tr a s t, so m e fo re ig n m e rc h a n d is e s u c h a s

b e a d s , iro n w o rk , c e ra m ic s , c o in a g e a n d w e ig h ts m ig h t su rv iv e to
b e fo u n d a rc h a e o lo g ic a lly .
 43

T h e re w ere tw o ty p e s o f tr a d e r s v is itin g in B arus: th e A sian

tr a d e r s w h o lived p e r m a n e n tly o r s e m i- p e r m a n e n tly in B a ru s a n d

th e E u ro p e a n s w h o c a m e to B a ru s o n ly for s h o r t p e rio d s. T hese

tw o g ro u p s c a n be d is tin g u is h in te r m o f th e m a te r ia l c u ltu r e
th e y le f t b e h in d s u c h a s c o in s a n d c e ra m ic s . S in c e th e firs t

c o n ta c t s o f w e s t A sian a n d C h in e s e tr a d e r s w ith B a ru s o c c u rre d

b e fo re th e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y , th e r e sh o u ld be fo u n d m a te r ia l

c u ltu r e d a te d to b e fo re th e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y in th is s ite .

H ow ever, c o n s id e r in g th e flow o f th e v isito rs , th e r e s h o u ld

b e a g r e a te r a b u n d a n c e o f m a te r ia l c u ltu r e . T h e m a te r ia l c u ltu r e
m o stly d a te d to th e s e v e n te e n th c e n tu r y ra th e r th a n th e
s i x t e e n t h , b e c a u s e in th e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n tu r y th e C h in e s e a n d
E u ro p e a n s re g u la rly v is ite d B a ru s and exchanged of t h e ir
m e r c h a n d is e for p e p p e r. N e v e rth e le s s , it c o u ld be so m e m a te r ia l
c u ltu r e d a te d b e fo re th e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n tu r y a re e x is t in th is
a re a , b e c a u s e th e A rabs m e n tio n e d th is p la c e in t h e ir jo u rn a ls .

A c c o rd in g th o s e d a ta , it c a n be a s s u m e d th e m a te r ia l
c u ltu r e w h ic h w ill be fo u n d in B aru s. C e ra m ic s a n d c o in s from

A sia a n d E u ro p e c o u ld be a c te d a s a m e d ia to r in th e e x c h a n g e .

S o m e m a te r ia l c u ltu r e r e la te to th e lo c a l d a ily life c o u ld be

e a s ily fo u n d in th is a re a . Also, o t h e r a r t e f a c ts w h ic h c o u ld be
u se d in e x p la in in g th is ty p e o f tr a d in g s ite , in c lu d in g th e grow

o f t h is s ite .
 44

B. 2 . B an ten

H is to ric a l s o u rc e s c le a r ly d e s c rib e B a n te n c ity . It had

p a la c e s , m o sq u e s, s e t tl e m e n ts , m a rk e ts , w a re h o u s e s a n d w alls.

T h e s e t t l e m e n t s w e re d iv id e d in to g ro u p s w ith e a c h g ro u p u n d e r

a le a d e r. T h e C h in e s e , E n g lish , D u tc h , a n d Jav an ese had

s p e c ia l h a m le ts w h ic h w ere lo c a te d o u ts id e th e c ity w all.

H o w ev er, th e w e s t A sia n s a n d lo c a l p e o p le liv e d in th e c ity .

M a te ria l c u ltu r e d a te d to th e s i x t e e n t h a n d s e v e n t e e n t h
c e n t u r ie s c a n be d if f e r e n tia te d . T h e re a re so m e E u ro p e a n
a r t e f a c ts d a te d to th e s e v e n te e n th c e n tu r y b e c a u s e r e g u la r
c o n t a c t w ith E u ro p e a n s s t a r te d a t th e e n d o f th e s i x t e e n t h
c e n tu r y . M oreover, th e r e a re C h in e s e c e r a m ic s d a te d to th e
s e v e n t e e n t h c e n tu r y from th is s ite d u e to th e e x p o r t o f b u lk
c e r a m ic s from C h in a . In c o n tr a s t, th e w e s t A sian m a te r ia l
c u ltu r e d e c r e a s e d a t th is tim e .

A rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e o f c o m m o d itie s sh o u ld be m o re
v a rie d a n d a b u n d a n t t h a n in B aru s. B a n te n w as a m e e tin g p la c e
for tr a d e r s w ho c o lle c te d v a lu a b le p ro d u c ts . T h e s m a ll s c a le

tr a d e r s b ro u g h t n o t o n ly s p ic e s b u t a ls o o th e r m e r c h a n d is e from

d if f e r e n t p la c e s a lo n g t h e ir ro u te s , b o th from th e e a s te r n a n d
w e s te rn p a r ts o f th e In d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e lag o . T h e A sian a n d

E u ro p e a n tr a d e r s b ro u g h t to B a n te n t h e ir m e r c h a n d is e from

h o m e c o u n tr ie s a n d o th e r p la c e s w h e re th e y sto p p e d o v er.
 45

T he lo c a tio n s o f m ark ets in B a n ten ca n be d eter m in e d .

T ra ces o f th e a c tu a l s ta lls w ill be d iffic u lt to ob tain b e c a u se th e y

u sed n o n -p erm a n en t m aterials. H ow ever, an in d ic a tio n o f th e

m ark et s e ttin g c a n be d e ter m in e d from tra c es o f m aterial

cu ltu re, e sp e c ia lly c er a m ic s.

C oinage from d iffe re n t periods and origin s h ave been

found in B a n ten . The traders used P ortu gu ese Cruzados,

C h in ese Cash, B a n ten lo ca l c o in s, and D u tch c o in s, so m e o f

w h ich h ave broken b eca u se o f bad q u ality or b e c a u se o f tim e.

It p red icts th a t a r ch a eo lo g ic a l d ata o f th is site are varies,

n o t o n ly th e typ es but also in term o f periods. T h ose d a ta cou ld
be e x p la in e d m an y a sp e c ts su ch as th e grow ing o f th e c ity , th e
d istrib u tion o f m er ch a n d ise, th e co n su m p tio n o f th e people and
th e pop ulation from tim e to tim e.

C. 3. B atavia.

T here are two c ity layou ts in B atavia ca n w h ich be

d istin g u ish ed , Sunda K ela p a /J a y a k a rta and B atavia. Su nd a

K ela p a /J a y a k a rta w as sim ilar to B an ten but sm a ller in siz e ,

b e c a u se S u n d a K elapa up to 1 6 1 9 w as under th e co n tro l o f

B a n ten . In c o n tra st, a fter 1619, Su nd a K elapa required

p erm a n en t b u ild in gs used a s h o u se s, o ffic e s, w areh ou ses, and

fo rtifica tio n s. D iffer en t typ es o f m aterial cu ltu re w ill possib ly be

found r ela ted to th e origin s and so c ia l sta tu se s of th e
 46

i n h a b ita n ts . T h is sh o u ld h e lp in te r p r e ta tio n of th e

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e s e s ite s .

A rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e r e la te d to c o in a g e and

m e r c h a n d is e in B a ta v ia is d if f e r e n t from B ar u s a n d B an te n . In

B a ta v ia , o n ly c e r a m ic s a n d c lo th from A sia w ere a c q u ire d in

e x c h a n g e for sp ic e s . T h e s p ic e s w e re c o lle c te d in B a ta v ia 's

w a re h o u s e s b e fo re b e in g s h ip p e d to th e N e th e rla n d s . The
c o in a g e u se d in B a ta v ia w ere C h in e s e C ash a n d VOC c o in s .

A lth o u g h e v id e n c e o f tr a d in g a c tiv itie s in th e th r e e ab o v e-

lis te d tr a d in g s ite s c a n be tr a c e d , o n ly so m e p a r t o f th e tr a d in g
a c tiv itie s c a n be e s ta b lis h e d c o n c lu s iv e ly . T h e b e s t e v id e n c e

c o n s is ts o f a r t e f a c ts t h a t a re lo n g la s tin g , s u c h a s m e ta ls , c o in s ,
b o ttle s a n d p o rc e la in . S u c h e v id e n c e c o u ld b e s p a tia lly s p re a d
o u t, o r a c c u m u la te d in c e r ta in p la c e s d e p e n d in g o n th e tr a d in g
s itu a tio n s . T h e c o m m o d itie s t h a t w ere tr a d e d w ill be d iffic u lt to
tr a c e a rc h a e o lo g ic a lly , b e c a u s e m o s t o f th e m w ere ta k e n aw ay
fro m th e tr a d in g p la c e .

A rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e r e g a r d in g th e p e o p le w ho c a m e

a n d tr a d e d in th e s e c e n t r e s is a ls o d if f ic u lt to o b ta in . M any

tr a d e r s le f t a f te r a few m o n th s w h ile o th e r s d ie d a n d w ere b u rie d

th e r e . So th e n u m b e r o f g ra v e s d o e s n o t r e p r e s e n t a ll th e p e o p le

w ho c a m e to th o s e p la c e s . H ow ever, so m e a r t e f a c ts s u c h a s

b ric k s , d o o r h a n d le s , k e y s, n a ils a n d a lso e c o f a c ts s u c h a s p o s t

h o le s a n d fire p la c e s c a n be u se d a s e v id e n c e for th e n a tu r e o f
s e t tl e m e n ts .
 47

T h e a r t e f a c ts a n d e c o f a c ts t h a t a re e v id e n c e o f th e tr a d in g
a c tiv itie s , b o th lo c a l a n d in te r n a tio n a l, a re in c o m p le te . F irstly ,

h u m a n s d o n o t le a v e a ll t h e ir d a ily life re c o rd e d in la s tin g form .

S e c o n d ly , th e e v id e n c e m oves b ecau se of hum an and

g e o m o rp h o lo g ic a l a c tiv itie s , so t h a t th e e v id e n c e t h a t is fo u n d

in o n e p la c e s o m e tim e s c o r r e la te s w ith o t h e r e v id e n c e in o t h e r
p la c e s . M oreover, so m e o f th e e v id e n c e is u n d e r th e la n d
s u r f a c e a n d so n e e d s to be e x c a v a te d . N e v e rth e le s s , if th e

e x c a v a tio n is n o t to ta l, th e e v id e n c e is s till in c o m p le te . Som e

p a r t o f th e e v id e n c e , h o w e v e r, r e m a in s im p o r ta n t a n d u s e fu l for
a r c h a e o lo g is ts in u n d e r s ta n d in g th e s e e a rly tr a d in g a c tiv itie s .
 CHAPTER FOUR

DIRECT EXCHANGE SITES

D irect E x ch an g e site s in th e In d o n esian A rchipelago w ere

visited by both local an d foreign trad ers. However, su ch site s were
only sm all an d did n o t have m any facilities for people to dwell
p erm an en tly . The D irect E x ch an g e site s only a c te d as
accu m u latio n c e n tre s w here trad e rs regularly visited for sh o rt
periods in order to co lle c t local products. In th e In d o n esian
A rchipelago d u rin g th e s ix te e n th an d se v e n te e n th ce n tu ries,
several su ch D irect E x ch an g e sites were recorded by E uropean
trad e rs (Cortesao, 1944; D am es, 1921; E erste, 1646; De E erste,
1646). However, th e h isto rical reco rd s m ainly cover S um atra, J a v a
an d Maluku, so p laces like Barus, Tiku, P arim an, Indrapura, Silebar,
B anda, Ambon, T ern ate an d Tidore are fam iliar. Some of those sites
had developed in th e s ix te e n th ce n tu ry . All th e se p laces had
spices, from local sources an d also from a d ja c e n t places.
 49

A m ong D ire c t E x c h a n g e s ite s , so fa r B a ru s h a s b e e n s tu d ie d

a rc h a e o lo g ic a l. So it p ro v id e s th e o n ly a v a ila b le p la c e for a c a s e
s tu d y to i n d ic a te th e c o m p a ra tiv e ro le s o f h is to r ic a l s o u rc e s a n d
a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e in r e c o n s tr u c tin g d e ta ils of D ire c t

E x c h a n g e s i t e s in th e In d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e la g o (m a p : 3 ).

2 KILOMETERS

Map: 3
L o c a tio n o f B arus, w e s t c o a s t o f S u m a tr a
A d a p te d from : N u rh a k im , 198 9 ; D ra k a rd , 1 9 9 0 (w ith m o d ific a tio n )
 50

T h is c h a p t e r a n a ly s e s b o th th e fin d in g s o f th e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l
r e s e a r c h a n d th e h is to r ic a l s o u rc e s r e l a ti n g to B aru s. D o th e s e tw o

s e t o f d a ta s u p p o rt e a c h o th e r , o r d o th e y ra is e f u r th e r q u e s tio n
a b o u t tr a d in g a c tiv itie s a t th is s i t e ?

A. H isto ry o f B a ru s

H is to ric a l s o u rc e s p ro v id e in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e d e v e lo p m e n t

o f B aru s. B a ru s in th e m id d le o f th e e ig h th c e n tu r y w as k n o w n a s
P 'o -lu -sh ih by th e C h in e s e (W olter, 1 9 6 7 :1 7 ; M iksic, 1 9 8 0 :5 9 ;
D ra k a rd , 1 9 9 0 :3 ; W icks, 1 9 9 2 :2 3 3 ). D ra k a rd (1 9 8 9 :5 9 ; 199 0 :4 )
fo u n d o u t fro m M alay t e x t s t h a t in th e n i n th c e n tu r y , th e k in g d o m
lo c a te d in Lobo T u a c h a n g e d its n a m e from F a n s u r to B aru s. A fter
a p e rio d , th is p la c e w as a tt a c k e d by o ra n g Gergasi. T h e i n h a b ita n ts
o f L obo (sic. Lobu) T u a t h e n m o v ed a c ro s s th e A ek Si R a h a riv e r a n d
c r e a te d tw o n e w s e t tl e m e n ts in K u a la B aru s. F u r th e r m o r e , a n o th e r
M alay t e x t m e n tio n s t h a t B a ru s w as th e n o c c u p ie d by o ra n g
T arusan fro m th e s o u th w e s t o f S u m a tr a w h o c r e a te d tw o o t h e r n e w
s e t t l e m e n t s (D rak ard , 1 9 8 9 :5 9 ). T h e re a re n o d a te s for th e s e

changes, b u t D ra k a rd (1 9 8 9 :5 9 -6 0 ) a s s u m e s th a t th e la s t o n e

h a p p e n e d b e tw e e n th e p e rio d o f A c e h n e s e in flu e n c e a n d th e a rriv a l

o f th e D u tc h , w h ic h m e a n s b e tw e e n 1510 and 1600. C h in e s e

a c c o u n ts a g re e w ith P ire s t h a t B a ru s w as a n in d e p e n d e n t k in g d o m

(C o rtesao , 1 9 4 4 :1 6 0 -1 6 1 ; D u m a rc a y , 1 9 8 6 :8 5 -8 6 ; W icks, 1 9 9 2 :2 3 3 ),
b u t l a t e r o n B a ru s c a m e u n d e r th e ru le o f A ceh (K a th irith a m b y -

W ells, 1969; D ra k a rd , 1 990:7). Jean and R aoul P a r m e n tie r

 51

m e n tio n e d t h a t B am * in 15 2 9 w as a s m a ll h a m le t w ith a k in g

n a m e d M e g a lic a (D u m arcay , 1 9 8 6 :8 5 -8 6 ). P e rh a p s th e in d e p e n d e n t

k in g d o m r e p o rte d by F ire s a ro u n d 1 5 1 2 w as ru le d by a p e rs o n w ho
cam e from s o u th w e s t S u m a tr a a s in th e M alay te x t and th e

P a r m e n tie r b r o th e r s m e t w ith a PajjgJJjna, a r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th e

S u lta n o f A ceh.

B ar u s h a d b e e n s te a d ily v is ite d by w e s t A sian a n d C h in e s e

tr a d e r s s in c e th e s i x t h c e n tu r y (C o rtesao , 1 9 4 4 :1 6 1 -1 6 2 ; D ra k a rd ,
1 9 8 9 ; W icks, 1 9 9 2 :2 3 3 ). O n th e b a s is o f s u rv iv in g h is to r ic a l d a ta ,
th e p o r t w a s lo c a te d o n a m a in s a ilin g r o u te a n d w as w ell k n o w n a s
a s o u rc e o f c a m p h o r, m e rc u ry , gold a n d p e p p e r s o u rc e s by C h in e s e
a n d w e s t A sian tr a d e r s (C o rtesao , 1 9 4 4 :1 6 1 ; D ra k a rd , 1 9 8 9 :5 6 -5 7 ,
62-65). A rab a c c o u n ts d a te d to th e n i n th c e n tu r y m e n tio n t h a t th e
lo c a l p e o p le e x c h a n g e d c o c o n u ts , s u g a r c a n e a n d b a n a n a s for iro n
(W icks, 1 9 9 2 :2 3 4 -2 3 5 ). A n o th e r A rab a c c o u n t from th e e le v e n th
c e n t u r y s t a t e s t h a t th e p e o p le o f N ias, o ffsh o re from B ar us, u se d

in g o ts o f c o p p e r a s a r tic le s o f e x c h a n g e , a n d th e y tr e a te d c o p p e r
lik e th e A rabs tr e a te d gold (W icks, 1 9 9 2 :2 3 4 -2 3 5 ). T h e e x is te n c e o f
N ias tr a d e r s in B ar us w as a ls o re p o rte d by P ire s (C o rtesao ,

1 9 4 4 :1 6 1 ). T h e tr a d e r s w ho v is ite d B a ru s a ls o v is ite d P a s a i b e c a u s e
th e re w as cam phor th e r e (Pires, 1 9 4 4 :1 6 3 ; W icks, 1 9 9 2 :2 3 3 ).
D u rin g th e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y , G i^jarati m e r c h a n ts v is ite d B a ru s

re g u la rly . P ire s o n th e in fo rm a tio n a v a ila b le to h im in M elak a

r e p o r te d t h a t:

............... O ne, tw o o r th r e e G i^jarati sh ip s

v is ite d B a ru s e v e ry y e a r to e x c h a n g e t h e ir c lo th for
 52

gold, silk , b e n z o in ,lig n a lo e s , c a m p h o r, w ax and

h o n e ......................... (C o rtesao , 1 9 4 4 :1 6 1 ).

M o reo v er F ire s o b ta in e d in fo rm a tio n in m e la k a t h a t P e rs ia n ,

A rab, O rissa n a n d B e n g a li tr a d e r s k n e w a b o u t B ar u s (C o retsao ,
1 9 4 4 :1 6 1 ). O th e r n a tio n s to v is is t B a ru s w ere th e F r e n c h a n d

C h in e s e , a s m e n tio n e d in th e i r a c c o u n ts (D u m arc ay , 1 9 8 6 :8 5 -8 6 ;

D ra k a rd , 1 9 8 9 ; D ra k a rd , 1990:3). D u rin g th e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y , it
s e e m s t h a t B a ru s w as fa m o u s n o t o n ly u n d e r th is n a m e b u t a ls o

w ith th e old n a m e F a n s u r, P a n s u r, o r P a n s h u r a s m e n tio n e d in

jo u r n a ls .

In th e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y , th e r e w e re s e v e ra l D ire c t E x c h a n g e
s ite s o n th e w e s t c o a s t o f S u m a tr a w h ic h b e c a m e m o re im p o rta n t.
B a ru s b e c a m e le s s p o p u la r t h a n P a ria m a n a n d T ik u , w h ic h w ere
v is ite d n o t o n ly by C h in e s e a n d w e s t A sian tr a d e r s b u t a ls o by
E u ro p e a n s (B urnell, 188 5 ; F o s te r, 1905; 1940). T h is w as d if f e r e n t
fro m th e e a r lie r p e rio d w h e n T ik u a n d P a ria m a n w ere n o t v is ite d by
m a n y tr a d e r s b e c a u s e th e y w e re to o d iffic u lt to r e a c h , a s m e n tio n e d
by P ire s (C o rtesao , 1 9 4 4 :1 6 0 -1 6 1 ).

T h e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y sa w c h a n g e s in th e d e m a n d s for a n d

d is tr ib u tio n s o f c o m m o d itie s . T h e c o m m o d itie s w ere g e ttin g m o re

s p e c ific , from fo re s t p r o d u c ts to p e p p e r. T h e l a te r w as c o lle c te d

fro m a d ja c e n t re g io n s (C o rtesao , 1 9 4 4 :1 6 0 -1 6 2 ). L o cal p e o p le
d is tr ib u te d p e p p e r n o t o n ly to B a ru s b u t a ls o to P a ria m a n a n d T ik u ,

w h ic h m e a n th e tr a d e r s w ho p u rc h a s e d p e p p e r c o u ld c h o o s e th e b e s t

p e p p e r a t th e lo w e st p ric e s . Also, re a s o n a b ly s im ila r m e r c h a n d is e

from o u ts id e th e w e s t c o a s t o f S u m a tr a r e a c h e d th e s e th r e e p la c e s
 53

in th e s a m e p e rio d b e c a u s e E u ro p e a n s h ip s u su a lly v is is te d th e m

s u c c e s s iv e ly a n d a t re g u la r in te rv a ls , a s sh o w n in th e E u ro p e a n

jo u r n a ls .

B. A c h a e o lo g ic a l R e s e a r c h in B a ru s

O ur a r c h a e o lo g ic a l k n o w le d g e o f B a ru s c o m e s c h ie fly from th e
w o rk o f H a s a n A m bary (1985) a n d N u rh a k im (1 9 8 9 ). E v id e n c e o f

c o n t a c t b e tw e e n lo c a l a n d fo re ig n p e o p le w a sfo u n d in s e v e r a l p la c e s

w ith in th is p la c e s . C e ra m ic s from d if f e r e n t o rig in s a n d p e rio d s ,

m e ta l, g lass, c o in a g e , a n d b e a d s h a v e b e e n fo u n d in B a ru s (A m bary,
19 8 5 ; N u rh a k im , 1989). Also th e r e a re M uslim g ra v e s and
in s c r ip tio n s in T a m il re p o rte d to h a v e b e e n fo u n d in B a ru s (M iksic,
1 9 7 9 ; A m bary, 198 5 ; D ra k a rd , 198 9 ; 1990).

S e v e ra l c e r a m ic s s ty le s o f d if f e r e n t o rig in s a n d d a te r e p r e s e n t
e x c h a n g e b e tw e e n fo re ig n a n d lo c a l p e o p le . T h e C h in e s e c e r a m ic s
d a te d fro m t h e T a n g to th e Q in g D y n a s tie s , T h a i a n d V ie tn a m e s e
c e r a m ic s fro m th e f o u r t e e n th to s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r ie s a n d D u tc h
c e r a m ic s fro m th e n i n e t e e n t h to tw e n tie th c e n tu r ie s , a re fo u n d in
th is p la c e (A m bary, 1985; N u rh a k im , 1 9 8 9 :4 8 ) (Table: 1). A c c o rd in g

to th e ta b le 1 itc a n be s e e n t h a t c e r a m ic s from A sia d a te d from th e

e ig h th to th e tw e n tie th c e n t u r ie s w ere c o n tin u o u s ly u se d in B arus,

b u t D u tc h c e r a m ic s o n ly a p p e a re d in th e n i n e t e e n t h a n d tw e n tie th

c e n tu r ie s .
 54

O R IG IN PER IO D CENTURY L O C A T IO N
LOBU KEDAI B U K IT BARUS
TUA GADANG H A SAN G M U D IK
C H IN A TANG 8 - 10 57 - - _

SO N G 1 0 - 13 265 13 113 -

YUAN 1 3 - 14 - - 2 -

M IN G 1 6 - 17 - 5 17 -

O IN G 17-19 1 141 5 21
M ODERN 20- - 44 _ -

T H A IL A N D SAW ANH ALO K 1 4 - 16 - 2 3 -

V IE T N A M 1 4 - 16 1 1 2 -

I DUTCH 19-20 3 20 21

T able: 1
C la s s ific a tio n o f c e r a m ic s fo u n d in B a ru s
A d a p ted from N u rh a k im , 1 9 8 9 :4 8 ).

Also th e r e a re s e v e ra l k in d s o f a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e w h ic h
c a n b e u se d for in te r p r e tin g d a ily life s u c h a s p o tte ry , c h a rc o a l,
g lass, beads, and c o in a g e (N u rh ak im , 1989: 4 7 -4 8 ) (T able: 2).
A lth o u g h th e r e a re n o p u b lis h e d d e s c r ip tio n s o f th e s e ite m s , th e y
a re a n in d ic a tio n s o f a c tiv itie s in B aru s.

O BJECTS L O C A T IO N S
LOBU TUA KEDAI B U K IT
GADANG H ASANG
POTTERY X X X
C E R A M IC S X X X
M ETAL X X X
BEADS X -

G LASS X X X
CHARCOAL X X
| C O IN A G E X - X

T able: 2
A rc h a e o lo g ic a l fin d in g in B a ru s
A d a p te d from : N u rh a k im , 1 9 8 9 :4 8 (w ith m o d ific a tio n ).
 55

G ra v es a n d in s c rip tio n s h a v e b e e n fo u n d w ith in B aru s. th e r e

a r e M uslim g ra v e s fo u n d in B u k it H a s a n g a n d L obu T u a. In B u k it
H a sa n g , th e r e is a g ra v e o f a p e rs o n c a lle d T u a n k u B a tu B a d a n
d a te d to th e Isla m ic year 972 (N u rh ak im , 1 9 8 9 :4 5 ), w h ic h

c o rre s p o n d s to 1 6 3 7 AD. H ow ever, in L obu T u a, th e r e is th e g rav e

o f M a e s u ra h to w h ic h N ila k a n ta S a s tri g iv es a d a te o f 1 0 8 8 AD.

(M iksic, 1979). On th e o th e r h a n d , A m bary (1985) g iv es th is g rav e a

d a te o f 1 2 0 6 /7 AD. a n d D ra k a rd (19 8 9 :7 3 ) d a te s it to a s la te a s 1 5 6 5

AD.

A m b ary a rg u e s th e r e w e re tw o h a rb o rs in B arus: L obu T u a a n d

K e d a i G a d an g . He c la im s t h a t L obu T u a w as th e o rig in a l p o rt,
w h ic h w as l a te r m o v ed to K e d a i G a d an g . H is a s s u m p tio n is b a se d
o n th e C h in e s e c e r a m ic s d a te d from th e S o n g D y n a s ty (AD. 9 6 0 -
1279), w h ils t in K e d a i G a d a n g th e c e r a m ic s d a te d from th e Y uan
(AD. 1 2 8 0 -1 3 6 8 ) to th e Q in g D y n a s tie s (AD. 1 6 4 4 -1 9 1 2 ) a n d to th e
E u ro p e a n p e rio d .

A m b ary 's in te r p r e ta tio n is b a se d on th e p ro p o rtio n th a t

c e r a m ic s p ro v id e th e m a in b a sis for d a ti n g a n d r e c o n s tr u c tin g

c h ro n o lo g ic a l d e v e lo p m e n ts w ith in th e s e t tl e m e n t. B e c a u se o n ly

S o n g c e r a m ic s w ere fo u n d in L obu T u a, so A m bary in fe rs t h a t Lobu

T u a w as u se d a s a p o rt o n ly for a c e r ta in p e rio d b e fo re , for w h a te v e r

re a s o n , it h a d to be m o v ed to a n o th e r lo c a tio n (A m bary, 1985).

H o w ever, f u r th e r a rc h a e o lo g ic a l r e s e a r c h re v e a le d t h a t th e r e a re

o t h e r S o n g c e r a m ic s fo u n d w ith in B aru s. N u rh a k im (1989:48)

c la s s ifie d 2 6 5 S o n g s h e r d s fo u n d in L obu T ua, 1 1 3 fo u n d in B u k it
 56

H a s a n g a n d 13 fo u n d in K e d a i G a d a n g (see T ab le : 1). N u rh a k im 's

c la s s if ic a tio n o f th e B ar u s c e r a m ic s s u p p o rts A m b ary 's a rg u m e n t.

T h e c e r a m ic s fo u n d in L obu T u a d e c r e a s e d d r a s tic a lly o v e rtim e ; for

th e t e n t h to th e t h i r t e e n t h c e n tu r ie s , th e r e w e re 3 1 3 s h e r d s fo u n d ,
b u t in th e f o u r te e n th to th e tw e n tie th c e n t u r ie s o n ly 5. In

c o n tr a s t, in K e d a i G a d a n g , th e r e a re 13 s h e r d s d a te d to th e t e n t h

to th e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r ie s a n d 4 3 9 s h e r d s d a te d to th e f o u r te e n th
to th e tw e n tie th c e n tu r ie s .

C. P ro b le m s

P u ttin g to g e th e r th e tw o b o d ie s o f e v id e n c e , s e v e ra l q u e s tio n s
a n d iss u e s a ris e . F irs tly , th e r e is th e issu e o f th e s h if t in th e
lo c a tio n o f th e p o rt w h ic h w as follow ed by th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f n w
s e t t e l e m n t s to th e e a s t o f th e A ek B a tu G e rin g is (D ra k ard , 1 9 9 0
m ap 2), o r B a tu g a rs i riv e r a s m e n tio n e d in N u rh a k im (1989 m ap 1).
A m b ary a n d N u rh a k im h a v e n o t o ffe re d a n y f u r th e r e v id e n c e w h ic h
w o u ld in d ic a te t h a t th e e a r lie r s ite o f b a ru s w as so u n s u ita b le t h a t
th e p o r t s ite h a d to be m o v ed to a n o th e r lo c a tio n . T h e c h a n g in g o f

th e n a m e from F a n s u r to B a ru s m e n tio n e d in th e M alay t e x t

s u g g e s ts a s e t t l e m e n t s h if t from L obu T u a to K u a la B a ru s lo c a te d
a c r o s s th e A ek b a tu G e rin g is, B a tu g a rg a s i riv e r, so th is c o u ld be

u se d a s s u p p o rtiv e e v id e n c e for th e s h ift.

G iven th is a g r e e m e n t b e tw e e n th e h is to r ic a l s o u rc e s a n d th e

a r c h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e c o n c e r n in g th e p o rt a n d s e t t l e m e n t s h if t in

th e e a r ly s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y , I a s s u m e t h a t th e s ite o f K e d a i G a d a n g
 57

w as n o t u se d u n til th e p e rio d o f c o n q u e s t from T a ru s a n o r A ceh.

E v id e n c e from c e r a m ic s a s sh o w n in ta b le 1 s u g g e s ts t h a t th e

o c c u p a tio n o f K e d a i G a d a n g b e g a n s o m e tim e s a ro u n d th e s i x t e e n t h
c e n tu r y . T h is p la c e h a s c e r a m ic s from C h in a , T h a ila n d , V ie tn a m ,

a n d E u ro p e b u t th is d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t o n ly e a s t A sia n s a n d

E u ro p e a n s live h e re . I a s s u m e t h a t lo c a l p e o p le a n d w e s t A sia n s

liv ed th e r e a lso , b a se d o n a r t i f a c ts fo u n d a n d lis te d in ta b le 2. It

c a n p ro b a b ly be a s s u m e d t h a t K e d a i G a d a n g w as a b e t t e r lo c a tio n

for tr a d in g a c tiv itie s a n d d w e llin g s.

The M alay te x ts re c o rd th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f o th e r new

s e t tl e m e n ts , b u t s u c h d e v e lo p m e n ts h a v e n o b e e n re c o g n iz e d in th e
a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e . The to p o n y m s in B ar us h e lp us to
u n d e r s ta n d th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e s ite s . F o r e x a m p le , L a d a n g
B a ru m e a n s a n e w p l a c e / a r e a for s e t t l e m e n t o r for fa rm in g . L a d a n g
T e n g a h m e a n s a n a r e a lo c a te d b e tw e e n tw o o th e r a re a s . P a s a r B aru
m e a n s n e w m a r k e t-p e rh a p s it re p la c e a n old m a r k e t w h ic h w as
s u b m e rg e d o r flo o d ed , a s sh o w n by th e n a m e P a s a r T e re n d a m .
T hese new s e ttle m e n ts p ro b a b ly follow ed th e s h if ts of
a d m in is tr a tiv e a re a , m a r k e t a n d p o rt in th e B a ru s re g io n .

C e ra m ic s a re a lso a n in d ic a to r o f c o n t a c t b e tw e e n lo c a l a n d
fo re ig n p e o p le . H ow ever, th e c e r a m ic s w ere im p o rte d from C h in a ,
T h a ila n d , V ie tn a m a n d D u tc h o n ly . T h e y d o n o t in d ic a te th e

o rig in s o f a ll th e p e o p le r e c o rd e d as a c tu a lly v is itin g B aru s.

H is to ric a l s o u rc e s in d ic a te t h a t w e s t A sian s, s o u th A sians, C h in e s e ,

P o rtu g u e s e , F r e n c h , E n g lish a n d D u tc h v is ite d B aru s, b u t th e r e is

n o d ir e c t a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e w h ic h p o in ts to th e P o rtu g u e s e ,
 58

F r e n c h a n d E n g lish . In c o n tr a s t , th e w e s t a n d s o u th A sian v is ito rs

c a n n o t be re c o g n iz e d u s in g c e r a m ic s b u t th e ir e x is te n c e in B a ru s

can be in te r p r e te d from je w e lry in c is e d in A rabic s c rip t, from

M uslim g rav e s to n e s a n d in s c rip tio n s .

As y e t, it is d iffic u lt to e s tim a te w h e n d if f e r e n t g ro u p s o f

tr a d e r s v is ite d B aru s. T h e w e s t a n d s o u th A sian tr a d e r s re g u la rly

v is ite d B a ru s a f t e r th e n i n th c e n tu r y . Also, th e y v is ite d P a s a i a n d

T h a ila n d , b a s e d o n s im ila r itie s o f c o in a g e (W icks, 1992) a n d M uslim

g ra v e s (A m bary, 1989). In c o n tr a s t, it is d iffic u lt to k n o w th e d a te s

o f C h in e s e in v o lv e m e n t in B a ru s b e c a u s e th e C h in e s e c e r a m ic s d a te
fro m th e T a n g to th e m o d e rn p e rio d . T a n g c e r a m ic s a re n o t p ro o f
t h a t th e y r e a c h e d B a ru s in th e T a n g p e rio d b e c a u s e th e c e r a m ic s
h a v e b e e n c ir c u la tio n for lo n g p e rio d .

T h e re a re n o a v a ila b le s o u rc e s for w e s t A sian a n d C h in e s e in

B a ru s from th e f if te e n th to th e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n tu r ie s . H ow ever,
t h e r e is a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e w h ic h c a n be u se d for in te r p r e tin g
t h e i r e x is te n c e in B aru s, s u c h a s J e w e lle ry in c is e d w ith A rabic
s c rip t, in s c r ip tio n in T a m il (M iksic, 1979), a n d M uslim g rav es.

A lth o u g h th e A sian c e r a m ic s from T h a ila n d a n d V ie tn a m m ay

in d ic a te c o n t a c t b e tw e e n lo c a l B a ru s p e o p le a n d th e s e tra d e r s , T h a i

a n d V ie tn a m e s e tr a d e r s a re n o t m e n tio n e d in a n y a c c o u n ts . In
c o n tr a s t, M alay tr a d e r s w ho a re m e n tio n e d in a c c o u n ts h a v e le ft n o

a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e o f th e ir e x is te n c e in B arus.

E u ro p e a n tr a d e r s a re a lso d iffic u lt to tr a c e from

a r c h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e . H is to ric a l s o u rc e s m e n tio n th e a rriv a l o f

 59

E u ro p e a n s in B ar us, e s p e c ia lly th e P o rtu g u e s e w h o w ere th e e a r lie s t

E u ro p e a n s to c o lle c t p e p p e r a t B ar us in th e 1 5 1 0 s (D am es, 1921).
H o w ev er, th is e ffo rt w as n o t s u c c e s s fu l b e c a u s e th e A ceh k in g d o m ,
to g e th e r w ith w e s t A sian tr a d e r s , m o n o p o liz e d th e p e p p e r tr a d e o n

th e w e st c o a s t o f S u m a tr a (K a th irith a m b y -W e lls, 196 9 ; 1987). The

P o rtu g u e s e w e re follow ed by th e F r e n c h tr a d e r s w ho a rriv e d B ar u s

in 1 5 2 9 (D u m arc ay , 1986), a n d a f te r t h a t , in 1 6 0 1 , th e E n g lis h

b e c a m e th e f irs t tr a d e r s to o b ta in p e rm is s io n from th e S u lta n o f

A ceh to c o lle c t p e p p e r, n o t o n ly in B a ru s b u t a lso in T ik u a n d

P a r ia m a n (F o ste r, 1940). A fter th a t tim e , o th e r D u tc h a ls o

c o lle c te d p e p p e r in th e D ire c t E x c h a n g e s ite s a lo n g th e w e s t c o a s t
o f S u m a tr a , in c lu d in g B a ru s, b u t th e PangJJjnaz d id n o t a lw a y s
w e lc o m e th e m . T h e E n g lish , in th e 1 6 1 0 s, th e n p re fe rre d to c o lle c t
p e p p e r in T ik u a n d P a ria m a n r a t h e r t h a n in B a ru s b e c a u s e th e y
c o u ld o b ta in m o re th e r e (F o ste r, 1934; 1940).

A c c o rd in g to h is to r ic a l in fo rm a tio n , E n g lish , F re n c h and

D u tc h tr a d e r s v is ite d B aru s, b u t th e y d id n o t p e r m a n e n tly s ta y
th e r e . O nly th e D u tc h c o m p a n y in 1 6 6 8 e s ta b lis h a tr a d in g p o s t in
B a ru s (D ra k ard , 1 990:6-7). A rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e in B a ru s is n o t

a b le to p ro v e th e a rriv a l o f P o rtu g u e s e , F r e n c h a n d E n g lish tr a d e r s

in B aru s. T h is is u n d e rs ta n d a b le b e c a u s e th e y o n ly c o lle c te d
p e p p e r w ith o u t s ta y in g p e rm a n e n tly . T h is is in c o n t r a s t to th e

s o u th A sian a n d D u tc h tr a d e r s w ho h a d tr a d in g p o s t in B aru s, so

th o s e tw o n a tio n s a re re c o g n iz a b le from th e m a te r ia l c u ltu r e le ft.

T h e re a re q u e s tio n s a ris in g a b o u t th e tr a d in g a c tiv itie s in

B aru s. T h e h is to r ic a l d a ta m e n tio n t h a t s o u th A sian tr a d e r s v is ite d
 60

B a ru s in o rd e r to c o lle c t lo c a l p r o d u c ts (Fires, 1944). T h is is

s u p p o rte d by th e T a m il in s c rip tio n fro m L ab u T u a d a te d 1 0 8 0 AD

a c c o rd in g to A m bary (1985), o r 1 0 8 8 a c c o rd in g to S a s tri (1932;

M iksic, 1979). T h is m e n tio n s t h a t a s o u th In d ia n m e r c h a n t guild

h a d fo u n d e d a tr a d in g c e n t r e t h e r e in e le v e n th c e n tu r y . T h is le a d s

to th e a s s u m p tio n t h a t T a m il tr a d e r s v is ite d th e w e s t c o a s t o f

S u m a tr a a n d t h a t a s e m i- p e r m a n e n t g ro u p o f T a m il re s id e d in L obu

T u a in th e e le v e n th c e n tu r y .

L o cal p eo p le from B a ru s and a d ja c e n t p la c e s w e re a ls o

in v o lv e d in tra d in g . p e o p le from n e a r B a ru s s e n t th e ir lo c a l
c o m m o d itie s to B a ru s (Fires, 1 9 4 4 :1 5 9 -1 6 2 ). I t m ay be t h a t th e s e
lo c a l p r o d u c ts w ere c o le c te d in c e r ta in p la c e s by th e P angJim a a n d
lo c a l B u re a u c ra ts . T h e C h in e s e c o u ld a ls o h a v e b e e n in v o lv e d , b u t
th e o n ly a v a ila b le d a t a c o m e from th e m id d le o f th e s e v e n t e e n t h
c e n tu r y w h e n th e C h in e s e from B a ta v ia c a r r ie d lo c a l c o m m o d itie s
from th e w e s t c o a s t o f S u m a tr a to B a ta v ia .

T h e m e d ia o f e x c h a n g e c h a n g e d s ig n if ic a n tly o v e r tim e a n d
space. C o in ag e in s c rib e d w ith a s a n d a lw o o d flow er w as u se d in
B a ru s (W icks, 1 9 9 2 :2 2 5 -2 2 6 ). A s im ila r m o tif o n d if f e r e n t siz e o f

c o in a g e h a s a lso b e e n fo u n d in T h a ila n d a n d J a v a (W icks, 1992).

Also, t h e r e w as p ro b ab ly a b a r te r s y s te m in B aru s. L o ca l p e o p le

tr a d e d t h e i r c o m m o d itie s for je w e lle ry a n d c e ra m ic s . A c c o rd in g

so m e jo u r n a ls , c lo th w as v a lu a b le m e r c h a n d is e so t h a t th e E n g lish

a n d D u tc h e x c h a n g e d th is for sp ic e s.
 61

E v en w ith o u t r e f e r r in g to th e a s s o c ia te d a rc h a e o lo g ic a l

in f o r m a tio n b u t o n ly u s in g th e B a ru s in s c r ip tio n s th e m s e lv e s , it c a n

b e in fe rre d t h a t I n d ia n m e r c h a n ts w e re tr a d in g in B a ru s in th e
e le v e n th c e n tu r y . H ow ever, th e s o u th I n d ia n guild w as re p la c e d by

G i^jarati tr a d e r s a t th e end o f th e f if te e n th c e n tu r y (M eilink-

R o e lo fsz, 1962"92). P ire s m e n tio n s t h a t in th e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y

th e G q ja ra tis tr a d e r s b e c a m e m o re im p o r ta n t a n d th e y b e c a m e

w e a lth y (C o rtesao , 1 9 4 4 :1 6 2 ). T h is c h a n g e is n o t re c o g n iz e d in th e
a r c h a e o lo g ic a l s o u rc e s .

T h e re is a p ro b le m in u n d e r s ta n d in g th e c o n t a c t w ith w e s t
A sian by u s in g M uslim g ra v e s. A c c o rd in g to th e A m bary s c h e m e o f
d a tin g , th e M a e m u n a h g rav e s to n e is 9 0 y e a rs o ld e r t h a n th e P a s a i
g ra v e s to n e s (Hall, 1 9 7 7 :2 1 5 ; R ic k le fs , 1993). H ow ever, th e r e a re
s im ila r itie s w ith a M uslim w o m a n 's g rav e s to n e from L e ra n (e a st
J a v a ) d a te d in th e Is la m ic y e a r e q u iv a le n t to 1 0 8 2 AD, a n d a n o th e r
g ra v e fro m P h a n ra n g , T h a ila n d (A m bary, 1 9 9 1 :1 1 ). T h e L e ra n g rav e
in s c r ip tio n is for a w o m a n n a m e d F a tim a h , w h o se f a th e r 's n a m e w as

M a im u n a n d g r a n d f a th e r 's n a m e w as H ib a ta lla h . T h e T h a i M uslim

g rav e is fo r A c h m a d , so n o f Abu Ib ra h im a n d g ra n d s o n o f Abu

'A rra d a h a lia s Abu K am il, w ho d ie d in 29 s a fa r 431 M uslim

C a le n d e r, e q u iv a le n t to 1 0 3 9 AD (A m bary, 1 9 9 1 :1 1 ). In c o n tr a s t,

th e M uslim g rav e s to n e in B a ru s d o n o t m e n tio n a n y a n c e s tr y b u t

b a s e d o n th e n a m e M a e s u ra h , it c a n be a s s u m e d it b e lo n g to a

M uslim w o m a n . In c o n tr a s t, D ra k a rd a s s u m e s th e w o m a n 's n a m e is

M a e s u ra h a n d t h a t s h e d ie d in 1565 AD (D rak ard , 1 9 8 9 :7 3 ). T h is

 62

n e w p e rc e p tio n a b o u t th e d a ti n g m a k e s th e F a tim a h in L e ra n th e
o ld e s t M uslim in In d o n e s ia .

T h e s im ila rity in M uslim g ra v e s in B a ru s-L e ra n a n d P h a n r a n g

is a ls o s u p p o rte d by c o in a g e . T h e re is a s im ila rity b e tw e e n c o in a g e

fo u n d in B a ru s a n d in T h a ila n d , a lth o u g h th e c o in s from T h a ila n d

a re la rg e r (W icks, 1 9 9 2 :2 2 5 -2 2 6 ). T h is c o in a g e w as u se d in th e

t e n t h to tw e lfth c e n tu r ie s , a lth o u g h , s im ila r c o in a g e w as u se d in

J a v a a n d B ali b e fo re t h a t p e rio d (M iksic, 197 9 ; W icks, 1 9 9 2 ).

I t w ould s e e m t h a t th e s o u th In d ia n a n d G q ja ra ti tr a d e r s b o th
liv ed s e m i p e r m a n e n tly in L obu T ua. T h e T a m il in s c rip tio n , if it is
in s itu , and a ls o th e M aem unah g rav e s to n e can h e lp th e
in te r p r e ta tio n of th e p a tt e r n of th e ir s e t tl e m e n t. A n o th e r
p o ssib ility is t h a t th e C h in e s e tr a d e r s a ls o v is ite d B a ru s a n d liv ed in
L obu T u a. P e rh a p s th e y b ro u g h t th e C h in e s e c e r a m ic s t h a t
p ro b ab ly w ere e x c h a n g e d for lo c a l p ro d u c ts .

T h e G u ja ra tis p re s u m a b ly liv ed sid e by s id e w ith lo c a l p e o p le .

T h e ir d a ily life m ay h a v e b e e n q u ite s im ila r to t h a t th e lo c a l p e o p le
a n d th e y w ould h a v e a d a p te d to th e lo c a l m a te r ia l c u ltu r e . T h is is

p o ssib ly th e re a s o n w hy th e r e a re a lm o s t n o w e s t A sian m a te r ia l

c u ltu r a l r e m a in s in B aru s, o r in o t h e r p la c e s in In d o n e s ia , e v e n
th o u g h th e h is to r ic a l s o u rc e s m e n tio n t h a t th e s e p e o p le v is ite d a n d
s ta y e d in th e I n d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e lag o .

I assum e th a t th e s e fo reig n tr a d e r s exchanged such

m e r c h a n d is e a s g lass, c a r n e lia n b e a d s, so m e s m a ll s to n e s a n d gold

rin g , fo r lo c a l p ro d u c ts . T h e s e a r t e f a c ts c a n be id e n tifie d a s fo reig n

 63

m e r c h a n d is e b e c a u s e so m e gold r in g w ere in c is e d in S a n s k r it a n d

A rab ic s c r ip ts (M iksic, 1979). T h e fo reig n tr a d e r s p ro b ab ly a ls o u sed

c o in s b e c a u s e th e r e w e re fin d s s e v e ra l s m a ll g o ld e n b u lle t-s h a p e d

o b je c ts in s c rib e d w ith th e Jav an ese c h a ra c te r 'm a ' th a t a re

a s s u m e d to be c o in s . T h is c o in a g e is s p re a d th r o u g h o u t th e w e s te rn

I n d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e la g o a n d a ls o th e w a is t c o a ts o f I n d ia (M ksic,

1979). P ro b a b ly th e c o in s w ere a lso u se d for p a y in g ta x e s n o t o n ly

in B a ru s b u t a ls o in o t h e r p la c e s .

A n o th e r n o n -lo c a l ite m w as a ls o exchanged for p e p p e r.

S a n d a lw o o d flow er c o in a g e w ith a 'm a' in s c rip tio n w as a ls o a s a

m e d iu m o f e x c h a n g e in B a ru s. T h is k in d o f c o in a n g e h a s b e e n
fo u n d in c e n t r a l J a v a , B ali, b e g k u lu , a n d in s e v e ra l p la c e s in
T h a ila n d , a n d w as u se d from th e e ig h th to th e f if te e n th c e n t u r ie s
(W icks, 1 9 9 2 :2 1 9 -2 2 6 ). H ow ever, th is c o in a g e w as la te r re p la c e d by
C h in e s e c o in a n g e a lth o u g h a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e for c a s h h a s
n o t y e t b e e n fo u n d in B arus.

On th e b a s is of such e v id e n c e , it can be seen th a t

a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e p ro v id e s s u p p o rt for th e h is to r ic a l s o u rc e s
a b o u t th e n a tu r e o f tr a d in g a c tiv itie s in B a ru s a n d v ic e v e rs a

a lth o u g h b o th a rc h a e o lo g ic a l a n d h is to r ic a l s o u rc e s d o n o t p in p o in t

th e p la c e for tr a d in g in B arus.

O n c e B a ru s h a d d e c lin e d s ig n ific a n tly , T ik u a n d P a ria m a n to

th e s o u th o f B a ru s a t t r a c t e d m o re v is itin g tr a d e rs , so t h a t so m e o f

th e B a ru s lo c a l p ro d u c ts w ere s e n t to th e s e tr a d in g c e n t r e s (F o ste r,
1940). T h e E n g lish tr a d e r s p re fe rre d to a n c h o r th e ir s h ip s in fro n t
 64

o f T ik u a n d P a ria m a n , a n d s e n t s p e c ia l ju n k s to c o lle c t p e p p e r in

B a ru s (F o ste r, 1934; 1940). T ik u and P a ria m a n had m o re

m e r c h a n d is e a n d th is w as a tt r a c t iv e for th e tr a d e r s w ho w a n te d

h ig h p ro fits. M o reover, th e A ceh r u le r g av e th e E n g lish tr a d e r s

p e rm is s io n to tr a d e in T ik u a n d P a ria m a n (F o ste r, 1940). It seem s

t h a t th e t a x e s w e re a ls o low er, a n d m a y b e th e s e c u r ity a t th o s e

p la c e s w as b e t t e r t h a n B aru s, w h ic h w as d if f e r e n t from th e s itu a tio n

in th e e a rly s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y w h e n P ire s (1944) m e n tio n e d t h a t

th e a r e a s o u th o f B aru s, in c lu d e d T ik u a n d P a ria m a n , w as n o t
se c u re . P e rh a p s , T ik u a n d P a ria m a n , a t firs t w ere to v is ite d by
E u ro p e a n tr a d e r s b e c a u s e lo c a l w e s t S u m a tr a n tr a d e r s s e n t th e ir
m e r c h a n d is e to B aru s. N e v e rth e le s s , so m e fo re ig n tr a d e r s
c o n tin u e d to v is it B aru s. B a se d o n c e r a m ic s fo u n d by A m b ary in
K e d a i G a d a n g , it c a n be s e e n t h a t C h in e s e a n d E u ro p e a n p ro d u c ts
s till r e a c h e d B a ru s up to th e tw e n tie th c e n tu r y .

U n fo rtu n a te ly , th e r e is n o in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e c o n t e x t o f
th e a r t e f a c t s fo u n d d u r in g th e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l r e s e a r c h in B arus.
T h u s i n te r p r e ta tio n m u s t be b a s e d o n sim p le lis tin g o f m a te r ia l
c u ltu r e , s u c h p o tte ry , c e r a m ic s a n d c h a rc o a l. I t c a n be a s s u m e t h a t

th e B a ru s in h a b ita n ts p re fe rre d to u se d A sian c e r a m ic s e v e n th o u g h

c e r a m ic s from H o lla n d w ere a v a ila b le . T h o se A sian c e r a m ic s c o u ld

be o b ta in e d by e x c h a n g e for p e p p e r a n d / o r lo c a l c o m m o d itie s .

T h e lo c a l p eo p le w ere in flu e n c e d by th e fo re ig n lu x u ry goods,

s u c h a s b e a d s , n e c k la c e , r in g a n d g la ss (M iksic, 1 9 7 9 , N u rh a k im ,

1989). It can be in fe rre d th a t th e r e w as so m e changes in

c o n s u m p tio n w h ic h it c o u ld c r e a t e a n d re in fo rc e d if f e r e n c e s in
 65

s o c ia l s ta tu s . P e o p le w ho h a d gold rin g s a n d c a r n e lia n bead

n e c k la c e s w ould h a v e b e e n h ig h e r in s t a t u s t h a n p e o p le w h o la c k e d

th e s e lu x u ry goods. S o c ia l s t a t u s c a n a lso be in fe rre d fro m th e

lo c a tio n s in w h ic h th e y lived.

D. C o n c lu sio n

T h e a r c h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e o f tr a d in g a c tiv itie s in B ar u s is
s c a r c e a n d o n ly p ro v id e s lim ite d in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e c o n ta c t
b e tw e e n lo c a l a n d fo re ig n p e o p le . M o reo v er, th e a c tiv itie s in v o lv e d

in th e e x c h a n g e o f m e r c h a n d is e a n d a ls o th e la n d use o f B a ru s a re
s till u n c le a r.

C e ra m ic s in B a ru s a re im p o r ta n t e v id e n c e for th e s h if t o f th e
h a rb o r, a s in d ic a to r s o f th e c o n t a c t w ith fo re ig n e rs a n d a ls o a s
in d ic a to r s o f th e c o m m o d itie s e x c h a n g e d for lo c a l c o m m o d itie s .
H is to ric a l s o u r c e s a lso p ro v id e th e s e k in d o f d a ta . So t h a t , th e tw o

k in d s o f d a ta s u p p o rt e a c h o t h e r for u n d e r s ta n d in g so m e p a r t o f th e
tr a d in g a c tiv itie s in B arus.

The h is to r ic a l and a rc h a e o lo g ic a l r e m a in s h e lp th e

in te r p r e ta tio n t h a t th e fo re ig n tr a d e r s b ro u g h t m e r c h a n d is e from
o u ts id e B aru s. H ow ever, it is d iffic u lt to u n d e r s ta n d th e w ay th e y

tr a d e d and how th e tr a n s a c ti o n s o p e ra te d , e s p e c ia lly in th e

s e v e n t e e n t h c e n tu ry . T h e d is tr ib u tio n o f m e r c h a n d is e s u g g e s te d by
B ro n so n (1977) m ay in v o lv e n o t o n ly th e d is tr ib u tio n up a n d d ow n a
riv e r b u t a ls o from p la c e to p la c e a lo n g th e w e st.
 66

H is to ric a l s o u rc e s m e n tio n e d th e w e ig h ts u se d for lo c a l

m e r c h a n d is e . P e p p e r w as u se d w e ig h e d by g a n ta n g ; p iku J a n d

bahar> b u t th e r e is n o a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e from w h ic h to in fe r
th e w e ig h t s y s te m u se d in B aru s. M o reo v er it is s till d iffic u lt to

e s ta b lis h th e a c t u a l lo c a tio n w h e re tr a d in g to o k p la c e b e c a u s e th e

m e r c h a n d is e w h ic h w e re tra d e d , w ere ta k e n o u t by th e b u y e r from

th e tr a d in g lo c a tio n .

The h is to r ic a l s o u rc e s p ro v id e so m e good d a ta for

u n d e r s ta n d in g th e c o n t a c t b e tw e e n lo c a l and fo re ig n tr a d e rs .
H ow ever, th is is d iffic u lt to m a tc h w ith a rc h a e o lo g ic a l d a ta . The
gap a ris e m a in ly b e c a u s e th e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l s tu d y o f B a ru s h a s n o t
yet been u n d e r ta k e n in te n s iv e ly . I su g g est th a t f u r th e r

a r c h a e o lo g ic a l re se a rc h c o u ld be done in B a ru s so th a t th e
c h a n g in g p o rt a n d tr a d in g a c tiv itie s in th is D ire c t E x c h a n g e s ite
c a n b e r e c o r d e d a n d e x p la in e d . I n te n s iv e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l r e s e a r c h
c o u ld h e lp in u n d e r s ta n d in g th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f B a ru s re g io n a s

u n it.

I a s s u m e t h a t m o re a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e c o u ld be fo u n d in
B arus, in c lu d in g B a ru s M udik, b e c a u s e th is lo c a tio n c h a n g e d from

b e in g a n i n te r n a tio n a l tr a d in g p la c e c e n t u r ie s ag o to b e c o m e a
sm a ll d is tr ic t, so t h a t m o d e rn d e v e lo p m e n t o f th is a r e a h a s n o t
b e e n a s f a s t a s in o t h e r b ig c itie s a lo n g th e w e s t c o a s t o f S u m a tra

a n d we c a n th e r e f o re e x p e c t to e x c a v a te a r e la tiv e ly u n d is tu rb e d

s ite .
 CHAPTER FIVE

COMPLEX ENTREPOT SITES

T h e C o m p le x E n tr e p o ts in th e I n d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e la g o t h a t
flo u ris h e d d u r in g th e s i x t e e n t h a n d s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r ie s a re
b e t t e r s ite s to s tu d y t h a n th e D ire c t E x c h a n g e s ite s b e c a u s e
th e y w ere v is ite d by E u ro p e a n s s u c h a s P o rtu g u e s e , E n g lish a n d

D u tc h , w h o u su a lly re c o rd e d t h e ir a c tiv itie s d u rin g th e tim e s

th e y tr a d e d a n d liv ed p e r m a n e n tly th e r e . T h e h is to r ic a l s o u rc e s
c o n s is t n o t o n ly o f w r itte n t e x t s b u t a ls o in c lu d e illu s tr a tio n s

a n d m ap s, a ll o f w h ic h c a n h e lp in d e v e lo p in g a n u n d e r s ta n d in g

o f th e s itu a tio n in th e s e p la c e s . M o reo v er, th e C o m p le x

E n tr e p o ts c o n tin u e d over lo n g e r p e rio d th a n th e D ire c t

E x c h a n g e s ite s so th e d a ta , b o th h is to r ic a l a n d a rc h a e o lo g ic a l,

a re m o re a b u n d a n t t h a n for th e D ire c t E x c h a n g e s ite s .

B a n te n is a good e x a m p le o f a C o m p le x E n tr e p o t for w h ic h
th e r e is a n a b u n d a n c e o f a ll s o rts o f d a ta . T h is s ite is a ls o
 68

i n te r e s ti n g a s a n e x a m p le o f th e gap t h a t a ris e s b e tw e e n th e

r e le v a n t a rc h a e o lo g ic a l a n d h is to r ic a l in fo rm a tio n w h ic h c a n be

u se d for in te r p r e tin g a C o m p le x E n tr e p o t d u r in g th e s i x t e e n t h
a n d s e v e n t e e n t h c e n tu r ie s . T h is s ite r a is e s th e q u e s tio n o f th e

e x t e n t to w h ic h th o s e d a ta s u p p o rt e a c h o t h e r in e x p la in in g th e

tr a d in g a c tiv itie s d u r in g th is p e rio d .

B a n te n , in w e s te rn J a v a , r e a c h e d its p e a k o f d e v e lo p m e n t

a t th is tim e . A b ro a d o u tlin e o f th e s ite c a n be d e riv e d from a

su rv e y o f th e ru in s o f m a jo r b u ild in g s (th e S u ra so w a n p a la c e , th e
K aib o n p a la c e , th e S p e e lw ijk fort), a n d th e m in a r e t o f P e c in a n
m o sq u e , from th e T a sik A rdi la k e a n d w a te r filte r in g s t r u c tu r e s ,
a n d fro m b u ild in g s w h ic h a re s till b e in g u se d , s u c h a s th e g r e a t

m o sq u e a n d th e C h in e s e te m p le (Map: 4). T h e re a re a lso

s ig n if ic a n t q u a n titie s o f a r t e f a c ts w h ic h h a v e b e e n c o lle c te d o n
th e s u rfa c e . T h e p ic tu re o f B a n te n becom es even c le a r e r
th ro u g h r e f e r e n c e to th e h is to r ic a l s o u rc e s , in c lu d in g re p o rts ,
m a p s a n d illu s tra tio n s .

A. H istory o f Banten

T h e rise a n d d e c lin e o f B a n te n is w ell d e s c rib e d in lo c a l

h is to r ic a l so u rc e s . B a n te n w as r e c o rd e d b e fo re 1 5 1 2 a s a s m a ll

h a rb o u r, to g e th e r w ith P o n ta n g a n d S u n d a K e la p a (C o rtesao ,

1 9 4 4 :1 6 0 ; D ja ja d in in g ra t, 1983). It b e n e f ite d from th e

P o rtu g u e s e c o n q u e s t o f M e la k a in 1 5 1 1 , b e c a u s e th e tr a d e r s w ho
u se d to tr a d e th e r e m o v ed to o th e r tr a d in g c e n t r e s w ith in In d o -
 BANTEN BAY

<r*v.

KRADENAN
SUBl/^B

CAPTION:
1. DOCK
2. BUILDING REMAINS
3. CHINESE TEMPLE
4. SPEELWIJK FORT
5. CHINESE MOSQUE
6. TASIKARDI LAKE
7. WATER FILTERING STRUCTURES
8. SUROSOWAN PALACE
9. GREAT MOSQUE
10JEMBATAN RANTAI
1 l.PEKOJAN MOSQUE (REMAINS)
12.IKAN PARI SITE
ap: 4 13.KAIBON PALACE

A r c h a e o lo g ic a l s i t e s in B a n te n
A d a p ted from : N a v a ti. 1 9 8 5 . p e ta 1 4 .
 70

I n d o n e s ia , a n d e s p e c ia lly to B a n te n (M eilink-R oelofsz, 1962).

B a n te n so o n d e v e lo p e d a s a n im p o r ta n t h a rb o u r b e c a u s e th e
p o litic a l, e c o n o m ic a n d re lig io u s c e n t r e s o f th e B a n te n k in g d o m

m o v ed from th e in te r io r (B a n te n G irang) to th e c o a s ta l a r e a in

1 5 5 2 (D ja ja d in in g ra t, 1983: 36; 1 2 5 ,1 4 4 ).

B a n te n w as re g u la rly v is ite d by A sian a n d E u ro p e a n tr a d e r s

b e c a u s e it h a d a re lia b le su p p ly o f fo o d stu ffs, ric e , p e p p e r a n d

o t h e r c o m m o d itie s from th e e a s te r n p a r t o f In d o n e s ia , and

e s p e c ia lly o f s p ic e s from M alu k u (C o rtesao , 1 9 4 4 :1 6 8 -1 7 2 ).

M o reo v er, th e s e tr a d e r s c o u ld o b ta in o t h e r v a lu a b le m e r c h a n d is e
a t B a n te n , s u c h a s c e r a m ic s a n d c lo th , w h ic h c o u ld t h e n be
tr a d e d for In d o n e s ia n p ro d u c ts . B a n te n a s a n e n tr e p o t d e c lin e d
g ra d u a lly a f te r 1 6 8 2 (de G raff, 19 ) a n d c a m e to ta lly u n d e r
th e c o n tr o l o f th e D u tc h in 1 8 1 3 (M ichrob; 1991).

T h e h is to ry o f B a n te n c a n b e e x tr a c t e d from a ra n g e o f
h is to r ic a l so u rc e s , b o th lo c a l a n d fo reig n . B efore B a n te n
b e c a m e th e c a p ita l o f B a n te n K in g d o m , th e c e n tr e o f p o litic a l

a n d re lig io u s a c tiv itie s w as in B a n te n G iran g , 15 k m s o u th

(D ja ja d in in g ra t, 1983). T h e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l re m a in s , e s p e c ia lly

C h in e s e c e ra m ic s , h e lp to su p p o rt th is a c c o u n t. T h e e x c a v a tio n

a t B a n te n G ira n g p ro d u c e d a C h in e s e s h e r d d a te d to th e F iv e

D y n a s tie s p e rio d (907-960), e a rlie r t h a n a n y o f th e c e r a m ic s

fo u n d in B a n te n . B a se d o n th is s h e rd , it is lik e ly t h a t B a n te n

G ira n g w as o c c u p ie d b e fo re B a n te n (A m bary, 1 9 7 7 :1 0 ).
M o reo v er, th is in te r p r e ta tio n is a lso s u p p o rte d by th e f a c t t h a t
 71

th e r e a re m o re C h in e s e s h e r d s d a te d to th e S o n g D y n a s ty (960-

1280) in B a n te n G ira n g t h a n in B a n te n (A m bary, 1 9 7 7 :1 0 ;

H a r k a n tin in g s ih , 1 9 8 3 :3 9 3 ). So it seem s c le a r from

a rc h a e o lo g ic a l d a ta t h a t B a n te n G ira n g is o ld e r t h a n B a n te n ,

a n d th is v iew is s u p p o rte d by th e h is to r ic a l d a ta w h ic h m e n tio n

t h a t H a s a n u d d in m o v ed th e c e n t r a l a c tiv itie s o f h is k in g d o m
from B a n te n G ira n g to B a n te n in 1552 (D ja ja d in in g ra t,

1 9 8 3 :3 6 ,1 2 5 ,1 4 4 ). H ow ever, a lth o u g h th e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l d a ta

d o s u g g e s t su p p o rt for th e h is to r ic a l s o u rc e s , in m y o p in io n m o re

a rc h a e o lo g ic a l d a ta a re n e e d e d . T h is s c e p tic is m is b a s e d o n tw o

re a s o n s : firstly , th e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l w o rk in B a n te n h a s b e e n
m o re in te n s iv e t h a n in B a n te n G iran g , so t h a t th e n u m b e rs o f
a r t e f a c ts fo u n d a re in u n b a la n c e d p ro p o rtio n s . S e c o n d ly , th e
s ite s for p re v io u s r e s e a r c h had to be d e te r m in e d a lm o s t a t
ra n d o m , b e in g in flu e n c e d by th e a v a ila b ility o f c u r r e n tly v a c a n t
a r e a s b e c a u s e B a n te n is b e in g d e v e lo p e d a s a n e w s e t t l e m e n t

a n d m a n y s ite s a re n ow b u ilt o v er.

The h is to ric a l d e v e lo p m e n t of B a n te n can a ls o be

in te r p r e te d b a se d o n old m ap s d ra w n by th e D u tc h . T h e re a re

s e v e n m a p s d a tin g a f te r 1 5 9 6 w h ic h m ay be u se d to a n a ly s e th e

c h ro n o lo g ic a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f B a n te n from 1 5 9 6 up to 1 9 0 0

(p lates: 5 ,6 ,7 ,8 ) (N ayati, 1985a). O ver th e s e fo u r c e n tu r ie s , th e

g r e a t m o sq u e , th e p a la c e a n d th e s q u a re w ere e s ta b lis h e d a s th e

c o re o f B a n te n . T h e S u lta n o f B a n te n b u ilt c ity w alls (w hich

d iv id e d th e c o re o f B a n te n from th e s e t t l e m e n t for fo re ig n e rs),

c a n a ls , n e w s e t tl e m e n ts , th e T a sik A rdi la k e a n d th e w a te r
 72

filte r in g stru ctu res, and m any religiou s p la c e s both in sid e and

o u tsid e th e c ity w all (Nayati, 19S5a). All th e se stru ctu res w ere
p la n n ed to form a c o h e r e n t w h ole, d e sp ite b e in g b u ilt a t

d iffe r e n t tim es.

•. .is? r ^ y

Plate: 5
B an ten in 1 5 9 6
Adapted from E erste, 1 6 4 6 .
 rg i a bulwark, defending a
gate or strategic point
densely-settled urban area

A Royal Palace
B Great Mosque
C The small or dty market
D The sheds for the king's
principal war prahus
E The king's elephant house
F Magazine for the king's
Aristocratic com pounds: cannon ('14 guns, badly
maintained)
1 Court of the young king 7 Kiai Wadon Adi, 'a principal noble' j
G The paseban (or alun-alun)
2 The Temenggung 8 Pangeran Aria Papati 'and trees where he
3 Kiai Kanga Pamman 9 Pangeran Sambang Loor, normally holds counsel"
4 'a great nobleman, close in blood to the king’ ‘the king's nephew and counsellor' 9 Royal pavilion (balai)
5 Ratu Bagus Panta. ’ol the king's family ’ 10 KiaiAgus H House of king's weigh-men
6 Patra Sari, a former resident ol Batavia 11 Sim Suan,' formerly... one of the principal Chinese' J The English Factory

P late: 6
B an ten in 1 6 2 4
A dapted from R eid , 1993: 8 4
 P la te : 7
B a n te n in 16 5 9
A d a p ted from Ijz e rm a n , 1 9 2 3
 SCRETSKAARTJE VAN OUD BANTtN
( BANTAM )
1900 •

/ Goovrr fHmcnl
'product «n

= Trgeowoondgr tocsLmd
r = T T r'ia rrJ voor hv t j l r t H c r vjin »Jen Vrpton

P la te : 8
B a n te n in 1 9 0 0
A d a p ted from S e rru rie r, 1 9 0 2
 76

A erial p h o to g ra p h y s u p p o rts a n d adds so m e im p o r ta n t

in s ig h ts to o th e r fo rm s of h is to r ic a l and a rc h a e o lo g ic a l

e v id e n c e . F irstly , a e r ia l p h o to g ra p h y m a k e s it p o ssib le to m a p

a c c u r a te ly m a n y b u ild in g s o f a rc h a e o lo g ic a l i n te r e s t, s u c h a s

th e S u ra so w a n fo rt-w all, th e g r e a t m o sq u e a n d th e m in a r e t, th e

C h in e s e te m p le , and th e P e c in a n m in a r e t (N ayati, 1985a).

S e c o n d ly , th e n o rth p a r t o f th e c ity w all c a n be c le a rly tr a c e d

from th e a ir (N ayati, 1985a): it r u n s e a s t-w e s t a n d is lo c a te d

n o r th o f th e ro a d b e tw e e n K a r a n g a n tu a n d th e C h in e s e te m p le .
F ro m th e a e ria l p h o to g ra p h s , it c a n be sh o w n t h a t th e w all
fo rm ed a zig -z ag w h ic h c o n firm s th e in fo rm a tio n sh o w n in th e
1 6 2 4 m ap . F ro m p e rs o n a l o b s e rv a tio n , th e s t r u c tu r e o f th e w all

a n d a ls o th e jo in in g s tr u c tu r e b e tw e e n th e D u tc h fo rt a n d th e
c ity w all c a n e a s ily be d is tin g u is h e d . So, in B a n te n , a e r ia l
p h o to g ra p h y is e ffe c tiv e in re c o g n is e d so m e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l
e v id e n c e , e s p e c ia lly b u ild in g m a te ria l. So th e a e r ia l
p h o to g ra p h y 's re se a rc h give a d v a n ta g e s in re c o g n is in g th e
p a tt e r n o f th e B a n te n .

B a n te n w as b u ilt o v e r m any y e a rs . A p rio rity o f th e

b u ild e rs w as to m a in ta in s e c u rity , b o th a g a in s t fo re ig n e rs a n d

in te r n a lly . B ased o n th e s e rie s o f m a p s it c a n be s e e n h o w th e y

b u ilt w alls a n d c a n a ls to d e fe n d th e c ity , p a la c e s a n d th e g r e a t

m o sq u e , lo c a tin g th e fo re ig n e rs o u ts id e th e c ity w all a n d a ls o

p la c in g lo c a l s e t tl e m e n ts s tr a te g ic a lly a t e a c h c o rn e r o f th e s e
w alls (N ayati, 1985a). I t a p p e a rs t h a t B a n te n w as m o d e lle d o n

th e M o n c o p a t-m o n c o lim o to w n p la n c o m m o n in c e n t r a l J a v a
 77

w h ic h e n s u r e d c ity s e c u r ity by a grid p la n t h a t a llo w e d e v e ry

c e n t r a l p o in t to be s a fe g u a rd e d by o t h e r c e n t r e s in a ll fo u r

d ir e c tio n s (M oertono, 1968). N ot o n ly w as th is s y s te m e ffe c tiv e

a g a in s t e x te r n a l t h r e a t, b u t it w as u s e fu l for i n te r n a l s e c u r ity

a ls o b e c a u s e th e h e a d s o f th e q u a r te r s [Pangeran] a n d th e

in h a b i t a n t s w ere re s p o n s ib le for t h e ir ow n a r e a s a n d h a d a c c e s s

to q u ic k in fo rm a tio n about n e w c o m e rs from n e ig h b o u rin g

q u a rte r s . T h e s y s te m a ls o re g u la te d th e m o v e m e n t a n d lo c a tio n

o f th e d a ily m a r k e ts w h ic h m o v ed in a c y c le a c c o rd in g to th e
five J a v a n e s e w e e k d a y s: Pon, Wage, K liw on , L eg i a n d P a in g

B. A rc h a e o lo g ic a l R e se a rc h in B an ten

T h e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l r e s e a r c h u n d e r ta k e n so far in B an te n
h a s b e e n m a in ly b a se d o n th e S e r ru rie r m ap o f 1 9 0 0 (p late: 11).

T h is resea rch has been c o n tin u e d up to now by th e

A rc h a e o lo g ic a l R e s e a rc h C e n tre (P u sa t P e n e litia n A rkeologi

N asio n al) a n d th e O ffice for th e P r e s e rv a tio n a n d C o n s e rv a tio n

o f H is to ric a l a n d A rc h a e o lo g ic a l R e m a in s , W e st J a v a P ro v in c e

(K a n to r S u a k a P e n in g g a la n S e ja ra h d a n P u rb a k a la P ro p in si J a w a

B arat). T h e o fte n ra n d o m e x c a v a tio n s h a v e p ro d u c e d a g r e a t

q u a n tity o f a r t e f a c ts o f a ll k in d s . S e v e ra l jo u r n a l a r tic le s h a v e

b e e n p u b lis h e d a b o u t B a n te n , b u t o n ly th r e e fo rm a l r e p o r ts h a v e

been p u b lis h e d (A m bary, 1 977; M u n d a rd jito , 1978;

H a rk a n tin in g s ih ,1 9 8 8 ). In th e fo llo w in g d is c u s s io n I h a v e u se d
th e s e p u b lis h e d re p o r ts a n d a r tic le s a s w ell a s m y p e rs o n a l
 78

o b s e rv a tio n s d e riv in g from w o rk d o n e d u r in g 1 9 8 3 -1 9 8 6 a n d in

1991.

In g e n e ra l, th e a im o f th e r e c e n t a rc h a e o lo g ic a l r e s e a r c h

in B a n te n is to u n d e r s ta n d th e c ity a s a c o m p le x o f p o litic a l,

e c o n o m ic , so c ia l, a n d re lig io u s c e n tr e s , u s in g th e 1 9 0 0 S e rru rie r

m ap a s a b a se (A m bary, 1 9 7 7 :3 ; M u n d a rd jito , 1 9 8 8 :8 -9 ; N u rh a d i,

1 9 8 8 :1 5 -1 7 ). T h is m a p is p a rtic u la rly v a lu a b le b e c a u s e S e rru rie r

m e n tio n e d a n d e x p la in e d 3 3 n a m e s o f s u b u rb s a n d b u ild in g s in

d e ta il. A lth o u g h th is m ap h a s b e e n u se d a s th e m a in s o u rc e o f
in fo rm a tio n for r e c o n s tr u c tin g B a n te n , a d d itio n a l su b u rb s h a v e
b e e n id e n tifie d by c o m p a rin g s e v e ra l old m a p s d a tin g b e tw e e n
1 5 9 6 a n d 1 9 0 0 (Table: 3) (N ayati, 19 8 5 a).

P e (a )c in a n T am bak Pabean

P e k o ja n K a jo ra n S e lo k a n

M a ta ra m K a b a le n K a la la n g I

E n g lish K a se rn e n K a ra n g se p a ta n

D u tc h K a w ira g u n a n L anggeng

M a ita

P a n ju n a n P a ja n tr a n P a m a ric a n

P e n ja rin g a n K epandean P a n g g e ra o n g a n

H a ja g a n g P a s a r A nyar K a fa k ifa n /
k e fa k ih a n
K a ra y a r Pagebangan P e s a n tr ia n
 79

P a n a la n g g a n g K e b a n te n a n K a s a tria n

K ali(r)g an g sa K a s u n y a ta n
-
K a ja n g K agongan K a lo ra n

K ad u n a n g g an g K ra to n K a w a n g sa n

K a ra n g an tu P a m a ra n gge n g P ra to k

P a w ila h a n P a k a w a ta n K a m a n d a lik a n

T able: 3
S u b u rb s in B a n te n from 1 5 9 6 -1 9 0 0
A d a p ted from N ay ati, 1 9 8 5 a , Tabei: 1

T h e su b u rb s m e n tio n e d by S e r r u r ie r c a n be c la s s ifie d in

five g ro u p s. F ir s t c o m e th e s e t t l e m e n t s for th e b u r e a u c r a ts :
K a w a n g sa n is th e p la c e for P a n g e ra n W an g sa ; K a b a n te n a n th e
p la c e for P a n g e ra n B a n te n ; a n d K e fa k ih a n th e p la c e for th e
F a k ih , M uslim le a d e r. S e c o n d c o m e th e s e t t l e m e n t s for th e

w o rk e rs: P a n ju n a n is th e p la c e for p o t te r y /e a r t h e n w a r e m a k e rs ;
P a k a w a ta n th e p la c e for m a k in g g o o d s fro m c o p p e r a n d f is h n e ts

a n d K e p a n d e a n th e p la c e for iro n m a k e rs . T h ird c o m e th e

s e t t l e m e n t s for p e o p le from d if f e r e n t p la c e s a n d o rig in s: P e k o ja n

is th e p la c e for w e st A sians; P e c in a n th e p la c e for C h in e s e a n d

K e b a le n th e p la c e for B a lin e s e . M o reo v er, S e rru rie r a ls o

r e c o r d e d a s th e S u ra so w a n p a la c e , th e K a ib o n p a la c e , th e g r e a t

m o sq u e s, a n d th e S p e lw ijk (D utch) fo rt. A lth o u g h th e r e a re

so m e f e a tu r e s in th e S e rru rie r m ap w h ic h c a n n o t be re c o g n is e d ,

s u c h a s th e b u ild in g w h e re th e s p ic e s w e re c o lle c te d , so m e o f
p la c e n a m e s m e n tio n e d in th e m a p a re s till in u se, s u c h a s th e
 80

S u ra so w a n p a la c e , th e K aib o n p a la c e , th e g re a t m o sq u e ,

P a n ju n a n , K a r a n g a n tu a n d P a k o ja n . M o reo v er, th e lo c a l p e o p le

s till re m e m b e r th e old su b u rb n a m e s.

T h e re a re o th e r im p o r ta n t c lu e s for in te r p r e tin g th e

f u n c tio n o f v a rio u s s ite s in B a n te n . F irs tly , th e r e is a su b u rb

c a lle d P a m a ric a n by S e rru rie r. T h is nam e d e riv e s from

m ricaf m eric a in J a v a n e s e a n d S u n d a n e s e m e a n in g p e p p e r, so
P a m a r ic a n c o u ld be a p la c e for h a n d lin g p e p p er.

H a r k a n tin in g s ih (1 9 8 8 :5 9 ) a rg u e s t h a t P a m a ric a n w as a n a r e a for

s to r in g p e p p e r b e c a u s e o f h e r in te r p r e ta tio n o f s to n e g rin d in g
e q u ip m e n t fo u n d th e r e . H ow ever, th e r e is n o o t h e r d ir e c t
e v id e n c e o f b a g s o r w e ig h ts s y s te m s for h a n d lin g o r tr a d in g in
p e p p e r in th is a re a .

S e rru rie r e x p la in e d t h a t P a b e a n m e a n t a p la c e for p a y in g

ta x e s . H a r k a n tin in g s ih (1 9 8 9 :5 9 ) a s s u m e s t h a t th is s ite w as b o th
a s e t t l e m e n t a n d a g rav e c o m p le x . Also it w as a p la c e w h e re
c e r a m ic s w ere s to re d a n d a v a rie ty o f c e r a m ic s w e re fo u n d th e r e
w h ic h h a d b e e n b u rn e d . H is to ric a l s o u rc e s re c o rd th e P a b e a n

a r e a w as b u rn e d in 1 8 0 0 (H a rk a n tin in g s ih , 1 9 8 8 :5 9 ).

P e c in a n w as u n d o u b te d ly a C h in e s e s e t tl e m e n t, b a s e d o n
its n a m e . S e v e ra l s t r u c tu r e s lo c a te d o n th e w e s t b a n k o f th e

C ib a n te n riv e r in c lu d e th e C h in e s e c e m e te r y , th e C h in e s e

te m p le , th e ru in o f a m in a r e t a n d p a r t o f th e P e c in a n m o sq u e ,

a n d a C h in e s e h o u se . D u rin g a v is it to th is a r e a in 1 9 8 5 , I fo u n d

s e v e ra l C h in e s e c e r a m ic s h e r d s from d if f e r e n t d y n a s tie s , a n d
 81

a ls o C h in e s e g rave s to n e s now u se d a s d ra in c o v e rs. A c c o rd in g

to a n a ly s e s s o u rc e s re c o rd t h a t P e c in a n m o v ed a t le a s t th r e e

tim e s fro m th e c o a s t to in la n d a n d to th e w e s t b a n k o f th e

C ib a n te n riv e r (N ayati, 1985b). M o reo v er, it sh o w s a m ap d a te d

to 1 6 2 4 sh o w s (plate: 6) t h a t P e c in a n w as a w e ll-p la n n e d

s e t t l e m e n t a n d th e r e w as a ls o a n E n g lish s e t t l e m e n t o n th e w e s t

b a n k o f th e C ib a n te n riv e r n o t sh o w n e ls e w h e re . P e rh a p s th e
E n g lish s e t t l e m e n t w as lo c a te d w ith in th e C h in e s e a r e a b e c a u s e ,

a ro u n d th e 1 6 2 0 s th e E n g lish tr a d e r s w e re a c tiv e tr a d in g in

B an te n .

The m o d e rn te c h n iq u e o f a e r ia l p h o to g ra p h y p ro v id e s

v a lu a b le s u p p o rt for th e in fo rm a tio n a b o u t B a n te n a v a ila b le in

h is to r ic a l m aps (N ayati, 19 8 5 a). F irs tly , th ro u g h a e r ia l
p h o to g ra p h y it h a s b e e n p o ssib le to lo c a te m a n y o f th e h is to r ic a l
b u ild in g s in B a n te n . T h e a e r ia l m ap o f B a n te n c o u ld be u se d a s
a b a sic g u id e for f u r th e r a rc h a e o lo g ic a l w o rk a n d to id e n tify n e w

s ite s (N ayati, 1985a). T h e s h o re lin e o f 1 7 4 0 , w h ic h w as sh o w n

in th e S e r ru rie r m ap , is s till id e n tifia b le o n la n d w h ic h is n ow

u se d a s fish p o n d s. S e c o n d ly , a e r ia l p h o to g ra p h s h a v e a ls o

re v e a le d th e old h a rb o u r, sh o w n in th e 1 5 9 6 m ap , w h ic h is n ow

lo c a te d in th e fish p o n d s. T h ird ly , a n a r e a in te r p r e te d a s a p la c e

w h e re s h ip s w ere re p a ire d h a s b e e n id e n tifie d to th e w e s t o f

B a n te n . F o u rth ly , a e r ia l p h o to g ra p h y is a b le to tr a c e th e

c h a n g e s o f c o u rs e o f th e C ib a n te n riv e r o v e r tim e a n d th e
in c r e a s in g c o n tr o l o f th e riv e r flow.
 82

A long th e C ib a n te n , a n e w s ite w as lo c a te d in K ra d e n a n
su b u rb w h e re , from p e rs o n a l o b s e rv a tio n in 1 9 8 5 , so m e g la ss

b e a d s a n d lo c a l p o tte r y w e re fo u n d . T h is s ite w as d is c o v e re d

becau se of th e a c tiv itie s u n d e r ta k e n by th e In d o n e s ia n

C o n s tr u c tio n D e p a r tm e n t (D e p a rte m e n P e k e rja a n U m um ) in

o rd e r to d e e p e n a n d w id e n th e riv e r. T h is a c tiv ity c o v e re d so m e

M uslim g rav e s to n e s , w h ic h h a s n o t b e e n k n o w n b e fo re , b o th

from m a p s a n d s u rfa c e e v id e n c e . H ow ever, th e s e c o n s tr u c tio n

a c tiv itie s h a v e n ow d e s tro y e d n o t o n ly th e K ra d e n a n s ite b u t

a lso p a r t o f th e K a ib o n p a la c e y a rd a n d P a n ju n a n , a p o tte r y
m a k in g s ite w h ic h w as lo c a te d o u ts id e th e c ity w all. Y et
a lth o u g h a rc h a e o lo g is ts h a v e m isse d so m e im p o r ta n t e v id e n c e ,
e s p e c ia lly about th e c o n te x t of th e re m a in s , f u r th e r
a rc h a e o lo g ic a l r e s e a r c h sh o u ld s till be d o n e in th e s e im p o r ta n t
a re a s .

C. P ro b lem s

D e sp ite th e c la im o f H a r k a n tin in g s ih , th e r e a re p ro b le m s

in r e c o n s tr u c tin g th e h is to r ic a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f B a n te n . U sin g

th e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l r e m a in s and h is to r ic a l s o u rc e s ,

H a r k a n tin in g s ih (1988: 61) c la im s s tro n g ly th a t th e r e a re

c o r r e la tio n b e tw e e n th e tw o s e ts o f d a ta . H ow ever, s h e a c c e p ts

t h a t it is d iffic u lt to id e n tify th e fu n c tio n o f m a n y s ite s , so s h e

s u g g e s ts th e n e e d to c o n c e n tr a te o n c o n t e x t a n d to a n a ly s e th e

v a ria b ility o f th e re m a in s . M o reo v er s h e p o in ts out th a t

 83

c o m p a ris o n s w ith s im ila r a c tiv itie s w h ic h a re s till p r a c tis e d a re

a lso im p o r ta n t to s u p p le m e n t th e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l a n d h is to r ic a l

r e c o r d s in u n d e r s ta n d in g B a n te n (H a rk a n tin in g s ih , 1 9 8 8 :6 1 ). It
can be se e n th a t a m u lti-d is c ip lin a ry resea rch a p p ro a c h is

n e e d e d to u n d e r s ta n d th e p a s t o f B a n te n in m o re d e ta il.

T h e S u ra so w a n p a la c e is a p a rtic u la rly i n te r e s ti n g s u b je c t

for s tu d y . T h is p a la c e w as th e c o re o f B a n te n a n d h o u se d 2 2

s u c c e s s iv e ru le rs b e tw e e n 1 5 5 2 a n d 1 8 1 3 . A fter 1 9 4 5 , it w as

u se d a s a d w e llin g for o rd in a ry p e o p le , w ho h a v e n ow b e e n

m o v ed to a n e w s u b u rb n e a r B e n te n g S p elw ijk (th e D u tc h fort).

T h e b u ild in g s w ith in th e p a la c e i ts e lf h a v e g o n e , b u t it is s till

p o ssib le to re c o g n iz e th e w all s u r r o u n d in g th e p a la c e a n d s e v e ra l
p la c e s w ith in th e p a la c e , a s m e n tio n e d in th e m ap (P late: 9),
s u c h a s K a ra (Lara; K are) D e n o k . T h e w all s u r r o u n d in g th e
p a la c e w as b u ilt o f b ric k a n d c o ra l m o rta r, a n d w as fa c e d by
c o ra l b lo ck s. T h e f o u n d a tio n s o f b u ild in g s w ith in th e S u ra so w a n
p a la c e c o m p le x w ere m a in ly o f b ric k .

The i n te r p r e ta tio n o f th e fu n c tio n o f th e S u ra so w a n

p a la c e , th e m a in p a la c e of B a n te n , is d e riv e d from a

c o m b in a tio n of th e d e s c rip tio n by S e rru rie r and th e

a rc h a e o lo g ic a l re m a in s w h ic h h a v e b e e n o b ta in e d t h e r e s in c e

1 9 6 8 . H a r k a n tin in g s ih (1 9 8 8 :5 7 ) a s s u m e s t h a t S u ra so w a n p a la c e

w as a ls o u se d for a ra n g e o f h o u s e h o ld a c tiv itie s , b a s e d o n th e

v a rie ty o f c e r a m ic s fo u n d th e r e . H ow ever, n o s tu d y c o m p a rin g

th e v a r ie tie s o f c e r a m ic s w h ic h w e re u se d in th e p a la c e a n d

o u ts id e th e p a la c e h a s y e t b e e n d o n e . S u c h a s tu d y w ould b e
 84

u s e fu l in s u p p o rtin g H a r k a n tin in g s ih 's in te r p r e ta tio n o f th e

h o u s e h o ld a c tiv itie s in th e p a la c e . M o reo v er, a d e ta ile d a n a ly s is

o f th e w all s tr u c tu r e s w ith in th e S u ra so w a n p a la c e c o u ld h e lp to

e x p la in th e d iffe r e n c e s in h o u s e h o ld a c tiv itie s in d if f e r e n t a r e a s

w ith in th e S u ra so w a n p a la c e a t d if f e r e n t p e rio d s.

P la te : 9
S u ra so w a n P a la c e
A d a p ted from v a n d e W all, n o y e a r.
 85

T h e re is c o n s id e ra b le a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e for th e

p r e s e n c e o f th e Isla m ic re lig io n a n d c u ltu r e in B a n te n . The

g r e a t m o sq u e w as f irs t b u ilt by M a u la n a H a s a n u d d in in 1 5 5 2

(D ja ja d in in g ra t: 1983) a s o n e o f th e m a in c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a n

Is la m ic c ity . H ow ever, lik e a liv in g m o n u m e n t, th is m o sq u e h a s

b e e n r e c o n s tr u c te d m a n y tim e s , w ith o u t a n y fo rm a l re p o r t o r
r e c o r d s by th e lo c a l p e o p le , D u tc h o r I n d o n e s ia n G o v e rn m e n ts .

In c o n s e q u e n c e , th e r e is e v id e n c e m is s in g in th e h is to r ic a l

r e c o r d s a b o u t th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h is m o sq u e , a lth o u g h it is
k n o w n t h a t it w as b u ilt a n d a d d e d to by m a n y S u lta n s a n d
g o v e rn m e n ts . C o n s e q u e n tly , th e c o n d itio n o f th e B a n te n g r e a t

m o sq u e r ig h t now is d if f e r e n t from th e h is to r ic a l b u ild in g d u r in g

th e s i x t e e n t h a n d s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r ie s a lth o u g h th e lo c a tio n
is th e s a m e , a s sh o w n in m a p s d a te d in 159 6 ; 1624; 1 6 5 9 , 173 9 ;
1 8 2 5 /6 , 1900 an d 1985 (N ayati, 1 9 8 5 a). F u r th e r m o r e , th e
E u ro p e a n h is to r ic a l s o u rc e s h a v e n o t d e s c rib e d th e in d iv id u a l
c o m p o n e n ts w ith in th e m o sq u e c o m p le x , such as m ih ra b ,

m im b a r a n d M uslim g ra v e s, b e c a u s e th e fo re ig n e rs , w h o w e re
n o n -M u slim , w ere n o t p e r m itte d to e n t e r th e m o sq u e . Such

in fo rm a tio n c a n o n ly be o b ta in e d from a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e .

A rc h a e o lo g ic a l a c tiv itie s in B a n te n have a ls o p a id

a t t e n t i o n to th e D u tc h F o r t lo c a te d in th e w e s t c o rn e r o f th e

B a n te n c ity w all. T h is fo rt its e lf is s till re c o g n is a b le b e c a u s e th e

w all, th e fo u r c o rn e r s a n d a c a n a l s till e x is t. H ow ever, th e

f u n c tio n o f th is s ite h a s c h a n g e d s in c e th e D u tc h p e rio d to
b e c o m e a g rav e c o m p le x a n d a s p o rts field . S k e tc h e s o f th is
 86

fo rt in d ic a te th e fu n c tio n o f s e v e ra l a re a s , s u c h a s th e h o sp ita l,
a rs e n a ls , w a re h o u s e s , c h u rc h and o ffic e s. A rc h a e o lo g ic a l

r e s e a r c h in th is fo rt h a s u n c o v e re d so m e c la y s m o k in g p ip es
w ith a G o u da m a rk , a n d s e v e ra l y ello w -b ro w n c e ra m ic b o ttle s

lik e th o s e fo u n d in o t h e r fo rts s u c h a s Y o g y a k a rta a n d S u r a k a r ta

(N ayati, 1989). F u r th e r s tu d ie s o n th e s e b o ttle s a n d sm o k in g

p ip e s c o u ld h e lp in u n d e r s ta n d in g th e d a ily a c tiv itie s o f th e

fo re ig n e rs d u rin g th e tim e th e y s ta y e d in B a n te n .

A n o th e r a s p e c t w h ic h c o u ld be f u r th e r s tu d ie d in B a n te n is
t h a t o f th e m a rk e ts . H is to ric a l s o u rc e s m e n tio n t h a t th e r e w ere
th r e e m a r k e ts in B a n te n ; in P aseb an , in P e c in a n and in
K a r a n g a n tu (E erste , 1646). T h o se th r e e m a r k e ts o p e n e d a t
d if f e r e n t tim e a n d so ld d if f e r e n t m e r c h a n d is e . P aseban m a rk e t
o p e n e d o n c e a w e e k a n d so ld lo c a l fo o d stu ffs; th e C h in e s e

m a r k e t (P e cin a n ; P a c in a n ) o p e n e d e v e ry d a y ; a n d K a ra n g a n tu
o p e n e d o n c e a w eek . As th e r e a re n o illu s tr a tio n s o f th e
C h in e s e a n d P a s e b a n m a rk e ts , b u t b a s e d o n a v e ry d e ta ile d

d ra w in g o f m a r k e t (see p la te : 4, c h a p t e r th r e e , p. 36), I a rg u e
t h a t th e K a r a n g a n tu m a r k e t w as m o re im p o r ta n t a n d b ig g er
t h a n th e o th e r tw o m a rk e ts . I t s e e m s t h a t th e E u ro p e a n s w ere

n o t allo w e d to c o m e a n d tr a d e in P a s e b a n a n d C h in e s e m a rk e t.

In th e illu s tr a tio n o f th e K a r a n g a n tu m a r k e t th e r e a re

so m e im p o r ta n t d a ta w h ic h c o u ld h e lp us to u n d e r s ta n d th e

a c tiv itie s r e la tin g to tr a d in g a n d o r g a n is a tio n , w h ic h a re n o t

fo u n d in th e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e . H is to ric a l s o u rc e s re c o rd

th a t sp ic e s, c e r a m ic s and m eat w e re so ld in w a re h o u s e s ,
 87

w h e r e a s c lo th , fo o d stu ffs (fish, ric e , fru its , v e g e ta b le s , h o n e y ,

n u ts , o n io n s, g a rlic, c h ic k e n a n d d u c k ) a n d je w e lle ry , b e lts , a n d

iro n goods w ere tr a d e d in th e open a ir (E erste , 1624).

I n te r e s tin g ly , it c a n be in te r p r e te d t h a t th e s p ic e s w ere h a n d le d
d if f e r e n tly from p e p p e r b e c a u s e th e illu s tr a tio n sh o w s p e p p e r

s e lle r s s ta n d in g o u ts id e th e K a r a n g a n tu m a r k e t fe n c e . P o ssib ly
th e p e p p e r s e lle rs tr ie d to a v o id ta x e s , o r m a y b e th e y w e re th e

a g e n ts o f th e B a n te n ru le rs .

T h e illu s tra tio n a lso re c o rd s th e d if f e r e n t s ty le s o f tr a d in g

in th is m a r k e t (E erste , 1646). F o r e x a m p le , n u ts , ric e , p e p p e r

a n d s u g a r w ere so ld in b a g s o r s a c k s a n d h o n e y w as so ld in ja rs .

T h e c lo th s e lle rs sto o d h o ld in g up t h e ir m e r c h a n d is e for d isp la y

d u r in g th e tr a n s a c tio n s . C h ic k e n a n d d u c k s w ere p u t in b o x e s,
a n d fo o d stu ffs w ere laid o u t o n th e g ro u n d . A c c o rd in g th o s e
d a ta , it c a n h e lp us in e x p la in in g th e t r a d in g p ro c e ss , e s p e c ia lly

in B a n te n a ro u n d th e la te s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y .

F u r th e rm o re , th e o rig in s a n d s o c ia l s t a t u s o f th e p eo p le
w h o tr a d e d in K a r a n g a n tu m a r k e t a re c le a rly d e p ic te d . The
fo re ig n e rs a re sh o w n w e a rin g sh o e s, p a n ts , a n d s h irts . I assu m e

t h a t the people who h a d pony ta ils were Chinese, and th o s e w ho

w o re h a ts w ere E u ro p e a n s. M oreover, th e illu s tr a tio n h a s b e e n

d ra w n to d is tin g u is h c le a rly b e tw e e n th e lo c a ls and th e

fo re ig n e rs , e s p e c ia lly th e C h in e s e and E u ro p e a n s. The

E u ro p e a n s h a v e u m b re lla s a n d w ere follow ed by o th e r p e o p le

w h o se e m to c o m e from a low er s t a t u s (P late: 10). T h e lo c a l
 88

p e o p le a re w e a rin g a sa ro n g ; if m a le , a n d a 'kain' a n d ’k e m b e n *,
if fe m a le (Plate: 11).

P la te : 10
E u ro p e a n s in K a r a n g a n tu M a rk e t in 1 5 9 6
blow -up from E e rs te , 1 6 2 4 , p la te 17

P la te : 11
L o cal p e o p le in K a r a n g a n tu m a r k e t in 1 5 9 6
blow -up from E e rs te , 1 6 2 4 , p la te 17
 89

The K a r a n g a n tu illu s tr a tio n can be u se d as to o l to

i n te r p r e t th e w ork o rg a n is a tio n in th e m a rk e t. In th is p ic tu re ,

th e f e m a le s s e ll w a te r m e lo n , c u c u m b e r a n d c o c o n u t a n d th e

s e lle r s o f o th e r p r o d u c ts a re m a le . T h e m a le s s e e m to be

re s p o n s ib le for s e llin g th e m a in p ro d u c ts , w h e re a s fe m a le s s e ll

c e r t a i n c o m m o d itie s s u c h a s c o c o n u ts w h ic h c o u ld b e grow n
c lo se to t h e ir h o m e s a n d w e re o n ly b o u g h t in sm a ll a m o u n ts .

T h e s e d if f e r e n c e s c o u ld a ls o be b a s e d o n th e w e ig h ts o f th e
p ro d u c ts : ric e a n d n u ts w e re so ld in b a g s o r s a c k s w h ic h w ould
be v e ry h e a v y for fe m a le s to c a rry .

I t c a n be s e e n t h a t th e fish a n d m e a t s e lle rs w e re p u t in
o n e g ro u p a n d lo c a te d in th e e a s t p a r t o f th e m a rk e t. The
p o u ltry s e lle rs w ere a ls o p u t in t h a t c o rn e r o f th e m a rk e t.
V e g e ta b le s a n d fo o d stu ffs, in c lu d in g ric e , o n io n , g a rlic and
s p ic e s , w ere lo c a te d t o g e th e r n e a r th e m a in g a te . C e ra m ic s

s ta lls w e re lo c a te d s e p a r a te ly in th e s o u th p a r t o f th e m a rk e t.

T h e c lo th s e lle rs w ere p u t in th e m id d le o f th e m a r k e t a n d

o c c u p ie d th e b ig g e s t a re a . I t s e e m s t h a t th e c lo th s e lle rs w ere

p a r tic u la r ly a c tiv e s e llin g t h e ir m e r c h a n d is e . T hey a ttra c te d

th e b u y e rs by o p e n in g o u t t h e ir c lo th and w a lk in g a ro u n d

s e e k in g s a le s . In c o n t r a s t th e fo o d stu ffs se lle rs , w h o w ere

m a in ly lo c a l p eo p le o r p e o p le from e ls e w h e re in th e A rc h ip e la g o ,
w o u ld s ta n d a n d w a it for t h e ir b u y e rs b e c a u s e t h e ir m e r c h a n d is e
w as b ig g e r a n d h e a v ie r, so th e y h a d to p u t it o n th e g ro u n d .
 90

My a s s u m p tio n s o f th e la y o u t o f B a n te n a re b a s e d o n

c o m p a ris o n w ith m a jo r c it i e s in o th e r k in g d o m s , such as

C ireb o n , Y o g y a k a rta , and S u r a k a r ta . The com m on la y o u t

id e n tifie d th e p a la c e , th e m a in sq u a re , th e b ig g e s t m o sq u e a n d

th e m a r k e t. T h e c ity s q u a re is a lw a y s lo c a te d in f ro n t o f th e

p a la c e w h ic h a lw a y s f a c e s n o rth ; th e g r e a t m o sq u e , w h ic h is

c a lle d M asjid J a m i ’ o r M asjid B e sa r, is a lw a y s lo c a te d to th e w e s t

o f th e c ity sq u a re , a n d th e b ig g e s t m a rk e t, w h ic h is c a lle d P a s a r

G ede (J a v a n e s e ) o r P a s a r B esar (Malay), is lo c a te d to th e

N o r th e a s t o f th e s q u a re . In C ire b o n , Y o g y a k a rta a n d S u r a k a r ta ,
th is c ity la y -o u t s till e x is ts . In D e m a k , th e la y -o u t is s till
u n c e r ta in b e c a u s e th e p a la c e h a s n o t y e t fo u n d b u t th e th r e e
o th e r p a r ts o f th e c ity p la n c a n be id e n tifie d .

T h e S e rru rie r m a p sh o w s t h a t th e P a s e b a n m a r k e t w as
lo c a te d in th e n o r th o f th e c ity s q u a re . T h is w as a s p e c ia l
m a r k e t for th e lo c a l p e o p le p ro v id e d by th e r u le r s a s p r o te c to rs .

H is to ric a l s o u rc e s m e n tio n e d t h a t th is m a r k e t o n ly o p e n e d o n

c e r t a i n d a y s in th e w e e k , a n d o n ly in th e m o rn in g (E erste ,

1624). M oreover, it so ld p r o d u c ts for d a ily u se o n ly . I t c a n be

a s s u m e d t h a t th is m a r k e t so ld fo o d stu ffs a n d p ro d u c ts for d a ily

lo c a l a c tiv itie s , s u c h a s lo c a l p o tte r y a n d k n iv e s . Also it c o u ld

be a s s u m e d t h a t th e q u a lity o f th e c lo th so ld in th is p la c e w as

in fe rio r to t h a t in K a r a n g a n tu m a r k e t b e c a u s e th is m a r k e t w as

for th e lo c a l p eo p le.
 91

T h e o th e r tr a d in g s ite in B a n te n w as th e C h in e s e m a rk e t,

w h ic h w as lo c a te d in th e C h in e s e s e t tl e m e n t. I a s s u m e t h a t th is

m a r k e t o n ly p ro v id e d for so m e d a ily n e e d s a n d t h a t it w as a lso

v is ite d by p e o p le w ho liv ed w ith in th e c ity w all (N ayati, 1985b).

M aybe g o o ds w h ic h w ere u n a v a ila b le in th e K a r a n g a n tu a n d

P a s e b a n m a r k e ts w ere to be fo u n d in th e C h in e s e m a rk e t. I t w as

p o ssib le to go to a m a r k e t o u ts id e th e c ity w all b e c a u s e th e

h is to r ic a l s o u rc e s r e c o rd e d t h a t th e r e w as a g a te in th e w e s t

p a r t o f th e c ity w all w h ic h c o u ld be u se d for c o n t a c t b e tw e e n

p e o p le w h o liv ed in sid e a n d o u ts id e th e w all (N ayati, 1985b).

L o cal e a r th e n w a r e p o tte r y is a s s u m e d to h a v e c o m e from

B a n te n its e lf. T h e re w ere tw o p o tte r y m a k in g s ite s re c o g n is e d

in B a n te n : P a ja n tr a n and P a n ju n a n . S e rru rie r d e s c rib e d

P a ja n tr a n a s a p la c e for w e a v in g (S e rru rie r, 1 9 0 2 ),
b u t, based on th e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l re m a in s , H a r k a n tin in g s ih
a s s u m e s t h a t it w as a ls o a c e n t r e for p o tte r y (H a rk a n tin in g s ih ,
1 9 8 8 :5 8 ). The nam e P a n ju n a n com es fro m jun> m e a n in g
p o tte r y , so t h a t P a n ju n a n w as a lso a p la c e for p o tte r s . H ow ever,

th e r e is n o P a n ju n a n n a m e in th e S e rru rie r m a p d a te d in 1 9 0 0 ,

in s te a d of a nam e 'p a la c e 1 (see p la te : 6). So th a t, th e

d e v e lo p m e n t o f P a n ju n a n is s till q u e s tio n a b ly .

T h a t p o in t is im p o r ta n t b e c a u s e th e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l w o rk s

in B a n te n n a m e d a n d u se d th is p la c e a s P a n ju n a n , a p o tte r y

s ite . M o reover, a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e x c a v a tio n a n d m y ow n su rv e y

h a v e p ro d u c e d m u c h lo c a l p o tte r y b o th u n d e r a n d o n t h e s u rfa c e
 92

o f th is s ite . S o m e C h in e s e c e r a m ic s h a v e a ls o b e e n fo u n d th e r e ,

so H a r k a n tin in g s ih (1 9 8 8 :3 3 9 -3 9 5 ) in fe rs t h a t th e s e tw o p la c e s

p ro b a b ly w ere u se d from th e e n d o f th e M ing D y n a s ty a n d th e

e a rly Q in g (H a rk a n tin in g s ih , 1 9 8 7 :3 8 9 ).

A m b ary (1977:9) a n d H a r k a n tin in g s ih (1988) a g re e t h a t th e

p o tte r s m a in ly p ro d u c e d c e r a m ic s for d a ily u se b a s e d o n th e

v a rie ty o f d is h e s , bow ls, w a te r ju g s , s to v e s a n d sp o o n s fo u n d in

th o s e tw o p la c e s . M u n d a rd jito (1 9 7 8 :3 1 ) a s s u m e s th a t th e

p o tte r s in B a n te n w ere u s in g p o tte r s ' w h e e ls, a n v ils a n d m o u ld s

for d e c o r a tio n . H ow ever, n o k iln h a s y e t b e e n u n c o v e re d . U sin g

c o m p a ris o n s w ith d if f e r e n t p la c e s in J a v a , th e p o tte r y m a k e rs

liv ed o u ts id e th e m a in to w n , as in P le re d (N ayati, 1982),
Y o g y a k a rta a n d C ireb o n . I t s e e m s th e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l w o rk s in
B a n te n u se th is c o m p a ris o n . T h is issu e sh o u ld be c o n s id e re d in
r e c o n s t r u c t th is c ity .

P e ja n tr a n and P a n ju n a n i n te r p r e te d p ro d u c in g lo c a l
c e r a m ic s b e tw e e n 1 3 6 0 a n d 1 6 5 0 . H o w ev er, it is s till d iffic u lt to
d a te th e b e g in n in g s o f s u c h a c tiv itie s . T h e re is n o C h in e s e

p o tte r y in B a n te n e a r lie r th a n th e M ing D y n a s ty b ecau se

p re v io u s ly th e p e o p le w e re u s in g o n ly lo c a l r a t h e r t h a n fo re ig n

c e r a m ic s . P e rh a p s in th e e a rly s e v e n t e e n t h c e n tu r y , im p o rte d

c e r a m ic s a rriv e d in th e B a n te n m a r k e t in b u lk so t h a t t h e i r

p ric e s d ro p p e d . I t c o u ld be t h a t M ing c e r a m ic s a rriv e d in

B a n te n a f te r th e 1 6 7 0 s, d u e to th e e x p a n s io n o f sh ip p in g ,

p e rh a p s v ia o t h e r tr a d in g c e n t r e s s u c h a s A ceh, T ik u , P a ria m a n ,
 93

B a ru s, In d r a p u ra a n d B a ta v ia r a t h e r t h a n d i r e c t from C h in a

its e lf.

Also, b a se d o n th e m e ta l w o rk in g e q u ip m e n t a n d th e m e ta l

re s id u e s , th e r e a p p e a rs to h a v e b e e n a n iro n w o rk in g s ite w ith in

S u ra so w a n p a la c e . H a r k a n tin in g s ih c ite d S is w a n d i's a s s u m p tio n

t h a t th e r e w as a s m ith w o rk in g in th e p a la c e , w ho m a d e s p e c ia l
g o o d s s u c h a s c o in s a n d g u n s for th e r u le rs (H a rk a n tin in g s ih ,

1 9 8 8 :5 7 ). H ow ever, t h e r e a re n o a rc h a e o lo g ic a l d a t a w h ic h

s u p p o rt th e v iew t h a t th e s m ith s w h o w o rk e d in th e S u ra so w a n

p a la c e w ere d if f e r e n t fro m th o s e in o t h e r p la c e s w ith in B a n te n .

B a se d o n a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e th e r e w ere tw o o t h e r iro n

w o rk in g s ite s in B a n te n ; a t K e p a n d e a n a n d J e m b a t a n R a n ta i
(M u n d a rd jito , 1978; H a r k a n tin in g s ih , 1 9 8 8 :5 8 -5 9 ).

T h e n a m e o f K e p a n d e a n c o m e s from th e w ord p a a d e t
m e a n in g s m ith . M e ta l p ro d u c ts , s la g a n d m e ta l r e s id u e s h a v e
b e e n fo u n d in K e p a n d e a n (now S u k a d iri) s u b u rb (M u n d a rd jito ,
1 9 7 8 :4 7 ). In c o n tr a s t, a lth o u g h J e m b a t a n R a n ta i w as a ls o a

m e ta l w o rk in g s ite , th e n a m e o f th e su b u rb d o e s n o t s e e m to

c o n ta in an y re fe re n c e to m e ta l w o rk in g . J e m b a ta n R a n ta i

a c tu a lly m e a n s a b rid g e w ith a c h a in . On th e b a sis o f its

lo c a tio n , H a r k a n tin in g s ih a rg u e s J e m b a t a n R a n ta i w as a ls o a

m a r k e t a n d , o n th e b a s is o f a sin g le fish h o o k , s h e s u g g e s ts it

w as to o a s e t t l e m e n t fo r fis h e rm e n . H o w ev er th is c la im a ls o

s e e m s h a s ty .
 94

The i n te r p r e ta tio n o f J e m b a ta n R a n ta i as a s m ith y

h o w e v er, is s u p p o rte d by a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e , m e ta l good

has been fo u n d on th e s ite w h ic h is in te r p r e te d as floor.

E x c a v a tio n h a s a ls o u n c o v e re d so m e b ro n z e goods, (n ails, a

b r a c e le t, a p a ir o f tw e e z e rs , b e lls, so m e s p ira l w ire, a n iro n k n ife

a n d a r in g m a d e from lead ) (A m bary, 1977; M u n d a rd jito , 1978).

In a d d itio n , s h e r d s o f M ing a n d Q in g c e ra m ic s , lo c a l p o tte r y a n d

c o in s h a v e a ls o b e e n fo u n d (M u n d a rd jito , 1 9 7 8 ; H a rk a n tin in g s ih ,

1983, 1988). The a rc h a e o lo g is ts assu m e th a t d a ily life

a c tiv itie s p ro b a b ly to o k p la c e a t t h is s ite (M u n d a rd jito , 1 978;
H a rk a n tin g s ih , 1988). I t is n o t c le a r w h ic h d a ily a c tiv itie s h o ld
in th is a re a . A nd, it is n e c e s s a r y to e x p la in th e ty p e o f d a ily

a c tiv itie s , b ecau se th e a c tiv ity is v e ry c o m p le x so th e

r e c o n s tr u c tio n is u n d e rs ta n d a b le b o th for th e a r c h a e o lo g is ts a n d
for n o n a rc h a e o lo g is ts .

F u r th e r i n te r p r e ta tio n s a b o u t th e c o rr e la tio n b e tw e e n th e
m e ta l e v id e n c e and o th e r r e m a in s have not been m ade.

M u n d a rd jito (1978) re g a rd s th e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l r e m a in s from th e

e x c a v a tio n s a s d is c r e te d a ta b e c a u s e t h e ir a s s o c ia tio n s w ere n o t

r e c o rd e d . He t h in k s th e s ite h a s b e e n d is tu rb e d . F o r e x a m p le ,

in S u k a d iri b o x VI (SKDVI) (M u n d a rd jito , 1978), h e e x c a v a te d

e v id e n c e d a tin g from b e fo re a n d d u r in g th e e ig h t e e n t h c e n tu r y ,

a s in fe rre d from c o in s (two u n d a te d lo c a l B a n te n c o in s , o n e VOC

c o in d a te d to 1 7 9 2 a n d o n e R e p u b lic o f B a ta v ia c o in d a te d to

1808 (M u n d a rd jito , 1 9 7 8 :1 1 , 4 9 -5 0 ; W id iy o k o ,1 9 8 9 ).
 95

M u n d a rd jito b e lie v e s it is d if f ic u lt to i n te r p r e t th e fu n c tio n a n d

d a ti n g o f th e b ric k s t r u c tu r e .

I c o n c lu d e th a t th e s m ith s in K epandean w o rk e d in

c o v e re d in s ta lla tio n s lo c a te d w ith in th e su b u rb . B ric k s a n d

c o ra l w e re u se d o n ly for th e f o u n d a tio n s o f th e b u ild in g s, w h ile

th e w a lls a n d ro o fs w e re p ro b a b ly b u ilt o f p e ris h a b le m a te ria ls .

B a se d o n m y p e rs o n a l o b s e rv a tio n s in s e v e ra l p la c e s , s m ith s

u s u a lly w o rk in b u ild in g s s e p a r a te fro m t h e ir liv in g p la c e s . So it

is p o ssib le t h a t th e s m i th s w h o w o rk e d in S u ro so w a n p a la c e
a c tu a lly liv ed in K e p a n d e a n b e c a u s e , b a s e d o n c o m p a ris o n w ith
th e Y o g y a k a rta p a la c e , o n ly th e r u le r 's fa m ily a n d th e abdi
d a te m a c tu a lly liv ed in th e p a la c e . U n fo rtu n a te ly , in B an te n n o
d if f e r e n t m e ta l p r o d u c ts h a v e b e e n fo u n d to d is tin g u is h b e tw e e n
th e w o rk o f s m ith s a t K e p a n d e a n a n d a t o t h e r p la c e s s u c h a s
S u ra so w a n p a la c e a n d J e m b a t a n R a n ta i (H a rk a n tin in g s ih , 1988).

H a r k a n tin in g s ih h a s s u c c e s s fu lly r e c o g n is e d th e n e c e s s ity

o f u s in g h is to r ic a l s o u r c e s in h e lp in g to i n te r p r e t th e f u n c tio n s
o f p a r tic u la r su b u rb s in B a n te n , b u t th e r e a re s till s e v e ra l is s u e s

o u ts ta n d in g . F irs tly , a rc h a e o lo g ic a l r e s e a r c h in B a n te n has

m a in ly b e e n b a s e d o n t h e 1 9 0 0 S e rru rie r m ap . T h is m a p is

b e lie v e d give a t o ta l o v e rv ie w o f B a n te n , so it has been

re p ro d u c e d . H o w ev er t h e r e a re so m e in fo rm a tio n in o rig in a ls

a p p e n d ix w h ic h a re n o t m e n tio n e d in th e o rig in a l a n d v ic e

v e rs a , s u c h n u m b e r 17, 31 a n d 33. T h e r e p ro d u c tio n o f th e

S e r r u r ie r m ap 1900 w h ic h th e n has been u s in g for

a rc h a e o lo g ic a l r e s e a r c h is n o t c o m p le te a n d it is n o t s im ila r a s
 96

o rig in a l. I t c a n be p r e d ic te d t h a t th e r e c o n s tr u c tio n o f B a n te n

w h ic h b a s e d u n c o m p le te re p ro d u c tio n w ill n o t g e t m a x im u m

d a ta so th e e x p la n a tio n a b o u t th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f B a n te n w ill

n o t c o v e r a ll c o n d itio n s .

A lth o u g h th e S e rru rie r m ap is v a lu a b le for r e c o n s tr u c tin g

th e p a tt e r n o f la n d u se a n d th e f u n c tio n s o f d if f e r e n t s ite s in
th e c ity , th e r e a re so m e d iffic u ltie s in fin d in g s u p p o rtin g

e v id e n c e . F o r e x a m p le , H a r k a n tin in g s ih h a s n o t y e t o b ta in e d

a rc h a e o lo g ic a l d a ta from K e b a le n to d e m o n s tr a te t h a t th is p la c e
w as o c c u p ie d by B a lin e s e . In fa c t, th e r e a re m a n y su b u rb s
m e n tio n e d in S e rru rie r w h ic h la c k s u p p o rtin g e v id e n c e from
o t h e r s o u rc e s b e c a u s e th e r e m a in s h a v e b e e n re m o v e d o r no
lo n g e r e x is t.

D. C o n c lu sio n

A lth o u g h s e v e ra l s e t t l e m e n t s in th e B a n te n c o m p le x h a v e
b e e n s tu d ie d , n o t e n o u g h e v id e n c e h a s y e t b e e n o b ta in e d for a n

a d e q u a te in te r p r e ta tio n o f th e f u n c tio n s o f th e s ite s . For

e x a m p le , th e d e s c rip tio n by S e r r u r ie r o f K a lo ra n , K a p u rb a n ,

K a w a n g sa n , a n d K a b a n te n a n a s b u r e a u c r a t i.e. s e t tl e m e n ts is

b a s e d o n ly on th e ir n a m e s a n d o n h is to r ic a l d o c u m e n ta tio n .

K a lo ra n c o u ld h a v e b e e n n a m e d for P a n g e ra n L or (P rin ce Lor, lor

m e a n s n o rth ), K a p u rb a n c o u ld h a v e b e e n n a m e d for P a n g e ra n

P u rb a , K a w a n g sa n for P a n g e ra n W an g sa , a n d K e b a n te n a n for

P a n g e r a n B a n te n . T h e n a m e P e n ja r in g a n is d e riv e d from ja rJ n g
 97

m e a n in g fish n e t, a n d K e b a le n m e a n s a p la c e for B a lin e s e .

H o w ev er, lik e th e b u r e a u c r a tic s e t tl e m e n ts , th e s e s ite s h a v e n o t

y e t y ie ld e d a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e u s e fu l for u n d e r s ta n d in g

t h e ir fu n c tio n s .

T h e re a re o n ly a few a rc h a e o lo g ic a l r e m a in s w h ic h h e lp to

id e n tify p a rtic u la r s ite s : th e s e a re th e S u ra so w a n p a la c e ,

P a n ju n a n , P a n ja n tr a n , P e c in a n , and th e D u tc h s e t tl e m e n t.
H o w ev er, th e r e a re C h in e s e and E u ro p e a n c e r a m ic s from
d if f e r e n t p e rio d s s p re a d th r o u g h o u t th e B a n te n s ite : o n th e

s h o r e lin e , in fish p o n d s, in th e M uslim g rav e c o m p le x , in th e

D u tc h fo rt, a n d in s e t tl e m e n ts . S g f u r th e r in v e s tig a tio n is s till

n e e d e d o n th e C h in e s e c e r a m ic s u se d by b o th th e lo c a l a n d
fo re ig n p e o p le . A c la s s ific a tio n o f th e d e c o r a tio n o f c e r a m ic s
a n d e a r th e n w a r e (based o n p e rs o n a l in fo rm a tio n from H a lw an y

M ich ro b , MSc th e r e a re m o re t h a n 7 0 0 m o tifs) a n d t h e ir form

w ill a s s is t in d i f f e r e n tia tin g b e tw e e n th e c e r a m ic s u se d in th e
p a la c e , by b u r e a u c r a ts a n d by c o m m o n p e o p le . T h e e x p la n a tio n

a b o u t th e s o c ia l s t a t u s a n d th e d if f e r e n t a c tiv itie s b e tw e e n
th o s e s ta tu s can be in fe rre d from th a t c e r a m ic s and

e a r th e n w a r e . H ow ever, a n y in te r p r e ta tio n b a s e d o n s h e r d s m u s t
ta k e in to a c c o u n t th e o b v io u s f a c t t h a t s m a ll a r t e f a c ts c a n

e a sily be m oved by h u m a n d is tu r b a n c e .

The nam e o f th e su b u rb , h o w e v e r, c a n n o t a lw a y s be

id e n tifie d from th e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l re c o rd . I t is d iffic u lt, for

e x a m p le , to re c o g n iz e e v id e n c e for th e M uslim le a d e r's su b u rb or

th e b u r e a u c r a ts ' s e t t l e m e n t b e c a u s e w e d o n o t h a v e a p a r a m e te r
 98

by w h ic h we c o u ld d if f e r e n tia te b e tw e e n th e s t a tu s o f s u c h
le a d e r s a n d th e c o m m o n p e o p le . T h e re a re a lso so m e d if f ic u ltie s

in in te r p r e t i n g th e n a tu r e o f th e s e t t l e m e n t s o f P a n g e ra n P u rb a

(K ap u rb an ), P a n g e ra n B a n te n (K e b a n te n a n ), and P a n g e ra n

M a n d a lik a b e c a u s e we d o n o t h a v e o n ly in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e

d if f e r e n c e s in w e a lth a n d p o s s e s s io n s b e tw e e n th e m . So o u r

a c t u a l k n o w le d g e a b o u t th e r ic h a n d th e c o m m u n ity le a d e r s is

s till lim ite d e v e n th o u g h th e h is to r ic a l s o u rc e s re c o rd t h a t th e s e

p e o p le h a d h ig h s o c ia l s ta tu s .

M o reover, th e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e for id e n tify in g so m e

s e t t l e m e n t s is n o w m is s in g b e c a u s e o f e c o lo g ic a l c o n d itio n s a n d
a lso th e c o n d itio n o f th e m a te ria ls . F o r e x a m p le , it is d if f ic u lt
to fin d a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e a b o u t th e a c tiv itie s o f m a k in g
u te n s ils from b a m b o o , c o c o n u t s h e lls a n d m a rin e s h e ll, o r th e

u se o f b a m b o o in b u ild in g s. M o reo v er, so m e o f th e s u b u rb s

m e n tio n e d in S e r r u r ie r n o lo n g e r e x is t b e c a u s e th e y h a v e b e e n
c o m b in e d a n d /o r th e nam e has changed. For e x a m p le ,
P a ja n tr a n a n d K e p a n d e a n h a v e n ow b e e n c o m b in e d a s S u k a d iri,
a n d K a w a n g sa n a n d K a lo ra n a re n o w to g e th e r c a lle d k a m p u n g

B aru.

A rc h a e o lo g ic a l fin d s c a n u se fu lly be c la s s ifie d a c c o r d in g to

t h e ir fu n c tio n s . H ow ever, a lth o u g h a rc h a e o lo g ic a l r e s e a r c h h a s

fo u n d m a n y b u ild in g s ite s in B a n te n , th e r e a re p ro b le m s in

r e c o n s t r u c t i n g h o u s e ty p e s a n d , in m o re d e ta il, th e d iv is io n s
w ith in th e m , such as k i tc h e n s and w o rk in g a re a s . An

u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e s p e c ia lis e d d iv is io n s w ith in h o u se s ite s

 99

c o u ld h e lp in u n d e r s ta n d in g th e fu n c tio n of a s e t tl e m e n t,

a llo w in g u s to d if f e r e n tia te b e tw e e n a w o rk in g s ite and a

b u r e a u c r a tic s e t tl e m e n t. M o reover, c a r e f u l a n a ly s is o f tile s,

ro o fs, a n d s tr u c tu r e s , a s w ell a s a d e ta ile d re c o rd o f a n old

C h in e s e h o u se c o u ld be u se fu l in re c o n s tru c tin g fo rm e r

h o u s e h o ld b u ild in g s. In m y o p in io n , a b e t t e r k n o w le d g e o f h o u se

d iv is io n s w ould h e lp to r e c o n s t r u c t th e s e t tl e m e n ts . H ow ever,

th e m e th o d o f c la s s if ic a tio n o f a r t e f a c t s p r e s e n te d in a v a ila b le

r e p o r ts d o e s n o t p e r m it m u c h s p e c u la tio n in t h is m a tte r .

A rc h a e o lo g ic a l r e m a in s d o p ro v id e a n in s ig h t in to th e

m a te r ia ls u se d in b u ild in g th e c ity . In B a n te n th e r e a re b ric k s,

p a r ts o f ro o f tile s , floor tile s , b lo c k o f c o ra l, a n d m o rta r m a d e

from c o ra l a n d s h e ll. H is to ric a l s o u rc e s h a v e n o t re c o rd e d
in fo r m a tio n a b o u t th o s e b u ild in g m a te r ia ls o r a b o u t th e b u ild e rs.
H o w ev er, a rc h a e o lo g ic a l re m a in s , e s p e c ia lly th e c o ra l b lo c k s,
h e lp to e x te n d o u r u n d e r s ta n d in g a b o u t th e u se o f b u ild in g
m a te r ia ls in a n a r e a w h e re n o s to n e e x c e p t c o ra l w as a v a ila b le .
M ore w id ely, th e re a re u n e x p lo re d q u e s tio n s about th e
s p e c ia liz e d sk ills a n d o rg a n is a tio n o f b u ild e rs , a s w ell a s th o s e o f

th e p o tte r s , s m ith s , M uslim le a d e rs , a n d a r is to c r a ts .

T h e b u ild in g s a n d s u rfa c e r e m a in s in B a n te n h a v e b e e n

a d d e d to, m o v ed a n d a ls o re -u s e d o v e r th e y e a rs , so t h a t it is

d if f ic u lt to d a te th e re m a in s . M o reo v er, it is lik e ly t h a t a g iv en

b u ild in g w as n o t b u ilt a ll a t o n e tim e . F o r e x a m p le , th e r e a re

m o re th a n five d if f e r e n t f o u n d a tio n s w ith in th e S u ro so w a n

p a la c e c o m p le x . I t is e v id e n t t h a t o t h e r b u ild in g s w e re b u ilt a t
 lO O

d if f e r e n t tim e s , a s sh o w n from th e d if f e r e n t m a te r ia ls a n d
d if f e r e n t q u a lity o f w ork. So, e v e n in th e c a s e o f th is o n e

im p o r ta n t b u ild in g , it is d iffic u lt to d a te a c c u r a te ly th e p e rio d in

w h ic h it w as b u ilt a n d u se d . T h o se r e m a in s w h ic h d o e x is t a re

o fte n m o v e a b le a n d so m e o f th e m c le a rly c a m e from o u ts id e

B a n te n , s u c h a s s h e r d s (local p o tte ry a n d c e ra m ic s ), p ip es, c o in s

a n d b e a d s . F o r e x a m p le , th e C h in e s e , V ie tn a m e s e , a n d B u rm e se
c e r a m ic s c o u ld h a v e b e e n u se d in B a n te n a t v e ry d if f e r e n t

p e rio d s from th e sa m e k in d s o f c e r a m ic s fo u n d in B aru s,

J a k a r t a , M aluku, U ju n g P a n d a n g a n d in t h e ir p la c e s o f o rig in .
T h e c o in s w h ic h w ere fo u n d in B a n te n c o u ld h a v e b e e n u se d

e a r lie r in o th e r p la c e s , s u c h a s th e D ire c t E x c h a n g e m a r k e ts in

S u m a tra , J a v a o r M aluku, o r in o t h e r E n tr e p o ts a n d F o rts , so

t h a t e v e n if a c o in re c o rd s a c e r ta in d a te , it is s till d iffic u lt to
u se th is for e x a c t d a tin g o f a s ite .

A n o th e r issu e a b o u t i n te r p r e ta tio n r e l a te s to th e v is ito rs

w ho c a m e to B a n te n . A rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e in th e form o f
c e r a m ic s (w est A sian, C h in e s e , Japanese, A n n a m e se and

E u ro p e a n ), c o in s (B a n te n , C h in e s e , E n g lish a n d D u tc h ), a n d a ls o
g rav e s, s u p p o rt th e h is to r ic a l re c o rd s . H ow ever, it m u s t be

r e c o g n iz e d t h a t th e p r e s e n c e o f p a r tic u la r c e r a m ic s a n d c o in s
does not a lw ay s m ean th e p re s e n c e o f v is ito rs from th e

m a n u f a c tu r in g n a tio n s . C h in e s e c e ra m ic s , C h in e s e c o in s a n d

D u tc h c o in s c o u ld h a v e b e e n b ro u g h t a n d u se d by M alays, w e s t
A sian s, N u s a n ta ra p e o p le , E u ro p e a n s a n d th e C h in e s e tr a d e r s

th e m s e lv e s . M oreover, th e s e m a te r ia ls c o u ld h a v e c ir c u la te d
 101

w ith in A sia b e fo re r e a c h i n g B an te n . T h e re fo re , it is d iffic u lt to

p ro v e th e e x is te n c e o r a b s e n c e o f tr a d e r s from n a tio n s n o t
r e p r e s e n te d by c o in s a n d c e ra m ic s , s u c h a s M alays, P o rtu g u e s e ,

F le m is h , F re n c h , and D a n is h tr a d e r s , a ll of w hom w ere

m e n tio n e d in h is to r ic a l s o u rc e s . In c o n tr a s t, J a p a n e s e c e r a m ic s

h a s b e e n fo u n d in B a n te n b u t h is to r ic a l s o u rc e s d o n o t m e n tio n

e v id e n c e o f s u c h tr a d e r s .

T h e s e v a rie d v is ito rs s e e m to h a v e b e e n a llo c a te d s p e c ia l

a re a s by th e S u lta n o f B a n te n w h e re th e y w ere g ro u p ed
a c c o r d in g to n a tio n , re lig io n , ra c e and p ro fe s sio n (N ayati,
1 9 8 9 :2 9 5 ). H o w ev er, th e y a ls o g ro u p e d th e m s e lv e s o n th e b a s is

o f th e siz e o f t h e i r c o m m u n ity . T h e F le m is h , F r e n c h and

D a n is h tr a d e r s liv e d w ith th e E n g lish , p e rh a p s b e c a u s e th e y
w e re a ll from E u ro p e (N ayati, 1987). T h e E n g lish d id n o t live
c lo s e to th e D u tc h becau se b o th n a tio n a litie s had b ig

c o m m u n itie s and a ls o th e D u tc h c o n c e n tr a te d on h a rd
b a rg a in in g for p ro fit w h e re a s th e E n g lis h p re fe rre d a p e rs o n a l

a p p ro a c h b o th to th e r u le r s a n d lo c a l tr a d e r s . H is to ric a l s o u rc e s
m e n tio n t h a t e v e ry tim e a n E n g lish s h ip a rriv e d a t a tr a d in g

p o rt, a l e t t e r from th e K in g w as p r e s e n te d to th e lo c a l ru le rs .

A fter th e y w ere g r a n te d p e rm is s io n to s ta y and tra d e , th e

E n g lish t h e n s e t tl e d so m e p e o p le t h e r e n o t o n ly for tr a d in g b u t

a ls o to le a rn th e lo c a l c u ltu r e a n d la n g u a g e . T h e A rabs a n d

T u rk s m a y h a v e liv e d in th e s a m e g ro u p b e c a u s e th e y s h a r e d a
re lig io n . T h e s e p e o p le liv ed in P e k o ja n w h ic h m e a n s a p la c e for
p e o p le from K oja, o r w e s t A sia a n d I a s s u m e t h a t th e w e s t A sia n s
 102

liv e d to g e th e r w ith lo c a l p e o p le o f b o th h ig h a n d low s o c ia l

s ta tu s . I t c o u ld be t h a t th e y w ere g iv e n t h a t p riv ile g e b e c a u s e ,

lik e th e lo c a l ru le rs , th e y w e re M uslim .

H is to ric a l s o u rc e s e n a b le th e tr a d in g a c tiv itie s in B a n te n

to be r e c o n s tr u c te d in p a rt. T ra d e o c c u rre d in m a rk e ts , b u t o n ly

K a r a n g a n tu m a r k e t w as o p e n to b o th lo c a l a n d fo re ig n p e o p le .

The m e r c h a n d is e tr a d e d and th e m e th o d s u se d a re c le a rly

d e s c r ib e d in th e h is to r ic a l s o u rc e s , b u t for th e a rc h a e o lo g is t th e

o n ly r e m a in s w h ic h can be u se d to d e te r m in e th e tr a d in g
a c tiv itie s in B a n te n a re c o in s , c e r a m ic s a n d je w e lle ry . The
o rig in s o f th e tr a d e r s c a n o n ly be in fe rre d from c e r a m ic s a n d
c o in s a n d so m e a d d itio n a l e v id e n c e is a v a ila b le from th e ru in s o f
th e b u ild in g s a n d s e t tl e m e n ts .

I n f o rm a tio n a b o u t B a n te n a s a C o m p le x E n tr e p o t c a n th u s
be in f e r r e d from b o th h is to r ic a l a n d a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e .
F irs tly , th e c ity w alls, th e p a la c e s , th e m o sq u e , th e D u tc h fo rt
a n d c a n a ls , c a n s till be tr a c e d . A rc h a e o lo g ic a l r e s e a r c h is a b le
to id e n tify th e c ity w alls, w h ic h h a d a z ig z a g form a n d w ere

l a t e r c o v e re d by th e D u tc h fo rt. S e c o n d ly , fo re ig n a n d lo c a l

s e t t l e m e n t s c a n be d if f e r e n tia te d in r e la tio n to th e c ity w alls.

M o reo v er, th e n a m e s o f th e su b u rb s a n d ru in s o f th e b u ild in g s
c a n a ls o a s s is t in in te r p r e t i n g th e s e r e c o n s tr u c tio n s . T h e iro n

w o rk in g a n d p o ttin g s e t t l e m e n t s h a v e b e e n d e te r m in e d b o th
fro m th e n a m e s o f th e su b u rb s a n d from so m e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l
r e m a in s . S o c ia l s t a t u s c a n be in fe rre d to so m e e x t e n t from th e

n a m e s o f th e su b u rb s, illu s tr a tio n s in c o n te m p o ra ry s o u rc e s , a n d
 103

je w e lle ry . T h e c h a n g in g s ite o f th e p o rt c a n be id e n tifie d by

u s in g a c o m b in a tio n o f old m a p s a n d a e r ia l p h o to g ra p h y .

N e v e rth e le s s , th e r e a re m a jo r g a p s in th e in fo rm a tio n

a v a ila b le from th e h is to r ic a l s o u rc e s . F o r e x a m p le , th e b u ild in g

m a te r ia ls a n d b u ild in g s t r u c tu r e s a re n o t d e s c rib e d in th e s e

s o u rc e s . M oreover, th e v a rie ty o f th e c e r a m ic s a n d p o tte r y c a n

be id e n tifie d o n ly fro m th e s h e r d s w h ic h w ere fo u n d . On th e
o th e r h a n d , a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e a lo n e w ould be in s u f f ic ie n t

to p ro v id e a n a d e q u a te u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e w ays in w h ic h
tr a d in g w as c o n d u c te d b u t a n u n d e r s ta n d in g o f so m e o f th e
tr a d in g a c tiv itie s c a n be d e riv e d from th e fin d in g s o f je w e lle ry ,

c e r a m ic s a n d c o in s .

A c c o rd in g to th e s e c o n c lu s io n fro m th e B a n te n c a s e s tu d y ,
it is c le a r t h a t a lth o u g h h is to r ic a l s o u rc e s c a n be u se d to
r e c o n s t r u c t th e p a s t, th e s e re c o rd s a re b e s t s u p p le m e n te d by
in fo rm a tio n a v a ila b le from a rc h a e o lo g ic a l r e m a in s . By u s in g th e

e v id e n c e o f a rc h a e o lo g ic a l fin d s o f a r te f a c ts , w e c a n in te r p r e t
th e d a ily life o f th e p a s t, e s p e c ia lly for lo c a l p e o p le . The

c o n t e x t is a lso im p o r ta n t to s u p p o rt th e in te r p r e ta tio n . For

e x a m p le , m u c h o f o u r k n o w le d g e a b o u t th e a r t s a n d te c h n o lo g y

o f th e p a s t h a s to be in fe rre d from a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e

b e c a u s e s u c h a c tiv itie s w e re n o t d e s c rib e d by fo re ig n v is ito rs

w h o d id n o t h a v e m u c h c o n t a c t w ith th e lo c a l p e o p le a n d w h o

w ere n o t allo w e d to go b e y o n d t h e ir s e t tl e m e n t.
 104

It c a n be s e e n th a t in so m e c ir c u m s ta n c e s h is to r ic a l

s o u rc e s a re m o re h e lp fu l for r e c o n s t r u c t i n g th e p a s t b u t a t o t h e r

tim e s a r c h a e o lo g ic a l r e m a in s p ro v id e th e m o st d e ta ile d

in f o r m a tio n about th e p a s t. H is to ric a l d o c u m e n ts p ro v id e

d e ta ile d in f o rm a tio n a b o u t c o m m o d itie s tr a d e d in c e r ta in p la c e s

a n d a t c e r t a i n tim e s , in c lu d in g th e s y s te m o f w e ig h ts w h ic h

a r c h a e o lo g ic a l s tu d y so fa r c a n n o t d e m o n s tr a te . N e v e rth e le s s ,

a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e c a n be u s e fu l in th ro w in g lig h t o n th e

a c tiv itie s o f lo c a l p e o p le w h ic h a re n o t e x p la in e d in h is to r ic a l
d o c u m e n ts .
 CHAPTER SIX

FORT REGULATED SITES

T h e F o r t R e g u la te d s ite s in th e In d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e la g o

d u r in g th e s i x t e e n t h a n d s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r ie s a re d if f e r e n t
from th e o th e r tw o t y p e s o f t r a d i n g site s in th a t th e y w ere

c o n tr o lle d by E u ro p e a n s , in s te a d o f th e lo c a l ru le rs . T hey had

liv in g a r e a s e x c lu s iv e ly for E u ro p e a n s , in c lu d in g w a re h o u s e s ,

o ffic e s, h o s p ita ls a n d o t h e r c o m m u n a l b u ild in g s . M o reo v er th e s e

r e s id e n ts re c o rd e d th e i r e x p e r ie n c e s in n e w e n v ir o n m e n ts a n d

th e ir c o n ta c t s w ith lo c a l p e o p le , e s p e c ia lly th e ir tr a d in g
c o n ta c ts . A lth o u g h little in te n s iv e and s y s te m a tic

a r c h a e o lo g ic a l w o rk has been u n d e r ta k e n on th e s e s ite s ,

r e c o n s tr u c tio n s o f th e F o r t R e g u la te d s ite s c a n be m a d e by

e x p lo r in g r e le v a n t d o c u m e n ts a n d e x is ti n g b u ild in g s. B a ta v ia ,

w h ic h a c te d a s th e c o n tr o l p o in t for D u tc h tr a d e in Asia, is th e
 106

m o st o b v io u s e x a m p le for s u c h a n in v e s tig a tio n o f th e re c o rd s

a n d e x is ti n g s tr u c tu r e s .

A. H is to r y o f Ba ta via

T h e a rriv a l o f th e E u ro p e a n s c h a n g e d th e n a tu r e o f tr a d e

in th e s ite w h ic h la te r b e c a m e B a ta v ia . In th e e a rly s i x t e e n t h

c e n tu r y , th e s ite w as w ell k n o w n a s C a la p a (C o rtesao , 1 9 4 4 :1 7 2 ),

S u n d a K e la p a (A m bary, 1977) o r J a y a k a r t a , a n d fu c tio n e d a s a
D ire c t E x c h a n g e s ite . P a n g e ra n W ija y a k ra m a , o th e rw is e k n o w n
a s T u b a g u s A n g k e, c o n tr o lle d th e s ite , in c lu d in g th e tr a d in g
a c tiv itie s , a n d re c e iv e d p e o p le from th r o u g h o u t th e A rc h ip e la g o

a n d M alay P e n in s u la , w e s t A sians, C h in e s e a n d P o rtu g u e s e , to

tr a d e lo c a l p ro d u c ts w h ic h w ere m a in ly fo o d stu ffs (C o rtesao ,
1 9 4 4 :1 7 2 ,1 7 7 ,1 8 0 ; T ay lo r, 1983). A fter th e D u tc h a n d E n g lish

b e c a m e in v o lv e d in th is re g io n , h o w e v e r, th e y trie d to c o n tr o l

th e lo c a l r u le r (M eilink-R oelofsz, 1962; V le k k e, 1946:86;

D ja ja d in in g ra t, 1 9 8 3:46). The D u tc h , w ho e s ta b lis h e d

th e m s e lv e s in th e C h in e s e s e c tio n o f th e c ity (B lusse, 1 9 8 1 :1 6 6 ;

H e u k e n , 1 9 8 2 :1 9 ), b u ilt a s tr o n g e r d w e llin g w ith o u t p e rm is s io n

from th e P a n g e ra n J a y a k a r ta . T h is led to a c o m p lic a te d s e r ie s

o f c o n f lic ts in v o lv in g th e D u tc h , th e E n g lis h a n d th e C h in e s e , a s

w ell a s lo c a l ru le rs . The fin a l o u tc o m e , in 1 6 1 9 , w as th e

c o n s o lid a tio n o f D u tc h p o w er in a n e w fo rt, w h ic h w as g iv en th e

nam e B a ta v ia (V lekke, 1946; S u rjo m ih a rd jo , 1977; H euken,

1982). T h e D u tc h trie d to c o n tr o l th e sp ic e tra d e in th e

 10 7

I n d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e la g o from h e re . T h e y s e n t s h ip s to c o lle c t

s p ic e s , fo rc e d th e lo c a l r u le r s to s e ll t h e i r p r o d u c ts o n ly to th e
D u tc h a n d e ffe c tiv e ly c o n tr o lle d th e p ric e in E u ro p e a n m a rk e ts .

M o reo v er, th e y a ls o c o n tr o lle d th e tr a d e r s in B a ta v ia , so th e

lo c a l a n d w e st A sian tr a d e r s w ere n o t a b le to v is it th is p la c e a s

fre e ly a s th e y h a d b e e n a b le to in th e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y .

T h e C h in e s e so o n b e c a m e im p o r ta n t in B a ta v ia . T hey

w ere th e b ig g e s t t a x p a y e rs a n d th is t a x w as t h e n u se d for th e

d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e c ity (B lusse, 1 9 8 1 :1 6 7 ). T h e im p o rta n c e o f

th e C h in e s e for th e D u tc h is sh o w n by th e D u tc h k e e p in g
r e c o r d s o f C h in e se a c tiv itie s a n d p o p u la tio n (C ator, 1 9 3 6 :1 0 -1 1 ,
36; F a ille , C h in e s e R a a d : 310). T h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f s u g a r

p l a n ta tio n s by th e C h in e s e w as p a rtic u la rly im p o r ta n t (C ator,

1 9 3 6 :1 1 ).

I llu s tra tio n s , s k e t c h e s a n d m a p s s u p p le m e n t th e w r itte n

d o c u m e n ts for r e c o n s t r u c t i n g B a ta v ia , w h e th e r in 1 6 1 9 o r in to
th e e ig h t e e n t h c e n tu r y (P lates: 12, 13, 14, 15).
 ■v^v'rlw-: : ■

VOC walled compound showing

original stone buildings
named Nassau and Mauritius

Public square

Mosque

Kabupaten

Map : 12
B atavia in 1 6 1 9
Adapted from Taylor, 1 9 8 3 :1 8 0
 Batavia Castle

Women's Hostel

School

Tijgersgrachi

Old Jacatra

Town.
LHall

'Gelderlandt
Redoubt

Earthworks

Plate: 13
B atavia in 1 6 2 7
A dapted from Taylor, 1 9 8 3 :1 8 1
 110

CAPTION: I. DIAMOND AREA

A. BATAVIA CASTLE
B. PORT JACATRA
C CASTLE SQUARE
D. HEERESTRAAT (Dutch)
E. PRINSESTRAAT (Dutch)
F. TUGERSG RÄCHT (Dutch)
a OUDEM ARKTGRACHT (Dutch)
a OUDEKERKGRACHT (Duich)
I. DEROE DWARSGRACHT (Duich)
J. VIERDE DWARSGRACHT (Dutch)
K. NEW MARKET
L CITY HALL
M. CHURCH
N. TAYAUNGRÄCHT (Duicti)
O . KOESTRAAT (Duicti)
P. KALVERSTRAAT (Duicti)
Q. COMPANY HOSPITAL
R. GELDERLAND (Duich)
S. HOLLANDU
T. LAND ENTRANCE
U . OLDSUNDA KELAPA
V. KONINGSSTRAAT (Duich)
W. GRAVEN STRAAT (Dutch)
X. BRITISH QUARTERS
Y. ZEELAND REDOUUBT
Z. BRITISH CEMETERY
L RUBY AREA
3. PEARL AREA
A SAPPHIRE AREA
5. GENERAL'S QUARTERS
6. KASTEELGRACHT (Duich)
7. COURTHOUSE
*■ ELEPHANT HOUSE
». C1UWUNG RIVER
10. SCHOOL
II. WOMENS CLUBHOUSE
12. CAPTAINS HOUSE
13. BOATS
14. PALM GARDEN
13. BRASS ERB URGH (Dutch)
I«. BUrTENGRACHT (Dutch)
17. FISH MARKET
11. REMAINS O F DEFENCES
a U M E KILNS
b. EAST INDIA COMPANY HOUSES
c. CUSTOMS
d. BATANG (Irutmcua)
*. CARPENTERS'SHOPS

P late: 14
B atavia in 1 6 3 5
Adapted from Surjom ihardjo, 1 9 7 7
 Ill

CAPTION: ON THE EASTERN SIDE OF THE CITY A R E

i. BUREN (Dutch) I. WATERPOORT (Dutch)
b. VIERKANT (Dutch) 1 BRUGSTRAAT (Dutch)
c. O U W U N O RIVER i. NIEUWE KERK (Dutch)
LZEEBURGH (Dutch) A CITY HALL
c. GRONINGEN (Dutch) J. COURT HOUSE
(. OVERRUSELl Dutch) A AMSTERDAMSCHEGRACHT (Dutch)
(.FRIESLAND (Dutch) 7. GROENEGRACHT (Dutch)
h. OUD UTRECHT IDutch) i . LEEUWINNEGRACHT (Dutch)
i. ZEELAND (Dutch) 9. TUGERSGRACHT (Dutch)
j. NASSAU i a KALVERSTRAAT (Dutch)
k. DIEST(Dutch) 11. OUD GELDER LAND (Dutch)
12. PRINSESTRAAT (Dutch)
L CARPENTERS'SHOPS OF THE EAST INDIA COMPANY 13. HEERESTRAAT (Dutch)
II. CARPENTERS SHOPS OF THE CHINESE M. QUARTERS OF THE BANDAS
III. FISH MARKET 15. QUARTERS OF THE PEOPLE FROM MALABAR
16. KOESTRAATIDutch)

A. CASTLE
B. AMSTERDAM
C MIDOLEBURG (Dutch)
D. ROTTERDAM
E. ENKHUtZEN (Dutch)
F. GELDERLAND (Dutch)
G. ORANIE (Dutch)
H. NIELTWPOORTI Dutch) (NOW: PINTU BESAR)
I. HOLANDtA
J. GRIMBERGEN (Dutch)

Plate: 15
B atavia in 1 6 5 0
Adapted from Surjom ihardjo, 1 9 7 7
 112

In a d d itio n , th e r e a re w r itte n d o c u m e n ts s u c h a s jo u r n a ls

o f tr a v e lle rs , th e Daghregister a n d Plakkatboeken w h ic h p ro v id e

in fo rm a tio n a b o u t p o litic a l a n d e c o n o m ic life in B a ta v ia from

tim e to tim e , r e c o rd in g in g r e a t d e ta il m u c h in fo rm a tio n a b o u t

in d iv id u a ls (Blusse, 1 9 8 1 :1 6 1 ). Such d a ta , h o w e v er, m a in ly

c o n c e rn D u tc h a c tiv itie s and in te r e s ts , ra th e r th a n w hat

happened in th e C h in e s e su b u rb a n d o t h e r su b u rb s lo c a te d

o u ts id e th e c ity w all. T h e re is in fo rm a tio n , th o u g h , a b o u t th e

d e p a r tu r e , d e a th a n d a b s c o n d in g o f C h in e s e (C ator, 19 3 6 :1 1 ),

and th e p ro m o tio n o f p e o p le to im p o r ta n t o ffic ia l p o s itio n s

(C ator, 1936: 13; B lu sse, 1 9 8 1 :1 6 7 ).

B. Historical Study o f Batavia

M uch o f old B a ta v ia d u r in g th e s i x t e e n t h a n d s e v e n t e e n t h
c e n tu r ie s m ay be r e c o n s tr u c te d by c o m b in in g th e s e h is to r ic a l
d a ta . M oreover, th e c a n a ls b u ilt by th e C h in e s e u n d e r th e
su p e rv is io n o f J a n c o n a n d P h o a B in g h a m c a n be tr a c e d in

J a k a rta . E x a m p le s o f th e s e a re th e c a n a ls t h a t c o n n e c t th e
C iliw u n g riv e r and K ali K ru k u t, T anah A bang, H a rm o n i,
L a p a n g a n B a n te n g , J a l a n M e d an M e rd e k a a n d J a l a n M a ja p a h it

(S u rjo m ih a rd jo , 1 9 7 7 :2 8 -2 9 ; B lu sse, 1 9 8 1 :1 6 6 ).

Som e D u tc h b u ild in g s, d a ti n g from th e s e v e n te e n th

c e n tu r y , a re d e s c rib e d in g r e a t d e ta il in th e d o c u m e n ts a n d a ls o
d e p ic te d in illu s tra tio n s . T h u s, w e k n o w a b o u t th e fo rt its e lf,
 11 3

K a s te e i B a ta v ia , w ith its g u a rd h o u s e s , th e a p a r tm e n ts and

o ffic e s o f th e G o v e rn o r-G e n e ra l, th e C o u n c il C h a m b e r o f th e

D u tc h E a s t I n d ia C o m p an y , a c c o m m o d a tio n for th e c o u n c illo rs ,

th e b a rr a c k s , th e c h u r c h , th e w a re h o u s e s , th e a rs e n a l, th e

c o u rty a rd s , th e a rm o u ry a n d th e d u n g e o n s (S u rjo m ih a rd jo , 197 7 ;

G odard, 1 9 9 3 :2 1 6 -2 1 7 ). All th is , h o w e v e r, w as d e s tro y e d in th e

n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y . S o m e o t h e r b u ild in g s a re s till b e in g u se d ,

s u c h a s th e S ta d h u is a n d g o d o w n s (w a re h o u se s) (S u rjo m ih a rd jo ,

1877; H e u k e n , 1 9 8 2 :2 3 -2 6 ). T h e b rid g e w h ic h w as b u ilt in J .P .

C o en 's p e rio d is n ow in J a l a n Pos. N ie u p o o rt a n d D ie s tp o o rt a re

now k n o w n a s P in tu B e sa r a n d P in tu K e c il (S u rjo m ih a rd jo , 1977).

T h e s t r e e t s b u ilt by th e D u tc h E a s t In d ia C o m p an y a s

B a ta v ia e x p a n d e d a re s till re c o g n is a b le . J a l a n C e n g k e h u se d to
be P r in s s e s tr a a t, R ijs w ijk s tra a t b e c a m e J a la n M a ja p a h it a n d
J a c a tr a w e g now is J a l a n P a n g e ra n J a y a k a r t a . J a l a n G unung
S a h a ri, J a l a n K ra m a t, a n d J a l a n S a le m b a m a rk th e lin e o f th e

ro ad to th e s o u t h e a s t t h a t w as b u ilt in 1 6 7 8 (S u rja m ih a rd jo ,
1977; P ro y e k , 1 9 7 8 ; H e u k e n , 1982). J a l a n H a y a m w u ru k a n d
J a la n G a ja h m a d a w e re b u ilt a t th e e n d o f th e s e v e n t e e n t h
c e n tu r y w h e n th e old D u tc h s e t t l e m e n t o n T ijg e rg ra c h t b e c a m e
in c o n v e n ie n t. T h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n tu r y h o u se s till b e in g u se d by

th e N a tio n a l A rc h iv e s (P royek, 1 9 7 8 :4 7 ) w as b u ilt o n th is ro a d .

M an g g a D u a u se d to be a C h in e s e q u a r te r w h ic h w as d e v e lo p e d

by th e f ir s t C h in e s e C a p ta in , a m a n n a m e d So B in g K ong, a ls o

k n o w n a s B e n c o n (C ator, 1 9 3 6 :1 3 ; F a ille , C h in e s e R a a d :1 2 ) o r S u
M in g -K an g (B lusse, 1 9 8 1 :1 6 7 ).
 114

T hese r e m n a n ts o f B a ta v ia d u r in g th e s ix te e n th and

s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r ie s a re c o n c e n tr a te d in th e n o r th e r n p a r t o f

J a k a r t a , e s p e c ia lly in th e a r e a o f J a k a r t a K o ta . O th e r p a r ts o f

B a ta v ia , h o w e v e r, c a n n o t be so e a s ily re c o g n is e d . F irstly , th e r e

w a s m u c h r e d e v e lo p m e n t o f B a ta v ia its e lf in th e s e v e n t e e n t h

a n d e ig h t e e n t h c e n tu r ie s ; for e x a m p le , th e S ta d h u is is th e th ird

s u c h b u ild in g o n th e s a m e s ite (H eu k en , 1 9 8 2 :3 3 ). S e c o n d ly , th e

d e v e lo p m e n t o f J a k a r t a a s th e c a p ita l o f In d o n e s ia h a s c a u s e d

th e d e s tr u c tio n o f m u c h t h a t w as b u ilt in th e s i x t e e n t h a n d
s e v e n t e e n t h c e n tu r ie s , a s w ell a s in m o re r e c e n t c e n tu r ie s .
B u ild in g s in s e v e r a l p la c e s s u c h a s A ncol, o rig in a lly c a lle d
S lin g e r la n d , or a lo n g J a la n P a n g e ra n J a y a k a r ta , J a la n
H a y a m w u ru k a n d J a l a n G a ja h m a d a h a v e b e e n d e m o lis h e d . The
H a rm o n ie b u ild in g b u ilt in 1 7 7 6 h a s b e e n re p la c e d w ith m o d e rn
b u ild in g s for o ffic e s, s h o p s a n d h o u s e s in th e la s t few y e a rs.

T h e s itu a tio n o f J a y a k a r t a is k n o w n o n ly from th e w r itte n

s o u rc e s . New b u ild in g s h a v e b e e n c o n s tr u c te d on th e w e st b a n k

o f C iliw u n g riv e r, so t h a t th e c o re o f old J a y a k a r t a is o b s c u re d ,

b u t H e u k e n (1 9 8 2 :2 1 -2 2 ) s u g g e s ts t h a t it w as lo c a te d a b o u t 5 0 0

m e te r s n o r th w e s t o f th e S ta d h u is . T h e la y o u t o f J a y a k a r t a w as
p ro b a b ly th e s a m e a s t h a t o f B an te n w ith a p a la c e , s q u a re ,

m o sq u e a n d m a rk e t, s in c e J a y a k a r t a w as u n d e r th e c o n tr o l o f

B a n te n b e fo re th e D u tc h c o n q u e s t (H eu k en , 1 9 8 2 :1 8 -2 0 ; T ay lo r,

1 9 8 3 :3 ). In th e s a m e w ay, Y o g y a k a rta a n d S u ra k a rta , w h ic h

w e re la id o u t d u r in g th e e i g h t e e n t h c e n tu r y , p ro v id e d th e m o d e l

for o t h e r re g io n a l s e t t l e m e n t s s u c h a s P u rw o rejo , K e b u m e n a n d
 115

B a n y u m a s. I t m ay be a s s u m e d t h a t th e p a la c e , s q u a re , g r e a t
m o sq u e a n d m a r k e t in J a y a k a r t a w ere s m a lle r th a n th o s e in

B a n te n b e c a u s e J a y a k a r t a w as u n d e r B a n te n 's c o n tr o l n o t o n ly

in p o litic a l te r m s b u t a ls o a s a n a d m in is tr a tiv e c e n tr e . T h is

dependence on B a n te n m eans th a t th e g rea t m o sq u e of

J a y a k a r t a p ro b a b ly lo o k ed m o re lik e th e m o sq u e s in B a n te n t h a n

lik e th e m a s jid M a ru n d a o r m a sjid A nke in th e a r e a to d a y , w h ic h

w ere b u ilt in th e e ig h t e e n t h c e n tu r y .

C. Problems

T h e re a re so m e p ro b le m s in re c o n s tru c tin g th e F o rt
R e g u la te d s ite of B a ta v ia . The f irs t issu e is to fin d
a r c h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e w h ic h r e f le c ts th e s h if t from S u n d a
K e la p a to Ja y a k a rta to B a ta v ia . H is to ric a l s o u rc e s p ro v id e

in f o r m a tio n about th e change o f a u th o r ity from P a n g e ra n

J a y a k a r t a to J .P . C oen, th e D u tc h G o v e rn o r-G e n e ra l. H ow ever,

not m uch m a te r ia l e v id e n c e d a ti n g from th e s i x t e e n t h and

s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r ie s h a s y e t b e e n fo u n d a n d it is d iffic u lt to

c o lle c t m a te r ia l in th e r e le v a n t a re a , s in c e it is la rg e ly c o v e re d

by r e c e n t b u ild in g s. O nly a few o f th e D u tc h b u ild in g s o f t h a t

p e rio d , w h ic h w ere b u ilt o f so lid m a te ria ls , c a n n ow be tr a c e d .

In c o n tr a s t , th e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y b u ild in g s a n d o t h e r lo c a l

b u ild in g s m a in ly u se d p e ris h a b le m a te r ia ls s u c h a s w ood a n d

h a v e n o w d is a p p e a re d .
 116

T h e s e c o n d issu e c o n c e r n s th e p a tt e r n o f life in B a ta v ia

a n d its n e ig h b o u rh o o d . H is to ric a l s o u rc e s from th e s i x t e e n t h

a n d s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r ie s m e n tio n m a in ly fo reig n a c tiv itie s ,

e s p e c ia lly in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f B a ta v ia (T aylor, 1983) a n d th e

tr a d e o f th e C o m p an y (G la m a n n , 1982). T h e y h a v e le s s to sa y
a b o u t d a ily a c tiv itie s e i t h e r w ith in th e D u tc h s e t t l e m e n t in

B a ta v ia o r in lo c a l s e t t l e m e n t s o u ts id e th e fo rt a n d c a n a ls o f

B a ta v ia . T h e d i s t in c t a r e a s o f s e t t l e m e n t for th e e x c lu s iv e

D u tc h a n d for v a rio u s lo c a l i n h a b i t a n t s c a n be re a d ily s e e n o n

th e m a p s o f B a ta v ia d a te d to 1 6 1 9 , 1 6 2 7 , 1 6 3 5 , a n d 1 6 5 0 (see
m ap s: 1 2 ,1 3 ,1 4 ,1 5 ). A lth o u g h so m e h is to r ic a l re c o rd s from th e
s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y m e n tio n th e v a rie ty o f i n h a b i t a n t s in S u n d a

K e la p a (C o rtesao , 1 9 4 4 :1 7 2 ), th e l a t e r d o c u m e n ta tio n from th e

D u tc h d o e s n o t give d e ta ile d in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th is m a tte r . T h e
a c tiv itie s o f p e o p le from e ls e w h e re in th e A rc h ip e la g o a n d w e s t
Asia, w h o s e ttle d d u r in g th e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y , a re s till to be

d is c o v e re d .

A lth o u g h th e r e a re s u b u rb nam es in B a ta v ia such as

P e k o ja n /K o ja , k a m p u n g B ali, P a s e b a n , P e n ja r in g a n , P e ja g a la n ,

P a d e m a n g a n a n d P e tu k a n g a n (Nas, e t.a l. 1 9 7 9 :2 6 -3 1 ), th e r e a re

p ro b le m s in u s in g th e s e in th e s a m e w ay a s w as p o ssib le in so m e

c a s e s in B a n te n , s in c e th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e s e a r e a s c a n n o t

b e re c o g n is e d from a r t e f a c t s fo u n d in a rc h a e o lo g ic a l c o n te x ts .

M o reo v er, th e m o d e rn p o p u la tio n d o e s n o t r e f le c t th e n a m e o f

e a c h s u b u rb a n y m o re a n d th e b o u n d a rie s o f th e su b u rb s h a v e

changed s lig h tly becau se of changes o f a d m in is tr a tio n . In

 117

p a r tic u la r , it is d iffic u lt to u se th e e v id e n c e o f p la c e n a m e s for

tr a c in g old s u b u rb s b e c a u s e th e old p a t t e r n s o f a r c h i te c t u r e a n d
th e la y o u t o f s t r e e t s h a v e n o t b e e n m a in ta in e d . In o t h e r c itie s
s u c h a s Y o g y a k a rta , S u r a k a r ta , C ireb o n o r R e m b a n g , it is e a s y to

re c o g n iz e th e K aum an d i s t r ic t (an a r e a for M uslim le a d e r s

lo c a te d to th e w e s t o f th e g r e a t m o sq u e ) o r P e c in a n (th e C h in e s e
su b u rb ). I t is a ls o d iffic u lt to d a te th e u se o f a n a r e a in B a ta v ia

by a s p e c ific g ro u p in th e a b s e n c e o f m a p s a n d re c o rd s . S e v e ra l
n e w s u b u rb s a p p e a re d in th e e ig h t e e n t h c e n tu r y a n d la te r, a

p e rio d w h ic h is b e y o n d th e sc o p e o f t h is th e s is . H ow ever, we

m u s t c o n s id e r th is p o in t if w a n t to r e c o n s t r u c t B a ta v ia a t a
p a r tic u la r tim e . M ore th a n m o s t c itie s , B a ta v ia w itn e s s e d

re a s o n a b ly ra p id c h a n g e in p o p u la tio n siz e a n d b u ild in g s.

The C h in e s e q u a r te r w as d if f e r e n t from o th e r fo re ig n
s e ttle m e n ts in B a ta v ia . F irs tly , th e r e a re m any re c o rd s

c o n c e r n in g it, s u c h a s th e n a m e s o f th e C a p ta in s o f th e s u b u rb

a n d o f p e o p le w h o d e v e lo p e d th e s u b u rb a n d its fa c ilitie s . It
p ro v id e d o p p o r tu n itie s for e n t e r t a i n m e n t , s o c ia l in s u r a n c e o r

m u tu a l a id , a s w ell a s h o s p ita ls , o r p h a n a g e s a n d h o m e s for th e

a g e d (B lusse, 1 9 8 1 :1 6 5 ). S e c o n d ly , it w as lo c a te d in sid e th e
c ity w all a n d w as c a re fu lly p la n n e d . I t is n o t s u rp ris in g t h a t th is

s e t t l e m e n t w as b e t t e r t h a n o th e r s b e c a u s e th e C h in e s e p la y e d a

s p e c ia l ro le in D u tc h e y e s a n d w ere o f te n d is tin g u is h e d a s a

g ro u p in th e p la k a a tb o e k . T h e C h in e s e w ere s u c c e s s fu l tra d e r s ,

fre e b u rg h e rs , b u ild e rs , fis h e rm e n , fa rm e rs , g a rd e n e rs ,

c r a f ts m e n , ta ilo rs a n d a ls o good t a x p a y e rs (C ator, 1 9 3 6 :1 3 ;

 118

V le k k e, 1 9 4 6 :9 ; B lu sse, 1 9 8 1 :1 6 1 -1 6 8 ). B lu sse (1981) c la im s t h a t

B a ta v ia , b e tw e e n 1 6 1 9 a n d 1 7 4 0 , w as a C h in e s e c o lo n ia l to w n
u n d e r D u tc h p r o te c tio n . He s e e s B a ta v ia b e in g s im ila r to
M a n ila , because th e C h in e s e to o k th e m a in ro le in th e

d e v e lo p m e n t o f p riv a te tr a d in g a c tiv itie s . In c o n tr a s t, C a to r

(1936) a s s u m e s t h a t th e D u tc h in c lu d e d C h in e s e s e t t l e m e n t

w ith in B a ta v ia in o rd e r to c o n tr o l C h in e s e tr a d in g a c tiv itie s .

T h is c o n tr o l w as u n s u c c e s fu l, h o w e v e r, b e c a u s e th e C h in e s e

o b ta in e d c o n tr a c t s for s u g a r p la n ta tio n s , s tr ik in g c o in s , m a k in g
w in e (areik) a n d o rg a n is in g g a m b lin g a c tiv itie s so t h a t th e y c a m e
to p la y a le a d in g ro le in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f B a ta v ia .

W ritte n re c o rd s a ls o p ro v id e little s p e c ific e v id e n c e for th e

a c tiv itie s o f lo ca l p e o p le , th e orang Betawi. S o m e id e a o f t h e ir

life, h o w e v e r, can be in fe rre d from s tu d y in g m o re m o d e rn
s e t t l e m e n t s a ro u n d J a k a r t a w h ic h a re d e v o te d to s u p p ly in g th e
c ity w ith m a n y k in d s o f fru it. T h is p ro d u c e is s till c a r r ie d in to

th e c ity a n d sold by th e pJkul

T h e n e x t issu e c o n c e r n s th e c ir c u m s ta n c e s o f th e v is ito rs

to B a ta v ia . H is to ric a l s o u rc e s p ro v id e in fo rm a tio n a b o u t v is ito rs

b o th in Sunda K e la p a and B a ta v ia , but a f te r 1619 w hen

J a y a k a r t a b e c a m e B a ta v ia , th e r e is little a v a ila b le b e y o n d th e

D u tc h C o m p an y re c o rd s . A lth o u g h th e y a re v e ry e x c lu s iv e ,

th e s e r e c o rd s a re m o s tly w r itte n from a D u tc h p e rs p e c tiv e . The

E n g lis h tr a d e rs , w h o w e re lic e n s e d to tr a d e a n d live in J a y a k a r t a

by P a n g e r a n J a y a k a r ta , s till v is ite d B a ta v ia a f t e r 1 6 1 9 , b u t th e y ,
lik e th e F r e n c h tr a d e r s , h a d m a n y p ro b le m s w ith th e D u tc h in
 119

c o n tin u in g th e ir tr a d e . T h e re is n o a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e

d e m o n s tr a tin g sp e c ific E n g lish c o n ta c t w ith e it h e r Sunda

K e la p a / J a y a k a r t a o r B a ta v ia a t th is tim e .

T h e D u tc h s o u rc e s m e n tio n th a t th e C h in e s e b ro u g h t

c e r a m ic s a n d silk for th e m (A d h y a tm a n e t. al, 1984). T h e

C h in e s e tr a d e r s d id n o t s ta y p e r m a n e n tly in B a ta v ia a n d d u r in g

th e ir v is its , th e y p ro b a b ly liv e d in th e C h in e s e su b u rb . T h e re is

le s s m e n tio n in th e D u tc h a c c o u n ts o f o t h e r v is ito rs , a lth o u g h

w e s t A sian a n d tr a d e r s from e ls e w h e re in th e A rc h ip e la g o so ld

th e ir g o o d s in th e m a r k e t lo c a te d n e a r th e S ta d h u is .

A fo u rth issu e c o n c e r n s p r a c tic a litie s o f tr a d e in a F o r t

R e g u la te d s ite . In f o r m a tio n o n D u tc h tr a d in g p r a c tic e s in
B a ta v ia d u r in g th e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n tu r y a re e a s ily fo u n d . The
D a g h r e g iste r h a s in fo rm a tio n o n tr a d in g p o lic y , th e v a r ie tie s o f
c o m m o d ity , th e v o lu m e a n d w e ig h t o f s p ic e s , p ric e s, th e a rriv a l

a n d d e p a r tu r e o f sh ip s, a n d a lso th e in d iv id u a ls a p p o in te d to
c o lle c t c o m m o d ite s . The F o rt R e g u la te d s ite a c te d as a
c o lle c tio n p o in t, so t h a t B a ta v ia s to re d c o m m o d itie s from p la c e s

w ith in a n d o u ts id e th e I n d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e la g o . T h e re m u s t

have been w a re h o u s e s • for s p ic e s and a ls o for a n o th e r

c o m m o d itie s s u c h a s s ilk from C h in a , c lo th e s from w e s t Asia a n d

c e r a m ic s from b o th A sia a n d E u ro p e. H ow ever, th e ra p id

d e v e lo p m e n t o f J a k a r t a has m ade it d iffic u lt to fin d and

i n te r p r e t th e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e for th e s e w a re h o u s e s for
s to ra g e a n d tra d e .
 120

T h e p ro b lem o f i n te r p r e t a t i o n a ris e s w ith th e c e r a m ic s o f

d if f e r e n t o rig in s fo u n d near th e M u seu m B a h a ri (R idho,

1 9 8 2 :3 2 0 -3 2 5 ). R id h o id e n tifie d th e o rig in s a n d d a te o f th e

c e r a m ic s a s sh o w n in ta b le 4, b u t it is u n c le a r w h e th e r th e s e

c e r a m ic s sh o u ld be s e e n a s c o m m o d itie s for e x c h a n g e , p e rh a p s

for sp ic e s, or a s ite m s for p riv a te use w ith in B a ta v ia . Also th e r e

is no e x p la n a tio n o f w hy th o s e c e r a m ic s w e re d u m p e d in th e

c a n a l, a s R id h o in te r p r e ta tio n .

jORIGINS CENTURY
CAMBODIA 12-13
THAILAND 14-15
VIETNAM 16
IRAN 16 - 1 7
CHINA 16-19
JAPAN 17-19
EUROPE 1 8-19

T able: 4
C la s sific a tio n by o rig in a n d d a te o f c e r a m ic s fo u n d
in th e c a n a l in J a k a r t a (B atavia)
F rom : R id h o , 1 982: 3 2 1 (w ith m o d ific a tio n s )

O ne c o u ld a rg u e t h a t th e s e fin d s c a m e from w a re h o u s e s
for c e r a m ic s in B a ta v ia . C e ra m ic s w e re c e r ta in ly im p o r ta n t for

e x c h a n g e w ith in th e In d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e la g o a n d th o s e n e e d e d

in th e D ire c t E x c h a n g e s i t e s a n d C o m p le x E n tr e p o ts c o u ld h a v e
b e e n su p p lie d from B a ta v ia .
 121

T h e C a m b o d ia n (K hm er) c e r a m ic s fo u n d in J a k a r t a a re

s im ila r to th o s e fo u n d in S u la w e si, n o r th Jav a, and N usa

T e n g g a ra , a n d th e J a p a n e s e c e r a m ic s h a v e a ls o b e e n fo u n d in

L am pung, S u m a tr a S e la ta n , B a n te n , K a lim a n ta n B a ra t and

K a lim a n ta n S e la ta n (R idho, 1982). T h e c e r a m ic s fo u n d o u ts id e

B a ta v ia m ig h t h a v e c o m e th ro u g h t h e r e , c a r r ie d by n o n D u tc h

tr a d e r s . M any o f th e C h in e s e c e r a m ic s fo u n d in B a ta v ia w ere

n o t w ell m a d e (R idho, 1 982) a n d p e rh a p s th e s e w ere u se d in

e x c h a n g e for s p ic e s . M any o th e r i n te r p r e t a t i o n s a re p o ssib le ,

h o w e v e r, a n d m u c h f u r th e r s tu d y o f th e d is tr ib u tio n o f c e r a m ic s
w ith in th e In d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e la g o is n e e d e d to re fin e th e
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f B a ta v ia a s a d is tr ib u tio n p o in t.

T h e s a m e a r g u m e n ts c a n be u se d t h a t B a ta v ia w as a
d is tr ib u tio n c e n t r e for c lo th from w e s t A sia a n d silk from C h in a ,
b u t th e r e w ould be n o a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e in th e s e c a s e s .

T h e re is s till m u c h to d is c o v e r a b o u t tr a d in g a c tiv itie s

w ith in B a ta v ia . T h e e x a c t lo c a tio n s o f th e m a r k e ts d u r in g th e
s ix te e n th and se v e n te e n th c e n t u r ie s have not yet been

d e te r m in e d , a lth o u g h th e h is to r ic a l s o u rc e s d e s c rib e a m a r k e t in
f r o n t o f th e S ta d h u is a n d a n o th e r m a r k e t w ith C h in e s e s ta lls .

I t n e e d s to be re m e m b e re d t h a t w h ile th e c e n t r a l p u rp o se

o f t h e D u tc h E a s t I n d ia C o m p an y w a s a lw a y s tra d e , th e re a s o n

for h o ld in g B a ta v ia w as to a v o id o p e n tr a d in g in a m a rk e t; th e

C o m p a n y c o n tro lle d tr a d e o n its te rm s . T h u s m u c h o f th e

b u s in e s s , e s p e c ia lly for c o m m o d itie s in b u lk , w as p ro b a b ly
 122

c o n d u c te d in th e C o m p a n y ’s o ffic e s a n d w a re h o u s e s r a t h e r t h a n

in a m a r k e t p la c e .

D. C on clu sion

T h e p a tt e r n o f s e t t l e m e n t in a F o r t R e g u la te d s ite d iffe rs

from t h a t in th e o t h e r tw o ty p e s o f tr a d in g s ite s . In th e D ire c t

E xchange and th e C o m p le x E n tr e p o t s ite s , th e fo re ig n

s e t t l e m e n t s w ere o u ts id e th e c e n t r e s o f a d m in is tr a tio n w h ic h
w ere lo c a te d in th e p a la c e s o f th e lo c a l ru le rs . In c o n tr a s t, in a
F o rt R e g u la te d s ite , th e fo re ig n s e ttle m e n t w as in th e
a d m in is tr a tio n c e n t r e a n d th e lo c a l a n d m in o rity g ro u p s w ere
k e p t o u ts id e th e c ity c e n t r e . In a C o m p le x E n tre p o t, th e lo c a l
p e o p le w ere liv in g in s id e th e c ity w all. A lth o u g h th e e v id e n c e is
n o t so c le a r a b o u t th e p a tt e r n o f th e s e t t l e m e n t in th e D ire c t
E x c h a n g e s ite s , th e r e is n o d o u b t t h a t th e r u le r o f th e c ity , o r a t

le a s t th e m o re p o w e rfu l n o b le s, c o n tr o lle d th e tr a d in g
a r r a n g e m e n ts in th e s e s ite s .

T h e w r itte n s o u rc e s p ro v id e so m e good in fo rm a tio n a b o u t

th e p ro c e s s o f c h a n g in g a u th o r ity from S u n d a K e la p a / J a y a k a r t a
to B a ta v ia a n d from a D ire c t T ra d in g s ite u n d e r P a n g e ra n

J a y a k a r t a to a F o r t R e g u la te d s ite u n d e r th e D u tc h E a s t I n d ia

C o m p an y . Also, t h e f u r th e r d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e F o r t R e g u la te d

s ite h a s b e e n re c o rd e d in th e D u tc h a r c h iv e s a n d so m e o f th e

b u ild in g s, s t r e e t s a n d c a n a ls c a n s till be re c o g n is e d .
 123

A lth o u g h h is to r ic a l s o u rc e s d e s c rib e th e m a r k e t a n d d a ily

life in s id e th e c ity w all, th is in fo rm a tio n c a n n o t be c o n firm e d

from th e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e . T h e s itu a tio n o u ts id e B a ta v ia

its e lf r e l a ti n g to p e o p le o t h e r t h a n th e D u tc h a n d C h in e s e is s till

u n c le a r, e it h e r from th e w r itte n o r from a rc h a e o lo g ic a l s o u rc e s .

E ven w hen so m e sp e c ific a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e is

a v a ila b le , a s w ith c e r a m ic s , in te r p r e ta tio n o f fu n c tio n is s till

v e ry d iffic u lt. T h u s, th e tr a d in g a c tiv itie s in B a ta v ia re m a in

u n c le a r in m a n y d e ta ils .

N e ith e r w r itte n n o r a rc h a e o lo g ic a l s o u rc e s have g iv en

in f o r m a tio n a b o u t th e w ay th e C o m p an y a n d o th e r tr a d e r s
b o u g h t c e r a m ic s a n d s ilk s from th e C h in e s e tr a d e rs , th e w ay
th e y s to r e d silk s, c e r a m ic s a n d s p ic e s o r th e w ay th e y tr a d e d
w ith o t h e r E u ro p e a n s.

T h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f J a k a r t a c r e a t e s m a n y p ro b le m s for th e
a rc h a e o lo g ic a l s tu d y o f B a ta v ia . T h e n a m e s a n d o th e r f e a tu r e s
o f th e old s e t t l e m e n t s h a v e o fte n b e e n c h a n g e d . A rc h a e o lo g ic a l

o b je c ts a n d s ite s h a v e b e e n d e s tro y e d o r a re s till b u rie d b e c a u s e

th e s ite s h a v e b e e n c o v e re d w ith b u ild in g s. A g a in st th e s e

p ro b le m s, h o w e v er, m u s t be s e t th e a b u n d a n c e o f h is to r ic a l d a ta

a v a ila b le b e c a u s e B a ta v ia w as th e a d m in is tr a tiv e c e n t r e o f th e

D u tc h C o m p a n y 's t r a d in g n e tw o rk from 1 6 1 9 o n w a rd s.
 CHAPTER SEVEN

CONCLUSION

The p a tte rn s of t r a d in g a c tiv itie s in th e I n d o n e s ia n

A rc h ip e la g o c h a n g e d s ig n if ic a n tly d u r in g th e s ix te e n th and
s e v e n t e e n t h c e n tu r ie s , in la rg e p a r t a s a r e s u lt o f c o m p e titio n
b e tw e e n E u ro p e a n and o th e r tr a d e r s in c o lle c tin g and
m o n o p o lis in g th e su p p ly o f sp ic e s . H is to ric a l d o c u m e n ta tio n a n d
a r c h a e o lo g ic a l r e s e a r c h p ro v id e e v id e n c e for th e c h a n g e s in

th r e e ty p e s o f tr a d in g s ite s , e s p e c ia lly in th e w e s te rn p a r t o f th e
I n d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e la g o . H is to ric a l d o c u m e n ts d e s c rib e th e s h if t

o f t r a d in g a c t iv i t ie s fro m o n e m a r k e t to a n o th e r d e p e n d in g o n

th e su p p ly of lo c a l p ro d u c ts , f lu c tu a tin g p ric e s , and th e

in f lu e n c e of lo c a l r u le r s on th e t r a d in g a c tiv itie s ; and

a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e th ro w s f u r th e r lig h t o n th e c h a n g e s by

c o m p a r in g th e m a te r ia l c u ltu r e and a rc h a e o lo g ic a l r e m a in s

a c ro s s d i f f e r e n t p e rio d s . H ow ever, n o t a ll h is to r ic a l in fo rm a tio n

 125

is s u p p o rte d by m a te r ia l c u ltu r e o r v ic e v e rs a . N e v e rth e le s s , we

a re a b le to r e c o n s t r u c t to so m e d e g re e th e tr a d in g a c tiv itie s a n d

a ls o th e g ro w th and d e c lin e o f th e m a jo r c e n t r e s in th e

I n d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e la g o o v e r th e s e tw o c e n tu r ie s . I t is p o ssib le

to sh o w th e s h if t o f a c tiv itie s from o n e p la c e to o th e r p la c e ,

d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e tr a d in g s ite s , th e id e n tity o f v is ito rs , th e

n a tu r e o f tr a d e a n d th e c ir c u m s ta n c e s o f d a ily life.

T h re e ty p e s o f tr a d in g c e n t r e s h a v e b e e n d e fin e d : D ire c t
E x c h a n g e s ite s , C o m p le x E n tr e p o t s i t e s a n d F o r t R e g u la te d
s ite s . T h is c la s s if ic a tio n is b a s e d o n th e o rig in s o f th e tr a d e r s

w h o v is ite d th e tr a d in g c e n t r e s a n d th e tr a d in g s y s te m s w h ic h
o p e ra te d th e r e . T h e r u le r s a n d / o r P a n g lim a c o n tro lle d th e
D ir e c t E x c h a n g e s ite s . T ra d e rs v is ite d s u c h tr a d in g s ite s to

c o lle c t lo c a l p ro d u c ts t h a t w ere h ig h ly v a lu e d , s u c h a s s p ic e s
a n d sa n d a lw o o d , by e x c h a n g in g th e c o m m o d itie s th e y b ro u g h t

from o t h e r p la c e s (su ch a s fo o d stu ffs, c lo th s , iro n goods, a n d

c e ra m ic s ) d ir e c tly w ith th e f irs t h a n d s e lle rs , w ho w e re u su a lly

lo c a l p e o p le from th e D ire c t E x c h a n g e s ite a n d th e a d ja c e n t

re g io n s . By c o n tr a s t, th e C o m p le x E n tr e p o t s ite s , u su a lly

lo c a te d in th e c a p ita l o f a lo c a l k in g d o m , w e re c o n tr o lle d by th e
S u lta n . T r a d e rs from d if f e r e n t n a tio n s b ro u g h t c o m m o d itie s to

th is ty p e o f t r a d in g c e n t r e b o th from t h e i r h o m e c o u n tr ie s a n d

from D ir e c t E x c h a n g e s ite s . T h e re w e re th r e e m a in ty p e s o f

tr a d e r s w h o v is ite d th e C o m p le x E n tr e p o t s ite s : th e tr a d e r s w h o

b ro u g h t lu x u ry c o m m o d itie s from a b ro a d , tr a d e r s w ho b ro u g h t
lo c a l c o m m o d itie s from e ls e w h e re in th e In d o n e s ia n
 126

A rc h ip e lag o , a n d tr a d e r s w ho liv ed in th e C o m p le x E n tre p o ts . In

c o n tr a s t, o n ly c e r t a i n tr a d e r s v is ite d th e F o r t R e g u la te d s i t e s

w h ic h w e re c o n tr o lle d by th e E u ro p e a n s . T h e o w n e rs o f th e

fo rts c o n tro lle d th e su p p ly a n d d e m a n d o f t h e ir s p e c ia lis e d

c o m m o d itie s , s u c h a s sp ic e s , c e r a m ic s a n d c lo th , w h ic h th e y

s to r e d in t h e ir ow n w a re h o u s e s . T h e s y s te m o f tr a d in g h e re w as
s ig n if ic a n tly d i f f e r e n t from t h a t a t th e o t h e r ty p e s o f tr a d in g

s ite s . S in c e m u c h o f th e tr a d e w as in b u lk a n d c o u ld h a v e b e e n

a rr a n g e d in th e o ffic e s o r w a re h o u s e s , m a r k e ts w e re p ro b ab ly
le s s im p o r ta n t.

A lth o u g h th e s e th r e e ty p e s of tr a d in g s ite s can be

d is tin g u is h e d a n a ly tic a lly , in r e a lity th e y w e re r e la te d to e a c h

o th e r . T ra d e rs c o lle c te d lo c a l c o m m o d itie s from th e D ire c t

E xchange s ite s a n d th e n b ro u g h t th e m in to th e C o m p le x
E n tr e p o ts and th e F o r t R e g u la te d s ite s . In th e C o m p le x
E n tr e p o ts a n d F o rt R e g u la te d s ite s , th e c o lle c to r tr a d e r s h a d

p e rm a n e n t s e t tl e m e n ts , w h e re th e y s to re d th e lo c a l
c o m m o d itie s th e y h a d o b ta in e d .

In th e s i x t e e n t h a n d s e v e n t e e n t h c e n tu r ie s , s e v e ra l D ire c t

E x c h a n g e s ite s a n d F o r t R e g u la te d s ite s d e v e lo p e d w ith in th e

I n d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e la g o , b u t o n ly A ceh , B a n te n , G re sik a n d

M a c a ss a r a c te d a s C o m p le x E n tr e p o t site s., A lth o u g h h is to r ic a l

r e c o r d s e x is t for e a c h o f th e th r e e ty p e s o f tr a d in g s ite s , o n ly a

few s i t e s have been a rc h a e o lo g ic a lly s tu d ie d . In th e case

s tu d ie s p r e s e n te d h e re , th e firs t ty p e of tr a d in g s ite is

r e p r e s e n te d by B a ru s o n th e w e s t c o a s t o f S u m a tra , w h ic h w as
 127

th e s u b je c t o f a rc h a e o lo g ic a l s tu d ie s in 1 9 7 8 a n d 1 9 8 5 . B a n te n

h a s b e e n e x c a v a te d s in c e 1 9 6 7 , so t h a t it is ta k e n to r e p r e s e n t a
C o m p le x E n tr e p o t a n d th e th ir d ty p e is r e p r e s e n te d by B a ta v ia
( J a k a rta ) a lth o u g h n o s y s te m a tic a r c h a e o lo g ic a l s tu d y h a s b e e n

u n d e r ta k e n th e r e . B a ta v ia h a s b e e n c h o s e n , h o w e v er, b e c a u s e

by c o m p a ris o n w ith o t h e r F o r t R e g u la te d s ite s , it w as th e m a in

D u tc h t r a d in g p o s t in A sia a n d is w ell d o c u m e n te d in w r itte n

a c c o u n ts , illu s tr a tio n s a n d m ap s.

S o m e a s p e c ts o f th e tr a d in g a c tiv itie s b e tw e e n 1 5 1 1 a n d

1680 in each o f th e th r e e ty p e s o f tr a d in g s ite s a re w ell

d o c u m e n te d , m a in ly by E u ro p e a n s . F o r e x a m p le , th e r e a re
r e c o r d s o f e x a c t d a te s , n u m b e rs o f s h ip s s e n t a n d th e v o lu m e o f

lo c a l c o m m o d itie s c o lle c te d . T h e re a re a ls o a c c o u n ts o f f irs t

c o n t a c t m a d e w ith th e lo c a l r u le r s a n d o ffic ia ls, a n d o f th e
r e la tio n s h ip s b e tw e e n th e lo c a l r u le rs a n d th e tra d e rs .

T h e d o c u m e n ts a ls o p ro v id e a re c o rd o f th e g ro w th o f so m e
c e n t r e s by c o m p a rin g th e illu s tr a tio n s , s k e t c h e s a n d m a p s o f
o n e p la c e m a d e o v e r a p e rio d o f tim e . H ow ever, th e s e d a ta a re

o n ly r e c o r d e d for th e C o m p le x E n tr e p o ts a n d F o r t R e g u la te d

s ite s , w h e re th e w rite rs s ta y e d lo n g e r a n d e v e n e s ta b lis h e d

s e t tl e m e n ts . By c o n tr a s t, th e r e a re a lm o s t n o c o m p a ra b le d a ta

a b o u t t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e D ire c t E x c h a n g e s ite s o r a b o u t th e

p e o p le , c u ltu r e a n d tr a d e to be fo u n d in s u c h s ite s .

T h e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e a d d s so m e p a r tic u la r k in d s o f

in f o r m a tio n r e la tin g to a c tiv itie s in a ll th r e e ty p e s o f s ite .

 128

S e v e ra l c la s s e s o f a r t e f a c ts s u c h a s c e ra m ic s , je w e lle ry , m e ta l

goods, a n d c o in s , fo u n d d u r in g th e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l s tu d ie s m a y
be in te r p r e te d a s th e c o m m o d itie s t h a t w e re b ro u g h t fro m
o u ts id e to th e tr a d in g s ite s . Also, th e f lu c tu a tio n s a n d th e

le n g th o f t r a d in g a c tiv itie s in th e s ite s m a y be u n d e rs to o d from

th e c e r a m ic s , c o in s a n d r e m a in s o f b u ild in g s.

C e ra m ic s from d i f f e r e n t p e rio d s a n d a r e a s c a n h e lp to

r e c o n s t r u c t th e rise a n d d e c lin e o f th e tr a d in g s ite s . For

e x a m p le , th e s h if t o f th e p o rts in B aru s, from L obu T u a to K e d a i

G adang, c a n be d e te c t e d from th e d is tr ib u tio n o f C h in e s e

c e r a m ic s d a te d from S u n g to Q in g d y n a s tie s a n d o f E u ro p e a n
c e r a m ic s fo u n d in th o s e tw o p la c e s . Also, th e c h a n g e o f th e

c a p ita l o f B a n te n from B a n te n G ira n g to B a n te n can be

i n te r p r e te d u s in g C h in e s e c e ra m ic s . In B a ta v ia , h o w e v e r,
c e r a m ic s a re o n ly u se fu l to d e m o n s tr a te t h a t c o m m o d itie s from
o u ts id e B a ta v ia a c c u m u la te d th e r e . T h is c o n firm s th e p o s itio n

o f B a ta v ia a s a tr a d in g c e n t r e c o n tr o llin g m u c h o f th e A sian
m a r k e t.

I t is im p o r ta n t to o b se rv e th a t th is in te r p r e ta tio n of

c e r a m ic s r e s t s n o t o n t h e i r u ltim a te fu c tio n , m a in ly a s u te n s ils

for d a ily life, b u t r a t h e r o n th e n u m b e r a n d ty p e o f p a r tic u la r

w a re s fo u n d a s a tr a d e c o m m o d ity . T h e re is a lso sc o p e to

i n te r p r e t c e r a m ic s a n d p a rtic u la rly s im ila r a r t e f a c ts s u c h a s c la y

p ip e s a n d g la ss b o ttle s a s d i r e c t e v id e n c e for th e c ir c u m s ta n c e s

o f d a ily life, e s p e c ia lly b e tw e e n lo c a l a n d th e E u ro p e a n s.

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T h e w r itte n s o u rc e s a n d a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e p ro v id e

d if f e r e n t ty p e s o f in fo rm a tio n a b o u t tr a d in g a c tiv itie s d u r in g th e

s i x t e e n t h a n d s e v e n t e e n t h c e n tu r ie s . T h e h is to r ic a l d a ta d o n o t

e x p la in th e s h if t o f th e p o rt in B aru s. In B a n te n , h o w e v er,

w r itte n so u rc e s , b o th lo c a l a n d fo re ig n , m e n tio n th e s h if t o f th e

c a p ita l from in la n d to th e co ast and th is is c o n firm e d

a rc h a e o lo g ic a lly . T h e s h if t o f p o w er in S u n d a K e lap a , J a y a k a r t a
a n d B a ta v ia c a n be s e e n from th e h is to r ic a l d a ta , e s p e c ia lly from

m ap s, w ith o u t a n y c e r a m ic e v id e n c e .

A rc h a e o lo g ic a l a r t e f a c ts h a v e n o t b e e n fo u n d to c o n firm
th e w h o le ra n g e o f r e c o rd e d tr a d in g a c tiv itie s . T h e re is m u c h
we o n ly k n o w from th e d o c u m e n ts r e l a ti n g to th e c o n d u c t o f

m a rk e ts , th e a r r a n g e m e n t o f w a re h o u s e s , th e w e ig h ts u se d , a n d
th e a c t u a l b u y e rs a n d s e lle rs . W hile so m e a r t e f a c ts id e n tify th e
n o n -lo c a l c o m m o d itie s such as iro n goods, je w e lle ry and

c e r a m ic s , n o e v id e n c e r e m a in s o f lo c a l c o m m o d itie s , s u c h a s
sp ic e s , t h a t w ere k e y tr a d e goods d u rin g th o s e tw o c e n tu r ie s .

In B arus, h is to r ic a l d a ta g iv es d e ta ile d in fo rm a tio n a b o u t

th e tr a d e r s a n d th e a m o u n ts o f s p ic e s ta k e n o u t from B a ru s,
e s p e c ia lly in th e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n tu r y . T h e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l d a ta

n o t o n ly s u p p o rt so m e o f th e h is to r ic a l in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e

tr a d e r s a n d th e fo re ig n c o m m o d itie s t h a t w e re u se d in e x c h a n g e

for th e lo c a l p ro d u c ts b u t a lso p ro v id e s a d d itio n a l in fo rm a tio n

a b o u t B a ru s b e fo re a n d a f te r th e s e tw o c e n tu r ie s . T h e c e ra m ic s ,

je w e lle ry and in s c r ip tio n s su p p o rt th e rec o rd s o f d if f e r e n t

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tr a d e r s w h o v is ite d B a ru s a n d c o n firm th e c h a n g e in th e p o rt

s ite a n d th e id e n tity o f th e c o n tr o llin g tr a d e r s b e tw e e n th e

e ig h th a n d e ig h t e e n t h c e n tu r ie s .

In B a n te n , a C o m p le x E n tr e p o t s ite , w r itte n s o u rc e s a n d

a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e a re a b u n d a n t. T h e A sian a n d E u ro p e a n

tr a d e r s , so m e o f w h o m s ta y e d for a s h o r t tim e and o th e r s

p e r m a n e n tly , can be tr a c e d u s in g b o th w r itte n and

a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e . Som e a rte fa c ts s u p p o rt th e
in fo rm a tio n from h is to r ic a l s o u rc e s . T h e c e ra m ic s , g lass a n d

c o in s le a d to a r e c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e d if f e r e n t o rig in s o f th e
v is ito rs . H o w ev er, n o t a ll c e r a m ic s n e c e s s a rily in d ic a te th e
p r e s e n c e o f fo re ig n tr a d e r s . F o r e x a m p le , J a p a n e s e c e r a m ic s

h a v e b e e n fo u n d in B a n te n b u t th e s o u r c e s h a v e n o m e n tio n o f
J a p a n e s e v is ito rs h e re . C o n v e rse ly , o t h e r n a tio n s , s u c h a s th e
D a n is h , F le m is h a n d P o rtu g u e s e , a re m e n tio n e d in h is to r ic a l
s o u rc e s , b u t th e y d id n o t p ro d u c e a n y a r t e f a c t s re c o v e re d fro m
th e s ite . I t is d iffic u lt to m a tc h th e in fo rm a tio n from h is to r ic a l
s o u rc e s e x a c tly w ith th e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e a b o u t s u c h

v isito rs .

I n f o rm a tio n a b o u t c o in a g e in th e r e c o r d s d o e s n o t a lw a y s
m a tc h w ith th e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e . T h e re a re s e v e r a l

c o in s m e n tio n e d in th e s o u rc e s s u c h a s cash, cruzados, real, tail,

b u t o n ly C h in e s e casht lo c a l B a n te n c o in s a n d E u ro p e a n c o in s
from th e e ig h t e e n t h c e n tu r y o n w a rd h a v e b e e n fo u n d in B a n te n .

Also th e s i x t e e n t h a n d s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y c o in s t h a t w e re
fo u n d in B a n te n d o n o t n e c e s s a r ily in d ic a te th e p la c e s of
 131

tr a d in g , a s s u c h c o in s h a v e b e e n fo u n d in th e S u ro so w a n p a la c e

a n d lo c a l s e t t l e m e n t s lo c a te d in s id e th e c ity w all r a t h e r t h a n in

th e m a r k e t s ite s . O ne o f th e th r e e m a r k e ts in B a n te n c a n be
r e c o n s tr u c te d b a s e d o n w r itte n s o u rc e s a n d illu s tr a tio n s b u t

th e r e is no a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e to s u p p o rt th a t

r e c o n s tr u c tio n a n d th e in fo rm a tio n a b o u t tr a d in g d e ta ils s u c h a s

w e ig h ts a n d m e a s u re s . C o n v e rse ly , a rc h a e o lo g ic a l a r t e f a c ts

p ro v id e in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e a c t iv i t ie s o f d a ily life, s u c h a s

c o o k in g , b u ild in g , p o tte r y a n d iro n m a k in g a s w ell a s re lig io u s

a n d s o c ia l a c tiv itie s , t h a t a re n o t m e n tio n e d in th e h is to r ic a l
s o u rc e s .

A lth o u g h th e r e h a s b e e n re la tiv e ly little a rc h a e o lo g ic a l

s tu d y of B a ta v ia (J a k a rta ), th e d e v e lo p m e n t of th e F o rt
R e g u la te d s ite c a n be tr a c e d from w r itte n s o u rc e s , illu s tr a tio n s
a n d m ap s. T h o se d a ta p ro v id e n o t o n ly d e s c rip tiv e d e ta ils b u t
a lso p re c is e in fo rm a tio n o n d a te s a n d m e a s u r e m e n ts . S u rv iv in g

b u ild in g s, c a n a ls a n d s t r e e t s s u p p o rt th e r e c o n s tr u c tio n o f t h is
tr a d in g p la c e . In fo rm a tio n a b o u t c o m m o d itie s , h o w e v e r, is le s s

e a s y to fin d , e x c e p t w h a t c a n be in fe rre d from th e w a re h o u s e s

w h e re th e y s to r e d th e c o m m o d itie s . Also, little is k n o w n a b o u t

th e tr a n s a c ti o n s n e g o tia te d in th is s ite b e c a u s e b o th h is to r ic a l

a n d a rc h a e o lo g ic a l d a ta a re s till la c k in g .

A c c o rd in g to th e c o m p a ris o n b e tw e e n t h r e e e x c h a n g e s i t e s

in th e In d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e la g o b e tw e e n s ix te e n th and

s e v e n te e n th c e n tu r ie s , it can be seen th a t th e ty p e of

a r c h a e o lo g ic a l fin d in g s a re q u ite d if fe re n c e . T h is s tu d y c a n h e lp
 132

f u r th e r a rc h a e o lo g ic a l r e s e a r c h e s p e c ia lly r e s e a r c h r e l a ti n g to

s e t tl e m e n ts in c lu d in g t r a d in g a c tiv itie s . A p re d ic tio n o f c e r t a i n

a r t i f a c ts in c e r t a i n ty p e o f e x c h a n g e s ite is im p o r ta n t b e fo re th e

r e s e a r c h is d o n e . H ow ever, th e r e s e a r c h e r s sh o u ld n o t o n ly p a y

a tte n tio n on a rte fa c ts th e y p r e d ic t b e c a u s e e v e ry s ite has

s p e c ia l d a ta w h ic h c o u ld be a n d c o u ld n o t be s im ila r to o t h e r
p la c e s.

In c o n c lu s io n , a rc h a e o lo g ic a l d a t a d o n o t a lw ay s give
su p p o rt to h is to r ic a l d a ta a b o u t th e t r a d in g a c tiv itie s in th e
I n d o n e s ia n A rc h ip e la g o d u r in g th e s i x t e e n t h a n d s e v e n t e e n t h

c e n tu r ie s . T h o se tw o d i f f e r e n t s o u rc e s o f d a ta each give
im p o r ta n t in fo rm a tio n for r e c o n s t r u c t i n g th e tr a d in g s ite s , b u t
th e y a re n o t a lw a y s in a g r e e m e n t. T h e h is to r ic a l d a ta o f te n
p ro v id e a n e x p la n a tio n o f th e c ity la y -o u t a n d la n d -u s e , th e
tra d e rs , c o m m o d itie s a n d a ls o th e tr a d in g s y s te m ; b u t it o n ly
c o v e rs c e r t a i n tim e s , p la c e s a n d g ro u p s. A rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e
c a n p ro v id e in fo rm a tio n a b o u t c o m m o d itie s a rriv in g in t r a d in g
s ite s b u t little a b o u t th e lo c a l c o m m o d itie s ta k e n o u t from th e s e

m a r k e ts . A rc h a e o lo g ic a l d a t a c a n give c lu e s a b o u t th e lo c a l

a c tiv itie s t h a t le a d to a n u n d e r s ta n d in g a n d e x p la in in g th e p a s t

life. H o w ev er, by u s in g h is to r ic a l a n d a rc h a e o lo g ic a l s tu d ie s , a
p ro m is in g e x p la n a tio n a b o u t th e p a s t is p o ssib le .
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