= Flytech Aviation Academy 1-8-303/33, Nagam Towers, 3" and 4” Floor, ST.R Grete, 008. ( E-mail : info Cy IvV- SEMESTER SUBJECT: BASIC AVIONICS MECHANICAL FIXED AND ROTARY WING 2° aAMO CDDADIIDDOOD DDD OODODGOOOO0D00000%BASIC AVIONICS Th Pract Total 70 - 70 140 Aircraft Instrument Systems 140. P3.2.5 Instrument / Avionic Systems 15 Hrs {a) P3.2.5-1 Instrument Systems Pitot static; altimeter , airspeed indicator, vertical speed indicator 3 © Gyroscopic: artificial horizon, attitude director, direction Indicator, horizontal situation indicator, turn’and slip indicator, turn Indicator © Compasses; direct reading, remote reading; © Angle of attack indication, stall warning systems; © Other aircraft system indication RNa (b)P3.2.5.2 Avionic systems S Hrs © Auto flight (ATA 22); Communications (ATA 23) © Navigation Systems (ATA 34) Nw 143. P-3.4.10 Engine Indication System 9 Hrs Engine speed; Cylinder head temperature; Coolant temperature; Oil pressure and temperature; Exhaust gas temperature Fuel pressure and flow; Manifold pressure. BRENENE 144. 2.5.1 Electronic Instrument Systems 4 Hrs * Typical systems arrangements and cockpit layout of electronic 3 Instrument Systems EICAS/ ECAM 1 Pg.No 14 34 39 41 43 46 49 53 53 55 58 64 65 68 71t { | | 145. P 2.5.15 Typical Electronic/Digital Aircraft Systems SHrs EFIS-Electronic Flight Instrument System FBW-Fly by Wire FMS-Flight Management System INS/IRS-Inertial Navigation/Reference System BNE ircraft Eletrical Systems 141. P3.2.6 Electrical Power (ATA 24) 13 Hrs Batteries Installation and Operation; DC power generation; AC power generation; Voltage regulation; Power distribution; Emergency Power, Generation; Inverters, Transformers ,Rectifiers, Circuit protection External/Ground power BNNNwW 142. P 3.2.14 Lights (ATA 33) 5 Hrs 7 88a 95 97 103 106 108 ¢ External; navigation; anti collision, landing, taxing, ice; 2 111 . Internal: Cabin, cockpit, cargo: a 114 P.2.5.15. Built in Test Equipment Sappalds, ircraft Commu: in & Navigation Systems P3.2.5.2 VHF communication system P3.2.5.2 HE communication system P3.2.5.2 — Seleal system P3.2.5.2 ATA 34 navigation system P2.5.15 GPs P2515 ACARS P2.5.15 TCAS P2.2.4 AVIONICS GENERAL TEST EQUIPMENT 122 124 125 126-132 132 135 137 142P3.2.5.1 Instrument System: 15 Hrs. Pitot & Static System: 3 hrs. Pressure or Pitot head:- © Pressure head or probe may be either of the combined pitot-static tube type, or of the single pitot tube type, the latter being used in air data systems that utilize remotely- ocated static vents or ports. The tubes are mounted concentrically, the pitot tube being, inside the static tube which also forms the casing of probe. Static pressure is admitted through small ports around the casing. The pressure are transmitted from their respective tubes by means of metal pipes which may extend to the rear of probe, or at right angles to it, depending on whether the probe is to mounted at leading edge of an aircraft's wing, under a wing, or at the side of a fuselage. The various location of _ pressure head are as follows. @ Wingtpofanaircraft. [ Sub-sonic aircraft] Gratis dent ne tadlagesection < _ Sub-sonic aircraft] @) Ahead of a vertical stabilizer. [Sub-sonic aircraft] ¢ iead of the nose fuselage. [Super-sonic aircraft ] Fig:- 2.5.L1. Pitot & static tube:- Figure 4.5 Basic for of : 2 s eae pitovsate probe. 1 eating Clement, sate dois, 3 Pitot tube connection, 4 satis tube connection, 5 eater element cable, 6 external rain le, 7 pitot ‘ube din ole Static vents:- From the foregoing, it would appear that, if all these problems are created by pressure effects only at static orifices, they might as well be separated from the pressure head and positioned elsewhere on the aircraft. This is one solution and is, in fact, put into practice on many types of aircraft by using a pressure head incorporating a pitot tube only, and a static vent in the side of the fuselage. In some light aircraft the vent may simply be a hole drilled in the fuselage skin, while for more complex aircraft systems specially contoured metal vent plates are fitted to the skin. A typical pitot probe and a static vent are shown.Fig:- 2.8.1.2. Static vent or port:- Fig:- 2.5.1.3, Pitot probe & Static vent- Location of pressure head and static vents For aircraft whose operating ranges are confined to speeds below that of sound some typical locations of pressure heads are ahead of a wing top, ahead of a vertical stabilizer, or at the side of a fuselage nose section. At speeds above that of sound, a pressure head located ahead of the fuselage nose is, in general, the most desirable location. Independent static cents, when fitted, are always located in the skin of a fuselage, one on each side and interconnected so as to minimize dynamic pressure effects due to yawing or sideslip of the aircraft.Fig:- 2.5.1.4 Sources of Pitot & Static pressure: Altimeter: PP © “Purpose: [CEEEE] conn aim ona comruren HEE] roves matte conrnat toons [LED cteveron cess commuren [EEE] eatin mneseune cowrnouien Ciaaee] Sora cermasssere om ersten (CREED) eeren rr courses GSS RA, [EES] gear eer men [ES eutorr ncconoen CEE] rreseune aurmuoe aware The purpose of altimeter is to indicate the height of the aircraft above mean sea level Ci rinciple’ It works on aneroid principle (without liquids). The aneroid has come from the Greek ward ‘aneros’, which means ‘not wet’.Construction:- + The main components of this instrument comprising of the capsule unit rockin shaft system, millibar counter and__re-setting gear train, the motion work and dial Rese 9 Pie, Speact, olence Ho i bag thele, pes Clog mr aiklade , maagehs henley feta a, nae aged ond Seoangs, > mk speed ond > Wied dhreclton -Fig:- 5.15.7 415.3 Inertial Navigation System units. The INS, which is the forerunner of systems and is still currently used in some types of aircraft, utilizes analog and digital signal processing techniques, mechanical arrangements such as gimbaled. platforms, and synchronous servo transmission loops. A system consists of the four principal units shown in fig:- 5.15.7, together with their interconnection, data outputs and the other aircraft systems with which it is generally interfaced. Fig:- 5.15.8 Inertial Navigation System units. hey 847 1. Inertial Navigation Unit (INU): This unit contains an inertial section consisting of accelerometers, gyroscopes and gimbaled platforms, a digital computer and al associated circuit module cards, and a battery unit. 2. Control and Display Unit (CDU): This allows all associated data to be inserted into the computer, and to be read out from it by means of segmented LED displays. 3. Mode Selector Unit (MSU): This unit controls all the modes in which the system can be operated. 4. Battery Unit: This unit provides DC power for turning the system on, and is also used as back-up in the event that power from an aircraft's system is interrupted. Although this type of system is highly accurate, the level of accuracy demanded for the navigation of those aircraft that are designed for operation under what may be termed the ‘computer chips with everything’ philosophy preclude its application to such aircraft in favor of its more sophisticated descendant, namely, the inertial reference system (RS). Inertial Reference Unit (IRS): It performs the same basic navigational functions as an INS, but, as it's fully digital computer can also be pre-programmed with other relevant reference data, there was some justification in changing its name. The system consists of only two principal units. The outputs are supplied to a greater number of interfacing systems, and since the majority of them are also individually by digital computers, signal transmissions are via an ARINC 429 data bus as opposed to conventional ‘had wiring’. The inertial reference unit also contains accelerometers, gyroscopes and the computer, but here, its similarity with the INU referred to earlier ends. The major differences are (@) The gyroscopes are of ring laser type instead of the spinning rotor type. feat (i) The complex mechanical arrangement of a gimbal system and synchronous transmission loops is replaced by a mathematical equation program so that acceleration and attitude signals required for navigation are directly computed (iii) The unit is directly mounted to an airframe, ie. itis of the ‘strap down’ type so that the aircraft itself become the inertial platform. 85(iv) Magnetic and true heading are derived from a program of known data related to the position data loaded into the computer, so that headings can be computed without the aid of MHRS flux detector units (in facts, these units are no longer required in aircraft equipped with an IRS). (v) No battery unit and charger is used. Power suppli Both’DC and AC power is required for system operation which must be maintained in the event of failures occurting. The sources from which power is derived can vary depending on the type of system, but a common feature is that after starting up, the system can be maintained in operation from either of the sources. This is effected by the integration of power supply monitor and conversion circuits in the navigation unit of a system. In a typical gimbaled-platform INS, the AC power is supplied from an essential busbar, and the DC power froma nickel-cadmium battery unit which is part of the system installation. The unit provides auxiliary power for the initial start-up, and also the power to maintain system operation in the event of AC power failure, or a reduction in voltage level. Under these conditions, the battery unit will sustain system operation in any operating mode for periods up to 15 minutes duration. Indication that battery power is in use provided by illumination. of.an amber ‘BATT’ light on the control and display unit (CDU). ‘The battery unit has a direct connection to the system's mode selector switch so that when this is set to the positions for initial starting of the system, battery power is used momentarily for energizing a relay, the contacts of which are connected in the Greuit from the aircraft's AC busbar. Thus, AC power is supplied to the navigation unit via the relay which is then held in the energized state by the DC produced by the power conversion unit. The battery supply remains on for a short ‘period (typically 10 seconds), enabling it to be checked during alignment of the system. On completion of this check, the battery is isolated from the system and is on standby until there is an interruption of the AC power supply. In the event that an external power source is disconnected from an aircraft while the INS in on, battery power will automatically be transferred to the system, and some warning of this is required in order to protect the battery against an inadvertent discharge. In one example of warning system, 2 horn is located in the nose wheel bay of an aircraft, and is activated 30 + 10 seconds after power transfer, thereby alerting the ground crew. The INU is provided with a battery charger circuit which automatically comes into operation when the battery is not in use, and whenever its voltage drops below 2655 V. The charger is disconnected when the on-charge voltage increases to 29.5 V. In multi-system installations, and after interruption of an aircraft's power supply switching arrangements are provided which enable battery units to be 86 to the systems,paralleled in order to sustain the operation of one the navigation units. For example, in 4 triple installation the battery units of Nos 1 and 3 systems can be paralleled to supply the navigation unit of the No. 1 system. In aircraft equipped with IR systems, the use of battery units is eliminated since DC power from the busbar of the aircraft's battery system is utilized for the starting up of a system. This supply is also automatically switched on in the event of alloss of AC power. 873.2.6 ELECTRICAL POWER ATA 24 13 Hrs Batteries installation & operation 3 Hrs DC power Generation AC power Generation 3 Hrs Emergency Power generation & voltage regulation 2Hrs Power distribution 2Hrs Invertors transformers Rectifiers Circuit Protection 2 Hrs External & Ground Power 1 Hr Aircraft batteries: Compared to general use batteries (Ground) aircraft batteries should have some specific characteristics which ensure the safety of aircraft and batteries. Requirement of batteries aircraft is to supply electrical consumers when emergency occurs (Failure of inbuilt Generators or Rectifiers) as well as some aircrafts utilizes the batteries for starting of engines. Starting of engines by means of batteries is to supply required DC consumers as well as AC consumers (Inverters are driven by batteries to have AC power also). During starting of engines required supply is given as per the starting current and voltage by connecting series-parallel combination to improve the Ampere Hour and Voltage Rating of Battery. For aircraft batteries we require additional features are:- Vent Plugs to release gases during flying without spillage of electrolyte, High output to weight ratio, High capacity, Robust construct, (withstand to vibrations and shocks) Free maintenance, Battery Temperature sensor for indi ing the status of battery, Battery Operation: Lead Acid Battery: +4Ve Plate Lead Peroxide PbSO4 -Ve Plate Sponge Lad-Pb Electrolyte: 30% of H2S04 and 70% of distilled water Specific Gravity Fully charged: 1270-1300 mm of Hg Discharged: 1180 mm of Hg ot less Cell voltage: Fully Charged- 2.2 Volts Discharged - 1.8 Volts Separators Fiber Glass, Rubber, wood (Pine Cedar) 88=e - Cell containers - Hard Rubber or Plastic composition (Like compartment) Vent Plug: - Toescape the gasses and not leak out electrolyte Chemical Reaction: Terminals. - Made up of lead TeRmninars 89casvegs + pees wm, Lee Lead Acid Battery Aireraft Lead Acid Battery ~ Charge — Disa Capacity of the battery given b product of current in Amperes and the time in Hours during which a cell ca supply current until its EMF falls 1.8 Volts/cell measured in Ampere Hours (AH). PbO2 + H2 SO4+Pb Pb SO4 +H20+PbSO4 Initial filling, Initial Charging, Capacity Test ( CT) Maintenance: Before initial filling check the manufacturers instruction, visual check, shelf life, charging current Capacity Test or any special care. Leakage Test? Leakage test of the battery must be carried to check the battery condition for cracks or damages during transportation. Initial Filling: Initial filling of the battery to be carried out if the battery received with out filling by manufacturer. Break down the electrolyte to the value prescribed by the manufacturer by adding distilled water. Actual process of breaking down of electrolyte is add acid to water slowly and stir with a glass rod until the specific gravity reaches to 1300 mm of Hg. Add 30% ‘of Concentrated Sulphuric acid solution and 70% of Distilled water, keep the acid to cool and measure the SG by using Hydro Meter to read to the required value, if not add the necessary Acid or Distilled water to get the required SG ( 1270-1300 mm of Hg). Fill the each cell with the electrolyte till the plates are fully submerged in the acid. Initial Charging: Charge the battery at the rate provided by the manufacturer maintenance manual, normally all the batteries are charged at slower rate during initial charging. Supervise the battery throughout the charging process to get all the cell voltages to 2.2 Volts. Charging rate and time must be maintained to get proper charging of battery. Also observe the battery temperature during the process of charging. 902 Capacity Test: Capacity test of the battery must be carried out to know the capacity of the battery for use in aircraft. This process consists of Discharging the battery at normal rate according to the AH rating, Fully charge the battery at normal rate i.e. the cell voltage of the battery reaches to 2.2 Volts/cell then discharge the battery up to cell voltage reaches to 1.8 Volts/cell. Calculate the capacity by noting the total time and rate of discharge and original AH rating of the battery to ascertain the actual capacity of the battery [fthe capacity. of the battery falls below 80% discard the battery for aircrafi use. Capacity Test is carried out on the following oceasions:- i) After Initial Filling ii) After every 3 months iii) Whenever the capacity of the battery suspected to be low. Insulation Resistance Check: Insulation resistance check of the battery to be carried out by using 250 volts. insulation tester or Meggar, insulation resistance should not be less than 1 Meg Ohm. m arte Precautions during charging: 1. Emission of H2 and 02 ( Hydrogen and Oxygen) explosive mixture, no naked light should be present. Lighter should not be lit or any Spark. Forced air for removing dangerous fumes. ‘Tum off the battery charger first before disconnection of battery. Nickel Cadmium Battery: This battery works on the principle of Oxidation and reduction. A steel battery box contains the cells connected in series to gain the desired voltage (1.2V per cell nominal). Cells are made of light durable polyamide or nylon with multiple nickel-cadmium plates welded together for each electrode inside. A separator or liner made of silicone rubber acts as an insulator and a gas barrier between the electrodes. Cells are flooded with an electrolyte of 30% aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH). The specific gravity of the electrolyte does not indicate if the battery is empty or full but changes mainly with venting of water. The top of the cell contains # space for excess electrolyte and a pressure release vent. Large nickel plated copper studs and thick interconnecting links assure minimum electrical resistance for the battery. Charging: Vented cell voltage rises rapidly at the end of charge allowing for very simple charger circuitry to be used. Typically a battery is constant current charged at ICA rate until all the cells have reached at least 1.55V. Another charge cycle follows at 0.1CA rate, again until all cells have reached 1.55V. The charge is finished with an Over Charge or top-up charge, typically for not Tess than 4 hours at 0.1CA rate. The purpose of the Over Charge is to expel as much if not all the gases collected on the electrodes, Hydrogen on the Anode and Oxygen on the Cathode, and some of these gases recombine to form water which in turn will raise the electrolyte level to its highest level after which it is safe to adjust the electrolyte levels. During the Over Charge or top-up os Se 91charge the cell voltages will go beyond 1.6V and then slowly start to drop. No cell should rise above 1.71 (dry cell) or drop below 1.55V (gas barrier broken). Charging is done with vent caps loosened or open. A stuck vent might increase the pressure in the cell. It will also allow for refilling of water to correct levels before the end of the top-up charge while the charge current is still on. However cells should be closed again as soon as the vents have been cleaned and checked since carbon dioxide dissolved from outside air carbonates the cells and ages the battery. In an aircraft installation with a floating battery electrical system the regulator voltage is set to charge the battery at constant potential charge (typically 14 or 28 volts). If this voltage is set too high it will result in rapid water loss. A broken regulator diode will allow the charge voltage to rise well above this, causing a massive overcharge with boiling over of the electrolyte. The cells will age slowly due to carbon-dioxide carbonating the cells. To prevent this, the vents should be kept closed and pressure tested periodically. A typical aircraft battery used for engine starting has been rated to deliver over 15 kilowatts of power for 15 seconds. The load operates at around the internal resistance of the battery and the voltage loss at battery is equal to the load. Construction: It consists of the following:- +Ve Plate - Nickel Oxy Hydroxide Ni(OH)4 -Ve plate - Cadmium Electrolyte - KOH (70% H20 + 30% KOH) Separator - Porous multi laminate of woven nylon with layers of Cella Phone ( Cella Phone to prevent Thermal Runway) Container = Stainless Steel, Carbon Steel or Fiber Glass Cell Cover - Plastic Charge Ni(OH)4 + KOH + Cd Niforyz? KOH + CD (OH)2 Diss Like Lead Acid battery the basic difference is the Specific Gravity of the electrolyte does not depends up on the state of charge. Electrolyte acting only as a media (Conductor) for transfer of Ions from one electrode to other electrode, chemical composition does not change. As the Nickel Cadmium batteries are working on the principle of Oxidation and Reduction means: Oxidation = . Any process that removes electrons from a substance Reduction - Any process that adds electrons to a substance‘As mentioned above for Lead Acid Battery Charging procedures to be followed according to the manufécturers manuals i.e. current rating for charge or discharge and maintenance practices which are requited to keep up the battery condition to get maximum life of the battery. Never add water before charging, 2-3 hours after charging only should be added Low level of electrolyte will give the state of battery. Battery Reconditioning: — Due to Constant Voltage charging of battery in air craft the cells may be imbalanced i.e. the voltage of each cell differs each other. Difference in Temperature, varying self discharge rates and low level of electrolyte the batteries must be inspected to the above faults to maintain the battery condition throughout the life of battery. Battery Maintenance: Battery inspection, Battery Discharge, Battery Discharge, Battery CT, Disassembly,Cleaning, Repair if needed. These all activities must be carried out according to the manufacturers maintenance manual to keep the battery in fully charged condition to give maximum efficiency to increase the life of the battery to maximum level. Electric leak check to be carried out prior to reconditioning in charged state, Check the leakage current with mille terminal and battery case that should not exceed 50 mA, more than the limit replace the cell. Cell damaged due to Thermal Runway Cadmium battery cell connections and vent plugs ss -- Zeroing: Procedure of dropping cell voltage to Zero by’ Shorting (0.5V)_(During cell imbalance). Equalization: Dropping to Zero and recharging the battery with deep cycle at 5 Hrs rate. 93rs inci ‘unctions of battery o! aH 1. To share the load along with generator under transient conditions (inventers pumps and short circuit). 2. To start the engine when ground power is not available (internal start) 3. To take over essential loads in case of generator failure. Features of A/C Batteries : 1. A completely assembled metal encased battery cell containers are integral with metal shielding box coated with acid resistant paint. 2, There has to be a provision for a tube to carry the battery gasses to over board for any battery being charged on A/C. 3, Battery connections for light A/C (Cessna) are individual cables of (+ve) and (-ve). For large A/C the method employed is the plug and socket type connectors. Socket is integral part of battery container. 4, “Vented cell” (vent plugs for each cell) type battery is used for light A/C. The inter cell ‘connectors are internal and permittivity sealed with an epoxy resin. The battery contains 12 cells six on each side 5, The sealed (recombinant gas) battery is more powerful, less maintenance required when compare with vented type. 6. Battery with sealed case except +ve and -ve connections visible for light A/C. A gas collecting manifold is provided with an air inlet and an air flow through the manifold carries gasses and fumes over board. +7 ‘The Nickel cadmium battery is made of individual removable cells. For 12v A/C systems 9 or 10 cells, for 24v 19 or 20 cells connected in series. These individual cells are placed in an insulated metal or plastic case connected to extemal post or quick disconnect unit. 8. Ventilation is provided with in the battery compartment through ‘rubber tubes both inlet ‘and outlet. Some cases acid traps in the form of polythene bottles are inserted in the Tines to prevent acid spray being objected on the outer skin of A/C. 9, Temperature sensing devices are located with in the battery container to provide a warning of high battery temperature and to prevent over charging y disconnecting batteries from the charging source at a predetermined temperature. Battery Connections 04‘A switch in an aircraft electrical systems that can disconnect the battery from the bus and open ‘the generator or alternator field circuit. ‘When the master s/w is closed current flows through the coil and produces the magnetic pull that closes the contacts. Current flows tox the battery bus. The point in the A/C from which all other circuits get their power. The purpose of reverse biased diode installed across the coil of the battery contactor allows the induced current that is produced when the master s/w contacts open to be dissipated in the coil rather than arcing across the switch contacts. Direct current power system consists of a.DC generator. Internal battery and its associated protection and controlling equipment. If AC generator is prime supply source. Transformer rectifier unit (TRU) for supplying DC. Auxiliary power Unit (APU’s) can either be Dc generator or AC generator and TRU. Beturerual power Supply Systenis A single battery or several batteries connected mostly in parallel are used to supply essential services under emergency conditions. Number of batteries employed in A/C depends on size of A/C and the power requirements for operation of essential services. DC ALTERNATOR > The rotor is formed by two extruded steel pole pieces which are press fitted on to the rotor shaft, with 2 ventilating fan on drive end, to sandwich a field coil, thus form core of electromagnet. Each pole piece has six fingers, which in position mesh do not touch each other. > The excitation current 4 amps maximum is fed to field coil on the rotor via brushes and slip rings. Slip rings are press fitted on to the rotor shaft > The stator is made of number of steel stampings riveted together to form the core around which three star connected phase coil are wound. One end of each winding connected to bridge rectifier assembly other end to neutral point, stator assembly clamped between the end frames. 95> DC alternator is driven by either belt and pully or gear driven and flange mounted on engine, cooling is by fan as load is low. ectier coves Figure : The internal circuit of a typical light-aircraft DC alternator The output of alternator either 14V (13.8 to 14.2V) for 12V battery 28V (27.6 to 28.4) for 24V batter. Maximum load is 60 Amps. The drive end head contains a pre-lubricated bearing, an oil seal, collar and shaft seal and blast tube connection, fan for ventilation. Slip rings, slip ring end bearing, inner race and spacer are other end. The rotor windings and leads are treated with high temperature epoxy cement to provide vibration and temperature resistance. ‘The stator of alternator has special electrical lead that is connected to the center of three phase winding. This lead may be used to activate low voltage warning system or relays, if not used insulated and secured to stator core. The entire stator assembly coated with heat resistant epoxy varnish Six diodes rectify the AC voltage mounted on assembly plate +ve diode electrically separated by ve diode. Each diode is connected to alternator stator either by high temperature solder or crimp type terminals. The brush end housing provides the mounting for rectifiers and its assembly plates. The output and auxiliary terminal studs brush and roller assembly. The outer race assembly and grease seal 96= x > > The brush holder assembly has two brushes, each brush is connected to separate terminal stud and insulated from ground. Figure: A typical alternator for a light airplane. eau Output voltage of DC generator varies with load and speed. It is important to keep voltage constant under varying load and speed. This can be achieved by controlling the strength of field in tum controlling the field current, This is possible by using variable resistor in the field circuit out side the generator. The three types of voltage regulators used on AJC are i Vibrating contact method Carbon Pile voltage regulator Solid state voltage Regulator. Solid State Voltage Regulator ; > Most widely used it consists of transistors as switching devices Zener diodes as voltage regulator and resistances. di vi ri a cs Te ek nr — Nompor floap ve 97> V input DC voltage whose variations to be regulated. Zenerdiode is always reverse connected (Reverse biased) across Vin when PD across diode is greater than V2. It conducts draws very high current through series resistance R. Load resistance Ri, Constant Vou. > Ryis fixed Vis increased, will increase I this increase of lis absorbed by I, Zener diode without effecting the IL. > The three transistors are NPN arrangement. When the alternator s/w is on field relay energies. Current from bus bar (Battery) initially flows to the base of TR2 through 2 voltage dividing network made of Ri and Rz and Ry. The purpose of this network is to establish system operating voltage by working in conjunction with Zener diode ‘Z’. > With power applied current flows to emitter collector junction of TR2 this amplified output from emitter circuit flows to the base of TR3 there by switching it on so that battery current supplied to the field winding can be conducted to ground via collector emitter junction of TR3. > When the DC alternator is running rectified output supplied to bus bar. When the DC alternator output reaches the preset operating value the current flowing in the reverse direction through Zener diode cause it to break down and to allow the current flow to the base of TRI thus TRI si switched on the collector emitter junction of TR1 now conducts there by diverting the current always form base of TR2 switch off thus switching off “TR3. By this excitation current is switched off to field. So dropping alternator output. Figure: Solid-state voltage regulator > When the alternator output falls to a value which permits Zener diode to cease conduction making TRI switch off. Thus current to the field winding restored through TR2 and TR3, 98> This sequence of operating repeated so the DC alternators output voltage can be 7 maintained preset operating value. | » The rectifier D1 across field winding provides a path so that field current can fall at a a slower rate and thus prevent generation of high voltage at TR3 each time it is switches 7 off. | tart erator | ‘Turbine-Engine Starter-Generator System; Most of the smaller turbine engines jet airplanes have a combination starter-generator rather than @ separate starter and generator. These units resemble heavy-duty, compound-wound DC generators, but they have and extra set of series windings. The series motor windings are \ switched into the circuit when the engine is started, but as soon as it is running, they are switched out I sorernate I Pest | Be | cae 4 ae ) — 4 ‘shane Lt > L Figure (a): Internal circuit of a turbine | engine starter generator. Starter-generator : ie A single-component starter and generator used on many of the smaller gas-turbine engines. It is used as a starter and when the engine is running, its circuitry is shifted so that it acts as a generator. 99Figure 7-42 Turbine-engine starter-generator system. Brush Less Alternators Advantages: i. Lower maintenance cost, since there is no brush or slip ring wear. ii, High stability and consistency of output because variations of resistance and conductivity at brushes and slip rings are eliminated. ee Better performance at high altitude. Because arcing of brushes are eliminated. 2) Se {a : oureur ane PERUANENT EXCITER excrreR FIELD ourrur HAGKET OUTPUT RECTIFIER (foro Figure 7-42 Ina brushless alternator there are actually three generators, the permanent magnet generator, the exciter generator, and the main generator. The permanent magnet generator induces voltage into the exciter generator, which in turn supplies the field current for the main generator. > There are three separate generators in one case 100i. Permanent magnet generator ii, The exeiter generator iii, Main alternator. > Permanent magnet is connected to the rotor, which rotates induces alternating current ‘output in stationary three phase armature winding. This 1200 Hz out put is connected to GCU (generator control unit). It rectifies and sends De voltage to exciter field winding (Stationary). ‘c= VARIABLE-DISPLACEMENT Pi xc DisPLaceMenT PUMP WOBBLE PLATE J. coveron comaot EvUNDER as \ (GENERATOR one canmier SHAFT om oan rae redress RXED.UNIT RING GEAR” Figure: A constant speed drive axial-gear differential such as the one shown here, is used in the Sunstrand integrated Drive Generator > Exciter generator armature mounted on same rotor shafi, when it rotates with in static field. Alternating current is induced in 3-phase rotor. This output is connected to rotating rectifiers unit, which changes this AC to DC sends this De to main alternator field (rotating) > Permanent magnet, exciter generators three phase armature, Rectifiers and main alternator field (rotor) form the rotating part (rotor) of brush less alternator. > When main alternator field rotates 3-phase AC EMF is induced in the (¥) star wound stator which is connected to AC bus bar. The output 208v 3-phase or 120v 1-0 AC bus bar supplies to various AC loads. > The generator control unit monitors. The alternator output in turn regulates the field current if needed. 101I Figure: A typical constant-speed drive and generator assembly. d Dri enerator, IDG produces AC power, it contains both the generator and constant speed drive in one unit. > > v This system reduces the weight and size of traditional two unit system. ‘The CSD contains hydraulic trim assembly and differential assembly, converts variable engine RPM to an alternator speed of 1200 RPM. This increase in speed and better cooling allow the reduction of alternator size without decreasing output power. Boeing 757 has 90 KVA brush alternator for continuous operation. fy 102Emergency Power Generation Aircraft Electrical Systems _ EHJ Pallet 52 Emergency power is required in the case of failure of all generators and APU generator. These generators have low output since it has to supply only essential consumer equipment under emergency conditions. : ‘These generators are driven by ram air. The drive consists of two bladed fan or the fan to a single AC generator. The complete unit is stowed on a special mounting in the A/C fuselage and when required handle in flight compartment When deployed at air speed of 120 to 430 kms, the fan and generator driven up to their appropriate speeds by the air stream and electrical power is delivered via regulator at rated valued. Fan speed is 4800 RPM gear develops generator shaft speed 1200 RPM. After deployment it can only be restored when the aircraft is on the ground. The nominal power is 5 KVA. Nominal Voltage is 115/200V Ac Three phase 400Hz. turbine and a step up ratio gear train which connects Power Distribution Electrical system requirements: Title 14 of the code of federal regulation part 23 FAR part 25 Each electrical system must be able to furnish the required power at the proper voltage to each load circuit essential for safe operation. Each electrical system must be free from hazards in itself in its method of operation and in its effects on other parts of the Air craft must be protected from the damage minimal possibility of electric shock. Electrical power sources must function properly when connected in combination or independently and no failure or malfunction of any electrical source may impair the ability of the remaining source to supply essential loads. Each system must be designed so that essential load circuits can be supplied in the event of reasonably probable faults or open circuits. There must be at least one generator/alternator if the electrical system supplies power to load circuits essential for safe operation and immediate waming to flight crew in the event failure. There must e a master switch installed in the electrical system that allows the electrical power source to be disconnected from the main bus. Aircraft can be operated safely in Visual Flight Rules ( VFR) condition for a period not less than 5 minutes with the normal electric power sources excluding the battery in operative Classi 1 of electrical consumers: Vital services: ‘Those which would be required after an emergency wheels up landing, Eg — Emergency lighting. Crash switch operation of fire extinguishers. Connected to hot battery bus bar. Essential Services: Those required to ensure safe flight in an in flight emergency situation will be always supplied from generator or batteries Eg: Engine Instruments.Non Essential Services: Isolated in an in flight emergency for load shedding purpose. ‘Connected to generator: Eg. Entertainment system ( Gally Equipment) Hot Batterv Bus: A bus bar connected directly to the battery without any relay or switch in beoween. Vital services connected De bus bar system: The system comprises of intemal batteries, external power receptacle and DC generators. Vital loads are connected to battery bus bar (Hot battery bus). Essential DC consumers are connected to center bus bar. Both the DC generators connected to centre bus bar through their individual bus bars and circuit breakers. In addition to DC generators batteries and external DC supplies are connected to centre bus bar for essential consumers in emergency and ground operations. ‘Non essential DC consumers are connected to individual generator bus bars which are energized by ground power supply during ground operations. Under normal operation of flight DC generators supplies non-essential loads independently and essential loads in parallel to centre bus bar in turn batteries are getting charged at constant voltage system. In case of NO.I DC generator fails, No.2 Generator supplies the essential loads through centre bus bar. Non essential loads are disconnected . If No.2 generator fails No.1 follows the same sequence. When both generators are failed internal batteries take over’s the loads of centre bus bar (Essential consumers) only. ‘Addition to DC consumers AC consumers are also getting supply from DC Power through its intemal conversion equipment ( Invertors)._ AC non essential consumers are supplied by individual inverters which are connected to No.1 and No.2 DC generator bus bars, and essential AC consumers are connected to Inverter which is connected to centre bus bar. Tn case of any generator failure the inverters which are connected to the individual DC Generator bus bars are disconnected. Emergency AC loads are getting supply from inverter, which is connected to centre bus bar and fed by other generator which is serviceable. If both generators are failed the centre bus bar is fed by batteries in tum powers the inverter which is supplying the AC essential consumers. eas eeeai es => 10sSplit bus bar system (AC power source) Difficulty in parallel running of alternators on AC bus bars are splitted. Each alternator hhas got individual bus ber. Aircraft is utilizing non parallel constant frequency alternators as a primary source. Direct current is supplied by TRU’s ( Transformer Rectifier Units) The essential AC consumer loads are supplied from essential bus bar, which under normal operating conditions is connected to No 1 AC bus bar. The main bus bars (No.1 AC bus bar and No2 bus bar) are normally isolated each other by “bus tie breaker” (BTB) indicating these are not paralleled. Internal aircraft battery supplies battery bus br. Dc essential bus bar which provides DC supply to vital and essential DC Consumers. Alternating current essential consumers are provided with static inverter out put through which essential AC consumer bus bar by change over switch operation. If any one of the AC generator fails the BTB energizes closes its contact thus by serving NO. and No.2 AC bus bars. So all AC consumers, both TRU’s are functioning If both AC generators No.1 and No.2 fails Non essential AC loads ( No.1 and No.2 AC bus bars) are isolated by the relay between No.1 AC bus bar and Essential AC bus bar thus relay de energized shifts the contact so AC essential loads are supplied by static inverter from DC essential bus bar. DC supply is derived from independent TRU’s also from batteries No. TRU supplies essential DC loads. Where as NO.2 to no essential. Both the DC bus bars are inter connected by an Isolation relay. ‘The batteries are connected to hot bus bar or battery bus bar. ‘ This is inter connected 10 No.1 DC bus bar or essential DC bus bar by battery rélay In case both alternators fails the main DC bus bar ( DC non essential bus bar) isolated from ig 22 Spt bstr stem (rary +. pone sue) essential DC bus bar with the operation of isolation relay. 105[VERTERS Tnverter is a device for converting direct current in to alternating current as per requirements (26 V 400 HZ or 115 V 400 HZ). Inverters are used to supply essential AC consumers in case of failure of main AC generators on large aircraft. In small aircraft inverters are used to supply AC to Consumers like engine instruments which works on alternating current. Inverters are classified as rotary an Static. Silicon Diodes because of their ability to handle large blocks of power in a small space, are used as power diodes. (Germanium diodes are used for ratings up to a few watts only). ‘A typical cross-section of the silicon diode is shown in Fig. 10.6. The active material is a thin wafer (a few thousandths of a millimeter only) of treated silicon connected to copper or ‘aluminum terminals by special process. One terminal is in the form of a pig tail (a connector used in the case of small units) and the other a stud to facilitate mounting. The barrier layer is within the wafer. The whole unit is hermetically sealed to exclude the contaminants. Silicon diodes are mechanically rugged, resistant to vibration and shock, and can be operated in any position. They can also be rotated at high speeds, as in generators and synchronous motors, without any adverse effect on their performance. The fife of ;- hermetically sealed silicon diode has not been established, but if operated within the designed conditions, it can be indefinite. The feilure is usually due to manufacturing defects or improper operating conditions. The efficiency of silicon diodes varies from 96 to 99.5%. Fig. 10.6. Section of a Sion Diet TRANSFORMER RECTIFIER UNITS Transformer Rectifier Units (TRU) are combinations of static transformers and rectifiers, and are utilized in some aircraft systems es secondary supply units, and also as the main conversion units in aircraft having rectified aircraft power systems, 106= ‘Schema crit of tansfoeneeciferit Fig. 3.16 illustrates 2 TRU designed to operate on a regulated three-phase input of 200 volts to 2 frequency of 400 HZ and to provide a continuous DC out put of 110A at approximately 26 Volts. The circuit is shown schematically in Fig. 3.17. The unit consists of a transformer and two three- phase bridge rectifier assemblies mounted in separate sections of the casing. The transformer has a conventional Star-wound primary winding and secondary windings wound in Star and Delta. Each secondary windings connected to individual bridge rectifier assemblies made up of 107six silicon diodes, ad connected in parallel. An ammeter shunt (dropping 50 mV at 100A) is ‘connected in the output side of the rectifiers to enable current taken from the main DC terminals. These terminals, together with all others associated with input and output circuits, are grouped on a panel at one end of the unit. Cooling of the unit is by .natural convection though gauze- covered ventilation panels.and in order to give waming of over-heating conditions, thermal switches are provided at the transformer and rectifier assemblies, and are connected to independent warning lights. The switches are supplied with DC from an éxternal source ( normally one of the busbars) and their contacts close when temperature conditions at their respective locations rise to approximately 150°C and 200°C. EXTERNAL & GROUND POWER Requirement: External/Ground Power required to furnish electrical power for scheduled maintenance, rectification and ground handling operations like cargo loading and ground starting of aircraft Engines/APU DC External Power Supply Connections: Two pin extemal ground power connector. Ground / Flight switch When selected to Ground external supply connected to main bus bar when selected to “Flight” battery is connected to main bus bar thus DC generator charges the battery Larger diameters smaller diameters of ground power connectors or receptacles prevent a reverse polarity condition. Cover of the unit had to be rotated to expose the sockets. 3 opin plug External supely Three Pin Receptacle system: Fig 4.2 asic cxternal power supply system ideThree pin receptacle consists of two +Ve pins ( one larger other smaller) One ~ Ve pin ( Larger) Pins are enclosed by protective shroud. Complete unit is fitted in a recessed housing located appropriate part of air frame structure, Access to the plug from out side the aircraft via a hinged flap provided with quick release fasteners. Short. + Ve pin is connected to the coil of External Power relay. It is connected at last while in. While removing the socket it breaks first. In the event of external power supply socket “Live” the extemal power relay coil de energized thus contact open before the main pins are disengaged. This prevents arcing of heavy duty main contacts at main pins. Fuse R De A ppicel aircraft ground-power circuit External ac supply connector and control panel: This system is used for large public transport aircraft. The receptacle is of six prong type. . Three large prongs for the corresponding three Phases (A,B C) and one more large prong for ground or neutral connection between aircraft structure and extemal power. The two shorter prongs connect DC power for the interlocking relays which connect the extemal AC power to the aircraft. Control panels contains of three single phase AC circuit breakers and three more breakers which protect relay control and indicating light circuits with in Aircraft external power supply circuits. Indicator light, Inter phone jack plug sockets and pilots call button. White indicator light indicates external AC power is connected but is not supplying power to any AC loads bus bar on the aircraft. “Blue light” indicates when ever AC power ‘supplied to load bus bars. Pilots call button switch and inter phone jack plug sockets provide for communication between ground crew and flight crew. 1092a de baer yee non babe SPLIT BUS BAR SYSSTEM ( AC POWER SOSURC! Difficulty 1 parallel running of alternators on aircraft bus bars are splitted. Each alternator has got individual bus bar. ‘Aircraft is utilizing non parallel constant frequency alternators as a primary source. Direct current is supplied by TRU’s ( Transformer Rectifier Units) The essential AC consumer loads are supplied from essential bus bar, which under normal operating conditions is connected to No 1 AC bus bar. The main bus bars (No.1 AC bus bar and No2 bus bar) are normally isolated each other by “bus tie breaker” (BTB) indicating these are not paralleled. If any one of the AC generator fails the BTB. energizes closes its contact thus by serving NO.1 and No.2 AC bus bars. So all AC consumers, both TRU’s are functioning. If both AC generators No.1 and No.2 fails Non essential AC loads ( No.i and No.2 AC bus bars) are isolated by the relay between No.1 AC bus bar and Essential AC bus bar thus relay de energized shifts the contact so AC essential loads are supplied by static inverter from DC essential bus bar. DC supply is derived from independent TRU’s also from batteries No.1 TRU supplies essential DC loads. Where as NO.2 to no essential. Both the DC bus bars are inter connected by an Isolation relay. The batteries are connected to hot bus bar or battery bus bar. This is inter connected to No.1 DC bus bar or essential DC bus bar by battery relay In case both alternators fails the main DC bus bar ( DC non essential bus bar) isolated from essential DC bus bar with the operation of isolation relay. 110P.3.2.14 Aireraft Lighting System: ATA 33 lect ighting: Internal and External lighting, Anti collision Lights, Strobe lights, Landing lights and their circuits. ATA __ 100 Chapter 033 deals with lighting - All airerafts approved for flying at night must be equipped with various lights. Abert Lighting: 1. Marking of an aircraft position by means of navigation lights. 2. Position marking by means of flashing lights. Forward illumination for landing and taxing. Illumination of wings and engine air intakes to check for icing. Illumination to permit evacuation of passengers after an emergency landing. pee urs Navigation Positional Lights: Internationally accepted by statutory rules of air and orders for air traffic and air navigation control regulations. Nav Lights ce GREEN STAR BAR, tums MI RIGa = white= A green light at or near star board or right wing Tip — visible in the horizontal plane from a point directly ahead ( forward motion) through an area of 110° to star board A ‘red ‘ light at or near port or left wing tip with a similar are of visibility (110°) to port ‘A “white” light usually mounted on the top of vertical stabilizer (Fin) or aircraft tail. ‘Their rear or aft position must show 70°each side of the center line of the’aircraft and to the rear (140°) White light mounted on each trailing wing tip for DC-10 lock head 1011: Tri star aircraft Lamp is of filament type with a transparent colored screen or cap. These lights are operated with single circuit. One fuse of one CB and one switch. Leading edge landing lamps can be turned on several miles away from landing. Aanding Light These lights are required to provide adequate light to illuminate the runway when aircraft is making landing. A parabolic reflector is used to concentrate the light into the beam of desired width. These lights may be installed to the stationary part of nose gear, in the leading edges of the wings or engine cowl. Retractable landing lights in the lower surface of wings. Landing lamps have 600 Watis capacity with a supply of 28 V DC or 28 V AC. Leading edge landing lamps can be turned on several miles from landing. When the contro! switch is paced in “ Extend” position , 115 V supply passes through extend field winding of motor until itis interrupted by extend limit switch, Retract limit switch closes soon after motor extending the, light. The switch in the supply circuit to light also closes but light is not illuminated until it is fully extended and the control switch placed on position. Power supply to light reduced to 115 V step down transformer . Figure 7 nas oo Aa Retract RevRasr Extending / Reteactng Landing Light civeuit in Refract Posi u2These are sealed beam type located at fuselage nose section ( nose landing gear assembly). The power rating 250 Watts and 28V DC or AC = Some of the aircraft landing/taxing light filaments combined in one light having 600 ‘watts and 400 watts respectively. ~ Some larger transport aircraft are equipped with lights as run way tum off lights. The purpose is to illuminate the points along the runway at which aircraft must tum to leave the run way after landing. Operated by switch and solenoid. /Aanti collision lights: - It is designed to make the presence of an a/c visible to pilot and crew members of other aircraft in the vicinity. Particularly in area of high density aviation activity at night and in conditions or reduced visibility. ~ These lights are mounted on the top of the fuselage. The top of the vertical stabilizer (for small aircraft) and on the bottom of the fuselage. + Two basic type of anti collision lights (@ Rotating beam (b) Strobe lighting Rotating beacons or rotating beam lights: It consists of filament lamp unit with reflector and motor. Motor may drive reflector or lamp unit: through gear and pinion type with specific reduction ratio. Light unit can be operated 28 V DC or 28 V AC::motor . 115 V AC. Typical speed of motor 40-45 rev/min giving a frequency of 80-90 cycles per minute. Strobe Light It consists of quartz or glass tube filled with xenon gas. This is connected to the power supply unit consists of capacitor. Capacitor converts 28 V DC of 115 V AC in to high input DC of 450 Volts. Capacitor charges at this voltage and periodically discharged by trigger circuit between two electrodes in the xenon filed tube. Thus producing high intensity flash of light in the blue white colour. It has got the frequency of 70 flashes per minute. The principle is capacitor discharge in flash tube or strobe scope. Strobe light can be used as anti collision system or at wing tips. The duration of flash is 0.001 sec. intensity is more can be seen from miles Fitted in such a way light will not affect the vision of crew members. Anti collision lights if not installed by manufacturer, must be installed as per FAA publication AC 43-12-2A, regulation conceming such lights are provided FAR part 23 and part 25. ICE Inspection Lights: These lights are used to detect the formation of ice on the leding ‘edges of wings and also at the air intakes of turbine engines. They are recessed into the side of fuselage and pretest to direct the beams to at a required angle for rear mounted engines lights recessed to the trailing edges of wings. The power of lamps are 60 to 250 watts depending on light intensity/ Internal Lighting System: 1. Illumination of Cockpit Instruments and control panels. 2. Illumination of Passengers cabins and passenger information signs 3. Indication and waming system of operating conditions. Cockpit or Operational Lighting: Integral lighting is one in which light source is with.in instruments. These lights installed behind face of instrument panel. These lights illuminate the instruments but do not shine directly to wards the pilot or copilot. All instrument lights are shielded like this. These lights provide wit dimming arrangement so intensity can be adjusted. Pillar and bridge lighting number of lights are positioned on panels to illuminate small adjacent areas. Flood lights lamps are positioned around the cockpit to illuminate specific panels or general area. Warning lights are provided to alert the pilot and crew to operating conditions with in aircraft systems. Red - Danger Amber- Caution Green - Safe Condition White - Information purpose Passenger Cabin Lighting System: Depends up on size of cabin and largely on the interior-décor adopted for the type of aircraft can be cartied from roof mounted incandescent lamp fittings to large number of fluorescent lamps located in ceilings and had racks to give pleasing. Concealed and functional lighting effects. Works on DC or AC. Passenger service lighting fitted in galleys, toilet compartments freight compartments and equipment bays. Lights can be incandescent type or electro luminescent type. Passenger information signs like “Fasten Seat Belts”. “Return to Cabin” are conttolled by switches on cockpit over heed panel. Emergency Lighting System: These lights are fitted at cabin exits escape hatches of lower levels. It provides lighting for emergency evacuation of passengers in situation like crash landing during night. These lights are controlled by emergency battery pack or air craft battery. ua= P.2.5.15 Built In Test Equipment (BITE) 01 Hr ECAM (Electronic Centralized Aireraft Monitoring) o1Hr EICAS (Engine Indication and Crew Ale 02 Hr BITE (BUILT IN TEST EQUIPMENT) BITE system found on modern aircraft is designed to rectify the faults in the various aircraft systems encountered during maintenance. It provides fault detection, fault isolation and operational verification after the fault rectification. Gaga, wl B [a} oi 1G Haas Fe BEBE 0080 6000 @ageo8 0000 It provides fault detection continuously during aircraft operation if a fault is detected the BITE system stores necessary defect information in a non volatile memory, sense the appropriate display signal to the flight desk. Ifa fault requires immediate attention the flight crew will notify ground engineer via radio transmission. The technician must assess the appropriate BITE system on ground for the fault isolation, the BITE system will display the failure data with code information. A simple BITE system incorporates GO or NO GO Red or Green lights on the equipment black or LRU (Line Replaceable Units). In advanced BITE system has a Automatic transmission of data from the aircraft to the maintenance facility on ground during the flight (ACARS) ( Amic Communication Addressing and Reporting System). When BITE button is pressed on ground a 24 character fault display system is activated, this display is in a coded message which is de coded by reference maintenance manual. The fault information is displayed for two seconds the display automatically advances to the next fault. After system fault rectified the button should be pressed to reset and operational check to be performed. It performs two types of test programs.The operational program is designed to check input signals, protection circuitry, control circuitry, out put signals and the operation of BITE circuitry. The maintenance program of BITE is recorded into the system only when the aircraft is ‘on the ground and maintenance test routine is required. When requested the maintenance BITE fexercise all input circuitry and software routines of the system being checked. The output data are than monitored and faults are displayed on the BITE. Engine Indicati System (EICAS): ‘The display of the parameters associated with engine performance and airframe systems control by means of CRT-type display units has, like those of flight instrument systems, become {standard feature of many types of aircraft. The display units form part of two principal systems designated as Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System(EICAS) and Electronic Centralized ‘Aircraft Monitoring(ECAM) system, which were first introduce in Boeing-757and 767 aircraft and the Air Bus A310. i In respect of EICAS, engine operating data is displayed on its CRT units, thereby eliminating the need for traditional instruments. The basic system comprises two display units, a control panel, and two computers Supplied with analog and digital signals from engine and system sensors. The computers deeignated “Left” and “Right”, and only one isin control ata time: the other is on “standby” and in the event of failure it may be switched in either manually or automatically. 116These units provide a wide variety of information relevant to engine operation, and operation of other automated systems, and they utilize colour shadow mask CRTs and associated card modules. The upper unit displays the primary parameters N1 speed, EGT, and warming and caution messages. In some cases this unit can also display EPR (Engine Power Ratings)on the type of engines installed and on the methods of processing data by the thrust management control system. The lower unit displays secondary engine parameters, ie N2 speed, fuel flow, oil quantity, pressure and temperature, and engine vibration oom Dispey st poet Seven colours are produced by the CRTs and they are used as follows:~ White Red Green - Blue - Yellow Magenta (Brown pink) Cyan - (Light yellow) Al Scales, normal operating range of pointers, digital readouts Warning messages, maximum operating limit marks on scales, and digital readouts Thrust mode readout and selected EPR/NI, speed marks or target cursors Testing of system only Caution and advisory messages, caution limit marks on scales, digital readouts. During in-flight engine starting, and for cross-bleed messages Names of all parameters being measured ( eg. NI, Oil pressure, TAT, etc.) and status marks or cues. WwEICAS is designed to categorize displays and alerts according to function and usage, and for this purpose there are three modes of displaying information: @ Operational Gi) Status ii) Maintenance mode Modes( i) and (ii) are selected by the flight crew on the display select panel, while mode (iii) is selected on the maintenance panel which is for the use of engineers only. Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitoring (ECAM| Display Units: These units are mounted side-by-side: the left-hand is dedicated to information on the status of systems, warnings and corrective action in a sequenced check-list format, while the right-hand unit is dedicated to associated information in pictorial or synoptic format. Display Modes: These are four display modes, three of which are automatically selected and referred to as flight phase-related, advisory (mode and status), and failure related modes. ‘The fourth mode is manual and permits the selection of diagrams related to any one of 12 of the aircraft's systems for routine checking, and also the selection status messages provided no warnings have been “triggered” for display. The failure related mode is appropriate and an example of @ display presentation is, there is a problem associated with the number one generator. The left hand display unit shows the affected system in message form, and in red or amber depending on the degree of urgency, and same time, a diagram is displayed on the right-hand display unit. When the number one generator has switched off, the light in the relevant push button switch on the flight deck overhead panel is illuminated, and simultaneously, the blue instruction on the left hand display unit changes to White. The diagram on the right hand display unit is also “re drawn” to depict by means of an amber line that the number one generator is no longer available, and the number two generator is. supplying the bus bar system. This is displayed in green which is normal operating colour of the 118displays. After corrective action has been taken, the message on the left-hand display unit can be removed by operating a “clear” button switch on the ECAM Control panel. Electrical Power Systems for Large Aircraft: The electrical systems for large turbojet transport aircraft are different than those used with smaller aircraft, primarily because these aircraft use alternating current for their primary power. The DC needed for charging the battery and for certain motor and instrument systems is produced by transformer rectifier, or TR, units. They reduce the voltage of the AC produced by the engine-driven generators to 28 volts and then rectify it, or change it, from AC into DC See figure 7-59 on the next page. Figure 7-59 shows a simplified block diagram of the electrical power system of a Boeing 721 jet transport airplane. Electrical power is produced by three 115 volt, three-phase, 400 Hertz alternating-current generators driven by the engines through constant-speed drive (CSD units. The CSD’s hold the speed of the generators constant to keep the frequency of the AC they produce constant as the engine speed varies over their normal operating range. Each generator is connected to its own bus through a generator breaker (GB), and the three buses can be connected at the tie bus by the use of bus tie breakers ( BTB) that are controlled from the flight engineer’s control panel, A turbine-powered auxiliary power unit (APU) drives a three-phase AC generator thet can be connected to the tie bus through the APU generator breaker to supply electrical power to the aircraft when the engines are not running. The APU operates a fixed RPM so it does not drive CSD. An extemal power unit can also be connected to the aircraft, and its AC output can be connected to the tie bus through the EXT breaker. All the circuits that are essential to the operation of the aircraft are connected to a essential bus, which can be supplied with AC from any of the three engine-driven generators, the APU the external power unit: or a standby inverter that produces 115 Volt AC 400 Hz from 28 Volt DC battery power. A selector switch on the panel allows the flight engineer to select the source of power for the essential bus, Direct current is produced by two transformer-rectifier (TR) units that take AC from buses | and 2 and supply DC to DC buses | and 2. A third TR unit takes AC from the essential bus and produces DC for the essential DC bus. The battery supplies power for starting the APU and for emergency operation of certain essential radio and instrument systems. The battery is kept charged by a battery-charger unit that receives its AC power from the AC transfer bus. Monitoring circuits inside the battery are connected into the battery-charger circuit so that if the battery temperature becomes too high, the charging current will automatically decrease. 119‘The battery is connected to the hot battery bus al all times, but is automatically disconnected from the DC loads in normal operation.. These loads are supplied from the two DC busses and the essential DC bus. Transformer Rectifier (TR): A component in a large aircraft electrical system used to reduce the AC voltage and change it into DC for charging the battery and for operating DC equipment in the aircraft. TR Uni ‘A transformer-rectifer unit. A TR unit reduces the voltage of alternating current land changes it into direct current. Constant-Speed Drive( CSD): A Special drive system used to connect an alternating current generator to an aircraft engine. The drive holds the generator speed ( and thus is frequency) constant as the engine speed varies. ‘Auxiliary Power Unit (APU): A small turbine or reciprocating engine that drives a generator, hydraulic pump and air pump. The APU is installed in the aircraft and is used to supply electrical power, air and hydraulic pressure when the main engines are not running. Essential Bus: A bus that may be supplied with AC from any of the generators through a selector switch. It supplies current to the circuits that are essential to the operation of the aircraft. 120996 Por Re ee AIRCRAFT COMMUNICATION AND NAVIGATION LIST OF CONTENTS TOPIC [NAME OF THE REFERENCE BOOKS NUMBER | TOPIC P3.2.5.2 ATA 23 communication | A/C Radio Systems: James system, Powell P3252 ATA 34 navigation ‘Ale Radio Systems: James system Powell P2.5.15 GPS A/C Communication And Navigation System: Mike Tooley 2.5.15 ACARS: Tooley P2.5.15 TCAS A/C Communication And Navigation System: Mike Tooley P2.2.4 AVIONICS GENERAL | Basic Electronics: TEST EQUIPMENT Vk mehta This book consists of total 29 figures. 121A VHF COMMUNICATION .TA23 (COMMUNICATION) ireraft Communication ~ The conveyance of information to or from aircraft by radio or other signals. > NF radio has long been the primary mean of communication between aircraft and the ‘ground. > VHF communication system supplies voice and data communication over line-of -Sight Cos) distances. It gives communication between airplanes or between ground station and airplanes. > VHF communication is used for various purposes including air traffic control approach and departure information transmission of metrological information ground handling of aircraft company communication and also for the aircraft communications addressing SEE POTIE SIEM OCOD sete — asaecnte >» FREQUENCY: 118 to 136.97%SMHz r 720channels with 25 KHz spacing (Or) 360 channels with 50 KHz spacing > MODE OF OPERATION: Double sideband(DSM) amplitude modulation& eur Puree aa:If > COMPRESSOR STAGE: > INSTALLATION: Single channel simplex (s.c.s) we pate > RANGE: 200 to 300 NM. a x * . ¢ oh > PROPOGATION: Space wave propagation. |X 6, © ax > OUTPUT POWER: 25 to 40'w. ou’ ay > The maximum line of light (los) distance between an aircraft and a ground station in qe nautical miles(am), is given by pee / D: Ss vn os ye” Where h is the aircrafts altitude in feet above ground. 118.00 to 121.400 ai = 121.600 to 123.050 S = 123.150 to 136.475 >» SQUELCH CIRCUI Aircraft VHF receivers invariably incorporate a system of muting the receivers audio stages in the absence of an incoming signal. This system is designed to climinate the annoying and distracting background noise that is present when no signals are being received In order to improve the intelligibility of VHF voice communications the speech amplifier stage of an aircraft VHF radio is invariably fitted with a compressor stage. This stage provides high gain for low amplitude signals and reduced gain for high amplitude signals. The result is an increase in the average modulation depth. A single VHF installation consists of three parts namely control unit transceiver and antenna. In addition crew phones are connected to the vhf via AIS.> HF radio provides aircraft with an effective means of communication over long distance HF COMMUNICATION oceanic and trans-polar routes. HF communication systems are fitted to aircraft flying routes which are for some part of the flight out of range of VHF service. Such aireraft obviously include public transport aireraft flying intercontinental routes. oo sen FREQUENCY: 2.8 TO 24 MHZ, 21200 channels with IKHZ spacing (Or) 2.1 lac of channels with 100HZ of spacing MODE OF OPERATION: Single side band(SSB) amplitude modulation And Single channel simplex (S.C.S) RANGE: Above 1000nm, PROPAGATION: Sky wave propagation. pe 124BOO -SOO Lar. OUTPUT POWER: 400 w pep > The long range is achieved by use of sky waves which are refracted by the ionosphere to. ‘such an extent that they are bent sufficiently to return to the earth. The h.f ground wave suffers quite rapid attenuation with distance from the transmitter. Ionosphere attenuation also takes place, being greatest at the lower h.f frequencies. > A feature of aircraft h.f systems is that coverage of a wide band of rf and use of a resonant antenna requires efficient antenna tuning arrangements which must operate automatically on changing channel in order to reduce the VSWR to an acceptable level. ANTENNA COUPLER: Couples the antenna to a transmitter or receiver, Match the antenna to the radio. KL. » ANTENNA TUNING UNIT: Tunes the antenna to a single particular frequency v This unit makes one antenna to transmit and Receive many frequencies SELCALL SYSTEM (SELECTIVE CALLING SYSTEM) > The SELCAL system supplies the flight crew with indications of calls that come in from the airline’s ground stations. > Itis not necessary for the pilots to continuously monitor the company communication channels. > Airlines radio network supply communication between ground stations and airplanes. "> For SELCAL operation, each airplane has a different four-letter code (ex: AKDM). Each letter in the code equals a different audio tone. > The ground stations send the applicable tones to call a particular airplane. > When airplane receives its SELCAL code, flight compartment indications \ comes on to tell the flight crew. > The HF&VHF transceivers receive the SELCAL signal and send it to the SELCAL decoder. > The SELCAL decoder unit monitors for audio tones. > If the tones are of the same as aircraft code, the decoder sends a signal to the control panel. > The alert light comes on for the transceiver that receives the call. Push thé alert light switch to reset. > The aural warning unit makes a high/low chime signal. 125P3.2.5.2 ATA 34 iT Hr an att of conducting an aircraft from one place to other place. observed by day or night. AIR NAVIGATION: It Whether or not the groun AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDING (ADF) PURPOSE: To give the direction of ADF station (NDB) with respect to the heading of aircraft. PRINCIPLE: Based on a principle of loop antenna. FREQUENCY: 190 10 1750 KHZ (LE/MF BAND) CHANNELS: 3120 SPACING: 0.5 kHz RANGE: 200NM during day time, 100NM during night time OPERATION: When the piane of loop antenna is placed in the direction from the radio wave is coming produces maximum signals in the receiver, and when placed at right angle to the incoming wave it gives minimum signals. This behavior of loop antenna is made use of in direction finding. Because the human ear is far more sensitive to small changes in the intensity of weak sounds than those of loud sounds, the minimum signal is used for direction finding. VOR (VHF OMINIDIRECTIONAL RANGE) PURPOSE: To give the bearing of VOR station with respect to the magnetic north PRINCIPLE: Bering by the phase comparison FREQUENCY: 108 TO 117.97 MHZ (VHF BAND) CHANNELS: 200 channels with 50 kHz spacing, out of which only 160 channels are used by the VOR and rest 40 channels, are used for ILS LOCALIZER. EVOR (ENROUTE VOR) 120 CHANNELS from 112 to 117.97 MHz, 50 kHz spacing, Range is of 200n.mOutput power is 200 watts TVOR (TERMINAL VOR) 40 channels from 108 to\l2 MHz, 50 kHz spacing Uses only even decimals within this range to share with ILS LOCALIZER Range is 25n.m_ pss Output power is 50 watts OPERATION: VOR station from ground transmits two signals, one is the reference phase which is ‘ominidirectional and other is the variable phase which al So a suitably tuned VOR receiver in the aircraft to the particular VOR station receives two signals and it compares the phase difference between the reference and variable phase and gives the bearing from the station(QDR).but the actual reading presented to the pilot is the bearing to the VOR station(QDM) by adding 180° the QDR. ‘QDR+180°=QDM. [Tay / ILS INSTRUMENT LANDING SYS’ PURPOS! Se Helps the pilot to land his aircraft correctly and safely on to the required runway by completing depending upon the instruments only. ‘The total ILS system comprises of three parts, each with a transmitter on ground and receiver in the aireraft. LOCALIZER: PURPOSE: To give the lateral steering command to the pilot w.r-t the centre line of runway PRINCIPLE: DDM (difference in depth modulation) FREQUENCY: 108 TO 111.97 MHz (VHF BAND) 40 CHANNELS (odd decimals of frequency) 50 kHz spacing OPERATION: For the aircraft approaching the runway the 150 Hz tone on right and 90 Hz on the left side. On the runway centre line the difference in depth modulation in zero and the vertical needle of the cross pointer meter is held in the centre. Otherwise the needle fluctuates to the right or to the left in relation to actual position of aircraft. Needle to the right means-—-—tumn right and vice- versa.Principle to be followed “FOLLOW THE NEEDLE" to remain on the runway cenite line, GLIDESLOPE (G/S): PURPOSE: to give the vertical steering commands to the pilot w.r-t to runway touch down, point. ee yePRINCIPLE: DDM FREQUENCY: 328.6MHZ TO 335.4MHZ (U.H.F BAND) 40 CHANNELS 1S0KHZ SPACING NOTE: Glide slope is more sensitive than localizer. MARKERS: PURPOSE: Helps the pilot to check his distance from the runway threshold point CARRIER FREQUENCY: 7SMHZ \ SN S&S yy, um, “SSE Y, tia ~ OUTER MARKER: © 4.5nm away from the runway threshold point Signal frequency is 400 Hz. When aircraft is over this marker a purple or blue light glows in cockpit. MORSE CODE: two dashes (- -) per second which can be heard via AIS. MIDDLE MARKER: 0.6nm or 3500ft away from the runway threshold point. Signal frequeney is 1300 Hz 128OH! When aircraft is over this marker amber light glows in the cockpit. MORSE CODE: Dot and dash (+ -) 95 times per minute which can be heard via AIS INNER MARKER OR ‘Z? MARKER: ge {ob H60-ft away from the runway threshold point. Signal frequency is 3000Hz yA When aircraft is over this marker a white light glows in the cockpit. we ‘> MORSE CODE: two dots (+ +) six times per second which can be heard via AIS DISTANSE MEASURING EQUIPMENT ————— oe aye % G sero PURPOSE: The purpose of DME is to give the slant range of an aircraft in nautical miles w.rt the approaching station. In additional to this DME also gives other information like speed of an aircraft in knots and time to the remaining station (TTS) in minutes. Sour PRINCIPLE: secondary radar. ve FREQUENCY: 978 to 1213 MHz (UHF Sy ; 3§._, 256 CHANNELS fa e122 IMHZ SPACING RANGE: ABOUT 200NM, . L Pe wpe +63, “wt 2 ah Tp tested Ea we dent Bab ic 2 129OPERATION: The airborne interrogator radiates coded RF pulse pairs at a frequency within the band 978 to 1213 MHz from an ominidirectional antenna. ‘A ground transponder (the beacon), within the range of an aircraft and operating on the channel to Which the interrogator is selected receives the interrogation and automatically triggers the beacon transmitter after a fixed delay of 50 micro seconds. the omjnidirectional radiation from the beacon is caded RF pulse pairs at a frequency 63 Wve or below the interrogation frequency. This reply is received by the suitably tuned interrogator receiver and after processing is fed to the range circuit and range is given by R=T-50/12.359 T=time taken in micro seconds between transmission and reception of reply. 12,359=time taken in micro seconds for RF energy to travel one nautical mile and to retum. ATC TRANSPONDER PURPOSE: . “ The purpose of this system is to enable ground controllers to maintain safe separation of aircraft, both on the ground and in the air. in addition to this, the ground controllers are managing the flow of traffic in a given airspace. SSR (SECONDARY SUVEILLANCE RADAR) PRINCIPLIFREQUENCY: INTERROGATION: 1030MHZ_ REPLY 10gpMHZ. RANGE: 200am e OPERATION: ‘The ATC ground stations interrogate the airborne ATC transponder at 1030 MHz © The transponder replies to the interrogations in the form of coded information that the ground station uses. . MODE A: IDENTIFICATION + MODE B: ALTITUDE INFORMATION AIRBORN WEATHER RADAR PURPOSE: Enable the pilot to identify weather conditions and subsequently reroute around these conditions for the safety and comfort of passengers Secondary use is a terrain-mapping mode that allows the pilot to identify features of the ground, e.g, rivers, mountains and coastlines. PRINCIPLE: Based on echo principle or PSR(grimary radar) —~ FREQUENCY: C-BAND (5.4GHZ) 403 X-BAND (9.3GHZ) . pat RANGE: 300NM ~| | OPERATION: £% ‘The WXR system transmits radio frequency pulses in a #90" area forward of the airplane path. Rain of terrain contours reflect the pulses back to the aircraft. ‘The WXR retums show in four different colors on the navigation display.colours of the indications give the crew information about the intensity of the returns. RADIO ALTIMETER (RADALT OR R/A) ~ PURPOSE: To give the height of an aircraft from AGL (above the ground level). PRINCIPLE: measuring the time difference benween the transmission and reception of signals FREQUENCY: 4.2 T0 4.4GHZ RANGE: 2500ft. OPERATION: Radio height is measured using the basic idea of radio ranging i.e. measuring the elapsed time difference between transmission of an electromagnetic wave and its reception after reflection from the ground. the height is given by half the product of the elapsed time and the speed of light. P2315 LP. wute) E ‘L, Hr Beg. se es boc port ME 2arecncueuue ersat eS 24 :> PURPOSE: The GPS uses navigation satellites to supply airplane position to airplane systems and to the flight crew. > The global positioning system(GPS) calculates the following data: Latitude Longitude Ge Altitude Accurate time Ground speed > GPS segments GPS comprises of three following segments: Space, ground or control and User segments SPACE SEGMENT oe > There are a minimum of 24 satellites in use, some are operational and other are used as backups. The satellites are in orbit 10,900nm (20,200 km) above, ‘Each satellite is instalfed with four atomic clocks that are extremely accurate. The satellites are powered by the sun’s energy via solar panels; nickel-cadmium batteries provide electrical power backup. Each satellite orbits the earth twice per day. ere are_ six defined orbits each containing four satellites. The net results of this orbital pattern is that a minimum of five satellites should be in view to a receiver located almost anywhere on the earth’s surface. Fi > Satellites also download almanac data; this is a set of orbital parameters status for all satellites in the constellation. The receiver uses almanac data during initial acquisition of satellite signals. Ephemeris data is also down linked by each satellite; this data contains current satellite position and timing information. CONTROL SEGMENT a > The control segment comprises of one master station(MCS) located at Colorado springs in U.S.A and monitoring stations, three ground antennas .the location of the monitoring stations provide ground visibility for each satelite. This data is processed at the MCS to complete any drift that has occurred in the satellites orbit or timing pulse. > A correction signal is then sent to the satellites, and the correction is included in the location code transmitted from the satellites to the user. vv y v pa SEGMENT GPS installed on an aircraft comprises two receivers and two antennas located in a forward position on the top of fuselage. > The antennas receive signals directly from whichever GPS satellites are visible, ie. within the line of sight. > GPS receivers are often incorporated into multimode receivers (MMR) along with other navigation systems> The MMR contains RF filters, a quartz clock and a processor. > The receiver and satellite generate identical pulse coded signals at precisely the same time; these signals are compared in the receiver to provide the basis of time delay (At) ‘measurements. > When (At) from the satellite has been measured, it is compared with the known position and orbit of the satellites. This calculation provides a first line of position. > Acquiring second and third satellites provides a unique position as previously described. ‘The GPS navigation concept is based upon calculating satellite range. v * OPERATION: 7 ‘* Transmission of GPS position and timing signal are sent to users in the UHF (L-BAND) of radar. Theses frequencies Are 1575.42MHZ & 1227.6MHZ_ designated as L1 & L2. ‘© Data is exchanged between each satellite and the monitoring stations via uplink and downlink frequencies in the s-band (22227.s8&1783.74MHZ respectively). © GPS has various levels of operation depending on how many satellites are in view. «Three satellites provide a two-dimensional position fix, four satellites or more is desirable for optimum navigation performance. «The RXR seek out at least four satellites by monitoring their signal transmissions this acquisition process takes about 15-45 seconds. «To speed up the navigation process. The receiver can obtain an initial position fix from the inertial reference system this allows the receiver to search for satellites that should be in view. ‘© In the event of poor satellites coverage for defined periods (<30 seconds) the system uses other navigation sensor inputs to enter into a dead reckoning mode. «© For prolonged periods of poor satellites reception the system reenters the acquisition ~ mode. wy 134pa 2.5.15 2Hrs AIRCRAFT COMMUNICATION ADDRESSING AND REPORTING SYSTEM a e “e a See ARE 2 aa OP vy mee wv + ACARS is a digital data link system transmitted in the VHF range. + ACARS provides a means by which aircraft operators can exchange deta with an aircraft without human intervention. This makes it possible for an aircraft in their fleet in much the same way as itis possible to exchange data using a land-based digital network. » _ACARS system was originally specified in ARINC 724] © A significant feature of ACARS is the ability to provide real-time data on the ground relating to aircraft performance; this has made it possible to identify and plan aircraft maintenance ccthitos * ACARS communications are automatically directed through a series of ground-based ARINC computers relevant aircraft operators. The system helps to reduce the need for mundane.HF and VHP voice messages and provides a system which can be logged and |. Crew identification 2. Out, off, on, in (0001) times 3. Engine performance 4. sht status: 5. Maintenance tems + The above mentioned information can be requested by the company and retrieved from the aircraft at periodic intervals or on demand. Prior to ACARS this type of information would have been transferred via VHF voice. © ACARS uses a variety of hardware and software components including those that are installed on the ground those that are present in the aircraftew The aircraft ACARS components include a management unit which deals with the reception and transmission of messages Via the VHF radio transceiver and the control unit which provides the crew interface consists of a display screen and printer. The ACARS ground network comprises the ARINC ACARS remote” iransmitting/receiving stations and a network of computers and switching systems. The ACARS command, control and management subsystem“ ACARS MESSAGES © Consists of the ground based airline operations and associated functions including ‘operations control, maintenance and crew scheduling. © There are two types of ACARS messages. DOWNLINK messages that originate from the aircraft, ‘UPLINK messages that originate from ground stations. . Frequencies used for he wansmission and recenion of MEARS Messe 218 the band extending trom 129mhz to 137mhz (VHF BAND) : NOTE: Different channels are used in different parts of the world. 136On TOs Sete yt + A typical ACARS message consists of ~ Modelidentifier (e.¢.2) - Aircraft identifier (e.¢-DBCC)~ “Message label (-95U-A WEATHER REQUEST)‘ -Block identifier (¢.2.4) -Message number (¢.2. ssa, o -Flight number (e.g. BDOINZ) ’ ~Message content, P2,5.15 Lr TRAFFIC ALERT AND COLLISION AVIODANCE SYSTEMa] PURPOSE: TCAS is an automatic surveillance system that helps aircrew and ATC maintain safe separation ofsimal- = a - PRINCIPLE: based on secondary surveillance radar «© TCAS is an airborne system based on secondary radar that interrogates and replies directly between aircraft via a high-integrity data link. ¢ TCAS is independent of ground stations and alerts the erew iff another aircraft comes within a predetermined time to a potential collision. NOTE: TCAS is a backup system, i.e. it provides warnings and guidance when other navigation systems (including ATC) have failed fo maintain safe separation of aircraft. TYPES: «Two types of TCAS are in the operation, TCAS 1 &TCAS II. Both systems provide wamings known as advisories to alert the crew of a potential collision. TCAS L assists the crew in visually locating and identifying an intruder aircraft by issuing a traffic advisory (TA) waming. TTCAS II is a collision avoidance system and, in addition to traffic advisories, provide vertical flight manoeuvre guidance (RA) for threat traffic. «A resoiution advisory will either increase or maintain the exi from an intruder aircraft. ¢ Iftwo aircraft in close proximity are equipped with TCASIL, the flight manoeuvre ‘guidance is coordinated between both aircraft. ‘A third type of system (TCAS III) was intended to provide lateral guidance to the crew. ing vertical-separation | acc aw ric TOAS dna tps oe gc courtesy of ARINC:0) oR TCAS EQUIPMENT: ‘* The system consists of one TCAS computer, two and two displays. © TCAS operate in conjunction with mode ‘S’ surveillance system. + Visual warnings can be displayed on the instantaneous vertical speed indicator (VSI) or electronic flight instrument system (EFIS). 3 tional antennas, a control panel ANTENNAS: + These are located on the top and bottom of fu +. The upper antenna is directional and is used for tracking targets above the host aireraft. + The bottom antenna can be either ominidirectional or directional. ‘* Interrogation codes are transmitted via the mode S transponder on a 1030 MHz carrier wave; reply codes are transmitted on a 1090 MHz carrier wave. + The phase array directional antennas are electronically steerable and transmit in four lateral segments at varying power levels. COMPUTER: ‘+ This is a combined TXR, RXR and processor that performance a number of functions including: 1g of the surveillance 2. Tracking other aireraft 3. Monitoring its own aircraft altitude 4. Issuing warnings for potential flight path conflicts 5. Providing recommended manoeuvres to avoid potential flight path conflicts. space volume for aircraft. * Inputs to the computer include the host aircrafts heading, altitude and maximum airspeed. In addition to this landing gear lever position and weights on wheels sensors are also included, nadINSTANTANEOUS VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR ELECTRONIC HORIZANTAL SITUATION INDICATOR 3 140fs TORS indica [¥en 4 vet Reta jal 13 saswsra ‘Ss | White tend ovme | na mew or sucendingy { BAERS rer ce |e TK NN iBatet bce | , TCAS eatestions: THe walle iy nated) TEAS tet (oe tat meta TERS G0 (TEAS aarp) CAS of feet res scare) TF erate aepiay ected) Tacniy eathe sco mode) OPERATION: + Interrogations and replies are sent directly between the on-board ATC transponders, + The TCAS computer interfaces with the ATC transponder and calculates the time to a __. . Potential collision known as the closest point of approach (CPA) + TCAS creates a protected volume of airspace around the host aircraft. This is based on altitude separation and a calculated time to the CPA. ‘+ This protected volume of airspace is determined as a function of time for both range and vertical separation. RANGE T = 3600 X SLANT RANGE / closing speed. T is the symbol for the approximate time to the CPA. VERTICAL T = altitude separation (feet) X 60 /eombined vertical speed (fpm) + TCAS interrogates other aircraft within this protected airspace and obtains their flight path details i. range, altitude and bearing. ‘+ This data is analyzed along with the host aircrafts flight path. If there is a potential conflict between flight paths, a visual and audible warning is given to the pilot. aP2.2.4 GENERALAVIONICS TESTEQUIPMENT SHrs AMMETER: ‘An ammeter is a measuring instrument used to measure the electric current in a circuit. Electric currents are measured in amperes (A), hence the name. The most common way to measure current in a circuit is to break the circuit open and insert an “animeter” in series (in-line) with the circuit so that all electrons flowing through the circuit also have to go through the meter. "Ammeters are generally protected from excessive current by means of a small fuse located inside the meter housing. If the ammeter is accidentally connected across a substantial voltage source, the resultant surge in current will "blow" the fuse and render the meter incapable of measuring current until the fuse is replaced. Be very careful to avoid this scenario! VOLTMETER A voltmeter is ahi A 1 i I Testing to verify That the connection in the cable is sti {good. It should read ere esate Once the VOM is zeroed out, take your lenath ofthe cabo, 2b1e, and check the wire out, end to end iat ‘Your goal is to verify that each end of the Avaystest at Cabl€ is still correctly wired up. wire connections in the cable (© 1098 Shavara Music instrument used for measuring the electrical potential difference (voltage) between two points in an electric circuit. The voltmeter is connected in parallel to load where you want to measure the voltage.The voltmeter can be connected with two wires to where the voltage is. One wire is the positive one, and the other the negative. With some voltmeters, one must make sure that the wires are connected right: the positive connection on the voltmeter to the more positive "part" of the voltage source, and the negative to the more negative "part". This way, the voltmeter is parallel to the electrical circuit. h voltage (many volts), One should also be caféful'about handling the connection: If there one can get hurt or even killed by touching the metal connections with the voltage directly. OHMMETER: Resistance is the measure of electrical “friction” as electrons move through a conductor. It is measured in the unit of the "Ohm," that unit symbolized by the capital Greek letter omega (@). of something. This could be a wire, ity from one The Ohmmeter is used to test the conductivity or contin it could be a switch, it could be almost anything that is supposed to carry electri point to another. NOTE: Aivavs disconnect the cable completely before testing with the Ohi setting on your VOM - having the cable connected to something will invalidate your readings, or, could damage pour VOM if power is hooked up to it The way to test for these problems is to test the Resistance of the wire. Resistance is measured in Ohms, and your wiring should have very little resistance in it. To test'the resistance in your wites, you first need to verify the reading of a dead short on your meter. You do this by setting your ohmmeter to the lowest resistance range, then touch the Red and Black probes to each other. The meter should read 0 Ohms 143