_ An Introduction to Classical Japanese Akira Komai Nanzan University & Thomas H. Rohlich University of Iowa 1991About the Authors Akira KOMAT was born in Tokyo in 1931. After completing his undergraduate degree in Japan, he began his graduate studies in the United States at the University of Michigan, where he earned a Ph. D in linguistics in 1963. He taught at Princeton University, the University of Wisconsin, and the University of sor Chicago before returning to Japan in 1983 to become Prof and Chair of the department of Japanese, at Nanzan University. He is the author of A Grammar of Classical Japanese (1979), and co-author of An Introduction to Japanese Kanbun (1988). He is currently working on An Introduction to Documentary Japanese with Thomas H.Roblich. Thomas H. Rohlich was born in Pennsylvania in 1946. He graduated from the University of Wisconsin in 1971, and re- ceived his Ph.D from Wisconsin in 1978 in Japanese Literature. He formerly taught at the University of Illinois at Chicago, and is currently Associate Professor of Japanese at the University of Iowa. He is the author of A Tale of Eleventh-Century Japan: Hamamatsu Chunagon Monogatari (1983), and the co-author of An Introduction to Japanese Kanbun (1988). © 1991 Akira KOMAI & Thomas H. ROHRICH [All rights reserved, including the right to reproduce this book or portions there of in any form. ISBN 4-89358-124-4 First edition: June 1991 Published by Bonjinsha, Co., Ltd. 6-2, Kojimachi, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102, Japan Printed in JapanTo our mothers Shizuko Komai & Mary E. (Murphy) RohlichSt sie PREFACE This book is for students whose studies include the reading and under- standing of texts written in Japanese that makes use of historical spelling Conventions and classical grammatical patterns. This represents a good Portion of the texts written prior to the beginning of the twentieth century, and many written since then. This book does not, however, purport to cover all styles of premodern Japanese, or for that matter, any single style in its entirety. We do feel that it can be used as the basic textbook for a beginning course in classical Japanese and at the same time serve as a reference for advanced students and readers. We At many universities basic courses in classical Japanese ‘are taught by literature specialists, who in their eagerness to introduce students to original texts, often begin immediately with a well-known text such as Hozyoki or Turezuregusa. This frequently happens before the students has a solid grasp of the grammar and nuances of the classical language. Since students who study classical Japanese generally understand modern Japanese, they soon begin to make use of modem reference texts with their copious notes and modem translations. As a result, students may think they are ‘reading’ Classical Japanese when in fact their time and energy is being devoted almost exclusively to the modem translations and grammatical notes written by Japanese scholars. Students quickly become adept at manipulating the secondary sources without ever really acquiring reading skills in the original. This method of learning classical Japanese has obvious drawbacks, one of which is that students will find it impossible to work with texts for which there is no modern annotation or translation. In addition, they will be unable tobring their own critical understanding and judgement to pass on points where Japanese scholars disagree. : We feel it is no more effective to begin the study of classical Japanese by immediately ‘reading’ (actually it is more deciphering than reading) a premodern text than it is to begin reading modern Japanese with authentic material, such as a novel by Kawabata or a transcript of a free conversation. Authentic material has a role to play in learning modern Japanese, but a responsible teacher would not use it without a textbook that introduces and explains the grammar and vocabulary on which the authentic material is based. Just as a well organized textbook serves as an indispensable tool in mastering modern Japanese, we hope that this textbook will serve asa training manual and guide for students of classical Japanese. - Many examples and exercises in this textbook are authentic materials taken from classical texts, but we have striven to limit the authentic passages to those for which the grammar is already known. As a result, the authentic examples are generally very short. Most of the examples in the exercises are made-up sentences, many of which include vocabulary items familiar to modem readers but clearly not present in authentic classical texts. Our emphasis is on learning the grammatical structure, and we think they can be done efficiently by using vocabulary items with which the student is familiar, evenif they are anachronistic. Most students who use this text will be satisfied with passive reading skills in the classical language, another reason we think it is unreasonable to limit the examples to authentic materials. We recognize that original texts inevitably contain sentences that are much longer and far more complex than our examples, but we remind our readers that this is an introductory textbook, with emphasis on the basic grammar. While it may appear to be a simplification to some, we think it is a necessary first step to thorough understanding of the more complex texts that are to follow.We feel that initially the most troublesome difference between classical and modem Japanese is in the morphological characteristics of inflecting words. For this reason, the major emphasis in this text is placed on mastery of verbs, adjectives, and inflecting suffixes. Once the student has mastered this aspect of the grammar, the problems faced in reading classical texts will be lessened considerably. We assume that students who use this textbook will have asolid grasp of modern Japanese. For this reason, aspects of the classical grammar that are similar to modern Japanese are not fully explained. Such omissions may be unacceptable in linguistic descriptions of the language, but appropriate, we feel, in a textbook such as this. 1 We have tried to emphasize aspects of grammar and vocabulary where there is a considerable difference between modern and classical Japanese. Students should pay particular attention to classical vocabulary items that appear identical in form to modern words, but are in fact quite different in meaning. Since this sort of difference presents particular difficulties for the student, we have attempted to introduce many of these in Notes. In addition, we have introduced a number of lexical items that are particularly important in texts of the Heian period. Introduction of Heian vocabulary items is not, however, the main purpose of this text, and we recognize that our definitions in many cases only scratch the surface of the many nuances these words con- tain. Students who wish a more detailed definition should avail themselves of one of the many excellent dictionaries of classical Japanese. Students will eventually find that a good classical dictionary is an indispensable tool of re- search, but initially it is important that the student concentrate on the grammar of the language, not acquire skills in using dictionaries. If students find they are spending too much time consulting dictionaries, we recommend that the teacher prepare vocabulary list or glossaries. # Students must have a solid understanding of modern Japanese to use thistext effectively. Since the speed and intensity of Japanese language courses differ considerably from school to school, it is difficult to make a general statement about the length of training needed in modern Japanese before beginning classical Japanese. As a rule of thumb, we feel that three years of . study in a course that meets approximately five hours per week for thirty weeks a year (in other words, approximately 450 hours in class) is desirable before beginning classical Japanese. ; Teachers will want to determine their owh method forusing this textbook, but we have found the following to be successful. Students are assigned to read a predetermined section, for instance, a chapter, and prepare the exercises, some in writing, some orally. The class time is devoted to answer- ing questions students may have on the grammatical explanations and reviewing the homework assignments by recitation of selected problems. It is difficult to complete the entire text in a semester of approximately 45 hours class (15 weeks x 3 hours per week) if all of the exercises are done in their entirety. For this reason teachers may find it most efficient to concentrate in class on only the more difficult of the sentences in each exercise, and just spot check the others. Upon completion of this text students should be ready to begin reading original texts. Our ideal situation has been to complete the classical grammar course in the fall term, and continue with a directed readings course in classical literature in the spring. We would like to acknowledge the generous support of our home institu- tions during our work on this project, Nanzan University for a Nanzan Research Grant to Akira Komai and an invitation to Thomas Rohlich to serve as a Visiting Professor, and the University of Iowa for sabbatical leave to Rohlich. We are very grateful for the research support provided by both institutions.CONTENTS PREFACE INTRODUCTION 1. Parts of Speech [iia] 2. The 50 syllabary (+8) 3. The Historical Kana Spelling [HELAURZSA\>) 1, VERBS [® Ad. . Four Rows Verbs [PUBrShae] sat Wd tes awk un Na Column Irregular Verbs [+7726 Hii | te. Note 1. The particle [td] after Izenkei and Mizenkei Note 2. The inflecting suffix [Sibysi] [tJ Note 3. The inflecting suffix (Wawel ] [FJ Note 4. The particle [Wad] [ES | and [EJ Note 5. Vocabulary . Ra Column Irregular Verbs [ 5 f72EKs75 7 Sted | eee Note 6. The omission of particles (BH) [79 | Note 7. The inflecting suffix (Bwyd) [

] and [va] Note 54.Emphatic particle [(ABhid] [1%] 4.17. [DJ and [J 4.18. [HMLJ and PRLS Note 55. [HSE] Note 56, The adverbial particle [illihad] [72tc J 4.19. [10 | and [7 J Copulative [Mis] Note 57. Vocabulary 4.20. [750 | Hearsay [tft] 4.21, [TEL Grammatical Terms — INDEX — 91-10. Vocabulary — INDEX — Homophonous Forms — INDEX — toy 165 171 172 173 175, 182 186 189 193 196 199 206 210 214 219 221 226 228 229 230 232 236 240 251 255 260INTRODUCTION 1. Parts of Spééch [29] Traditional descriptions of the Japanes¢ language divide the lexicon into two major groups, “free words” [4325] and “bound forms” [ftimi8] , a useful division in describing the parts of speech in classical Japanese grammar. Free words are independent units that may combine together to make a sentence, for instance, verbs, nouns, and adjectives; bound forms, such as inflecting suffixet-and particlet, are always attached to a free word or another bound form and are not used by themselves. In the following modern Japanese sentence, free words are underlined, afid bound words are marked with shading. 205 PHOABCABBRERUELE. [32] is an inflected form of the verb [$25] , which is a free word, and therefore [#1 is considered to be a free word. Each of these two major groups is further divided into sffialler groups as indicated in the following chart.AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE " "TS Voeabalary TEE] I. Free Words [13238] ‘A. Words with inflection CEHOSSH=RE) fe a. Verbs [Sh] #< “to go” b. Adjectives [SH] "EL “tobe beautiful” FEL “to be ted” c. Pseudo-Adjectives [A2S Hz] Hovey “to bé quiet” Be tcY “tobestately, magnificent” classical forms (= modern Japanese 3€LUY ; HKU) B. Words Without inflection [j5F3O 488] 1. Substantives [43] a.Nouns [4] B “rain” b. Pronouns [1t4 85] x “you” 2. Non-substantives [FRE] a. Adverbs [ii34] Wwe “very” b. Conjunction [#8551] ene “put? | c. Interjections [mht] eit “ah” d. Demonstrative LEMKE] °° RS “certain”des" 4a), INTRODUCTION ” Il. Bound Words [A}R5S ™ A. Inflecting Bound Words: Inflecting Suffixes [B34] [—H] (negative) B. Non-inflecting Bound Words: Particles [B31] a. Case Particles [#8835] [1 (object marker) b. Conjunctive Particles [#48033] [lf] “it” c. Adverbial Particles [I Bh31] TEAS “even” d. Emphatic Particles [68034] ] [<1 (emphasis) e. Sentence Particles [# BH] 1k | (speaker’s desire) As is evident in the chart, “free words” [4378] are subdivided into two groups distinguished by the presence or absence of inflection. “Free words with inflection” [j&}10% S AIZE8] are words that‘inay"stand alone to be the predicate of a sentence, for instance, “verbs” [&h#a]], “adjectives” [}22%5]] and “pseudo-adjectives” [ FEZHial ]. A “pseudo- adjective” [ FE@#hia] ].¢.2.. Hate YJ or [HAY J may be treated as a compound consisting of an adjectival noun, [#v] or [#4 J, anda copula, F%&Y | or [72 Y J. Following the traditional classification we will 1. TUSD—GU=MAES “to be quiet”,'or [HAKY=BLEL TLS J “to be magnificent.” ' treat each as a single word, a pseudo-adjective (72!‘AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE “Free words without inflection” [JE FAD AU ELE] are Futther dis- tinguished by whether or not they may stand alone to be subjects of sentences. Those that can be subjects are called “substantives” [fk] and consist of “nouns” [3a] and “pronouns” [4% #4]]- Those that cannot be subjects (3E4KH1] are divided into categories according to function: “adverbs” [UE], “conjunctions” [ e4685]]. “interjunctions” [ Rha], and “demon- stratives” [ts #a}] - Boundforms [Af/§ #5] aredividedinto“inflecting suffixes” [Bh h#1] and “particles” [g)33]] by means of the presence or absence of inflection [JHA]. That is to say, inflecting suffixes [B)¥)i] are “bound words with inflection,” [35 FAO d S44 Mis]. while particles [Rh] are“bound words without inflection,” [JEU O%t Mt BH). 0 2. The 50 syllabary [H+] -C'The 50 syllabary chat [H-+-4BQ] (See Table 1) is the traditional Way oflisting thekana [4§%] syllabary. The student of classical Japanese must understand well the organization of this chart since verbs are classified in reference to its horizontal rows [ i] and vertical columns [47]. «. Inits older form, the chart has fifty spdces for kana letters arranged in five horizontal rows [ £1] in vowel order a,i,u.e,oand ten vertical columns [47], _3¢ INTRODUCTION ae with the first column consisting of vowel only, and the remaining nine consisting of consonant-vowel combinations: k-, s-, t-, n-, h-, m-. w-. All of the kana in the same horizontal row have the same vowel sound. Example perk eK E Dw Kana in the same vertical column have the same consonant sound, except for the first column, which consists of vowel only. Z+#B if] tt] 2) Xl ola ela alr aloo ululslelal lalulolalolelslclale al sisisl<| [5!a)@/ els) alols]<)5| Axtell) [alma olalalciel 2 [zl @)efele @|4 4 b[alojele cla There are three syllables that either never existed or disappeared before the establishritftof kana (yi, ye,'and wu): In their expécted places in the table thekana[\, 4, 3J areused, with the result that the table has 47 distinct kana letters. While the arrangement may not be the optimal design for « modem linguistic analysis of the language, virtually all secondary works on classical Japanese language and literature make use of this table in their analysis, which is why it is essential that students know the table well.AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE Further additions were made at later dates, for instance, [ 4, | for the syllabic nasal, which was added to the chart in the Muromachi era, though the sound was undoubtedly present in the language much earlier, Modern syllabary charts include not only the basic 48 kana letters but also those with the secondary marks, such as voiced-consonant marks [3824] and p-sound eRe ce eg he layec marks [3£8} 8], representing dakuon [38 4] and handakuon [3433 4. se i] . and those syllable with palatalized consonants and vowels [ig], which are represented by akana from the i-row plusasmall [7», , kJ, eg, [Xo < =H, kyaku. Dakuon [38}2] isa syllable in Japanese with an initial voiced consonant which has a voiceless counterpart: e.g. [tJ ga, isdakuon [32] since [g] of ga is a voiced consonant and there is a voiceless counterpart, namely [k] of ka [\J. Two small dots on the upper right side of the kana are used to represent dakuon [/8}#]. Handakuon [*#/§25] are syllables with initial [p]. such as [ (J, and they are marked with a small circle in the upper right comer. All the kana letters other than dakuon [j}2¥] and handakuon [#43] arecalled seion [32]. Note that dakuon [725] is not any syllable with a voiced consonant. [ ¥ J, for instance, begins with a voiced consonant [m], butitisseion [j§#] ,notdakuon [3§#F] , because [m] does not have a voiceless counterpart in the Japanese language.INTRODUCTION In its modem form the total number of kana listed in the syllable table far exceeds the original fifty units. The complete list(excluding jij#) displays 76 Kanaletters, among which tJ, 5 _|,and [Z| occurtwice each, which means that it has 73 distinct kana letters. Foruse in modern Japanese, the chart contains 71 distinct kana letters, omitting [ a _| and [ & J. Compare the two charts and study the differences, ‘The chart is usually arranged from right to left, with ‘acolumn’ [447] first and[ A, Jat the end. Dakuon [8] and handakuon [323525] are listed after all the seion [#5] except the syllabic nasal n [Ay]. 3. The Historical Kana Spelling (#SHRZ 3d) Student of modern Japanese usually learn to read and write Japaneses making use of “New Kana Spelling” [#4& A\»] , which is closely cor- related with modern Japanese pronunciation. Except for the particles [ld J, []J, and [% J, which are read as [wal], [e], and fo], and words where [AU] isread as [ee] and [$5 | as[oo],and [= 5 | as [koo], etc., the Kana spelling of modem Japanese is almost always predictable from present day pronunciation. However, the close tie between spelling and pronuncia- tion in present-day Japanese is the result of spelling reforms carried out by the Japanese government shortly after World War II. Up until then, the historical Kanaspelling [$3 494%% V6 \] was incommon use, and the pronuncia-AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE tion of some words had changed such that the modern pronunciation might differ from its written kana representation. ‘The historical spelling [BE S2804R4% Av) is thought to represent in general the pronunciation of Japanese of the early Heian period, and kana words in classical Japanese texts are spelled according to this older conven- tion, For example, the word for “river” in classical texts, if written in kana, isspelled [Aol . Although itis written in the historical kana spelling, when we read classical texts today it is customary to pronounce the words in their modern pronunciation, so [pvt | is read as [kawa]. In the same way, [72 3.=#J “tower”, [Ho =H] “king”, [IF S= 48 J “today” are pronounced [too], [00], and [kyo] respectively. The spelling of a word remained unchanged through succeeding generations, but the way in which it was pronounced did change. Students will find it convenient to internalize the sound changes listed below that occurred after the classical period, but at the same time they should remember that the written form is a closer representation to the original pronunciation that our moder readings. The sound changes that are relevant here can be explained simply by the following statements: 1) [h] becomes (w] in the middle of words, and later [w] disappeared in all positions except before [a], as in: MM [aMaJ [kaha] > [kawa]INTRODUCTION mR [oV) {kohi] & [koi] 3 Tks] [tahu] © [tau]* ar TeAI [mahe] © [mae] AB [HIFXAJ [ohokimi] o [ookimi] * See rule 2 below for additional changes in this example. In other words, except when they appear at the beginning of a word, Tid, OS Sy Ay (EJ are read as [wa, i, u, e, o] respectively. 2) [ou] and [au] become [oo], as in $8 [He3.J [tau] > [too] ({tahu] & [tawu*] © [tau] © [too]) RR PEF J [tou] > [too] [tt45] — [hayau] © [hayoo} The adverbial form [ [£45 | derives from theregularform [ [4 < |. * theoretical forms This rule does not apply in the case of one syllable verb stems that end in [a-] or {o-] plus [-u], such as T&5,J. 45 [5] © [ahu] © [awu*] © [au], not [oo] 3) [iu] becomes [yuu], as in: BS Todd {ihu] > [iu] & [yuu] mm TLI¢H) {siutome] [syuutome] # [LSJ [sifu] & [shiu] [shuu] TEkSU5I [yoroshiu] & fyorosyuu]AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE The adverbial form [&K4L5J derives from the regular form TESLS I. 4) [eu] becomes [yoo], as in: SA PFS J [kehu] [kewu*] © [keu] & [kyoo] 8 [tH [tehu] & [tewu*] > [teu] > [tyoo] * theoretical forms 5) [kwa] becomes [ka], as in: AB [ [ido] A [FAB [suwe] > [sue] EDL [wokashi] > [okasi]INTRODUCTION 8) The distinctions betweenf ( —# Jand [J"— J | were lost during the Edo Period, and [ U Jandl & J, [-J* J and[ J J are pronounced the same respectively. In classical Japanese, however, they were distinct both in spelling and pronunciation. HR [its] [hadzi] © [hazi] HI5UL {medzurashi] > [mezurasi] Bw TlECJ — [hazi) o fhazi] WS [HF | [azuki] o fazuki] < Exercises > Exercise 0.1 Writethe (modern) readings of the following words inkatakana, 4386 Note: Inclassical texts, [. , &J in [42] wasnomally written the same size as other kana letters. 1. [clkO 2. MAB 3. &S 4. TREK eh Gres 6. DIAPIZ 7. MIN 8. BBY 9. PME 10. SOA T. DAB BE [UAL] partofspeech ATER [UY DC] free word ($3 [5S ¢ TC] bound word Bape] [Us £5 LI inflecting suffix B34) [U & L] particle JERI [2.0 KS] inflection Hm [ES UL] verb HBR ([iFb.k 5 L] adjectives HAH (FUVK5 ESL] verbal-adjectives KE [fell A] substantives 43) [ob»L] noun #435 (126.8) L] pronoun SAE [Ofc FA] non-substantiveAl £+8H (505849) The 50 syllabary chart Di RE s€ L] adverb INTRODUCTION dei] [46D < L] conjunction (DAES L] interjection 8469] [4.A,foL.U] demonstrative SISA] free inflecting word Dv] kana #& [12A/] horizontal rows 47 [LX & 5] vertical columns Ba tE< TA] voiced-consonant mark #188 [tLA7E< TA] p-sound mark BE (1 BAI syllables with initial voiced consonants that have voiceless counterparts; syllables with dakuten. BS (twos A] all the syllables in Japanese other than eI : cH i Ho, and 04 8) HE LKIKAI syllables with palatalized consonants and vowels [a], [u], [0], which are represented by kana from the -i row plus a small [4 J, [i |, Té]eg, Teel, [Uo] BELHRBIoOwW [(NM<EHEIOW] The Historical Kana Spelling PRBS [LADEDAM] New Kana Spelling1. VERBS (am) The traditional grammar of classical Japanese is based on an analysis of the language as represented by kana script, an analysis made long before the widespread use in Japan of either the Roman alphabet [—VF] or phonetic transcription. In addition, the traditional analysis does not regularly follow the principles of grammatical analysis and description developed by modern linguists. While a newer method of linguistic analysis would undoubtedly yield a more accurate and elegant description of classical Japanese, there is good reason for the student of classical Japanese to learn the traditional description. The reason is quite simply that over the years Japanese scholars have compiled a vast number of commentaries and studies of classical Japanese texts making use of the terminology and methodology of the traditional grammar. Even today virtually all of the secondary works onclassical Japanese, including, of course, the many dictionaries available in Japan, make use of the traditional analysis. Students simply cannot afford to ignore such a wealth of scholarship, and in order to benefit fully from such useful materials the students must fully understand the framework of refer- ence used therein. Students may soon find that the traditional descriptions possess an elegance and order as pleasing as that of an analysis using modern linguistic methods.1. VERBS, 1.1 Na Column Irregular Verbs (+772##8i/E AH] We will begin our study of the grammar with verb forms, which we believe « is the best initial step to understanding classical grammar. The various verb forms can be learned in terms of paradigms. The first paradigm to be learned is that of the “Na irregular conjugation verbs”, [+772435h8H)]. which is customarily abbreviated as [3£%)3]] “na irregular verbs”. This group of verbs, of which there are only two verbs [SEW “to die”, and [40 | “to go away”, is used to set the framework for describing the conjugation of all inflecting words in the language, which is why it is introduced first. Letus look at the six forms of the verb [3s | , underlined below, as they appear in various contexts. Note that the modern Japanese and English translations represent only approximations for use as aids in understanding. 1. HEF. {FEL} She does not/will not die. 2. HICKEY 4 {HEAT ot He died. 3. FEW. {FE} She does/will die. 4, FASVE. {FEMA} . one who dies ... 5. HANES, (HAKINE} ... although he died ... 6. Eta. {3Eta.} Drop dead!AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE ‘The Japanese names for these six forms are: mizenkei FRE [AtE AITO] renyoukei AR (NA KSSW) syuusikei uke [Ld Ulduy] rentaikei BFE [MATL TU] izenkei BARE LUtFAIS UY) meireikei MBE [OUNUIT] Various English translations have been given for these six forms (see Chart 2), but we believe it is best for the student to use the Japanese names. Not only is there no single set of English terms widely accepted, but learning the Japanese will aid the student in consulting grammar notes and commen- taries written by Japanese scholars. Mizenkei [9472] In the example shown below, the mizenkei [AA] [3E%— | occurs L fa] (#2) 7-9]. may alsooccurbeforeotherinflecting suffixes [BVH] andparticles (B88) €, £3 before the negative inflecting suffix (8 & many of which indicate the “imperfect”, that is, an action or state that has not yet taken place. The mizenkei [ARAEZ] of verbs is used to express one of the following: 1) “Negative” [2552] with the inflecting suffix [BpHiI] [—T] and its alternate forms:1. VERBS, DNEET, {Di LIAHEEL} Iwill not die. 2) “Conjecture or Intention” [£88 + #2] with the inflecting suffix (Bh#)5] [—t5] or its alternate forms: DNEGE, (DK LILIES. HADHY Feo} I will probably die. Or, I intend to die. 3) “Presumption” [4 52 4 4] with the particle (aha) rie: PNKGLREREC. (DELMAS HEALS Dell If I die, he too will die. ‘The name mizenkei [FAIZ] is given to this form because it is used Primarily to form verb expressions for negative, conjecture, and presumption (Be, HER. ARE] | as indicated above. However, some inflecting suffixes [Bhi] and particles [ also occur after this form. These will be introduced later. J that do not indicate “imperfect” Renyoukei [#72] The renyoukei [i8FA#2] occurs primarily before other inflecting words [ #1] (verbs, adjectives and verbal-adjectives) and before inflect- ing suffixes [835] that indicate tense or aspect. This form is also used toconnect one predicate to another, ina function calledcyuusihou [Rib] -‘AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE. The name renyoukei [34/972] comes from this continuitive function with inflecting words [HAE] 1) [epibi&] continuitive DHT, DIET. FASTER Eo) I die, but he does not. 2) with an inflecting suffix [B))i9] of tense or aspect DARE IE Yo (HRIAFEA Eo} He died. Syuusikei (#172) ‘The syuusikei [#132] is used typically at the end of a sentence, hence the name syuusikei [#£4LJ%] , or sentence final form. In some contexts it may be followed by certain inflecting suffixes (8hi)3A] and particles [Bhs]. However, the principal use of the syuusikei [#4b7Z] is to indicate a “habitual or future action or state”. It appears frequently in narratives as a rough equivalent to the “historical present”. In such cases a translation into the English past tense makes for a smoother translation, but since this will sometimes lead to confusion with the true past, in many examples we will avoid translating the syuusikei [41k] _as past tense. DAC OMI THM, (HILO S THM} He will die here.1, VERBS Rentaikei (24672) Justasthe renyoukei [28/AFE] isusedbefore inflecting words [FH soils J. In modern the rentaikei [34492] is used before substantives [ Japanese, the same form [3E¥4_| is used both at the end of the sentence, as in Example 1) below, and also before a noun as an adjectival modifier, as in Example 2). In classical Japanese, however, many verbs have different forms to be used in these positions. The syuusikei [#€1F 7%] appears in sentence final position, while the rentaikei [38fk72] comes before nouns. Many verbs have different syuusikei [#£1F FZ] and rentaikei [#4472]. For instance, [3Eu#a | (Example 1 below) is the syuusikei and [FEMS J (Example 2 below) the rentaikei of the verb [3E8@ |. ND EHSEOAWT HA, (EE THSSDADT ODT} Those who live are sure to die. [Fei] = Ib IE 2) BICHB CHASM L. {RICE THAAMS |} Many people fall into the gorge and die. [FMS | = BBE This use of rentaikei [584672] as an adjectival modifier is known as rentaihou [34474], and it is the most common function of this form. In addition to rentaihou [j# 443] , the rentaikei [38632] is sometimes used before certain inflecting suffixes [))34]] and particles [B34].[AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE ‘There are also times when it will appear at the end of the sentence, when the yy sentence contains an emphatic particle called kakarizyoshi [44BHsal ] (to be explained later). ‘The rentaikei (380672) of classical verbs has yet another function that is lacking in modem verbs. That is, tmay stand alone and function as anoun phrase, without anominalizer suchas 0} or [= & J ,asrequired in modern Japanese. ‘Thus, depending on the context, [FEN J alone might mean “dying —", or “one who dies”, or “the time when one dies”, etc. The use of rentaikei [RVEFE] as a noun phrase is known as its substantive use, oF Ae [203%] . The main uses of the rentaikei [324472] are: 1) rentaihou [3846] , adjectival modifier of the noun that follows; FSET. (HAMS) There are many people who will die. 2) zyuntaihou (4£46:&] , substantive use; FMS URL. FMCEBBLU) It is easy to die. 3) emphatic use of rentaikei [4672] inplace of syuusikei (sb F2] due to the presence of kakarizyoshi [5889] + 201. VERBS This phenomenon is called kakarimusubi [(##U] . BNF EHS. (HMOAMOF HIE, } It is my child that dies. Izenkei [PATE] In contrast to the mizenkei [#2472] form which together with the following inflecting suffix [B)#hi=)] and particle [Bhie]] expresses imperfect, the izenkei [E989] form expresses perfect, [2-7] . Thus, aclause with the izenkei_ [E2492] ofa verb followed by the particle [ [£ J expresses a pre-existing condition or “because” clause, (weet) sincon- trast to a clause with the mizenkei [4¢9A72] and the particle [If], which expresses presumption or hypothetical condition, [45 ] , an “if” clause. The izenkei [P42] is also used at the end of a sentence in place of syuusikei [#172] when the kakarijoshi [= | appears in the same clause. In addition, the izenkei [24472] is used before certain inflecting suffixes [Bh%)3q]] andzyoshi [8H] some examples of which are given below. 1) preexisting condition [REESE] a. with the particle [it] PNKANMERE RSE, (FMAFEATED RICESS.} 2AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE When I die (lit., I will have died), I will become a devil. RHMMEMRORICTS KY {ROFEA TDD. HRORICAT 9 feo} Because my father died, I went to my uncle’s house. b. withthe particle [BE] FES] LEONE bHNEGT. (VIFAKINEB, Wide.) Although my father died, I won't. 2) kakarimusubi [f@#HU'] use of izenkei [B#AI%] in place of syuusikei [iF] due to the presence of kakarizyoshi [ fABN#a)] eel BRLTHAN. (3S ODE} It is the weak who die. Meireikei [#8 B72] Finally, the meireikei [48372] expresses the imperative (Bal. Feta. (Feta. } Drop dead! ‘The verb [EM | has six different forms of inflection as indicated above. Please review the forms. No verb has more than six different inflectional forms, which is why the paradigm for [JE4aJ is used as the frame for all verbs in classical Japanese, even though there is only one other verb [val 221. VERBS “to go away” that conjugates in the same way. The verbs [Feu | and [7Eu | are called [FAHW=F+77 TH i&FAH/A] “Na column irregular verbs” because they use syllables from the “Na column” [447] of the 50 syllabary chart [H-+#BQ]. At this point the student need not memorize all of the uses and meanings for each inflecting form, but it is wise to learn well the paradigm of the six inflectional forms of the verb [3E¥], and the environments that are specified in the first list of inflectional forms, namely: 1) Fea RITE 2) Hic— =e 3) FE wa. ib 4) EaS— BAR 5) Han— BRB 6) Seta oe BIE < Vocabulary for Verbs 1.0 > FTRBEAHH (FF ESAADK DDKIESLI na-column irregular verbs FRHA (CFAAESLI na-column verbs Fem = [Lan] to die. 23AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE fEea vga] to go away RARE [AAMT] mizenkei [sete — J BAR (MhAKSSU) renyoukei [tl — J uke [Leslie] syuusikei [Ewa J MAR [NAtcuiti) rentaikei [FES J BAH ([uttAlto.) izenkei [Fesat— J MBE [HUM] meireikei [seta] BE OTH] negative itz TWVU ESI conjecture BS Wu] intention WER [ATU & SIFA,] presumption, or hypothetical condition hibié& [5665155] continuitive BRA [NAKIMES] rentaihou, use as a noun modifier BRE [UC wAKIMES] substantive use, use as a noun phrase BOR [OU Ck UI emphatic particle rd DAY ED) perfect WEEAME [AS THU & SISA] Preexisting condition, “because” clause RE DATO presumption, or hypothetical condition 241, VERBS Note 1. The particles [ [£ | after Izenkei and Mizenkei In modern Japanese, [Iz is a conditional particle that follows verbs and adjectives that are comparable in form to the izenkei [B472] of classical Japanese. Examples: l) S8NSnEAW. It would be nice if I had money. or, If one has money, it’ll be all right. 2) BORNE GUEST. When spring comes, it turns warm. Inclassical Japanese, the particle [#4] [I] may occur aftereither the mizenkei [39472] or the izenkei_ [P9AFE] . but there is a distinctive meaning for [ [é | in the different environments. When [ [J occurs after the mizenkei [¥4H2] it represents a future or hypothetical condition, as in Examples 3 & 4 below. When it appears after the izenkei [PAZ] it denotes a condition already existing, or a “because” clause as in Examples 5 and 6; or, after the izenkei_ [2 4H] , it may introduce a general statement in which the second clause is the natural outcome of the condition expressed in the clause that ends with IJ, as shown in Example 7. 25AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE Examples: 3) RAK + if RRGTREMEMN, GATEATD, BHATHEERN.) If I die, you take command! 4) RAR + id BRGBREC, (RAGED AEH I.) If my friends come I'll drink sake. 5) BR RFEMTUTEBICIA YM. {RATEATEOT, BH > Ko} Because father died I went back to the capital. 6) BAB + if RENEBEREC, UGENCRKND, HERDS.) Because my friends have come I’ll drink sake. 1) BRR + if IRE td, AIH, OKEHDHIE, KIA SHOR} (It is truism that) Fire dies out if you put water on it. or, Because they poured water on the fire it went out. 261, VERBS In Example 4, [3@(£_] is read as [ <{£] where [ < | is the mizenkei [ARSAIE] of the verb [ 3K J*to come.” HHL J consists of [< FJ mizenkei [94HZ] ofthe verb [Hts] F< 3], “to ladle,” or, “to drink sake together,” and the inflecting suffix [Bh] [ts] denotesconjecture or intention (see Note 2 below). InExample 5, [#Y | isthe renyoukei [3#FAFZ] ofthe verb [HBS | “toreturn,” and [#4 Jisaninflecting suffix [B)ih#5)] indicating perfected action. The perfect will be discussed in Chapter 4. [341] in Example 6 is the izenkei [S47] of the verbf 3 "to come”, and [ $< 1 | in Example 7is the izenkei [487%] of the verb r ac J “to pour”. Particles [89] suchas [ {gf | that follow predicates and form dependent Boe’ clauses are called “conjunctive particles” [ 54! J. Another frequently used conjunctive particle is [ ££ % |, “although,” or “even though.” Note 2. The inflecting suffix [B)E3)] [dts] [J is an inflecting suffix that expresses conjecture or intention (HER + HK] . It is always added to the mizenkei [FAHE] of verbs [$434] and other inflecting words. A more detailed explanation of [>] will be given in Chapter 4.5. 27AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE Examples: ye ed 1) Conjecture [ #3 ] BNFSCOMCCHEL, (OF HS COMTHALSI.} My son too will probably die in this battle. [ICT] isacase particle [ #Bp#4) Jused after noun phrases to form an instrumental or locative phrase. 2) Intention [ # & MMNISECC. (AMS TAKA. HSS.) Since it’s raining, I'll go home (lit., go away). Note 3. The inflecting Suffix [B08] [J [Fis a negative inflecting suffix [BHIN#] that is added to the mizenkei [A94F] of verbs [#5] and other inflecting words. A detailed explanation of [$*] is found in Chapter 4.4. Examples: DRAPE, (AMAT) T'll not die. VBS, (Bld ST} The visitor will not leave. 281. VERBS Note 4. The particles [B34] [e°# J and [| [J and [ &Jare conjunctive particles [4345839] that connect one clause to another. They are always added to the izenkei [BARE] of verbs [Spi] and other inflecting words, and their modern equivalents are THESIS and [tHE], both of which mean “although.” In the Heian period [32-284] [ & | was more often used in Kanbunkun- dokubun [383793832] . which is a peculiar method of reading Chinese- style writing as if it were written in Japanese, while [ &¢ | was more common in Wabun [#3¢], which is a purely Japanese style developed from the spoken language. However, by the Kamakura Period [2@R§{€] the use of [ & | became predominant in all styles of writing. Examination of the frequency of [ &'% | and & | in works of different eras yields informative results. InThe Tale of Genzi [5.938] , written in the first quarter of the 11th century, [ & | appears ten times more often than [ ¢°4 J, but in Turezuregusa [{¢#A@3], which was written in the fourteenth century (1331) and is considered to have been deliberately written in the style and grammar of Heian prose, [ ¢°¢, | and [ & Jare used in equal ratio, even though [ 24 | predominates in other works of the same period. Examples: 1) Hagen, FieTs, (BARAKINES, FREE} 29AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE Although the mother died, the child did not. 2D) RideMNES, RIABEV ICV. {REIS TH 2 TLE SHKINED, MABE 9 0} Although my friend left, I stayed on. Note 5. Vocabulary 1 BL POTLI HER) 1. {HL} easy 2. {RE RBd\ iE} — safe,peaceful Fl) 1. {ie LU} difficult 2. (HELLY, HRLY} severe, strong 3. Toland TOL] (ARK: In the Heian period, [7] and [7 L-J were also used as first person 2. BL [aicl) GES ) first person pronouns pronouns. There seems to be no distinction among them, although in earlier times the function of [7 Jand [7 L-| may have been complementary. In later periods, [J L-| was most commonly used. 4. & (ARE) second person pronoun fryvl[rjand (rel As with [9 | and [9 [J], there seems to be no semantic distinction between [F Jand [F LJ, although their functions may have been comple- mentary in earlier times. [ie Jemerged later, and was frequently used from the Kamakura period [S8@R$4] on. 301. VERBS 5. MHICTHSEbIC) (HR) {fi T. #8 IZ} together 6. (leds (PABBA) 1. {LU BAI < be beautifully colored (HREALKOMBIIES.. | {BAK 2 1D TKOMRME LY I<. } Summer has passed and the autumn leaves are beautifully colored. 2. {KUMEEWDTFS} have a nice fragrance PROSE S) CHOvUsyAsT secs} a place where the fragrance of the orange tree is pleasant 3. {DPDHSIDCK LWTE} POOROMMEATEWEF CNEY I {COKDKLUT EMT CNTWHS.} This woman is an outstanding beauty. < Exercises > Exercise 1.1. Read and identify the forms of the verbs in the following sentences. Then translate the sentences into modern Japanese and English. 1 KARA, 2. RidERE. 3. MAT TIEICICY, 4. RVERSHSL, 31AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE 5. Ree ONeSRALESE. [bE BH PKS) ORE] 6. KERC EAR. 1. BRKT. 8. QM FAMOWIE CHICY. CFA =ME I 9. EO, LSI, RHRICKLEY. (RL= PRT OME] 10. Hal, 11. Edal 12, Ha SlaRINES, 6 SRL. (RN ESA TRL) OBR] [ES S= HH EX | OMT] 13. BRANES FAMED. [Bhd =e BINS] OME] 14, ella < Het, Rl OMICS THEE. 15 fais < (ATED Fic THRACE OMA DBADIS tabsla < {d= adverbial phrase meaning, “what I want is ...” The poemis by Saigyou< #845 ),(1118-1190), apriest poet. Tradition is that the Buddha passed away on the 15th day of the second month. This poem make use of the common poetic technique of inversion, since the second and third stanzas would normally come after the fourth and fifth. kth 23 1.2 Four Rows Verbs [ PUR) ] We will now examine the inflecting forms of other verbs in terms of the framework established by the conjugation of the na irregular verbs [JE¥a | 321, VERBS and [4a]. The verb [2% < J ,“towrite," conjugates in the following way. LAR Bhs. (BAY I don’t write. 2. BA BaKY. (Butk} I wrote. 3. RULE RS) I write. 4 BKB RCA) ‘one who writes 5. BRE BES (Buried) although I have written 6. w Bs. (Bt) Write! Notice that the syuusikei [#1F 72] andthe rentaikei [jg4KFz] of the four row verbs have the same form, as do the izenkei [E472] and the meireikei_ [#74572] . Most modem Japanese verbs with a consonant base 33‘AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE (sometimes called u-verbs) such as [#< |, [&kOJ, and [ARS] are derived from classical Japanese verbs of this type. The distinguishing characteristic of this type of conjugation is that the final syllable of the verb will include one of four syllables found in the five horizontal rows within one vertical column of the 50 syllabary chart [A+] eg. [#a—-3', f#A-KYL eC) P< - Bl PR — SHI, and PHI, or Ikal, kil, /ku/, /ku/, /ke/, and /ke/. Since the distinctive inflecting parts span four rows within a vertical column, this conjugation is called “Four Rows Conjugation Verbs” [ py £4; FA EhEA] or its abbreviated form “Four Rows Verbs” [P49Sp#5]] . The following chart shows the conjugation of other verbs in this groups. AREA AR PRESEN ES] | em WBAA— fc Y | #ab. | Bo row | cars) cowry) oe. | Cem) Cee k— FF | BX es | wS! cyt HF lend mE- | ML- at. | w- WO stand) fefe-— | RBA te 5 = BS bw mt |oo- | mae) AS FRX fly elf- | cu . ee BE read kk- jaa | ae, st- MS take | ¢5- ey &% | £a- 341, VERBS < Exercises > Exercise 1.2. Read and identify the forms of the verbs in the following sentences. Then translate the sentences into modern Japanese and English. L BAERS. FSERELS 2. Bornuxzs, vesanecy. BIR] (AK, ETH) Slade Y= ESHA] (RMS LUO, DdHTKHS) 3. GLU AY, BITE, MEMLICY. 4. HEOASRSASKL. MES (BH) (toa) eL= [ERE] (4209) WE THOR ce REL ues. . KOZAK, RORVMUAS. HBB Cee. HBLER ST | ERY TRICEITEY . AMV, RICK KO, BUS, SUS = (he) ($8a3) 10. RemENL, Bie tnid, aad, wUhie= [ESR] + Ft) = (oT) w ypwrnrna 1.3 Ra Column Irregular Verbs (S(7##i5 FH] The full name of this group of verbs, “ra column irregular verbs," is 35AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE generally abbreviated to"ra irregular verbs” [5 34%] . There are only four verbs in this irregular conjugation, and students should remember them. They are: [AY=HY), (BY=EYl, [HY =lenKy I, and PU TAY /WWET AY | (and its altermate forms (FEY and AEEAY ). Racolumn verbs [5 3hiq]] conjugate ina pattern quite similar to that of Four Rows Verb [PY f% $i) ] except that the syuusikei [#132] of ra column verbs is identical with the renyoukei (38 /B72], while the syuusikei of Four Rows Verbs is identical with its rentaikei (er). FRHMARR &Y ey fany au YU WETHU | BC RE = HS | eH- |) ldNS-| WETHG-| OH- eU- €y-| laxy-| wadary— ma— HY. €Y. fEXU. WETAU. | Ko bS- | €5- aXS-| HETHS-| M<- CAE bh- | th- lanh—-| wetan—] ait— 361. VERBS ‘The basic meaning of the four ra column verbs [SRS] is “to exist,” butunlike the modem Japanese [4 % | ,theclassical [& Y | isused for people and other animate subjects, as is shown in Example 1 of Note 4, as well as for inanimate subjects. [% 4 _| may mean “to be lying down,” “to be resting against something” or simply “sitting,” as well as having the basic meaning “toexist.” [f4 0} It was Tarou who went to the capital. 2) KBRAVESMHLIKL. {ABBA SMISRA LU} The meals that Tarou makes are delicious. 3) DC UTHDRICIRK . (BDO TBC 0} A nightingale sings on the branch of a plum. 4) ABMRICTOC, (ABORICATII.} I'll got Tarou’s house. 5) COMMAABMNEY, (COMSHAABORTT.} This poem is Kakinomoto Hitomaro’s. 41AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE Note 11, Rhetorical question expressions [#8252] Rhetorical questions expressions [2333232] are used frequently in classical Japanese. In this kind of expression the speaker or narrator poses a question, but from the context it is clear that she or he holds the negative of the question to be true. Adverbs such as [u\aytJ, Puravtar, Tua tana tea bli eal, Pica), [lcAvtas and par- ticles [Bh#a]] suchas[av,[J, [atdJ, [Pls] and others are used in creating rhetorical questions. Examples: 1) MORCUMTARALS {MORICES LTAMRASTL ASM} How could I see the moon on a rainy night? 2) WHIMSY CASK KZSEOARS HOM. (HOE MPOME I. ASMA OED ICRSS0THSIM.} Should flowers be viewed ony when in full bloom, and the moon only when it is a full moon? Note 12. Vocabulary 1. &< CBIR) . in this way, thus 2. RTCSb) (AR) 1. (3H) clothes 421. VERBS 2. (GRak} a priest’s robe 3. &< (BEA) 1. {#ETS} — tobe satisfied 2. {82%} tobe tired of something, to lose interest in something. 4. DEMT (4) 1. {3284} early moming 2. {3288} the following moming 5. WOT (BIR) 1. {ED ULT} how, why (in either a straight or rhetorical question) TOmtHBME.| {ENKFITHOIo} “How shall I write?” “How could I write it?” 2. {ES5cAULTI by all means Tomtiime.J (ES ULTHEF 0} By all means (at all costs) J will go. < Exercises > Exercise 1.3.1. Read the following sentences and translate them intomodemn Japanese and English, and then identify the forms of all the verbs. l. RicHVCHERECT. 2. XC ATHHY, 3 EasmMem< st, 4. RIC THNEHS. 5. KOFICBSBHY. 6. RABI bLeBs. 7. DeHtHilees. = 8. HOMBRE SERS ICY. 9. DEHTHIHESNL, 10. HABA. a3‘AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE Does ll. BHUNTS THOMEFILC, ae 12. POMEFSHADACHEBET. é 1B. KORBROB. EMS. 14. MOKUNTIS Bik, 7 * Exercise 1.3.2. Read the following and identify the forms of all the verbs. ‘Then restate them in modern Japanese and English. 1 MBE —OOKORHY, TERS COMPNESLI ZY. DUTY. (BSE) eee 2. BROASOMICAHAHY ELA ORMT, (7738563249] MB Thee) L=eIR < Vocabulary aid for 1.3. > SURANGA [SFL SAAD MOLD ESLI ra column irregular verbs SRG [S\AES5L] — qirregular verbs Popa] La EMH (ATIC & XSL] copulative inflecting suffix BEMHR CUTWCSESL] _ negative inflecting suffix Mim [d< Usb] case particle FRB) (4 DS< UL] conjunctive particle HAAR [MEDSE VEKS] Kakinomoto Hitomaro (8th century poet) £5) Four Rows Verbs1. VERBS 1.4. Upper One Row Verbs CEB aha) and Upper A> eb 3 Two Rows Verbs CE Bee aah) Inmedern Japanese, there are two types of vowel verb (or -ru verb) stems: one type ends in the vowel [e], for instance [Z| (tabe-ru), while the other ends in [i], such as [ §3 | (mi-ru). The modem [-i] stem verbs for the most part derive from either Upper One Row Verbs [_t—fQi&h#R]] or Upper Two Rows Verbs [_|— ih] of classical Japanese. tii > LRA +-RkbA LOBE RS" to see” #82 "to fall” we SP OY ane | Sonu Be-ky me | ba. =| Se on ms 45AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE 1.4.1. Upper One Row Verbs [_L—Bx8)i9]] There are only ten commonly used verbs (and some compounds made with them such as [4% S| “to look back”) that conjugate as Upper One Row Verbs [_}—fRE)ia)] in classical Japanese. They are [#S=#S], [HS =12 3], [FS=O0S], (HS=5)], [HS=03), (BS =], [BS=Hb/VEHSl, [HHS=H5H45] and [RS =44]. The distinguishing characteristic of this verb type is that all the inflectional forms have syllables with /i/, for instance, the [-i-] of [mi-] in the following: [RF], (RY, [RSI, [ROSSI (RES I, and [&.& J. Since the syllables with /i/ occupy the second horizontal row in the 50 syllabary chart [Hi-+-74BQ], that is, one row above the middle of [7-4 -9-2-—7] , where [9 | isthe middle, these verbs are called PHOS RADI RS ESL “Upper One Row Conjugation verbs,” [_ /—S%iFAB)ial], ormore com- DOVER AED L monly by the abbreviated form [_-}—B¥Bhial J. 1.4.2. Upper Two Rows Verbs [-E—58hi]] There are many verbs in classical Japanese that conjugate like [?§2=47] , making use of the syllables in both the [ 4 | row and the To] row, eg. HSK), (HBRYI, TRO], [HOSS], [ROME] , and [7H KJ. These verbs are called “Upper Two Row SERINE, or more commonly [_E=By §)35)] where “Upper Two Rows” means the second and third horizontal Conjugation Verbs,” ["¢: rows, the [4 ] and [+ | rows, in the 50 syllabary chart. 481. VERBS Of all the modern Japanese verbs whose stems end in [i], those that are not in the list of ten common Upper One Row Verbs [_}—f#hia]] belong to the Upper Two Rows Verb [_ — #833] Group in classical Japanese. Therefore, it is best for the student to memorize the list of ten commonly used Upper One Row Verbs [_—B%i)i8]] , which will then make the identifi- cation of Upper Two Rows Verbs [_ = fii]] relatively easy Usually it is possible to predict the classical Japanese inflection paradigm from the modem derivative of the classical verb, For instance, consider the modem verb [$4 J, “to pass through”. In modem Japanese this is a - ru verb with an -i- stem, and since it is not one of the 10 Upper One Row Verbs [ E—E&8)541] it must be an Upper TwoRows Verb [_/— Spiel] . The consonant before -i- is g-, so this verb conjugates in the ga column [#747] as follows, (F#—-FJ, [F#-KYI, [FH Col, [FLS—-HO], [F Exercise 1.4.1. Fill in the blanks in the following conjugation table with the appropriate forms. | | ee AAT | ube IE PAE ae RE 4-F 4-Bo HS wn-es 501. VERBS L-Bii FATE AE LTE TE PAE aE # | BBR BB-B [2 “| ‘aot | es | Exercise 1.4.2, Give the modern Japanese forms for each of the following classical verbs. 2 8S Lag 28S 3.4Re 4 C5. HOS Exercise 1.4.3. Give the syuusikei [iF] of the classical verbs that correspond to the following modern verbs. re ts * as 2 1. WS 2 HLS 3. FUS 4. BUS 5. BS 1% aa 0? ih *h Exercise 1.4.4, Read the following sentences and translate them into modem Japanese and English. Then identify the forms of all the verbs. 1. MMOL CRS EHEC ES. 2. ML< CHEB SRCURS. 3. BVEHSREMANLSMEL, 4. AEHTBEOSHE, 5. MOAB URSIN. 6 BICBISHSL. 7. BEKLEMV\ESKAT, 8. ROPETOSMOENL, 9. REWTRBURL. 10. BY EHSRELARASI, 6AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE Lens eAmre5 23U. 1.5. LowerOneRowVerbs (}—#idhisia] andLower ERAR2 E523 L, Two Rows Verbs CY Bee) Almost all modern Japanese vowel verbs (or -ru verbs) whose stems end in [e] are derived from Lower Two Rows Verbs [F —E##hia] of classical Japanese. 1 RAE MOAT. (FS ENG} I won’t eat anything. 2. BAR FLERAKY. (FLEKNK.) Tate susi. 3. HI ER, (HEEXS.} Teat rice. 4, BRE ENEBrS {ENEKNKSAM EL} BELo There is no one who eats it. 5. BAR &sne bie {ENTHHEBW.} aye Even though Ieatalot, Idon't gain weight. (IRA = FIBA POD] ORTH] 521. VERBS 6 BE CMeBXk [CHeEKKS,) Eat this! All verbs in this category have either [e] or [ul] in each of the six inflectional forms, e.g., /tabe-zu/, /tabe-tari/, /tabu/, /taburu-mono/, /tabure-domo/ and / tabeyo/. Thus it is said that these verbs conjugate in the [e] and [u] rows, the “Lower TwoRows”, ["F £8] ofthe SO syllabary chart, and therefore they are commonly called “Lower Two Rows Verbs,” [-F—BY&hi] - There is only one verb in classical Japanese that conjugates in the pattern ¥ ofaLower One Row Verb [F—f&)i]] . This verbis [BS J, “tokick,” and it conjugates as follows: 1. RRR tot (FB %b..} I don’t kick. 2. MAR BY, UF ato} Ikicked. : 3. ibe MS. (13%) Ikick. 4, KE Boe (3560) a person who kicks 53AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE 5. BRE net {Sine} although I kicked 6. MS Be. {I¥5} Kick! Note 15. (MMKIE] + Te) — 781 This expression is used to indicate the potential, and its modern equivalent is [FSCEATHSI. [4B], means [TITUG J , “to obtain, or get”, as in “get ahorse”, (REG! (HE TICU MIE). [7G isa Lower Two Rows Verb [7F SHE], and conjugates as follows: [4—3" | TB eY ITI TBSHIBN—LGI THE J. Note thatthe same kanji [78 is used to represent either the sound [ 5 J, as in the syuusikei [49.J, rentaikei [43% |, and izenkei [#41], or the sound [Z J, as in the other forms. Examples: 1) MESSE, {MICBICEMTEHS.} PANICHSES 5 | We can meet him. 2) RICA SEBEY. {MICILWS CENT Teo} THAPIICILWSEARY,| [was able to enter the capital. [AS1 =O 1S]1. VERBS: Note 16. Vocabulary 1. BS [OS (AREA) 1. {KLYYEF} “togoorcome(toa superior, to the Palace)” [HsFAkSSKL.J (HLKMBHICK SKES5.0} “He will come to the Palace tomorrow.” 2. {KE LHIFS} “to give (toa superior)” TAPIEC KbOEHSI {BRC <( KSDEE LHS.) “He presented fruit to the Prince.” [SJ appears frequently in classical texts, and it functions primar- ily as ahumble form of the verbs “go”, “come”, “go to live with/serve under”, “eat”, “drink”, “present”, or “do something for someone”. There are also a very limited number of examples where it functions as a honorific equivalent of “do”, “eat”, or “drink”. 2. DS TENS) (PURE) 1. GEHTS} “to leave the Palace” (or some such respectable place) [bnhltkooe.| (&H, Wis LEL ES} I will now leave the Palace. 2. {EWYETF} “humble; to go, to come” [SltHOHICEMSE. | {€H, BOLICWSELSS.}AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE Tam now ready to go to the next world. [#3 | is frequently used as an expression to indicate someone has died. 3. FS. MS TERSS) (IBY) 1. {68 DMATS} “to be in attendance” THAPICERDSAL (BRICHEOMALTHSA} “a person who serves the Prince” 2. {KY £F} “humble: to go, to come” THAPSTIERSSC.| (BLAOMKWVYHLE S$ “T will come tomorrow morning.” 3. polite form of “to be” ho FSBOS KBR, | There is a capital under the waves, too. 4. E TSA) (4m) 1. (#rh} “Palace” 2. {REO} “The Inner Palace” 3. {#8} “The Imperial Presence” 4. (RZ, Be} “Emperor, Empress” 5. {KUAABREAS “a very high ranked courtier or his presence”1. VERBS, 5. BA TATU, BF EI (BM) {ESS} “thier” 6. AB. ABTSEES (BR) 1. {4° UL} “senior courtier’s mansion” 2. (KE, aia} “minister, senior courtier” 3. {8 << dtc} “minister or senior courtier’s wife” < Exercises > Exercise 1.5.1. Read the following sentences and translate them intomodern Japanese and English. Then identify the forms of all the verbs. L. ZORMSABC SL. 2. BRANES MERIT. . TERY TRICEUHO, 4. LN TARICB OD. . RAR AeRNT, 6. HBERAEY. |. BAC KSDEBSNL, 8. ROWICEHERSES Y 9. DFANCRD S RORICHEK 10. SObCB+tWA®, 11, BORA SMOLICREUT, EMS, 12, KIKbHSFRICSRRAT. 13. eC BBARHARY, (TH) 14, ABI SES FHA TH. 15, BEC EMBTKEDS EBT. pa alos 87‘AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE 1.6. Sa Column Irregular Conjugation Verbs [#77 #35H8)3]] and Ka Column Irregular Conjugation Verbs [ATR AHA) “Sa irregular verbs” [+3£%)3]] is an abbreviation for “sa column irregular conjugation verbs” [+45 32485 Al iA] and “kairregularverbs” [9 HF] isan abbreviation for“kacolumn conjugation irregular verbs” (ARBRE - In classical Japanese the verb[ JJ, “to do”, has a unique conjugation Pattern, and it is freely added to nouns that denote action to form compound verbs,e.g..[ fe] “travel”+13 J... [Hed J ,“totravel”. There are also some verbs with [ | that are derived from the renyoukei [8 FAJZ] of verbs and adjectives, e.g., [<< | “to heighten”, and others that are derived from the stems of adjectives,e.g., [AF |»“‘tothink much of”. Asis clear from this example, in some environments voicing takes place, [$ Jo FJ. There is, however, no simple rule governing this voicing. Forexample, [ @ ]+ [34 = [aro], butlaj+ fs) = (HF J. Forthisreason itis besttoleam all such compounds as individual verbs that conjugate in the sa irregular verb pattern. [J J by itself and all compound verbs with [J | or [-J* } are called ile “sa column irregular verbs”, [+381 1 RA He. RAT LIEUN) Idon’t travel.1. VERBS 2. BAe PRLICYo (HTL Io} I traveled. 3. MIL iT. {MATT S 0} I travel. 4. RTE MISH URATSA) one who travels 5. BRAT MINES (MATSINeb} although I travel a => db w Pek. {HAT LS} Travel! ‘ The verb [3% J, “to come”, also conjugates in a unique way, and is called “ka irregular verb”, [7 &)35)]. The various forms of [ < | are given below. 1. FERRI BERT. {ANIL TEL} Tanlt=s.J He won’t come. 2. RATE TREY oJ {EHKEMS KF 593. ALTE 4. BRIG 5. BR ‘AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE TéBRteY.J A friend came. SCHAAR! {stata LEX Bo} TS6b4aP5126< oJ My father will come tomorrow. [TROBEL.] (< SOEAUVELY [< SOL] There is no one who will come. PSeRnNL SR GhdJ TtS THSAMAEE WMA LTHSATT.} The people standing there are all in service to the lord. Note 20. The conjunctive particle [#k#:8h#] [271 The particle [DD] is thought to be derived from the inflecting particle [DJ (to be introduced in 4.16). Itis added to the renyoukei [387A] of verbs [33] and some inflecting suffixes [BAEE]] to indicate one of the following meanings.1. VERBS 1, two actions or activities occur simultaneously; TAB, MOE SMICFSMSOOMURUT) CLEA) (BMO EK OKA CEE SSMS EMD MU EURO KU LE Li} All of the people were holding their children as they got on and off the boat at the places where the boat stopped. [A®, BRLODAS ED. (AR AED A StH.) The people were talking as they viewed the moon. nv . an activity g occurs intermittently but repeatedly over a period of time; rBulice CUT. MEMYDIDEZDOC ECBO Y oJ (ries {BUCA > THEM ST. WSBWADCIEICE 2 He0} He went into the fields and mountains gathering bamboo, and used it in many ways. 3. when [2] is followed by a form of [lJ or another word indicating “existence”, it shows the continuation of a certain action or state; we [Beko bISHSt.| [HRH2594] {FLOBAGOTWSISS.) My wife is probably waiting. 4, at the end of a clause, particularly in poetry, [> | contains a sense of 65‘AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE poetic emphasis along with the primary sense of continuation. BODE ORCL TCHR UDINESE Y | (BOKDICHOFCHTHREMA TU SUOMICILBDTEY DoThSo} [HSM2A] Snow is falling on my sleeve as I pick for you young greens in the spring fields. < Exercises > Exercise 1.6.1. Read the following sentences and translate them into modern Japanese and English. Then identify the forms of all the verbs. L REMEMUTHSELT. 2 HOKBCHBEST, 3. MAOMMRTINESEEELOBAL. . BxBoce nes bs VEEL. Ry. PROBE URIU. . RNENS L, BOCES LTHEMLEY. . Bkouces. 8, RH SSSMICBUET, ARRROHATICRSXL, 10. Ci, HAH, CBR, 11. WIC RMAAN SSE. 12. Bly TNO LTROK SOM ZL 13. Bakes, BE ees. 14, SAMCAOTHS NE SERS SET 15, HOHEROETSHOKBS ICEL. 16. ERK BEBNGET, 17, BEB eb oT, er aAws,. 661. VERBS 18. FROME, MOR L. 19, HEC Eb, HIE. 20, BREDINT THAEHSSS Yo Exercise 1.6.2. Give the modern Japanese verbs that correspond to the following classical Japanese verbs. 1 4K 2. 6 3. FEW 4, HBC 5. AS 6 BO 1. BY 8. 8 9. #0 ° iD 11. 5 12> 13, eS 14, Bp 15. PASSA 16. BC SH 17. RB 18. BRR 19. MHISA 20. BK BA Exercise 1.6.3. Give the classical Japanese verbs that correspond to the following modern Japanese verbs. 1. FO 2. 4S 3. 4B 4, ERS 5. HUS 6. BS 7, ROS 8. 8S 9 MICAS 10. KS ll. RAS 12. SRIF S 13. NS 14. HS 15. HENS 16. FEMA BoA 19. BNSA 20. KSA 21. MASA 22. MEA 23. FUSA 24. JE SAA 67AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE 1.7, Review of Verbs Inthe previous chapters, classical Japanese verbs were classified into nine types in terms of their inflectional characteristics. In Japanese these types are: (+3), [OBR], [5981, LE—Be], (boee]. TF], CFB, [#2], [+38]. Although there are only two nairregular verbs [32], namely [3Ewy| and [448], this type has the largest variety of alternate forms and therefore is used to set the framework for all inflecting words in Japanese. The six inflecting forms are listed below. 1. the form followed by [J*] .... . the form followed by [72 Y | . the sentence final form . the form followed by [E' | ... ~ [BRE] 2 3 4. the form followed by [§].... 5 6 ~ [a BIE] . the imperative form The alternate forms of [3E#_] and [48 | should be put to memory, especially the rentaikei [384692] [JES J and izenkei [BSH] [3E%at J, which are different from the modern forms. All of the “u-verbs” or “consonant verbs” in modern Japanese are derived from Four Rows Verbs [| J ofclassical Iapanese except |[ HS J, [#S1, [36%aJ,and [HS J. In the Tokyo dialect of modern Japanese 681. VERBS, the form derived from the classical verb [428 | is not used, although its use is fairly common the Kansai and Kyusyu dialects. The outstanding charac- teristics of Four Rows Verbs [PaB¢#pia] is that the mizenkei [FeP87] ends with the vowel [a], for instance, [kk—'], [HAT and [#8—¥ J. It should also be remembered that the syuusikei [#£1F 72] and rentaikei [324472] are identical, as are the [PSH] and [ér@7Z] . MILE : KE BRAT : fob — HAE : kt MBE : HH There are few irregular verbs in classical Japanese as well as in modern Japanese, and it is easy to remember the verbs in these categories. There are only four ra irregular verbs [>H#)3A] , namely [HYI, TEYI, Tlaxy J, PuxésAvY J. There is only one ka irregular verb [BE Sh] P3K| and sa irregular verbs [44-3eSh$a]] include only [J Jand its compound, such as [3g] and [{¥¥‘J. Students should pay special attention to the following alternate forms of these verbs. 1, sairregular verbs [535%)35]] identical renyoukei [9 FARZ] and syuusikei [#1b7E] AE YU #EIKTE : BY different rentaikei [384472] BRIE: 5S 69‘AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE 2. ka irregular verbs [7 35)3A1] rentaikei [3#44}] is the same as the modem form, but syuusikei [#2iE7E] is different BAH: <3 PIL: < 3. sa irregular verbs [+3351] syuusikei [#492] is [FJ not [FSJ, and mizenkei [SAFE] is [+t J. The “ru-verbs” or “vowel verbs” of modern Japanese derive from either Upper One Row Verbs [L—&&)il] , Upper Two Rows Verbs [FI Eh] or Lower Two Rows Verbs ["F = R#)i1] of classical Japanese. If the stem of the modem verb ends in [e] such as {#~— 3}, then the verb belongs to the Lower Two Rows Verb ["F —E¥#&)iAl] category in classical Japanese. There is only one verb, [#t% | , in the Lower One Row [FE hie] category of classical Japanese, but its modern derivative {tS} conjugates in the same pattern as {8k<3} and {#83} . If the stem of the modern verbs ends in [i], suchas {FLO} or (#2%S}, then the verb belongs to either the Upper One Row [_E—£¥] or Upper Two Rows [_/—£#] group in classical Japanese. Since there are only ten Upper One Row Verbs [—B®&hi4]] that were used frequently in classical Japa- nese, it is best to memorize them: [SJ TWSITRSIIFSISRSI 701. VERBS [#31 (HS) HS) THOSI THOS The remaining modern”1u-verbs” with stems ending in [i] are Upper Two Rows Verbs [_L}— epi] . Recreating the classical inflecting forms of Upper Two Rows Verbs [LR 8h34] and Lower Two Rows Verbs [F—®&pie]] from the modern syuusikei [#€1 7] isrelatively simple. The rentaikei [B72] of the classical form can be determined by replacing the last vowel of the modern verbs stems ([i] or [e]) with [u]. {8X3} modem form, replace [e] of stem with [uJ [RSI classical rentaikei {#2%%} modem form, replace [i] of stem with [u] [#2 < BJ classical rentaikei The classical syuusikei [£17] can be generated from the classical rentaikei [8/432] by simply dropping the final syllable [— 3]. [RASIl > TRA! [i2< 31 > [ie< J ‘The classical izenkei [E2472] can be generated from the classical rentaikei [384892] by replacing the final syllable [ J with [#1]. [RSS] > [RXN-] nAN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE rie< BI > fies n-J One syllable verbs such as [4 J and [$f should be treated with care. They are Lower Two Rows Verbs [F —f& #391] , but it is hard to distin- guish the stems from the endings of these verbs. It is also important to pay special attention to the classical transitive and intransitive verbs that form pairs. Often they have the same syuusikei [#£i1F 72], but they may belong to different categories. For example, the syuusikei [#72] [#A< 1 maybe either a transitive or intransitive verb, but the transitive [{tA< | conjugates as a Lower Two Rows Verb [-F —B¢)i3]] while the intransi- tive [#%< | conjugates as a Four Rows Verb [PUBR hia]. [#1 is the only classical Lower Two Rows Verb [F6)33] that conjugates in the a- column [747]. Al other similar verbs that appear to have vowel endings conjugate in the ha column [/\47], the ya column [+74] , or the wa column [747] . That is, the modem verb {fH4. 3} is derived not from the hypothetical classical [#75 | but from [JH] . It should be remembered that [4§ J (and related verbs such as [1if$]) is the only a column Lower Two Rows Verb [7 7F F BBE]. There are only three commonly used wa column Lower Two Rows Verbs [797 FIERA], namely, P&S | (MS) HHS]. The most com- monly used ya column Lower Two Rows Verbs [4777 F—Be&hia]] are 21. VERBS PROJ, THO), [AAC], and [HH], and the most common ha columnLowerTwoRows Verbs [\477F —BeBhial] are (5. 1, res, (Sal, (HSI, PHS] ete. In the case of Upper Two Rows Verbs [_E—f%Shia]] , from just the modern forms it is difficult to distinguish those that conjugate in the ya column [4747] from those in the ha column [/\4}] . It best to remember that there are only three ya column Upper Two Rows Verbs [+777 LIE Hpie]] ,namely [2 J, [Heep] ,and [#R . The rest belong to the ha column Upper Two Rows Verb group [/\#7_L—Beipia]. ‘Those modern Japanese “u-verbs” or “consonant verbs” whose negative form has [wa], such as {$§4o%CL}, conjugate in classical Japanese as ha column Four Rows Verbs [/\47EREN5], [HSJ. 32. ADJECTIVES (rs: Adjectives in classical Japanese, as in modern Japanese, are highly inflected, and grammatically they include predication. For instance, an adjective [ALJ {#4} does not mean merely “red,” but rather “to bered.” In describing the various forms of adjectives, Japanese grammarians use the same framework used in the description of verbs, which may lead to confusion. For example, both [#R< | and [AKAGI are considered the nizenkei [AMR] of ARLI. Infact, [ARD\D | is a contracted form of [aR < —HHJ,where [HK< | isthe renyoukei of the adjective THR LJ and [© J is the mizenkei of the ra-hen doosi [5 Y J . [aRLI OMA + [HY ORR Tmar< J + [5] =[bano-] Forms derived from the adjectival renyoukei (3 FA#2] + [%YJ are called “kari forms,” [4.47%] and all the other forms are called “original forms.” The Kari forms are usually used when adjectives are followed by inflecting suffixes [Bh&)iA] that cannot be added directly to the original forms of the adjectives. There are two subgroups of adjectives, as shown below. 742. ADJECTIVES A) KuConjugation Adjectives (7 AESH] 1. RPAH RL {¥DAo fc} if itis cold Epos. {SGC G1} Itis not cold. Theinflecting suffix [Bhi] [—g*] mustbe added to the mizenkei of the Kari form. It cannot be added to the original form. ‘On the other hand, the particle [Bhia]] [Ia] may be added to either the kari form PACA + Ie J or the original form [Et < +1 J. 2. SAR RT. {®¢FS.} [will make it cold. ROVYITY. {Od ofc} It was cold. Note: [IF ¥ | isapast tense inflecting suffix [By#h2a ]. See Note 20 below fora more detailed explanation. 3. HL BL. {ET} tis cold. 4. TRIBE Ba6 {SOW} acold day BDSA {€OWV)} acold day 5. BRB BINES (SCWINLS} although itis cold a => a w ern. (Son o SOC EN) 75‘AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE Be cold! Become cold! B) Siku Conjugation Adjectives [2 75 RAH] 1 RR | ELSIE (ELA) ifitis beautiful KRLASST, {HL< Gl.,} It is not beautiful. 2. BAAR ELST. {LK FSH.) Iwillmake it beautiful. RLAYITY, {RAV fc,} It was beautiful. 3. Rib T Lo {HL} It is beautiful. 4. BE RLS {UU} a beautiful thing ELDSM (Li) a beautiful thing 5. BRARE ELIINES (RLUGHEd} although it is beautiful a => db e Klan, {#L< bh or LK EH} Be beautiful. Become beautiful. The [AY | forms of the syuusikei and izenkei are absent from the paradigms because they are not usually used, and only the [.¥J | form is used for the meireikei. 762. ADJECTIVES RAAARR AE | MAE | Hub | BR | BAR | mo - -U —% -! -f -. —H -eb B- | me ay DS ah tor | < K u = ih x Line | Ling Las tan 52K-] Us u< L Ls Lith Note 21. The inflecting suffix [Spi] F(t U J [FU J is an inflecting suffix [H)H)%]] that indicates past tense, particularly in narratives, and it is added to the renyoukei [3 FA72] of inflecting words. With adjectives, [IY | is added only to the [HY J form. [ItY J is also used for emphasis, especially in poetry, and in such cases it does not carry the meaning of past tense. See 4.15. for amore detailed explanation. Examples: 1) BRESPABVITY, {(BMEWF GRADE} There was a Haiku-poet called Basyo. 7AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE [%&%J is the rentaikei of the copulative inflecting suffix (BRED ENE] [HEU . See 4.19 for details. 2) FOOMICBSHVITVY, (HCCC MAH ofc} Once upon a time there was a capital in this place. 3) DOKELAVITY. {BORDA LA feo} That woman was lovely. Note 22. The renyoukei of adjectives [72S] OFA7Z) Itwasalready noted thatonly the [\'J | formsofadjectives [F2R] are used with certain types of inflecting suffixes [Bh%)#5]]. for example, [BOY FY 1 fedvbv5 fe}, “Itwas high.” In addition, it should be noted that the original form of the renyoukei of adjectives has two important functions, the continuative and the adverbial. Examples 1 and 2 below illustrate the continuative use of the renyoukei to signal the continuation of a sentence, in other words, to signal the end of the non-final clause in a compound sentence. In this usage the adjective is sometimes followed by the particle [Bhi]] [CJ or [UT] to indicate this even more clearly, as in Example 3. The adverbial use of the renyoukei is illustrated in Examples 4 and 5, 782. ADJECTIVES Examples: 1) BML<, BRUT. (ORK T. MNBICMAEW) The wind is strong and umbrellas are useless. 2) Wm<. BRL, | (WK. SIAR} The mountains are high and the gorges deep. 3) WHC UT. SRL. (I<. SIR} ‘The mountains are high, and the gorges deep. 4) BRL< HS. (Ba L< So} Tt snows hard. 5) ROBRUL< GV. (KRORMEL< Gokot The leaves of trees have become beautiful. Note 23. Onbin [42] The [k] in the last syllable of the renyoukei and rentaikei of adjectives is sometimes omitted, so that [%< | becomes [H31, and FRUAI becomes [SEL]. These forms are called onbin [##{] forms. The onbin form of the renyoukei is still used before [OX t\*E FJ in modem Japanese, asin [#SltkDOXWET) “goodmoming.” The onbin form 79AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE of the renyoukei is also widely used in the Kansai dialect. The conclusive/ attributive form of modern Japanese adjectives is derived from the onbin form of the rentaikei. [repel > [reas] [540¢ ba] 2 T30<¢ bud [takaki] © [takai] [utukusiki] [utukusii] Note 24. Vocabulary 1. ARTS 6) (BR) (A= Y | BH) The Imperial Palace 2 BSE) (4) 1. tH} village, hamlet 2. {Utd} the country 3. {B5+OR} acourtier’s private home 3. DESEL GERM) (comb Li, MUAY appropriate, pleasant to see or hear, becoming #ahoaexsoasal. {AUBSAOAW MS REBICKBUAU LF A young priest’s white robe is pleasing to our eyes. We (BIE) {7A} TUERER] (UNAIRED) very red clothes 1. {UP FE, &HU.fz} unpleasant, disagreeable 2 {HIE by} ugly «< Exercises > Exercise 2.1. Read the following sentence and translate them into modern2. ADJECTIVES Japanese and English. Then identify the forms of all the verbs and adjectives. 1. ye ra Aw Wa 32%) #1] with the exception of the alternative short forms [I< Jand [ & J. The ra irregular form of the renyoukei [4 Y | or [7 Y | is used before inflecting suffixes [B)E%], suchas [ {FY J. The short form is used in three ways: adverbially as in [ARAFAZKES J “It rains quietly”; continuatively as in 85 has twoAN INTRODUCTION TO GLASSICAL JAPANESE THES Y (C. AABRY % LI “The flowers are in full bloom, and the moonis perfectly clear”; and before the particle [ UT J asin (#ElS#PAVIT UTARELI “The forest is quiet and there are no signs of people.” Note 25. Suffix [#258] [—(7] The suffix [IF | is added to the renyoukei of verbs [S935 0 FAH] . the stem of adjectives and pseudo-adjectives [fESial, FERMIO EH). and certain nouns to form a pseudo-adjective or, on rare occasions, a noun. [—IF] indicates that in the eyes of the speaker or narrator the attribute of the predicate “appears to be thus.” It corresponds to modem Japanese {--- £ 3}, or {-+-&RAS). For instance, [SEU] by itself means “is beautiful,” but [3€L(F% Y | means “seems beautiful”; [HHS %Y | means “is elegantly beautiful,” but [#(F% YJ means “seems elegantly beautiful.” [A% UL] means “there are no people,” but [AIT% LJ means “there is no sign of people.” A word formed with [—(F] is usually gramatically a psevdo-adjective [2 Sp%-]] , but occasionally it appears in the form of a noun, especially when followed by the negative, as shown in TAI? above. 863. PSEUDO-ADJECTIVES Note 26. Vocabulary 1. #U [HEU] (AR) a music party; In the Heian period, [4€U] meant a party where noblemen and court ladies played music. 2. PAPK. POPS (RI) (HK) 1. {KATA Lietz} gradually Bl; PS PSMISTK B (KAAS < HO THIS B} the sky that is gradually becoming lighter 2. {P.&} at last, with difficulty ‘This usage, which is found in modern Japanese, was rare in the Heian period. 3. Slane GAH) This word has a wide range of meanings. It may be used for “splendid,” “beautiful,” “sad,” “pitiful,” etc., whenever the be- holder is strongly impressed or moved by sight, sound, etc. [Hd SRHYV.1 (FILS LUMOAAAS.} ‘There is a beautiful pine tree. 4. EOD (YORREBE) lL. {ATAF ULC BLU; BERK THMTALUY} young and fresh, lovely 2. (EEPWTHIUEEE} supple, genteel beauty 3. {LoEYELTLEMEEE} soft, elegant manner 4. {HCPNTEHUL ; 9X} enticingly attractive 87AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE 5. €D\L (vy ARES) {BHL4AW, FIFSLI, TINTS} interesting, outstanding, wonderful < Exercises > Exercise 3.1. Read the following sentences and translate them into modern Japanese and English. Then identify the forms of all verbs [#4] ], adjectives (FES 34] and pseudo-adjectives [FERHA]. 1. BOMUEMDICHS, 2. HST DOREBG. 3. BMOcnithieoed, 4 BBO SME, 5. DOKSVESMNLSMEDC UIT. ICE HILICRUACEO BOA LCHDEY 6 ARN RkRoh KRORDICMMDEH. 8. HONORE’ SRS Y 9. Be SRYRRERRSHSY 10. RLOWMMME CU, 11. ROMBEEGSHEL. 12. BRE KHeESSEBL. 3. KOR AHltnic LTAOMlAS SEY, 14. Bomuw<. weaitney. . WEREDNLS, SLOTESREY, moms a Exercise 3.2. Read the following sentences and translate them into modern Japanese and English. Then identify the forms of all verbs [ia], 883. PSEUDO-ADJECTIVES adjectives [72234], and pseudo-adjectives [FERRI] . L. SRHUTY, BAMBORRE—LOMMELEE, APICAY, HOHABEFUUY, BABRSOME RS OTHE, WH WECRUT, MESA SES ICEYITY. 2 ROMCHCT, HRY EMS BORTICHSHY. IPSS < CU THAIS, MT MICH SRB ORC LILA 4 BAS. BORUERE LICHKEADBO—BAICBSM, WE Bianey, TAL HTSAE SI, BRO KGS EM oUT, UTS = See Note 18. srozmg = Us w - ee ASCE SSECMEBOPIPIHAT. BIEYOCS Weer, (te) w Het EDBAKSDUENES. RMOSAUEEML, BF] 894. INFLECTING SUFFIXES (iis) 4.0. General Statement Inflecting suffixes [B)%hi] are bound forms [(}/RE8] which conjugate like verbs and adjectives but which cannot be used alone in a sentence. These inflecting suffixes [B)E)il] (literally, “helping verbs”) are one of the most important and complex parts of classical Japanese grammar, and the student will find that a thorough understanding of them will greatly enhance his or her ability to read and understand classical texts. Several of the suffixes have already been introduced briefly in notes in earlier chapters, and this section is devoted to a thorough introduction of the suffixes used in classical Japanese. There are three major things to be learned foreach inflecting suffix [#341] : meaning, conjugation forms, and environ- ments. 4.0.1. Meaning Examples: ) RT GRE Negative She won’t come. 904. INFLECTING SUFFIXES 2) Bib vR (RS EUR} Negative a night that is not cold 3) BNSXSR (RC LB Negative a night that is not cold 4) REY. {Rie} Perfect He came. 5) RKSH. {RIA} Perfect the person who came 6) BISRL. {GIERS ESS} Conjecture He will probably come. 1 RADE. {BATES Oo} Intention Iwill go. When inflecting suffixes [B)B)a] are added to verbs [Sia], adjec- tives [2255] , pseudo-adjectives [F¢2H)34]] or other inflecting suffixes [BhE)i4] they attach a particular meaning, such as aspect, mood, or voice to the sentence. For example, [3 and its alternate forms such as [&SJ and [¥Jadd the meaning “negative” to phrases in which they 2AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE appear, while [f< Y | and its alternate forms such as [72] and [fe#J add the meaning “perfect”. An inflecting suffix may have more than one meaning. For instance, in Example 6 [£3 indicates “conjecture”, but in Example 7 “intention”. Each inflecting suffix [B)&)#l] has only alimited number of meanings, but often the reader must determine the appropriate meaning based solely on his or her understanding of the context. 4.0.2. Conjugation forms Since inflecting suffixes [HE] conjugate like verbs [#5], adjectives [72255], and pseudo-adjectives [FZ2HpiA], the student must leam the paradigm for each one. Again, the paradigm for na irregular verbs [73€#)i5]] is used to set the framework, but student should be aware that there are considerable irregularities in the conjugation patterns of many inflecting suffixes [ BhEhii ]. For example, as is the case with the mizenkei of adjectives [fZq]OAFAAZ] ,whichhada [pv | formand an original form (see Chapter 2 above) sometimes two different forms have the same name. For instance, both[ ¥aJand [&S] are the rentaikei [SE4K7E] of the inflecting suffix FJ. On the other hand, some inflecting suffixes [8)%34]] have incomplete paradigms and are lacking certain forms. For example, the conjectural inflecting suffix [¢:] has only the syuusikei [#472] , rentaikei 924. INFLECTING SUFFIXES (384692) and izenkei [E2476], and lacks the mizenkei [R247E, renyoukei (j# 97%] and meireikei [é>S7E). Since there is no uniform conjugation pattern for all inflecting suffixes, it is necessary for the student to learn the conjugation pattern of each one. 4.0.3. Environments As was mentioned earlier, specific inflecting suffixes [B34] are added only to a specified form (or forms) of inflecting words [FAS . For example, the negative [- | and its alternate forms may be added only to the mizenkei [5 9A72] and never to any forms other than the mizenkei, while the perfect [f= | is added only to the renyoukei (i2FA72]. Further- more, some inflecting suffixes [8 83a] can be added to verbs [hi], adjectives [F2@H1], pseudo-adjectives [}¢28H)3H]] and inflecting suffixes [Bh EE ], others only to verbs [#)i5}] and adjectives [72435)], and still others only to verbs_[)34]]. Since a knowledge of the environment of an inflecting suffix will often play a crucial role in determining its identity, the restriction for each one should be learned well. 93AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE 4.1. -¢jand és): Causative (ie) Pere or Honorific [2%] [HJand [ET] are used after the mizenkei [FAH] of verbs to indicate either causative [{8#%] or honorific [#4]. They appear after inflecting suffixes only when used together to indicate both causative [181%] and honorific [8$#&] . The distribution of [F Jand [FJ are comple- mentary in that [SJ and its alternate forms are added to the mizenkei [ARPAHE] ofFourRowsVerbs [PURX].nairregularverbs [+R] andrairregular verbs [5 &pia]], while [&F] and its alternate forms are used afterthe mizenkei [49492] ofall other verbs, namely ka irregular Verbs [ZHI]. sa irregular verbs [++ ZEN], Upper One Row Verbs [_t—¥8)381], Upper Two Rows Verbs [_} — Fyighia]], Lower One Row Verbs [F—Bxi}iq]] and Lower Two Rows Verbs [FIE& Hal. ee ee ik ct + ++ SRS ee ee oe eae ee ORE eg [et st ay ess sonlare Loo IDA 944, INFLECTING SUFFIXES 4.1.1, Causative [#12] The Japanese causative corresponds to the English sense of “make someone do something”, or “permitsomeone to do something”. Thatis to say, in Japanese grammar causative [44%] covers both the causative and the permissive of English grammar. Examples: ro 1) RATE RECS. 2) BAR RECEY. 3) MILI RET. 4) BAH RETSR 95 {EEL} I don’t make them drink. or, I don’t let them drink. {RE CEo} I made them drink. or, I let them drink. {KES 0} Tmake them drink. or, J will let them drink. {8k et SPH} when I make them drink5) BRAT 6) BIE fess 1) RRR 2) RAR 3) #ib Ie ‘AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE KkETHED thetK. Bxsesy. Betry, BNET, or, when I let them drink {kEtKINEDS} although I made them drink or, although I let them drink {ES} Make them drink! or, Let them drink! {BANSHEE} I don’t make them eat. or, I don’t let them eat. {ANS} Imade them eat. or, I let them eat. {BNET} I make them eat. or, I let them eat.4, INFLECTING SUFFIXES 4) aH BNeyor, {AXE SBF} when I make them eat or, when I let them eat 5) Bee BXETHES {ANStKINED} although I made them eat or, although I let them eat 6) MSH Bxetd. {AXES} Make them eat! or, Let them eat! The honorific inflecting suffixes [2 eeBhShia ITF land PASI canbe used to make the verb “honorific”, thus exhalting its subject, but only if there is another honorific word within the same verb phrase. In other words, [| and [& 3] cannot by themselves indicate honorific, but they can serve to intensify the sense of honorific that is indicated by other honorific words, such as [Jas] (see note 32 below). Therefore, when no other honorific word is present, [FJand [&g | should be interpreted as causative [#7]. Anexpression with twohonorific words,“doublehonorific” | #9] 7AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE indicates that the politeness level of the sentences is of the highest order. The subject of such a sentence is often the emperor, empress, prince, princess or nobleman of very high rank. Examine the following three sentences. Examples: 1) [REMSHHS | [PEWSHKES | 2) [MF ISKeHS HHS J [HCIMPEWSEKED | 3) [REF ORRBREHS HHS. | PUPS EULOESDPEWSEKE DS Sentence | is ambiguous because [+t] may be either causative or honorific, and we must know the subject of the sentence in order to decide which itis. Without a clearer context the sentence could be translated as either “he shoots an arrow”, or “he has someone shoot an arrow”. However, the subject of sentence 2 is specified, and since the subject is “the prince” [48-F J, it is almost certain that [&+#] here is used to form a double honorific. So the translation will be “the Prince shoots an arrow”. The subject of sentence 3, “the sub-bishop of the Zyodo Temple” [J#+3-O(848 1, is indeed a respectable position, but it is highly unlikely that the double honorific would be used with this subject, so [ & + here should probably be interpreted as a causative inflecting suffix [{S#¢B)Spia], unless the 984, INFLECTING SUFFIXES. larger context suggests otherwise. Therefore, the translation will be “the sub- bishop of the Zyodo Temple has someone shoot an arrow”. ‘The conjugation patterns and environments are the same whether [FJ or [&FJ is used as an honorific or causative inflecting suffix. Examples: 4) MFA ¢HltnNES MRED. 5) LisAIcRS tS. (REOSFRSE THT IES LUM BEEY ICES.) The Prince composes a splendid poem. (RBSMICHRYV ICS.) The Emperor boards the boat. Sentence environment [oJ [SJ used alone [oJ [ST] used with another honorific (E12 ( causative) 2 (honorific) | 3° x ° | ° 99AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE Note 27. [+2 fl] + Tadd When [& FJ is added to sa irregular verbs [4+ZEE)i], we would expect the resultant form to be [4t— & J, since the mizenkei of [JJ is [+¢J. However, the mizenkei [+t | is commonly omitted before the causa- tive [Xy J, and the verb simply appears as [ & J J, as shown in Examples 1 & 2 below. This is especially true when the verb is a compound verb with anounplus [$ J. When the verbisthe simple sairregular verb [++2£8h39)], namely [J | alone, then the form [42g] will more often appear, as is shown in Example 3. When [ & J] as an honorific intensifier is added to themizenkei [2472] ofsairregular verbs [+¥ZEH)HT] , the mizenkei form [ +t | is not omitted, as shown below in Examples 4 & 5. Examples: 1) Pew] + PSs] = (eRe ST] ~ RST) to make them understand 2) wT] + Tadd eetesl > abes] to make them go back home 3) afgl + fasjl= lees] SHAR ett St k_| Make him study for three years. BIg] + (etl + freyl = Teeny 1004, INFLECTING SUFFIXES (EAR tt & +t fc Y | They made him study for three years. 4) [ewe + Patt + PHS = (RCSD. | = BSH The Emperor understands. 5) MES] + PAT) + (HSS = ABS HBSS The Emperor goes home, Note 28, Distinguishing causative verbs from transitive verbs ending in it Students should be careful to distinguish between verbs with causative inflecting suffixes [97 BPEE]] , that is, verbs in the mizenkei with either [J or [&FI, and transitive verbs that end in FJ, such as TST] “to scatter”, or THIET , “to fly”. As shown in the chart below, the conjugation patterns of the two are different. 101AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE Causative Verbs Contrasted With Transitive Verbs Ending In [3 | RAK GENE BD mae het — —> RAE | BOT e iteay & A Ba—t—hky Ag ROL y L fe BOOT + het t KE | BD 93—8 $5 MOTH t aE Bb —th—eb on eet RSE | Bee ek) et Note 29, The agent in causative clauses In classical Japanese, agents in causative sentences are generally marked by the particle [ & J, but on occasion [ % | is replaced by the particle F1< J. Replacement is obligatory when the verb is transitive because the agent- marker [ Jwould be identical in form with the direct object-marker [ & | and the two would be difficult to distinguish. Replacement is optional when the verb is intransitive, since there is no such danger. In Example | below, the agent-marker [ # |is used with an intransitive verb, and in Example 2, the 1024, INFLECTING SUFFIXES agent-marker [ & jis replaced by [I< J, although replacement is optional. In Example 3, the agent-marker [12] is used with the transitive verb. Here replacement of [Joy [(< Jis obligatory. Examples: 1 ROFETANT. {BSOF RETA So} I will make my own son go. 2) BASFICADT. {HROFH CAMS o} I will make my own son go. 3) BHICtot, {HAICEStS.} I will have Yosida make it. ‘The agent-marker [ J, but not [ [< J, is sometimes re-enforced by adding the particle [ LT]. Since this [ UT] is not added to the direct object, a particle sequence [% LT J necessarily marks the agent of a causative sentence (Examples 4 and 5). In such cases there is no danger of confusion ‘between the agent and object-marker even when the verb is transitive. Therefore, the particle sequence [% LT} canbe used as the agent marker with either transitive or intransitive verbs. The agent-marker [ % | before [UT] is never replaced by [ {< J, although it may be sometimes omitted, as in Example 6. 103AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE Examples: 4) GHElLTMStKY. (HMICBDtK,} I made Yosida say it. 5) BIFELTHDST. {BAOFHETOS.} I will make my own son go. 6) BRLTREHKY, (SHB bti} I made Yosida say it. Note 30, The optative particle [723 | ‘The optative particle [%¢] is added to the mizenkei [APAHZ] of inflecting words and expresses the speaker's hope or desire for an action by, or state of, a third person or object. Note that the optative [7%z¢;] follows the mizenkei, and [%¢>] in any other environment will be interpreted differently, as is explained in later chapters. Examples: D RMS. {TEITPRUYTIZ LY} I want the cherry blossoms to bloom. 1044, INFLECTING SUFFIXES. 2) BRSZCLBS. (Bic TH LW EBS} Thope it will snow. Note 31. The desiderative particle [—(<*P] The particle [—|£%>J isattachedtothe mizenkei [¥4AZ] of verbs [hi] and some inflecting suffixes [Bh)S)i]]. When [—Id%>] appears at the end of a phrase asa sentence final particle [#€#)ia) ],itusually expresses the wish of the speaker, corresponding to the modem [—f2t.], as shown in Examples 1 and2. [—{248] is thought to have derived from acombination of the conjunction particle [#@8Bh3)] [— (iJ, which was introduced in Note 1, and the sentence final particle [4 |, which is used for emphasis. [—[{£*| is also used on occasion with verbs of existence to express the speaker’s wish that a certain state come about, as shown in Example 3. In this respect it is similar to [—%#¢¢;] introduced in the previous note. The particle [—[£%] also appears as a conjunctive particle [4E#SBH38] and, in fact, the sentence final particle [4€B)i5]] _intro- duced above is thought to have developed from this earlier usage. As a conjunctive particle, [—{&% | followseitherthe mizenkei [FR#AIE] or the izenkei [EYAH%], as does [—[4] introduced in Note 1. The [| expresses doubt or questioning. Withthe mizenkei [AZAHZ] plus [—(£J, 105AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE the preceding clause expresses a hypothetical condition [4RiE S61, as shown in Example 4, and with the izenkei [E9472] itisacondition already existing [HEE 4]. The mizenkei [PAH] + [14 | corresponds to themodern [---475[£---H\], while the izenkei [B¥HE] + [IP] corresponds to modem [-+-72f\5---f\J, as shown inExample 5. This usage expresses doubt, and at times, corresponds to a rhetorical question in which the negative is thought to be actually true, as shown in Example 6. Examples: 1. BORVGSERITD. (MROMMORERKUSOTIT.} I would like to see the cherry blossoms of my home village in full bloom. 2, DOAICRILIEP. {HOAIHMS KUTT o} I would like to ask that person. 3, —DHBIEPEBS. {—DH2TELWEBI Oo} I wish there were one. 4, BCMA PC SHS. {S LHC < SSCSMIOSD.} If I were to ask you, would I ask it this way? 1064, INFLECTING SUFFIXES 5. BODIBHMIFPBICTACSAE, {AEBS Bo TURD OSBOEMTAICR 2 HSS DM} Was it because I was thinking of the person, I saw her in my dreams? 6. FRR PHC CLHSE. {FRbSoTH, faS HAHSKSIM.} Even were I to meet you one thousand nights, would I get tired of you? ke Note 32. The verb [ #45, | In most cases, the verb [#4.5.] conjugates in the pattern of a Four Rows verb [PYXSh#A]]. and is added to the renyoukei [38 4FZ] of verbs and some inflecting suffixes [B)&)5e]] . It is an honorific verb exalting the subject of the sentence (Example 1). Another [#4.5.| is found in classical Japanese, but this one conjugates in pattern of a Lower Two Rows Verb CFA eeana subject of the verb (Example 2). ees '] and it indicates the sense of humbleness [2##%] of the The Four Rows Verb [ pagsy ] T#S. is sometimes used inde- pendently without a preceding verb, in which case it is an honorific verb meaning “to give”, or “to bestow,” as shown in Example 3, When [#45.J is used with the honorific inflecting suffix [J or 107AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE [T&F], the resultant phrase is a double honorific [=k] of the utmost politeness, as was explained earlier in 4.1.2, and is shown in Example 4. Examples: 1) BRLWEHSNGSRERABS. [BOK] {BBUKOANAY sIFEREBEY CGS 0} The young prince makes a very moving poem. 2) BOMBVMLEMSBATY. CiRBE] (bieSROMBROGBY CC WE SBME OI LE LIC} Ihave heard that your Excellency’s illness is hard to cure. 3) HSBEDICREBS,. (BHATSEAKBSICHME (KES) His Excellency gives robes to the people who are in attendance. 4) DAMMRERE CHS. (RASRESKACEUET.} [—BS%] The Emperor composes a poem. < Exercises > Exercise 4.1.1. Read and translate the following sentences into modern Japanese and English. Then identify the forms of all inflecting words. ee Ps 1 FB emaies. 2 ARtnebee LtHOET. 1084, INFLECTING SUFFIXES 3. Ms ewees saMEY. 4 ABLES CEE. 5 HSRICETA UE. 6. BVSEOILEERICHHIEP. 1. ox UTHMStoES, 8. BNR SECERS, 9. TEMATU, BETHD. 10. Blake LTRERDUBS. 1. #8asols Rese, 12. Lists SBS CRIES. 13, DEHTH LBB LRUTAS LHDSBICH THO. (RENEE 14, MUROMRICS DUS VERIRAD SELL, CNM = she) PRUE] 00? 15. BO LCHBE THER UE OREDNC HALE. CAN NT | Exercise 4.1.2 Change the forms of the verbs as indicated in the example to make grammatical verbs sentences. BRS +9 /SF=ANET 1 HS +t /Eet= 2 RO +b /EtF= 3. AAD +d ATH 4. BS +9 /ET= 5. OG 6+ 0 /St= CS Ed +9 /ET= 1. RT +5 /8T= 8 Fe +t /et= 9. #®Y +b /EtF= 10. FRET +S /ST=‘AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE 4.2. TL] 4.2.1. Causative [itié] While [SF Jand [& FJ are used only after verbs, except in the rare case of honorific-causative doubling, [ U¢3J may be used after the mizenkei [ARPAHE] of verbs [Hie], adjectives [72439] and pseudo-adjec- tives [}2ZHpiqj] to form a causative clause. It is always added to the [AY | form of adjectives [F22#A]] , notthe original form. | LZ} was not widely used in prose during the Heian period and was rarely used in poetry, but it came to be used quite frequently in later periods, especially in writing styles where Chinese influence was strongly felt, as in war tales and official documents. lalalelwlele & B. e (n Via) FED ATE | LE (lH L%® |LE | LES Lin LHL Examples: 1) IRR LOT. {Ud Lo} Ido not make him go. or, I do not fet him go. 2) SAE FTO LOKY. — (bvivtteo} Imade him go. or, Ilet him go. 3) IEA ALE. {Wnt S.} I make him go. or, I will left him go.4, INFLECTING SUFFIKES 4) BURT FID LESR (FD SH} when I make him go or, I when let him go. | 5) BRR FOLENES (VMtkined) although I made him go or, although I let him go 8) STE GDLOE, (LES) Make him go! or, Let him go! 4.2.2. Honorific [3%] Although its use as an honorific inflecting suffix [28%8h8)#A] is rare, FUJ is sometimes used as an honorific in conjunction with other honorific words, most commonly [#5]. Examples: 1) RIB CBD LOS. (HICBEMESBSICTS } ra The Emperor writes his name on the pillar. 2) LIGRETES LOMS. (KSSHRESEY CGS.) The Emperor composes a poem. a‘AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE Note 33. Vocabulary 1 WAC (YO RRBBH) 1. (EBICVEW, KUAAK,} terrible, very bad [AMG EWACECEESSHYIIV.I {BHEERUAAEZCEMSBD 9K} There were many terrible happenings such as typhoons. 2. (HBICTIES UU) very fine [EOFICUAU SBS Y oJ {ZOFICY aILGMHE ADS} There is a fine priest at that temple. 2. fat (DERRBH) (IC < SLL, BAP} regrettable, annoying [EORS State Lol (AMSDSBRK,} It is also regrettable that blossoms will scatter. 3. UK (4H) 1. {BRM} crevice, gap THER ICURES MUDKY J YF ICM Ls (KEFH2 TW KO} ‘They sat all over the connecting bridge leaving no unoccupied spaces. 2. {fH} interval, gap, intermission 4. OSEL (LY TEARSA) 1. {HENSIZEVEL)} unbelievably bad 2. {BEBCIZEY oIkfE} amazingly splendid 1124, INFLECTING SUFFIXES 5. BOKL (JSABBA) {dl} lovely, sweet, pretty < Exercise > Exercise 4,2. Read and translate the following sentences into modern Japanese and English. Then identify the forms of all inflecting words. 1. BRELTRIADLORY. UER=AB) 2 ROFSRFCBSLE. (BB =UkOSM) 3. WHCARESB LOSE (HEY LOS. 4. FEL CHEM LEnebsdeoear. 5, PHC SOkELABEDEE LOK. 6. BSKAEL THK LE. 7. BRS LTRS LORS. GER= A) 8. bith CSRs LORS. 9, BOWS CER LOMAS OLE L, 10. BMC SMTAUMETRREOASUBS. 11, BE U THAD ES LN 1. HEESBLT. ICUS thle LORS. 13, CIR SEY. 14. EH OOARES idtar L. 15, BBM BVEOHE LACIE LOSRERBSAEL, — Tea) 113‘AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE 4.3. TS) and [54] [SJ and [J appear frequently in classical Japanese texts and serve various functions. They conjugate in the Lower Two Rows [Ff%] pattern as shown below, and are complementary in distribution, as are [F_] and [&F]. [SJ occurs after the mizenkei [AFAAZ] of Four Rows Verbs [PUREE E [SHA], white [S41 occurs after the mizenkei [RFAFE] of all ‘J, na irregular verbs [ -38)34)], and ra irregular verbs other verbs. [ & Jand [ % % J are used to indicate four different meanings: . ae 1. passive [SS] . Dos 2. potential [ay aE] pits 3. honorific [3K] 4. spontaneous [438] For this reason the form [4\% | is ambiguous since it could be inter- preted in any of the four ways shown below. 1 [23] HDS] {nS} It is written. or, I was adversely affected by his writing it. 2 [Sek] BMS J {HBSS} He writes. 444, INFLECTING SUFFIXES 3. [ARE] THAD S J {#15} He can write. 4. (B%] [HDS] {BAICBWT LES} Tcannot help but write. The following examples are given to show the conjugation patterns of [%Jand [SS J,andare arbitrarily interpreted as honorific [2g] inthe English equivalents. Examples: [% | 1. RPAH Bons, {BHSCSSEW} She does not write. 2. BRAT Bonk, (SPF K,} She wrote it. 3. ELLIE EDS. {BESS} She writes. 4. BRT BDS3%, (SHXICESH) When she writes. 115AN INTRODUCTION 10 CLASSICAL JAPANESE 5. BAER BbSnES (HHaICEOKINED) although she wrote 6. aI Bond. {BBS < SU} Please write. [ea] 1 RAB ReSNT. (HRACZSEU) He does not get up. 2 HAE Re SHEY, (BREICG OK) He got up. 3. #EILF EOS. {BRAKES} He gets up. 4. BATE BESSSH (HECKER) when he gets up 5. BAB abSnes (HHSCTOKINED) although he got up 1164, INFLECTING SUFFIXES 6. BRE HeSnK, {HRA CHITC KS} Please get up. 43.1. Passive [25] Inmodern Japanese there are two different types of passive constructions: the simple passive as shown in Example 1 below and the so-called adversative passive as shown in Example 2. Sometimes the sense of adversarity is not present in the latter, and some linguists prefer to call it the “affective passive,” or the “passive of interest.” Examples: 1) FAA ACRE NTE. I was bitten by a dog. 2) AMARC. Iwas adversely affected by my father’s death. In passive sentences the subject is affected by the action described by the rest of the sentence, In Example 1 (simple passive) the subject is directly affected by the action of the agent, while in Example 2 (adversative passive) the subject is indirectly affected by the action represented in the rest of the sentence. In classical Japanese, as in modern Japanese, it is very rare to find an inanimate object as the subject of a passive sentence. Ww?AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE bb 53S bSh) ork LEUAOBROAATE bn bh 6S Some grammarians claim that the simple passive in Japanese is a recent development from the influence through translation of the passive found in European languages, and that it is not an original construction in Japanese. While sentences with the simple passive are not as common in classical texts as in modern Japanese, such claims are misleading since numerous examples of simple passive constructions can be found in classical texts. Examples: 3) BSRHSMONKY, (KOACHeMONKo} Iwas asked the way by a young woman. 4) WAITS. (MAB HNS.} A cat is chased by a dog. 1184, INFLECTING SUFFIXES 5) FHICLTRICHES, (FF ORICRICHENS} When I was ten, I was adversely affected by my father’s death. 4.3.2. Potential [JE] In the Heian period, [SJand [S| were used as potential inflecting suffixes primarily in negative statements (Example 1) or in rhetorical ques- tions where the negative is the underlying message of the sentence. In later periods, however, [4 ] and [%J came to be used in affirmative sen- tences, as in Example 2 and 3 below. Examples: 1) FAIS ons, {FID PICUSCEMTE SI} I cannot stay inside the gate. 2) COAGRES. {CMOAISHHS.} I can read this book. 3) ANSSBEFX, {KIT EAZ AS} Bring someone who can swim. 119AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE 4.3.3. Honorific [2%] [Bland [SS] may be used to indicate honorific [48K] . Unlike [J and [&FJ, which merely intensify the honorific meaning that is expressed by other words in the sentence, [ 3 ]and [5%] used alone can indicate honorific. There need not be another honorific word present in the sentence. Examples: 1) EARS S. {EAH LEOMSHY [CE So} The master will return tomorrow morning. 2) DORAASHS. {HORE MCSE} He does not use that medicine. ume 4.3.4. Spontaneous [83%] ‘The spontaneous [ [3£] in Japanese conveys the sense of an action that occurs not out of the conscious intention of the subject, but as a natural, spontaneous action under appropriate conditions. Although English lacks both specific function words and grammatical constructions to indicate the idea of spontaneous action, there ate a few words, such as “seem,” as shown. in the translation of Example 3, which include within their lexical meaning the 1204. INFLECTING SUFFIXES concept of “spontaneity” as used in the Japanese [Fi3¢]. Examples: 1) BRALEOBNS, (BEMSCHACHMMBUTLES«} Whenever I pick up a writing brush, { auto- matically start writing something. 2) MOBEENRIS. (HOCLEBASE BRE RI TLES,} Whenever I think of that, I cannot help but laugh. 3) A BENT, {E35 ElsBONE) I don’t believe that it is so. or | Tt does not seem that way to me. 4.3.5. Points to remember 1. B jand [SZ | express one of fourmeanings, namely passive [#5] , potential [@JE] , honorific [2¥#] , or spontaneous [3€]. 2. Although there are always exceptions, the following “rules of thumb” will be helpful in determining the correct meaning. a. When SJand [S41 express passive [32H] , the subject of 121AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE the sentence is rarely an inanimate noun. b. When [4 Jand [4 J express potential [@]#E] inthe Japanese of the Heian Period, they are usually used in negative sentences or in rhetorical questions. c. When [% Jand [i % J express spontaneous [3] or potential [JAE], there is no meireikei [484542] for these inflecting suf- fixes. 3. In the Nara period, inflecting suffixes [B)ShE9] [i] and [SJ were used to express passive [3254], potential [BJ@E] and spontane- ous [F3] instead of [SJ and [HS]. [wjand [SH] were added to the mizenkei [ #94} % Jof verbs [Hpi] ], adjectives [FER]. pseudo-adjectives | Fé & &) fi ] and some inflecting suffixes [ B) ®) #4 J, just as with [ SJ and [5 SJ. The conjugation patterns are also similar, as seen in the table below. wae | ATL RR s nu uu Ss DS on RE 1224, INFLECTING SUFFIXES Example: . Mao, FeSBao (MERNS FRO EMAREBDNS.) Whenever I eat melon, I cannot help thinking about my children. Itis said that the [%) |and [SJ of the verbs [HIF] and [HS (SJ are the remains of this [. Note 34. [+R] + 153) When [5%] is attached to sa irregular verbs [++Z€Epia]] , the expected form is [tt—G HJ, since [+t] is the mizenkei of (FJ. However, justas [4t+EFJ is often contracted to FAG (Note 27), [+t-6] is often contracted to T&S. Examples: 1) hIdHRICHRS S, {AMICK BS NS 0} TUSMTSICC STRESS Thecastleis attacked by anenemy. [t-631-T&S] 2) BlsaATICHESS {BRIS PRAT THEE NS 0} TED LAH AICIS\S Bo] His Lordship prays to the god. ft-53)> (eS) 123AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE Note 35. Vocabulary lL. Uc (FARA) (lAGISTELU} to be extreme most frequently appears in its renyoukei [38/72] as an intensi- fying adverb, “extremely”. TWKK< HlAMEYV | (feUAAY sldteo} It is extremely nice. 2. ARL [HUAI (VERB SE) 1. {HF BL. Hr7ElZ%} to be very rare; hard to find 2. {HVAT} to be grateful 3. RL (Y TSMR) {dd1)} lovely, sweet, pretty less frequently, and primarily in periods beyond the Heian era did it take on its modern Japanese meaning of “beautiful” 4. BESS (BRB) 1. {RATS | DHICHAS)} to come to oneself; to regain consciousness 2. {HecEs} to wake up 5. BS TEb5) (GR) 1. (RUS ; BRS} to think; to feel something 2. {BFS ; \\EH LG} to love someone; to care for someone < Exercises > Exercise 4.3.1. Read and translate the following sentences into modern Japanese and English. Then identify the forms of all inflecting words. 1244, INFLECTING SUFFIXES Ba “ 1 wetness, wns 2. WALK AMEE SER SBR Y 3. HHado Hicewssak etikicedsskoe rez] me 4. HW TE. RECBESMS SUEHEEL. TRE 1. Rguse(meBoniaony. 2. ROBUPSUHBEEHLINL, SME SMICSEES. Cie) 3. RARICRICGDSSL. 4 ARE SSR LHIAL, aa L FBR CHB SHES, Bimomenonitiches 5. BLS CUTORCBESNS, Wie 6 6 URBAULLD DS, > » N 3 A 1. RRBICBBUUTHS, 2. “LB lLogrecriantobuosers, 3. ZOKANIL, HHEOFSAORE ORES, 125AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE 4. HUSRCCEMSICAFLEOMKOTE ES, Exercise 4.3.2. Insert the appropriate inflecting form of [5 jor [SJ in the blanks in the following sentences. Then translate each of the sentences into modern Iapanese and English. 1. BABY MICEY, ARABS (1) 164, BOATEOML< Bid (Tyo BOKKVLERS Ud &d, Bowie< UME GL) F. OBA LT # CY F. BICBSFICBA CA)o KRICReREAS (7), HOKE (Je do himsivmeeecibe 62), Ba i ea) ase Exercise 4.3.3. The following passage is the opening section of [Fs¢#a]. Identify the forms of all of the inflecting words you have studied to date, and then translate the passage into modern Japanese and English. [As] was written in the year 1212 by the monk Kamo no Tyomei me 5250 BORA I. DK MORMSBAT LT. LOSSLOKICHOTF, KEAI FAVS feels, DODHADDBUT. ALK EEEVYKS 1264. INFLECTING SUFFLXES. 1 ROLEL, HORICHSALTF AME. ELMKOTEL. TUT]: seebo [-F+UTI = (-HUT} Tlmbl : BR (nut, GE} andyet THEO) : (AHO, MHWI-OEMU} | [kES=BAI : Zi WORK CT. KORNAUILE O TWSM) Tsk): Bm Okic#< 5d} bubbles [ed AN] Bl {--foU fo} TRS: PStca cates] = (Saws) [roll : (eB, RBI} [v4] : BAR, THEW) TAS OCELITA< I MA {FOK5IC} POELI : BHF {—O£5K} Veh be eae 4.4. [3°] Negative Inflecting Suffix [Simi] The syuusikei [#it72] of the negative inflecting suffix [BieB) ‘§)3)] [FI, which is added to the mizenkei_ [3947] of various inflect- ing words, was introduced in Note 3 of Section 1.0. The meaning of [-g*] and its alternate forms is always “negative” esa . The conjugation pattern of [Lis as follows: 127AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE Examples: 1) RR ANTE (anus if she does not eat RNSSE. (BXAEWESS.) Probably he will not eat. 2) BA ANSTEY. (BKC TIOF.} She went without eating. BXSyiy, {BNE 9 .} He did not eat. 3) Mi AX. {BNEb} She does not eat. 4) BAR BNO {BABUVAL the person who does not eat ANSSS {BNGUA} the person who does not eat 5S) BRR BXxhed {RXNGIINES} although she does not eat BXENEDd {BAGIIINES} although he does not eat 1284, INFLECTING SUFFIXES 6) BOE RX | hasan unusual conjugation pattern in that the mizenkei [PAR |, renyoukei [58 ARZ] and meireikei [Ar57%] arelacking, andthe syuusikei [$£1F]2] andrentaikei [sB4K7E of [3 Jis often pronounced and written as a syllabic nasal [A,J. [GJ is never followed by other inflecting suffixes [B)5)#]. | x A) e® & Bw & | CT cea [em uA) RE Examples: 1) RRR -— 2) RATE -— 3) MILE = BDDD, {BU7E3 5} It is probably cold. 133AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE 4) BAR CHemkoH (CHEREA} the person who will read this 5) PRB ko tRED. {HAMMBCNAL.} or, (HMNRAZEL} You should read it. 6) wee —— 4.5.1. Conjecture [#32] Although [ <3 ]is often called an inflecting suffix of future by Japanese and western grammarians, this label is somewhat misleading since [ ¢3] can denote conjecture or probability concerning an action or state in the present as well as in the future. Examine the following sentences. Examples: 1) BARROS. (BR AMARSKS5.} Tomorrow it will probably rain. 2) SBASMOC. (FAlAMSI7ES5 0} ‘There are probably many people today. or, There will probably be many people today. 1344, INFLECTING SUFFIXES 3) TEREBSC. (HEAVKUTWSISS.} Probably the flowers are in bloom. Insentence 1,[ ¢}_| denotes future probability, but in sentence 2 it denotes conjecture of either present or future state, and in sentence 3 it indicates present probability. The modem Japanese form equivalent to the [OJ of conjecture is generally {7245}, although the simple present tense [R4E72] also is commonly used for future, as well as for habitual action in modern Japanese. [3 ] is also often used to indicate an abstract action or state in general statements such as examples 4 and 5 below. 4 COR. BRINeS, HERBS, (LOB, BAMUINE HBC BLEW.) This bird looks terrible, but it sings beautifully. 5) powmaActceetpMss. {HOWMA STEALS G0} It is not easy to go over that mountain. Aaa ‘Indirection’ [HH] is the namesome grammarians give to this use of [> 45.2. Intention [5] 135AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL JAPANESE Sometimes [ ¢3_indicates intention rather than conjecture, and the appro- priate interpretation will depend on the context. In some cases, however, it is difficult to determine whether [%3] indicates conjecture [#£3] or intention [#82], just as in many English sentences it is difficult to tell whether “will” (or its contracted form “-’11") indicates simple future or intention. Examples: 1) SBlAcCOBemEC. {FHlCORELSI.} [intend to read this book today. or, T'll read this book today. 2) BARKS. {HLK9 LETC Fo} Tomorrow, let’s go together. 3) RAFEDMEC, {HOF ED EATOVEKS 0} I will send my child. ips 4.5.3. Inducement [#26] [&5_] may denote “inducement”, or, as it is called by some grammarians, the hortative, although its use in this manner is relatively rare. When used in this way, [3] often follows the emphatic particle [ < €_| and appears in 136