Cheat Sheet PDF

KISS Resources for the NSW Syllabus.
keep it simple science KEEP IT SIMPLE SCIENCE

Resources for Science Teaching & Learning
for the Australian Curriculum
You have downloaded an inspection copy of the “PhotoMaster”

version of a KISS topic. Schools may use this inspection copy
for evaluation of KISS Resources, as permitted by the applicable
copyright law.
“OnScreen” versions are formatted for computer or projection

and designed to be:
• used in class via computer networks, data projectors, IWB’s, etc.
• accessed by students (eg via Moodle) for study in their laptop, tablet,
iPad or home PC.
The “PhotoMaster” version of this topic covers the same

content, but is formatted for economical photocopying for paper
“hand-outs”, or preparing “topic booklets”.
The PhotoMaster versions contain multiple Worksheets which may be

used as in-class paper exercises, quiz tests or homework assignments.
They can also be converted for use as Microsoft WordTM documents, or

with software allowing annotations, (eg Microsoft OneNoteTM) or apps,
such as “Notability”TM and “iAnnotate PDF”TM in tablets & iPads. This
allows KISS Worksheets to be completed by students in their computer,
then submitted by email, for example. Check our website for downloads
about these uses of KISS Worksheets.
Please check the KISS website for details of our topic range,
prices and how to order.
TM. Software titles underlined above are registered trademarks of Microsoft Corp., GingerLabs, Branchfire Inc.
Biology 9.2 “Maintaining a Balance” PhotoMaster Page 1 Inspection Copy for Schools only.
copyright © 2014 KEEP IT SIMPLE SCIENCE
www.keepitsimplescience.com.au
® KEEP IT SIMPLE SCIENCE

keep it simple science PhotoMaster Format
Senior Science Subject
Topic Bio 9.2 Maintaining a Balance

NSW Syllabus Content reference
Biology HSC Course Topic 1
Topic Outline Maintaining

a Balance
4. Excretion
& Water
1. Enzymes & Balance
Homeostasis Kidney Structure
Functions & Characteristics & Function
of Enzymes Water Balance in
Factors which affect Insects, Mammals
enzyme activity & Plants
Concept of
Negative Feedback
2. Temperature 3. Internal
Regulation Transport
Hypothalamus & Temperature Blood & Blood Vessels
Effector Organs Range of Life Substances Transported
Temperature Regulation in
INSPECTION COPY Ectotherms, Endotherms & Plants Transport in Plants
for schools only
What is this topic about?
To keep it as simple as possible, (K.I.S.S. Principle) this topic covers:
1. ENZYMES & HOMEOSTASIS

What are enzymes? Functions & characteristics. Factors that affect enzyme
activity... temperature, pH & substrate concentration.
Negative feedback control systems. What is Homeostasis?
2. TEMPERATURE REGULATION IN LIVING THINGS

The hypothalamus & effector organs in mammals.
Temperature regulation in endotherms, exotherms & plants.
3. INTERNAL TRANSPORT SYSTEMS

Blood & blood vessels. What the blood carries. Gas transport.
Transport in plants... xylem & phloem.
4. EXCRETION & WATER BALANCE

Importance of water for homeostasis.
Kidney & nephron structure & function. Water balance in insects &
mammals. Water conservation in plants.
keep it simple science

1. Enzymes & Homeostasis
Metabolism is Chemistry The Importance of Shape
Everything that happens inside a living thing is Many of the properties of enzymes are related to
really a matter of cell chemistry... “metabolism”. their precise 3-dimensional shape.
For example...
The shape of the enzyme fits the “substrate”
• For your body to grow, cells must divide and add
molecule(s) as closely as a key fits a lock.
more membranes, cytoplasm and organelles. This
involves the chemical construction of new DNA
molecules, new phospholipids for membranes and
so on. Various
Only this Different

• All these chemical reactions require energy. Enzyme
Energy is delivered by the ATP molecule, itself the molecule one fits Substrate
product of a series of chemical reactions in the Molecules
mitochondria... cellular respiration.
All of these reactions are “metabolism”: the sum This is why enzymes are “substrate-specific”...
total of all the thousands of chemical reactions
only one particular enzyme can fit each substrate
going on constantly in all the billions of cells in
your body. molecule. Each chemical reaction requires a
different enzyme.
Enzymes Changes in temperature and pH (acidity) can cause
Every reaction requires a catalyst... a chemical
which speeds the reaction up and makes it happen, the shape of the enzyme to change. If it changes its
without being changed in the process. shape even slightly, it might not fit the substrate
properly any more, so the reaction cannot run as
In living cells there is a catalyst for every different quickly and efficiently. This is why enzymes are
reaction. Biological catalysts are called enzymes. found to work best at particular “optimum”
temperature and pH values.
Enzymes are protein molecules.
Substrate...
Each has a particular 3-dimensional shape, which
fits its “substrate” perfectly.
Enzymes are highly “specific”. This means

that each enzyme will only catalyse one ...no longer
particular reaction, and no other. Enzyme shape Shape changes fits enzyme
at optimum pH slightly at
Enzymes only work effectively in a relatively and different pH or
narrow range of temperature and pH (acidity). temperature temp.
INSPECTION COPY
for schools only From Amino Acids to Enzyme, to Metabolic Control
Amino acid molecules Protein, with precise 3-D shape...
Polypeptide chain
...becomes
an ENZYME
Twists molecule
Polymerisation & folds
Substrate
molecules are chemically Substrate molecules Product
attracted to released from
the enzyme’s brought together and
active site enzyme
Enzyme’s
react with each other
“Active Site”
has a shape
to fit the
substrate(s) ENZYME can react
exactly ENZYME ENZYME
with more substrate
® The pH Scale
keep it simple science The acidity or alkalinity of any solution is measured on
a numerical scale known as “pH”.
increasing increasing
acidity Neutral alkalinity
On the pH scale, anything which is neutral
(neither acid nor alkaline) has a pH = 7.
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
The inside environment of a cell, and most parts of an organism’s body, is always very close to pH 7...
i.e. neutral. An exception is in the stomach where conditions are strongly acidic. (approx. pH 2)
Enzyme Activity Graphs

You will have done experimental work to measure the “activity” of an enzyme under different conditions of
temperature, pH and the concentration of the substrate chemical.
You may have measured the rate of a chemical
A common way to measure the rate of a reaction is
reaction being catalysed by an enzyme, such as:
to measure the time taken for a reaction to reach
• the rate of milk clotting by junket tablets.
completion... the shorter the time taken, the faster
• the rate of digestion of some starch by amylase
the reaction. This why the reciprocal of time taken
• the rate of decomposition of hydrogen
(1/time) is used as the measure of rate of reaction.
peroxide by “catalase” enzyme.
The Effect of Temperature

When enzyme activity is measured at different temperatures, the results produce a graph as below.
Explanations
As temperature rises the rate increases because the
molecules move faster and are more likely to collide and
Experimental
1/time taken for reaction (rate)
react. All chemical reactions show this response.

Points
However, beyond a certain “optimum” temperature, the
enzyme’s 3-D shape begins to change. The substrate no
longer fits the active site so well, and the reaction slows. If
the temperature was lowered again, the enzyme shape, and
reaction rate could be restored.
INSPECTION COPY If the temperature reaches an extreme level, the distortion of

the enzyme’s shape may result in total shut-down of the
for schools only reaction. The enzyme may be permanently distorted out of
shape, and its activity cannot be restored. We say the enzyme
has been “denatured”.
Temperature
Optimum Temperature Mammal

Enzyme
Not all enzymes will “peak” at the same temperature, or have
Reaction Rate
exactly the same shape graph. In mammals, most enzymes

Thermophilic
will peak at around the animal’s normal body temperature, bacteria
and often work only within a narrow range of temperatures. Plant
Enzyme enzyme
An enzyme from a plant may show a much broader graph,

indicating that it will work, at least partly, at a wider range of
temperatures.
An enzyme from a thermophilic bacteria from a hot volcanic

spring will show a totally different “peak” temperature, 0 20 40 60 80 100
o
indicating that its metabolism will perform most efficiently at Temperature ( C)
temperatures that would kill other organisms.

®
The Effect of pH
The digestive enzyme “pepsin” from the stomach shows an
When the temperature is kept constant optimum pH about 2 or 3, allowing it to work best in the
and the enzyme tested at various pH acidic environment. Intra-cellular
levels, the results will produce a graph as enzyme
shown. Pepsin.
(Stomach
The shape of the pH enzyme)
1/time (rate) Enzyme Activity
graph is usually
Enzyme Activity
symmetrical on
either side of the
“peak”.
The explanation for

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
the shape is as follows: pH
• at the optimum pH the enzyme’s 3-D shape is ideal for the

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
pH substrate, so reaction rate is maximum.
Generally, all intra-cellular enzymes (i.e. • at any pH higher or lower than optimum, the enzyme’s
those from within a cell) will show peak shape begins to change. The substrate no longer fits, so
activity at about pH = 7, very close to activity is less.
neutrality.
• at extremes of pH, the enzyme can be denatured and shows
no activity at all.
Effect of Substrate Concentration

Generally in any chemical reaction occurring in solution the
rate of the reaction increases if the concentration of the
reacting chemical(s) is increased. The explanation is simply If, at this point, you were to add more
that if the molecules are more concentrated, then it becomes enzyme then the reaction rate would once
more likely that they will collide and react with each other. again go up. It would level off again as
the enzyme molecules were once again
When an enzyme is involved, the situation is a little more swamped and saturated with the
complicated: substrate.
Initially the rate of the reaction increases as the substrate
concentration goes up, just as it does with any reaction.
Soon though, the graph begins to flatten out and level off
because the enzyme molecules are “saturated” with Extra enzyme
added
substrate and cannot work any faster.
Levels out
Reaction Rate
Reaction Rate
INSPECTION COPY
Initial Increase
in Rate
for schools only
Substrate Concentration
Substrate Concentration

Homeostasis
Metabolism is largely a matter of chemical reactions, and each
reaction is catalysed by an enzyme. Enzymes are very sensitive to temperature and pH.
Therefore, it follows that an organism’s As well as regulation of temperature and
body and cells must be maintained at pH, homeostasis involves the regulation of
stable temperature and pH levels close to many other factors such as:
the optimum for the enzymes. • water and salt balance in body fluids.
The process of maintaining a stable, • blood sugar levels.

INSPECTION COPY
internal environment is called for schools only
“Homeostasis”. • oxygen and carbon dioxide levels.
Feedback Mechanisms
A “feedback mechanism” is a situation where the result of some action
feeds back into the system to control the next change to the system.
In a “Positive Feedback” system any change In “Negative Feedback” any change causes the
re-reinforces itself by causing more change in next change to be in the opposite direction.
the same direction.
A good example is an oven thermostat control:
For example, a fire growing bigger... Turn heater Turn heater
small fire produces OFF ON
Heat ignites
p
heat
su
more fuel O
eat
ve
nh
n
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK ACTION
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK ACTION

co
Ove
Produces Fire grows
ol
s
more heat larger
Temperature
Sensor
Heat ignites
more fuel (detector)
Fire grows
larger Negative Feedback
causes a system to
Positive Feedback
maintain stability.
always causes a
system to grow
out of control, or
shrink away to If temperature If temperature
nothing. is too high is too low
It never results in The result is that the temperature of the oven

stability. remains fairly stable. It oscillates up and down
a little, but always stays close to the
temperature the oven was set at.
Homeostasis is always “Negative Feedback” control.

This ensures that stable conditions are maintained so that enzymes are operating near optimum.
The key parts of a negative feedback system are: In animals, it is the Nervous System which is
largely responsible for carrying out the receptor
• a receptor, to measure the conditions. and control centre functions necessary for many
aspects of homeostasis.
• a control centre, which decides how to respond
In mammals, which maintain fairly constant body
and temperatures, it is the Hypothalamus at the base of
the brain which monitors blood temperature and
• effectors, which carry out the commands of the sends out command messages for negative
control centre and make the necessary feedback, rather like the oven thermostat system.
adjustments to the system. Complete Worksheets 1,2 & 3.

2. Temperature Regulation
Temperature Control Main Parts of the System
The Receptor and Control Centre is the
in Mammals Hypothalamus at the base of the brain. Special
In a healthy human the internal “core” temperature of
cells constantly monitor the temperature of blood
the body is about 37oC and is maintained within
flowing by. If the temperature varies by even a
about 0.5oC at all times. If the body temperature goes
fraction of a degree, nerve messages are sent to
up, or down, by more than about 4oC it is a life-
the effectors.
threatening situation.
The Effectors include blood vessels, sweat glands,
Control of body temperature is achieved as shown
endocrine (hormone) glands, muscles and body
in this schematic diagram:
hairs.
COOLING MECHANISMS
Blood vessels dilate. BODY TEMPERATURE REDUCES,
Sweat glands activated. BLOOD COOLS
Hair lowered.
Metabolic rate reduced.
p.
em d INSPECTION COPY
Command
t
Effectors
d e
oo ur
Nerve
Bl eas for schools only

to
Cerebrum
IF BODY TEMPERATURE IF BODY TEMPERATURE
IS TOO HIGH m IS TOO LOW
llu
re be
Ce
Command
p.
Effectors
em d
Nerve
t Hypothalamus
od ure
to
monitors blood
Blo eas temperature
m
WARMING MECHANISMS
BODY TEMPERATURE INCREASES, Blood vessels constricted.
Muscles begin “shivering”.
BLOOD WARMS Hairs erected (goose bumps).
Metabolic rate increased.
What the Effectors Do

Blood Vessels Body Hairs Muscles
Dilation (widening) of veins, Each hair on your body has a Nerve signals can cause the skeletal
arteries and capillaries near the tiny muscle at its base which muscles to begin “shivering”. This
skin allows more blood to flow can cause the hair to stand up extra muscle activity generates
out near the skin surface. erect and give you “goose more heat to warm the body.
This allows more body heat to bumps”. This traps a layer of still
escape from the skin, thus air against the skin and helps
cooling the body. insulate and prevent heat loss. Hormones
are chemicals which control
Constriction (narrowing) of If the hair follicle muscle is various body functions.
blood vessels causes less relaxed the hair lies flat and
blood to flow near skin. Less allows more heat loss. The hormone thyroxine
heat flows out to the skin to be (produced by the thyroid gland in
lost, so the neck) controls the rate of
more body metabolism. It is under the
Sweat Glands control of the hypothalamus, via
heat is When activated, the sweat glands secrete perspiration.
retained. another hormone from the
The water evaporates from the skin, carrying away body
pituitary gland.
heat... this has a powerful cooling effect.
®
The Temperature Range of Life
keep it simple science Homeostasis allows an organism to maintain its cells at a temperature close to
the optimum for its enzymes. This allows its metabolism to run efficiently,
despite changes in the temperature of the surrounding environment.
However, homeostasis has its limits, and no organism can remain active and thriving under
the full range of temperatures of the biosphere of the Earth. Different organisms have
adapted to survive in extreme cold, or in extreme heat, but never both.
Extreme Heat Extreme Cold

There are thermophilic bacteria (members of the There are many organisms which can survive
Archaea) which live and thrive in volcanic hot extreme cold, but few that remain active. Certain
springs at temperatures up to 120oC. types of algae and photosynthetic bacteria are
found to live within the snow and ice near the poles
and are still metabolically active at temperatures as
In terrestrial environments such as hot deserts, the
low as -10oC.
temperature can often reach 40oC and sometimes
as high as 60oC. Many plants and animals are Generally however, plants and animals cannot tolerate
adapted to survive these extremes, but few remain their body temperature going below 0oC, since ice
active in this heat. Generally in deserts the animals crystals forming in cells can destroy membranes and
seek shelter and become inactive, while plants kill cells. Also, the chemical reactions of metabolism
shut down their metabolism and merely survive. run so slowly at low temperature, that life functions
are not possible.
Cold Water Environments Of course, many animals do live and survive in the
Even when ice forms on the surface, water cold because they can produce their own body heat
environments rarely fall below +4oC, and are (mammals and birds) and are equipped with body
insulation and homeostatic mechanisms to maintain
remarkably stable in temperature. Life-forms do
their core temperature despite the cold environment.
not need to cope with change, although mammals Perhaps the world champions are the Emperor
or birds need serious insulation to stay warm. It is Penguins which maintain core body temperatures
the terrestrial environment that is more of a around +33oC throughout the Antarctic winter in air
challenge. temperatures as low as -50oC.
Temperature Control in Ectotherms

Ectotherms are the “cold-blooded” animals, such as reptiles, amphibians, insects, fish, worms, etc.
“Cold-blooded” is a misleading term and is best avoided, since these animals are NOT always cold,
but rather they rely on the outside environment for their body heat...
they do not generate heat internally like a mammal or bird.
Ectotherms have a variety of adaptations, many of In prolonged periods of cold weather, such as
them behavioural, to regulate their body winter in the Australian Alps, ectotherms cannot
temperature and keep it within the range in which remain active.
they can be active; generally 10-30oC.
Animals such as the Copperhead
For example, the Blue- Snake and the Corroboree Frog
Tongue Lizard will lie in seek shelter underground and
a sunny spot with its become dormant throughout the
body flattened and winter.
turned side-on to the
Sun on a cool morning. INSPECTION COPY In a process similar to the
This way it absorbs for schools only hibernation of bears, the animal’s
heat more quickly to heartbeat and breathing slow down,
get its body their metabolism almost stops and
temperature high their body temperature chills to
enough to become “Bluey” sun-baking only just above freezing.
active.
As long as they are more than about 50
As the day becomes hotter, the lizard will turn centimetres underground, the ground will not
facing the Sun to absorb less heat, and seek shade freeze even though buried in snow for several
to avoid over-heating. months. If they haven’t burrowed deeply enough
they will freeze to death!
®
Temperature Control in Endotherms
keep it simple science Endotherms are the animals which produce their own internal body heat
and maintain a constant body temperature... the birds and mammals.
All endotherms rely heavily on having body In hot environments such as the Australian
insulation... fur, feathers or blubber (fat). Humans deserts, mammals such as the Red Kangaroo or
rely mostly on technology to provide heaters, the Bilby, have many adaptations to help them
jackets, wetsuits, gloves, etc, to protect our fragile cool their bodies:
bodies from extreme Large ears, with many blood
temperatures. vessels, increases the surface
area for heat loss.
What do endothermic animals in
the wild do? They seek shade in the heat of
the day.
Firstly, they have all the
responses for homeostasis Panting evaporates water from
described earlier... dilation or INSPECTION COPY the mouth and throat, and
constriction of blood vessels, cools the blood.
shivering and sweating etc. As
for schools only
well as these, they may have They may lick their forearms.
extra adaptations to help The evaporation of saliva cools
regulate their temperature. their body the same as
In the desert, big ears are cool! sweating.
In the cold, endotherms go for thick fur coats (Wallaroo) or layers of fat (Australian Fur Seal).
Penguins, such as the Fairy Penguins along Australia’s southern coast, have a special
“blood shunt” in their legs. In warm conditions the shunt is closed and blood flows normally
to the feet. Since the feet are about the only part of their body not well insulated, in cold water
they could lose a lot of body heat. So in cold water the flow of blood from body toward
the feet is “shunted” via a special vein with a valve in it, back into the body.
The feet receive virtually no blood, and this conserves body heat.
Responses of Plants to Temperature Change

Plants cannot respond to temperature change by moving away or hiding.
To cope with temperature extremes they must have structural or physiological adaptations.
To cope with seasonal cold weather, many plants When it is hot and DRY, they have a problem.
(especially in the northern hemisphere) are Desert plants tend to have very small leaves and
deciduous... they shed their leaves and basically thick, “stocky” shaped stems. This reduces the
shut down their metabolism for the winter, rather surface area being hit by heat radiation from the
like an animal hibernating. Their leaves cannot be Sun, and helps prevent over-heating. The cacti
protected from freezing, so the strategy is to lose plant group have taken the strategy to the limit...
the vulnerable parts, survive until next spring, then their leaves are spines, and stems are “fat” and
grow new leaves. rounded. They are also light coloured to reflect a
lot of the radiant heat away. They have very few
Coping with heat is another story. stomates.
If there is plenty of water The sclerophyll plants of
available, such as in a Narrow, Australia (e.g. gum trees) also
tropical jungle, then the drooping have small narrow leaves to
plants cool themselves by gum tree reduce heat absorption from
allowing maximum leaves the Sun. Their other “trick” is to
evaporative cooling. The allow the leaves to droop. This
leaves open their many allows them to catch light for
stomates and allow photosynthesis in the cooler
transpiration to occur. The morning when the Sun is low,
evaporation has a cooling but avoid absorbing heat when
effect, in the same way that the Sun is overhead at midday.
sweating cools an animal. They have few stomates, and
close them in dry times.
Biology 9.2 “Maintaining a Balance” PhotoMaster Page 9

Complete Worksheets 4 & 5.
www.keepitsimplescience.com.au Inspection Copy for Schools only.
®
3. Internal Transport Systems
Internal Transport in Mammals
As with most animals, for internal transport mammals rely on their Circulatory System...
the blood, heart and blood vessels; veins, arteries and capillaries. A basic knowledge of
how the system operates was covered in Preliminary Topic 2.
Blood RED BLOOD

CELLS
You need to be able to sketch diagrams
You will of blood cells, and have an idea
have of their relative sizes.
INSPECTION COPY
examined for schools only There are about 600 red
Sketch of Blood Cells
blood cells to 1 white cell
Size
under a 7 mm
microscope Most
no white cells
and seen nucleus are much
something Red
Cells larger than
like this: red cells
Shaped like a
donut with the
Blood is made of a liquid (“plasma”) with hole closed over
millions of special blood cells carried in it. large, irregular nucleus
There are 2 general categories of these cells:

Red Blood Cells contain the red pigment haemoglobin, which carries oxygen.
This is covered in more detail later in this topic.
White Blood Cells come in a huge variety of types, but all are involved with
defence against disease. This is covered in a later topic.
Blood Vessels
As the blood flows around the body it is always carried inside tubes, or vessels:
Arteries carry blood from the heart out to the Veins carry blood back from the body tissues
body tissues. The walls of an artery are relatively to the heart. The blood here is under lower
thick and muscular to withstand the high pressure in pressure and the walls of a vein are relatively thin.
the blood when the heart pumps. With little pressure to push blood forward, it is the
contraction of the surrounding muscles which
helps push the blood along.
Some veins contain valves to prevent back-flow of

the blood.
VEIN Cross-Section
Thick, muscular walls
Artery walls are very elastic, and when a pulse of
high pressure blood passes through, they expand blood
outwards and then contract again, helping to push flow
the blood along. This rhythmic expanding and
contracting is what you can feel as your “pulse” Side view of VEIN
wherever an artery is close to the skin, such as in Relatively thin walls are showing a valve.
often squashed by Blood can flow one way,
your wrist or throat. surrounding muscles. but not back the other.
Capillaries are the tiny blood vessels which form a network throughout the tissues so that every
living cell is close to the blood supply. The walls of a capillary are only 1 cell thick, so diffusion of
substances from blood to cells (or cells to blood) is easily achieved.
The inside of a capillary is so small that red blood cells often travel through it in single file.
®
Substances Carried in the Blood
Oxygen O2 is carried in the red Prac Work: CO2 and Acidity
blood cells by haemoglobin.
You will have carried out an
Carbon Dioxide CO2 experiment to see the effect of
is partly carried by the haemoglobin dissolved CO2 on the pH of water.
in red blood cells, but most of it is
carried in the blood plasma, in the You might have chemically produced
form of bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) some CO2 and bubbled it through
water. Using a pH meter, or Universal
Water is carried as the liquid Indicator, you will have measured any
solvent of blood plasma.
change in the pH of the water.
Salts, Sugars &
Amino Acids You would have found that the pH
These are nutrients absorbed from went down... i.e. the water became
the Digestive System. They are more acidic.
generally water soluble and are
carried dissolved in the blood plasma. Explanation and Chemistry
Carbon dioxide reacts with water to
Lipids (Fats) form carbonic acid
absorbed from the digestive system are “packaged” in a
protein coat which makes the fat molecule miscible in CO2 + H2O H2CO3
water. This means that, while not fully dissolved, the
molecules can be dispersed in water and carried without
joining together into droplets of fat and separating from
Carbonic acid is a weak acid which
the water. partly ionises
In this form they are carried dispersed in the blood H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-
plasma.
Nitrogenous Wastes Hydrogen ion Bicarbonate ion.

makes water more acidic This is how CO2 is
such as urea, are water soluble and carried dissolved in
carried in the blood.
the blood plasma.
INSPECTION COPY
for schools only
The Need to Remove Carbon Dioxide

Carbon dioxide doesn’t just dissolve in water, it reacts to form a weak acid.
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-

carbonic hydrogen bicarbonate
acid ion ion
It’s the hydrogen ions that create Remember that enzymes are very
problems. Hydrogen ions are acids and sensitive to pH changes and quickly
can lower the pH of a cell or the blood. change shape and lose their catalytic
activity. This would be disastrous for cell
At the concentrations produced by a metabolism.
typical cell, the hydrogen ions could easily
lower the pH of the cytoplasm by 0.5 pH To avoid this problem, CO2 is carried
unit or more. This might not sound like away in the blood as rapidly as it is
much, but it could be life-threatening. produced in the cells.
® Changes to the Blood as it Circulates

keep it simple science As the blood circulates around the body its chemical composition
undergoes a number of changes...
Nutrients & Respiratory Gases O2 & CO2

Nitrogenous Wastes Gas exchange and transport is essential for
As the blood flows through capillaries in the delivering oxygen to cells and removing CO2.
digestive system it picks up sugars, amino acids,
salts, water, vitamins, etc that have been O2 CO2
absorbed from the gut. (However, lipids are first Carbon
absorbed into the lymphatic “drains” and enter dioxide
the blood much later) Oxygen Lungs Blood Air
Air Blood
This blood from the gut is collected in a vein
which takes it directly to the liver. Here some of
the nutrients may be absorbed from the blood for
storage or chemical processing (e.g. glucose is
extracted from the blood and polymerised to
form glycogen for storage in the liver). Also in the Heart
Arteries
liver, large amounts of the waste chemical urea CHANGES IN OXYGEN AND
is added to the blood to be carried away for CARBON DIOXIDE
excretion. AS THE BLOOD CIRCULATES
Veins
Later, as blood flows through capillaries in body
tissues such as muscle or bone, nutrients are
absorbed from the blood into the cells which
need energy (glucose) and new chemical building
blocks (amino acids, lipids).
Sooner or later, every bit of blood flows through INSPECTION COPY

the kidneys which extract the urea and excess for schools only
salts and water for excretion as urine.
Blood flow
in Lungs
Body tissues
CHANGES IN NUTRIENTS, WATER & WASTES
Oxygen Carbon
Blood Cells dioxide
CO2 Cells Blood
O2
AS THE BLOOD CIRCULATES
Heart
Arteries
Some Nutrients
into storage
As blood passes through capillaries in body
Wastes tissues, oxygen is released from the haemoglobin
Veins
into
blood Digested molecules and diffuses along the concentration
Nutrients gradient into the body cells. There is always a
move
Liver into blood concentration gradient favouring this because the
cells are constantly using up oxygen for cellular
respiration.
Gut
Meanwhile, the concentration of carbon dioxide is
high because of its constant production by cellular
respiration, so it diffuses from the cells into the
Kidneys blood.
Wastes and
excess water & salts leave blood. When the blood gets to the lungs the opposite
Excreted in urine. occurs. Inside the alveoli (air sacs of the lungs) the
air has a very high concentration of oxygen and is
Blood flow very low in CO2. Therefore, oxygen diffuses into the
in Body tissues blood, while carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood
into the air.
Nutrients move from blood into cells
®
The Importance of Haemoglobin
The high concentration of dissolved CO2
Blood is red because of the many red
lowers the pH of the blood slightly. This
cells, and red cells are red because
causes the haemoglobin proteins to
they are packed with the red-coloured,
change shape slightly and release the
iron-containing protein haemoglobin.
oxygen molecules.
In the lungs, where the oxygen
HbO2 Hb + O2
concentration is very high, some
oxygen dissolves in the moisture lining the alveoli then
The oxygen diffuses into the cells, and the
diffuses into the blood and dissolves in the plasma..
freed haemoglobin molecules can pick up
some of the CO2 molecules and carry them
Oxygen is not very soluble in water, however, and if that’s all
back to the lungs.
there was to the story, then our blood could never carry
enough oxygen to supply our cells.
Adaptive Advantage
Haemoglobin molecules have a great attraction for oxygen Haemoglobin increases the oxygen-
molecules and quickly “grab” any O2 molecules available. carrying ability of blood enormously. Its
Because of this, our blood can carry thousands of times more use in some ancient creature’s primitive
oxygen than would be possible by simply dissolving oxygen in circulation system gave that animal a huge
the blood plasma. advantage to survive. With more oxygen, it
could move faster, grow faster and larger
Hb + O2 HbO2 and breed more successfully.
abbreviation for Many animal types descended from that

Haemoglobin “Oxyhaemoglobin”
ancient success. Haemoglobin is a great
When the oxygenated blood gets to the body tissues the adaptation.
reverse happens.
INSPECTION COPY
for schools only
Oxygen Saturation & Its Measurement
The concentration of O2 and CO2 in the In years gone by, %SpO2 was measured by
blood is of great interest to doctors taking blood samples and carrying out
monitoring a patient, or an athlete in complex chemical testing. With modern
training, or even to a pilot or mountain- technology, however, the readings are done
climber at high altitude. instantly and non-invasively by a small,
portable instrument clipped onto the end of a
The most important measurement is finger, ear lobe or foot.
“percentage oxygen saturation”
(%SpO2). A reading of 100 would The “Oximeter” works by sending red light
mean that 100% of all haemoglobin in and infra-red beams through the flesh. The
an artery is totally saturated with amount of each light absorbed by the
oxygen. Readings between 95-100% haemoglobin gives a direct measurement of
indicate good health, fitness and %SpO2, because haemoglobin with, or
adequate oxygen supplies. without,
Foot-clamp Oximeter measures
oxygen %SpO2 in a young patient
Lower readings (e.g. 80%) could absorbs
indicate: these light
• respiratory or circulatory problems beams
in a patient. differently.
• lack of fitness, or excessive exertion
in an athlete.
• need for supplementary oxygen for
a pilot or climber.
®
Products of Blood Donation
keep it simple science The Australian Red Cross Blood Service collects about a million blood donations per
year. Most of this blood is used for people who need regular treatment with
blood products for conditions such as leukemia. Only a very small amount is kept as whole blood for
emergency transfusions. Most donated blood is separated into about 20 different fractions or products,
so each donation can treat many different patients.
The main blood products are:
Red Cell Concentrate Plasma

which contains about twice as is the liquid part of the blood
many red cells as normal, is used to and is often given in emergency
boost the oxygen-carrying capacity to boost the volume of blood
of patients with following severe blood loss.
anaemia or after blood loss, such
as might happen in a motor Cryoprecipitate
accident. is a fraction collected from
plasma and contains blood-clotting
Platelet Concentrate factors. It is used to treat
is given to patients who need extra severe bleeding.
blood-clotting capability, such as
leukemia sufferers, or following Factor VIII and Monofix
severe blood loss. are extracts from plasma used to
treat people who have haemophilia... an
White Cell Concentrate inherited, incurable disorder in which
is given to patients needing a boost the blood will not clot properly.
to their immune system, perhaps These blood products allow patients
following a severe infection. to lead a relatively normal life.
INSPECTION COPY
for schools only
Artificial Blood?
The Need for Artificial Blood Haemoglobin-Based Oxygen Carriers
is one of the areas of current research.
Fresh blood cannot be stored for long, and
many parts of the world lack the necessary Haemoglobin extracted from animal blood can
storage facilities. be purified and treated so that it is disease-free
and cannot cause any allergic or “rejection”
Many blood products can set off immune- responses in patients.
responses in long-term patients, even after
correct blood-typing. (Similar to “rejection” The products can be stored for years at room
of a transplanted organ) temperature, and promise to be highly effective
at carrying oxygen and releasing it into the
Donated blood can carry diseases, such as tissues.
hepatitis or HIV.
Many of these problems could be solved by

Currently undergoing clinical trials, but not yet
the use of an artificial blood which is easy approved for medical use. Recent trials failed.
to store and can be made disease-free.
Perfluorocarbon-Based Substitutes
Another area of research aims to develop a truly artificial blood substitute. The most promising base
chemicals are the “perfluorocarbon” compounds. These can carry up to 5 times more oxygen than
blood and can be stored indefinitely at room temperature.
They can be made totally sterile and disease-free.
At least 5 different products are being tested and trialled (USA),

but none are yet approved for medical use. Trials in 2008 produced very negative results.

Transport Systems in Plants
Hollow, dead cells, joined
end to-end forming a tube
Xylem Tubes Carry Water
Xylem tubes are dead, hollow cells, joined end-
to-end forming a continuous tube from root to
leaf. The xylem tubes transport water (and
dissolved minerals) generally upwards from
roots to leaves.
INSPECTION COPY Cell walls

for schools only re-inforced
with rings
and spirals
of lignin
Photo at left: Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

image of plant stem showing hollow xylem tubes.
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 unported licence.
Image by McKDandy at en.wikipedia.
How do xylem tubes lift water upwards against the force of gravity?
“Transpiration” is the Cohesion & Adhesion
evaporation of water from the Another factor which helps the process is called
leaves. When the stomates are “capillarity” or the “capillary effect”. This is the
open, water can constantly way that water can “climb up” the walls of a
evaporate, creating a tension, or container forming a meniscus in a test tube, for
“pull” in the remaining water in the example. This happens because water molecules
leaves. are not only attracted to each other (“cohesion”)
but also to some other substances such as glass
Water molecules are quite strongly or the inside of a xylem tube. This attraction is
attracted to each other and tend to called “adhesion”.
cling tightly together. This force is
called “cohesion” and is the reason In very narrow tubes (“capillaries”) the water will
that water tends to form droplets... climb upwards against gravity because of
little blobs of water that cling adhesion, and drag more molecules along by
together. cohesion. This happens in xylem and helps lift
water upwards.
So, when water evaporates from
leaves and creates a “pull” force, The “veins” in a leaf contain both the xylem &
each water molecule pulls on those phloem tubes. Veins also act as “ribs” to help
behind it because of the cohesion. keep leaves in shape.
Each molecule pulls others upward
and so the entire column of water in
a xylem tube moves upwards to Active & Passive Transport
replace the water lost by Note that the flow of water in the xylem costs the
transpiration. So water is pulled plant nothing in energy terms... it is “passive”
upwards by a combination of transport.
transpiration and cohesion. This
flow is called the “transpiration In contrast, the other transport system in plants
stream”. is an “active transport” system... the plant must
constantly supply energy to make it happen.
®
Phloem Tubes Carry Food Nutrients
keep it simple science While the xylem tubes are formed from dead cells, the phloem are
living cells joined end-to-end. The ends of each cell are perforated (“sieve plates”)
so each cell is open into the next and they form a continuous tube.
The transportation of nutrients through the INSPECTION COPY
Phloem Tubes is called “Translocation”. for schools only
Sugars are Sieve plate between cells.
actively
transported in PHLOEM CELL
alive and filled with cytoplasm.
the flow of
cytoplasm within Flow of cytoplasm carries sugars
the cells. through each cell.
Translocation Works 2-Ways

While the xylem is a one-way flow system, the
phloem system can carry food (especially “Companion cell”
has many
sugars) in either direction. mitochondria to
provide ATP to the
If a lot of photosynthesis is occurring, the phloem cell
phloem will carry sugar to storage sites in
roots or stem.
If photosynthesis is not possible for an

extended time, then the phloem will
carry sugars back from the storage After this page,
sites to feed the leaf cells, or supply complete worksheets
a growing flower or fruit. 6, 7, 8, 9 & 10.
What Makes the “Sap” Flow? Sugar is carried into cells

by active transport,
The flow of nutrients through the phloem is
requiring energy. Water
caused by pressure differences between the SOURCE
Higher flows in due to osmosis,
“Source” tissues and the “Destination”. raising the pressure.
Pressure
The pressure difference is osmosic pressure,

PH
generated by active transport of sugars causing Translocation...

LO
how it works
EM
water to flow into, or out of cells.

Tra
Sugar solution
TU
flows due to
n
BE
slo
pressure
S
ca
differential
tio
n
Sugar is removed by
active transport, requiring
energy. Water flows out of DESTINATION
cells due to osmosis, Lower Pressure
lowering the pressure.
The “veins” in a leaf are bundles of tubes with both xylem AND
phloem. There are also many strong fibres which add strength and
help keep the leaf in shape so it gathers light without “drooping”.

4. Excretion & Water Balance
The Importance of Water
Life cannot exist without water. All living cells are at least 75% water.
The functions of water in living things include:
Water is the Solvent of Life Water Supports &
All the chemical reactions of metabolism
take place in water solution, and the
Cushions Cells & Organs
Many plants and animals rely on water for
transport of materials in cytoplasm, blood body support. Non-woody plants pump
or phloem takes place mainly in water their cell vacuoles full of water to make
solution. cells “tight” and keep stems and leaves
upright. Animals such as worms rely on
Water Regulates the hydraulic pressure of water in their
Temperature tissues to support their body and maintain
Water has a very high specific heat its shape.
capacity. This means it can absorb (or
lose) relatively large quantities of energy In vertebrate animals the water solutions
with minimal temperature change. This in the tissues helps to cushion organs
helps stabilise the temperature of all against bumps and impacts. (e.g.
living things. cerebrospinal fluid around the brain)
Water also has a very high heat of Water is Involved

vaporisation. This means that when it in Life Chemistry
evaporates it absorbs huge amounts of Water is a reactant or product of many
heat. This is why evaporation of metabolic reactions. The reactions of
perspiration from the skin has such a photosynthesis and cellular respiration are
cooling effect. just two of the many examples.
Homeostasis of Water & Salts

It’s not just the water that is important, but its Major Internal Organs
concentration, and the concentration of in a Human
substances dissolved in it, such as salts.
If the concentrations are not kept at the INSPECTION COPY

correct levels, then osmosis may cause for schools only
problems. Cells could lose water and
dehydrate, or gain too much water and be
damaged or even burst open by increasing Lungs
pressure within.
Heart
Liver
THE CONCENTRATION OF WATER & Stomach
DISSOLVED SALTS MUST BE MAINTAINED
Kidney
THIS IS ANOTHER EXAMPLE OF
HOMEOSTASIS
Ureter
IN MOST ANIMALS
WATER BALANCE IS REGULATED
BY THE KIDNEYS
Bladder
®
Kidneys Also Excrete Metabolic Wastes
INSPECTION COPY for schools only
Metabolic Wastes
The many chemical reactions of metabolism Nitrogenous wastes (contain nitrogen)
sometimes produce chemicals which are toxic to These wastes are produced mainly from the
cells, often because the chemical, when dissolved metabolism of proteins.
in water, can change the pH and reduce enzyme
activity. There are 3 main compounds that can be
produced:
Therefore, it is essential that these wastes are
removed (“excreted”) as soon as possible. The Ammonia in most aquatic animals.
major wastes are:
Uric acid in birds, reptiles & insects.
Carbon dioxide
is produced by cellular respiration. As covered
previously, it will lower the pH (it’s acidic). It is
Urea in mammals and amphibians.
carried in the blood and excreted by the lungs.
Excretion & Water Balance in Fish

Fish produce the waste ammonia which is very alkaline and toxic. Luckily it is very soluble in water.
Since they live surrounded by water, fish simply excrete ammonia from their gills by simple diffusion.
Their kidneys are used not so much for excretion, but for maintaining their water balance.
Freshwater fish and saltwater fish have opposite problems with water balance.
SALTWATER FISH FRESHWATER FISH

Water loss from tissues by osmosis Tissues gain water by osmosis
Constantly (mainly through gills) (mainly through gills)
drink to
replace
water Do not drink
(but get Kidneys produce
salt, too) small amounts of
urine to Gills excrete Ammonia & Kidneys produce a lot
save water Carbon Dioxide, and of dilute urine to
Gills excrete Ammonia, actively absorb salts
Carbon Dioxide and remove water
excess salt from body
Excretion in Terrestrial Environments

The fish can get away with production of Consequently, in land-living animals
highly toxic ammonia. They can rely on nitrogenous wastes are produced not as
constant diffusion of ammonia from the ammonia, but the less toxic compounds
blood in their gills into the water urea (mammals) or uric acid (birds,
environment which surrounds them. reptiles, insects).
In terrestrial environments, waste gases Excretion is via the kidneys. The simple
can do exactly the same; that’s how processes of diffusion and osmosis are
carbon dioxide is excreted... by simple not adequate to achieve this.
diffusion from the blood to the air in the
lungs. For simple diffusion to achieve excretion it
would require huge amounts of water to be
However, nitrogenous wastes are not excreted too, and no terrestrial animal can
gaseous and need to be excreted in water afford to lose so much water, especially in a
solution. desert.
® How the Kidneys Work in Mammals

Artery
Each kidney contains about 1 million nephrons. Each nephron is a Vein
carries blood
complicated tangle of blood vessels and renal tubules (= small carries blood
into kidney.
out of kidney.
tubes). What happens in a nephron is:
Filtration
removes some of the water and many small dissolved molecules
(including the waste urea) from the blood into the renal tubules. This Kidney
occurs because the walls of the glomerulus are “leaky” and the removes
blood is under high pressure. wastes from
blood and
Reabsorption adjusts
Ureter
then occurs to move useful substances back into the blood. water
& salt balance. carries
This is achieved by:
urine to
Active Transport of sugar, amino acids & salts from the renal bladder.
tubules back into the blood. This requires energy to be used to Bladder
transport these chemicals across the cell membranes, against a stores urine.
concentration gradient.
Osmosis then occurs, which causes water to flow from the Urethra
tubules back into the blood. This is Passive Transport and costs drains urine from bladder.
the body no energy.
THE NEPHRON
Glomerulus
Renal Tubules of the KIDNEY
a coiled blood vessel (simplified)
Blood in
from artery.
This blood
contains urea Reabsorption
occurs Urine
Filtration Bowman’s Capsule
here flows to
a “receiving cup” to
occurs collect the filtrate collecting
here liquid from the duct
blood Blood Capillary
then via
Network
Ureter to
shown in
Bladder,
simplified form.
for
Blood out excretion.
to vein
This blood has had wastes removed, and
INSPECTION COPY
water balance adjusted for Homeostasis. for schools only
Filtration is the process in which some Reabsorption is the process in which

water and many dissolved substances any useful substances (such as sugars &
(including sugar, salts & urea, BUT NOT any amino acids) are absorbed back into the
blood. Water & salts are also reabsorbed, but
cells or blood proteins) leave the blood and in varying quantities... the body is adjusting
flow into the renal tubules. water balance for Homeostasis
Urea is not reabsorbed back into the blood.

Urea and some water continue along the tubule. This liquid is URINE.
Urine flows into the Ureter and is carried to the Bladder for storage.
When the bladder becomes full, the urine is excreted via the Urethra.
®
The Kidneys & Homeostasis
keep it simple science The kidneys are not just used for excretion. As well, the kidneys can adjust the “water balance”
of the body by allowing more, or less, urine to be produced. In this way the kidneys are a vital
part of homeostasis.
Once again, the Hypothalamus is involved, but the control mechanism is by hormones... chemicals which are released
into the blood and exert a control function on some “target organ”. In this case the hormone is called “Anti-Diuretic
Hormone” (ADH) and the target organ is the kidney, specifically the nephron tubules.
Pituitary Gland BODY RETAINS MORE

ADH causes more
releases more ADH WATER, excretes less urine.
reabsorption of water
(Also nerve signals to brain from kidney tubules Urine is more concentrated
cause “thirsty” feeling so
you will want to drink)
Note the typical pattern of a c e
lan
to Pituitary Gland
negative feedback system

Nerve Command
b a
S alt u r e d
/ s
ter e a
Wa m
Cerebrum
WATER LEVEL IN WATER LEVEL IN

ll um BODY TOO HIGH
BODY TOO LOW re be
Ce
to Pituitary Gland
Nerve Command
n ce HYPOTHALAMUS
&
b ala PITUITARY GLAND
t
al r e d
t e r/S a s u
e
Wa m
Pituitary Gland
BODY PASSES MORE Less ADH causes less releases less ADH
WATER, excretes more urine. reabsorption of water (Also nerve signals to brain
Urine is more dilute. from kidney tubules. cause feeling that you do
NOT want to drink)
Kidney Structure & Nephrons

Renal Cortex
Practical Work DISSECTED
KIDNEY
Dark red in colour due
You may have dissected a kidney in your to the many blood
laboratory work in class. capillaries of the
nephrons
You need to be able to relate the gross Medulla
structure of the kidney to the structure Lighter in colour...
and functioning of the nephrons. less blood vessels.
Here many
collecting ducts
This diagram may help you understand carry urine to the
ureter.
your kidney dissection a little better.
Artery & Vein
INSPECTION COPY for schools only Ureter carries

urine to bladder
®
Water & Salt Balance Hormones
The hypothalamus monitors the blood flowing through it for the “osmotic balance” of water
and dissolved salt. If the body is even slightly dehydrated, more ADH is released by the
pituitary gland and circulates in the blood stream.
The effect of ADH is to alter the permeability of the membranes lining the tubules of the
kidney nephrons. Increased ADH levels make the membranes more permeable to water,
so more water is reabsorbed back into the blood. This means that less urine is
produced.
If the body is over-hydrated, the production of ADH is reduced. This causes the tubules
to become less permeable to water so less is reabsorbed into the blood. The result is
more urine being produced.
ADH is the hormone controlling the water levels, but this is only part of the “osmotic
balance” story... the salt levels can be controlled too... see below.
INSPECTION COPY
for schools only
Control of Salt Levels by Aldosterone

Adrenal
Sitting on top of the kidneys Gland Addison’s Disease & HRT
are the “Adrenal Glands”
which produce a variety of Addison’s Disease occurs when a
hormones. One of the adrenal person’s adrenal glands do not produce
hormones is Aldosterone enough aldosterone. Their nephrons
which controls reabsorption constantly fail to reabsorb salt and so the
of salt from the nephron “osmotic balance” of the body is
tubules. chronically out of order.
If salt levels are too low, special cells in This leads to a variety of problems and
the adrenal glands increase the malfunctions throughout the body
production of aldosterone into the involving the heart, intestines and liver,
bloodstream. This causes the cells lining and may cause psychological disorders
the nephron tubules to actively transport as well.
more sodium ions back into the blood.
Chloride ions follow the sodium, and so This is a disease that can be sucessfuly
more salt is reabsorbed. treated by “Hormone Replacement
Therapy” (HRT).
If salt levels are too high, the adrenal
glands produce less aldosterone so less A person with Addison’s Disease can be
salt is reabsorbed, and the excess salt is treated with appropriate doses of steroid
excreted in the urine. hormones (usually cortisone) and
although they cannot be totally cured,
Between ADH and aldosterone the body they can lead a normal, symptom-free life
maintains a constant “osmotic balance” of on HRT.
water and dissolved salt... Homeostasis.

Renal Dialysis
If a person’s kidneys cease functioning properly he/she can no longer remove toxic
wastes such as urea from the blood, nor maintain homeostasis of “water balance”.
In the case of complete kidney failure, this condition
can be fatal within about 3 days without treatment. Dialyser cartridge
Over the past 40 years or so, many people have
been successfully treated by receiving a kidney
transplant. However, they may have to wait months
or years to find a suitable organ donor.
Meanwhile, they need to be treated by Renal

Dialysis... the use of medical technology to remove
wastes from the blood artificially. In
effect, a renal dialysis machine is an
“artificial kidney”.
Dialyser Cartridge Blood in

The key component of a modern dialysis machine is
a disposable dialyser cartridge.
The patient’s blood flows through the cartridge from Dialysing

one end to the other inside thin “dialysis tubes”. fluid out
These tubes are made from a plastic which is semi-permeable.
Blood flows
through
The tubes are surrounded dialysis
Dialyser cartridge
by a “dialysing fluid” tubes
which flows through the
INSPECTION COPY cartridge in the opposite Dialysing
for schools only direction. fluid in
The dialysing fluid Blood out

contains water, salts,
sugars, minerals etc
exactly as in healthy blood plasma. Since
there is no concentration gradient for these chemicals they do not diffuse in or out of
the blood. However, the wastes such as urea are in higher concentration in the blood,
and so they diffuse from the blood into the dialysis liquid, which is later disposed of.
Comparison of Renal Dialysis with Natural Kidney Function

Similarities Differences
•Both processes remove • Kidney function involves the 2 steps of filtration
urea and other wastes from and reabsorption; dialysis involves only 1 step of
the blood. diffusion of wastes from blood.
•Both rely on movement of • In a kidney, movement across membranes is

dissolved substances achieved by both active transport and by passive
through semi-permeable osmosis and diffusion; dialysis involves only
membranes. passive diffusion.
®
Water Balance in Australian Animals
The different conditions of each environment Water Conservation &
dictate what an animal must do to to achieve
homeostasis of its “water balance”. In each
Excretion in Insects
All insects are small, and most are adapted for
environment there are different problems to be flight. This means they cannot afford to carry large
overcome, and the animal’s body organs must amounts of water in their bodies just for the
respond appropriately. Exactly how homeostasis is purpose of excreting urine. Their excretory system
achieved will be reflected in the urine the animal must be able to remove nitrogenous wastes, while
produces. losing only a minimum of water.
Comparison:Urine Production Firstly, their nitrogenous wastes are processed

chemically into the form of uric acid, which has a
in Different Environments low solubility in water. This means that, when their
Marine Fish urine is separated from the blood (filtration) and
problem: constant loss of water by osmosis. then concentrated by reabsorption of water, the
urine: small amount, to conserve water. uric acid precipitates as a solid.
Urine does not contain wastes, since ammonia is
After further reabsorption of water, the insect’s
excreted from the gills.
urine is a semi-solid paste, which is passed into
the rectum and excreted with their solid digestive
Freshwater Fish wastes.
problem: constant gain of water by osmosis.
urine: large volume, to remove water. The Malpighian Tubes are the
Urine does not contain wastes, since ammonia is insect equivalent of kidneys
excreted from the gills. Intestine
Terrestrial Mammal ANUS

problem: must excrete wastes in urine, but cannot
afford to lose too much water, especially in dry MOUTH
Australian ecosystems.
urine: generally small volume, to conserve water. MALPIGHIAN TUBES extend through insect’s
Urine is relatively highly concentrated in wastes body, collecting and concentrating urine.
such as urea. Urine is emptied into the gut for excretion.
INSPECTION COPY for schools only
Water Conservation & Excretion in Australian Mammals

Many Australian environments are They achieve this by:
desert or semi-arid and water
conservation is vital for survival. • having longer tubules in
Some adaptations for temperature their kidney nephrons,
control, while conserving water, which allows for more
were covered earlier in this topic. reabsorption of water back
into the blood, thus less
Many Australian mammals have urine is produced.
excretory systems that also
contribute to water conservation, • the cells lining the
while managing to efficiently tubules are able to
remove their nitrogenous waste, urea. actively transport urea from blood into
the urine. So, not only is urea not
The desert-living Red Kangaroo, the reabsorbed from the “filtrate” liquid, but is
Spinifex Hopping Mouse, and even the actively “pumped” from the blood.
Koala (which rarely drinks) all have the
ability to produce very small amounts of The result is less water and more urea in
highly concentrated urine. their urine.
®
Enantiostasis
keep it simple science Enantiostasis is a special case of homeostasis.
It refers to the maintenence of metabolic and physiological functions, (i.e. homeostasis)
despite significant variations in the surrounding environment.
Examples of how they do this are:
An important example is an estuary, Crabs & yabbies burrow into the mud, where the salt
where river meets sea. Organisms are concentrations are more stable.
able to maintain their water and salt Oysters close their shell, to avoid extreme conditions they
balance, despite wild fluctuations in cannot cope with.
the water and salt concentrations
around them, every time the tides Estuary fish, like bream, switch their excretory systems
change. from water conservers when it’s salty, to water excreters
when it’s fresh.
Water Conservation in Australian Plants

The characteristics of Australia’s sclerophyll plants
were dealt with in the Preliminary Course topic
How Plants Cope With Salt
Many of the Australian coastal estuaries are home
“Evolution of Australian Biota”.
to Mangrove trees which have a number of
adaptations to cope with the salt water that covers
In summary, the sclerophyll plants include the gum
their roots with every high tide.
trees, banksias and acacias (wattles) and all show
numerous adaptations to conserve water in our arid Mangroves in
To maintain
climate, such as: coastal NSW
their
“osmotic
• Small, narrow, drooping leaves with thick, waxy
balance”
cuticles.
they must
INSPECTION COPY
both for schools only
• In dry times, gum trees shed many of their leaves
conserve
so that there are less surfaces for evaporation.
water and
deal with
• Species such as Spinifex grass limit evaporation
high levels
by having fine hairs all over their leaves. This traps
of salt.
a layer of air near the leaf so that wind cannot
increase evaporation rates.
One of the
most
• Generally, all Australian sclerophylls have fewer
common
stomates on their leaves to limit the water loss from
species is
transpiration.
the “Grey
GUM Small & narrow to Mangrove”,
reduce Surface Area Avicennia
LEAVES for less evaporation marina, which has all the following adaptations:
• Leaves with a thick, waxy cuticle and fine hairs

on the undersurface, all to minimise water loss.
• Salt glands in the leaves which excrete a

concentrated salt brine onto the leaf surface. The
salt gets washed away when it rains.
Thick, waxy
cuticle • Salt is deposited in older leaves, so when they
minimises drop off they carry a load of excess salt away.
evaporation
• Special tissues within their roots which allows
Droop downwards to avoid the heat of water to pass through, but reduces the passage of
midday for less evaporation
salt. This helps to reduce the salt intake.
Complete Worksheets 11,12,13 & 14.
® Worksheet 1 Name....................................
keep it simple science Enzymes & Homeostasis
Fill in the blank spaces. The pH inside living cells, and in most parts of an
The total of all the chemical reactions in an organism’s body is about r).............., but an
organism’s body is called a)........................................ exception is the s)............................... which is quite
Each reaction requires a catalyst, which is a strongly t).....................................
chemical which b).................................... the reaction,
without being c)............................................... itself. Homeostasis is the process of keeping an
organism’s internal environment u)...........................
Biological catalysts are called d)................................. The factors that need to be maintained include
These have the following properties: v).................................. and w)................ as well as
They are molecules of e)................................., which x)............................. and salt balance,
are polymers of f)...................... ......................... y).......................................... levels and oxygen and
Each one has its own unique g)................................., carbon dioxide levels.
which perfectly fits the molecule(s) of the reaction.
These molecules are referred to as the Homeostasis involves z)........................ feedback.
h)..................................... Because each enzyme only The 3 parts of any feedback system are the
fits its own particular h)..............................., they are aa)..........................., which measures or monitors
said to be i).................................................... conditions, the ab)........................................ which
Enzymes will only work effectively in a narrow decides how to respond and issues commands,
range of j).................................. and k).................... and the ac).................................... which carry out
This is because their l).................................. changes the commands.
so that they no longer fit their substrate.
In animals generally it is the
The pH scale is a numerical measurement of ad).......................................... system which is
m)........................ and n)........................................ largely responsible for monitoring and control. In
Things that are neutral have a pH= o)............. Acids mammals, homeostasis of body temperature is
have pH values p).................... 7, while alkalis controlled by the ae)........................................... at
(bases) have pH q).......................... the base of the af).................................
Worksheet 2 Enzyme Activity Graphs Name....................................

1. Sketch the shape of a graph of 3. Sketch a graph of Enzyme activity against pH.
Enzyme Activity against Temperature.
4. Explain why the graph
shows a “peak” of
optimum activity
at a certain pH.
5. Why does activity decline at pH values higher or lower

than the optimum?
6. Sketch a graph of enzyme activity against substrate

concentration.
2. Explain the shape of the graph; 7. Explain
a) at temperatures below the “optimum a) why the graph rises
b) at temperatures above the optimum. b) why the graph

levels off
INSPECTION COPY
for schools only
®
Worksheet 3
Name....................................
keep it simple science Test Questions section 1
Multiple Choice 6.
1. The effect on enzyme activity of increasing the
Which of the following is NOT true about enzymes? substrate concentration is best described as:
Enzymes:- A. Activity rises to an “optimum”, then declines.
A. are catalysts which speed up chemical reactions. B. Activity always continues to rise.
B. are carbohydrate molecules of a special shape. C. Activity declines as concentration increases.
C. only work within a narrow range of temperature. D. Activity rises, then levels off.
D. only works for one substrate... “specific”.
Longer Response Questions
The graph shows the rate of an enzyme-catalysed Mark values given are suggestions only, and are to give
reaction. Questions 2 and 3 refer to it. you an idea of how detailed an answer is appropriate.
Answer on reverse if insufficient space.
B
2. Which part of this graph
7. (4 marks)
Rate of reaction
(A,B,C or D) corresponds to
the enzyme having the best C Discuss the importance of shape to the
3-dimentional shape to fit its characteristics of an enzyme, with specific
substrate? reference to:
A a) why each enzyme will usually only catalyse only
3. one reaction.
At point D on this graph, you D
could describe the enzyme
as: Temperature b) why enzymes only work within fairly narrow
A. saturated with substrate. ranges of temperature and pH.
B. optimum shape.
C. decomposed.
D. denatured.
8. (8 marks)
4. The following data was collected in an experiment
This graph in which the time taken for a chemical reaction
compares the Enzyme Q catalyzed by an enzyme, was measured at different
performance temperatures.
o
of 2 enzymes Temp ( C) Time taken for reaction (min.)
Enzyme P 5 4.0
at different pH
10 2.0
Enzyme Activity
levels.
15 1.0
20 0.2
25 2.5
30 10
a) Tabulate this data appropriately, adding a third

column for “Reaction Rate” and calculating values
for this.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
pH b) Construct a graph of Temperature v Rate.
It would be reasonable to conclude that: c) Is it likely that this is a human enzyme? Explain.
A. “P” is a stomach enzyme, “Q” is intra-cellular.
B. “P” is from a plant cell, “Q” is from a mammal
cell.
C. “Q” performs better than “P” under all 9. (5 marks)
conditions. a) What is meant by “Homeostasis”
o
D. Both would have optimum activity at about 40 C.
5. b) What is the link between the necessity for

Which of the following is least likely to be homeostasis and enzymes?
controlled by a negative feedback system?
A. Body temperature
B. Blood sugar levels
C. Rate of digestion c) Using a simple example, explain the concept of
D. Water & salt “negative feedback” as a way to maintain stability
INSPECTION COPY of any system.
levels.
for schools only
® Worksheet 4
Name....................................
keep it simple science Temperature Regulation
Fill in the blank spaces. Animals which can regulate their body
temperature are called w)..............................
Temperature regulation in mammals is Examples are the x)......................... and
controlled by the a)..................................... at y).................. They use all the homeostasis
the base of the brain. If body temperature is techniques, plus rely on body insulation
too high it sends commands to the with fur, z).................... or aa).....................
b)..................................... organs to cool the
In extreme environments endotherms may
body. Cooling mechanisms include
have extra adaptations. In Australian
c)............................ of blood vessels to allow
deserts many animals have large
d)................... (more/less) blood to flow near ab).................... to radiate heat away. They
skin. Also, the e)............................ glands don’t have sweat glands because they
may be activated, allowing f)......................... can’t afford to ac)..........................................
to flow. As it g).............................. from the but may lick their ad)............................... or
skin, it carries heat away. Metabolic rate pant to achieve some evaporative cooling.
may be reduced, to reduce heat production.
This is achieved by h).......................... which In cold environments, thick fur or blubber
are control chemicals. An example is gives ae)...................................... to retain
Thyroxine, produced by the body heat. The penguins have a special
i)....................................... gland. adaptation in the blood vessels to their
legs. In cold water, the blood flow to the
If the body is too cool, then the feet is af).................. ......................................
so that less heat is lost through the
hypothalamus commands various warming
uninsulated feet.
mechanisms. Blood vessels can be
j).................................... to reduce blood flow Plants also have many adaptations to cope
to k)...................... Body hairs are with temperature extremes. In cold
l).............................. to trap a layer of still air, climates many plants are
which acts to m).................................. better. ag).............................. which means they
Nerve commands to muscles can cause ah)............................................ in winter.
them to n)............................. which produces
extra heat. The metabolic rate can be raised In hot climates with plenty of water, plants
by hormones as well. open their ai)............................ allowing
evaporation to cool them. In dry climates,
Animals which rely on the environment to plants cannot afford the water loss, so
supply their body heat are called they stay cool without losing water. For
o)........................................ Examples are example, cacti have aj).......................-
shaped leaves to reduce the surface area
p)............................, amphibians, fish etc. In
absorbing heat from direct sunlight. They
terrestrial environments they often seek or
are often ak)...........................-coloured to
avoid the heat of the q)................ in order to reflect heat radiation.
regulate temperature. An Australian
example is the r)............................, which The Australian al)...................................
often s)......................... in the morning to plants mostly have am)..................................
warm up, and t)..................................... when (shape) leaves to reduce surface area, and
too hot. In cold winters, ectotherms cannot often allow the leaves to an).........................
get any heat from the environment and (orientation) to avoid the Sun’s heat at
many, such as the u)..................................... midday.
INSPECTION COPY
survive by v)................................. for the
for schools only
winter.
® Worksheet 5
Name....................................
Multiple Choice Longer Response Questions

6. (8 marks)
1. a) Discribe the role of the hypothalamus in the
The “control centre” for homeostasis regulation of body temperature in a mammal.
involving the nerve system is the:
A. Hypothalamus
B. Cerebrum
C. Cerebellum
D. Pituitary gland
b) Give an outline of how the blood vessels
2. function as “effectors” in the regulation of body
Which of the following is a response by an temperature.
effector organ which would be appropriate
when the body is too warm?
A. Muscles begin shivering.
B. Blood vessels dilated.
C. Body hairs erected, forming “goose
bumps”. c) List 3 other effectors (apart from blood vessels)
D. Metabolic rate increased by a hormone. involved in temperature regulation.
3.
Which statement is correct?
A. Ectotherms such as fish, generate their
own body heat.
7. (6 marks)
B. Endotherms such as birds, rely on their a) Explain the difference between an ectotherm and
surroundings to supply their body heat. an endotherm.
C. Ectotherms such as mammals,
generate their own body heat.
D. Ectotherms such as reptiles, rely on
the surroundings to supply body heat.
b) Using a named Australian example, outline how
an ectotherm regulates its body temperature.
4.
A typical response of an ectotherm to
over-heating is:
A. sweating B. sun-baking
C. seeking shade D. shivering c) Using a named Australian example, outline 2
adaptations of desert-living endotherm to keep
their bodies cool.
5.
An important adaptation in Australian INSPECTION COPY
mammals to help keep cool in a desert
environment is: for schools only
A. a lot of sweat glands in the skin.

B. a “stocky”, thick-set shape to minimise 8. (3 marks)
heat absorption. Describe some adaptations of sclerophyll plants
which help them minimise absorption of heat from
C. large ears to acts as heat radiators. the Sun.
D. thick fat layers to prevent heat getting
into their body.
® Worksheet 6 Name....................................
keep it simple science Transport in Animals
Fill in the blank spaces. p)................................ have thinner walls, and
have q)................... along their length to
Blood is made up mainly of a liquid called prevent blood r)..................... ............................
a).......................... and many blood cells. Capillaries have walls which are
The most numerous blood cells are the s).................................. thick and form a net-
b)........................... which contain the protein work throughout the body’s t).........................
c)............................. responsible for carrying
d).............................. gas. Most of the carbon As the blood flows around the intestines it
dioxide in blood is carried in the form of picks up u)..................................... It then
e).................................... ions. These are flows straight to the v)................................,
made when carbon dioxide reacts with where some nutrients are removed for
f)................. forming g)........................ acid. w)....................... & ............................, and
wastes such as x)..........................are added.
Most other substances carried in blood are These wastes are later removed from the
dissolved in the h)................................. This blood by the y).................................. and
includes nutrients such as i)......................... excreted with any excess z)........................ &
and j)................................., water and salts, ...................... as urine.
and the nitrogenous waste k).........................
Lipids (fats) are first wrapped in a coating Meanwhile, when blood flows through the
of l)............................ so they can be capillaries of the lungs, aa)...........................
dispersed without separating. gas is absorbed into the blood and
ab).............................. gas is released from
There are 3 types of blood vessels: the blood into air. When blood flows through
m)................................... have thick muscular the body tissues, nutrients move from
walls to withstand the high n)...................... ac)........................ to ad).................................
of the blood being pumped from the as does ae)............................... gas, while
o).................................. af)..................................... gas moves the
other way.
Worksheet 7 Blood Chemistry Name....................................

Answer the following questions.
1. Write 2 chemical equations to 3. With reference to one of the equations in
summarise how carbon dioxide reacts Q1, explain why it is essential to quickly
with water. remove CO2 from body tissues.
INSPECTION COPY
for schools only
4. With reference to one of the equations in

Q1, explain how the oxygen release from
blood cells to body tissues is facilitated.
2. Name the chemical form in which most
CO2 is carried in the blood.
® Worksheet 8 Name....................................
keep it simple science Haemoglobin & Blood Products
Fill in the blank spaces. Most blood donated to the “Blood Bank” is
separated into different fractions for
Oxygen is carried by the a)...............- different uses. Some of the main blood
coloured, b).....................-containing protein products are:
called c)....................................... It has a
great affinity for oxygen molecules, and n)..................... Cell Concentrate, to boost
O2-carrying capacity.
each molecule can absorb d).............
(number) oxygen molecules, in which form White Cell Concentrate, to boost
it is called e)..............- .................................... o)..............................
In the body tissues, the presence of p).......................... Concentrate, to help
f).................................... gas lowers the pH blood clotting.
slightly, which causes haemoglobin to
change shape slightly and g)......................... q)....................., which is the liquid part of
the oxygen, which then h)............................. the blood, used in emergency to increase
into the cells. r).........................................
The “%SpO2” is a measure of the Research is going on into developing

i)........................................... in a person’s artificial blood. This is needed because
fresh blood cannot be s)......................... for
blood. Good health, fitness and adequate
long, and can cause t).................................
oxygen supply are indicated by readings in some patients, There is also a danger
above j)..............% This can be easily that donated blood might carry
measured by a k)......................................... u)...............................
which sends beams of l)..................... &
...................... through a finger or ear-lobe. Two of the areas of research for artificial
Oxygen saturation is measured according blood are: v).......................... -Based
to how much of each type of light is w)..................... Carriers, made from animal
m)....................................... by the blood. blood, and completely artificial substitutes
based on the chemicals called
INSPECTION COPY x)......................................................
for schools only
Worksheet 9 Transport in Plants Name....................................
Fill in the blank spaces. because water molecules are

h)............................. and cling together.
Transport in plants is carried out by 2
separate systems. The a)........................... Meanwhile, the i).....................................
tubes carry water and dissolved minerals vessels carry out j).......................................
from the b)..................... to c)........................ (name of process) which moves
k)................................................ around the
These tubes are d).............................. (dead plant to wherever it is needed.
or living) cells. The transport is
e)................................. (active or passive) The cells are l)..................................... (dead or
and the movement of water is called living) and the transport is
f)................................................. Basically m).........................................(active/passive)
the process works because, as water requiring the plant to
g)..................................... from the leaves, n)......................................................... in order
this “pulls” water up from above to make the process happen.
® Worksheet 10 Name....................................
Multiple Choice Longer Response Questions
1. 6. (5 marks)
A blood vessel with relatively thin muscle layer and Describe the structural difference(s) of veins and
arteries, and relate these differences to the
equipped with one-way valves is most likely a:
functions of these blood vessels.
A. Vein
B. Arteriole
C. Artery INSPECTION COPY
D. Capillary
for schools only
2.
As blood flows through a capillary in an active
muscle, you would expect changes in the 7. (9 marks)
substances carried in the blood, as follows: a) Contrast the way(s) that the gases oxygen and
carbon dioxide are carried in the blood.
A. Increase in CO2, decrease in O2 and sugars.
B. Decrease in CO2 and sugars, increase in O2
C. Inrease in CO2 and sugars, decrease in O2
D. Decrease in CO2 and O2, decrease in sugars b) These gases are described as the “respiratory
gases” because of their involvement in cellular
respiration. Summarise this process with a
3. chemical equation.
Which line correctly identifies the way in which
most of the oxygen and carbon dioxide gases are
carried in the blood?
c) How is the release of oxygen from the
bloodstream facilitated by the high concentration
Oxygen Carbon Dioxide
of carbon dioxide in the body tissues?
A. dissolved in plasma, in haemoglobin
B. in haemoglobin, dissolved bicarbonate ion
C. in white cells, in haemoglobin
D. in haemoglobin, dissolved carbonic acid
8. (4 marks)
Identify 2 of the “blood products” extracted from
4. donate blood, and describe the uses of these
The “Oximeter” is able to measure percentage products.
oxygen saturation of the blood because, depending
on the amount of oxygen present:
A. the blood pH changes

B. the ratio of red and white cells changes
C. the blood flows at a different rate
D. haemoglobin absorbs light differently 9. (6 marks)
Construct a table to contrast the processes of
Transpiration and Translocation in plants. Your
5. answer should cover:
Which statement about plant transport systems is • the name and nature of the vessels involved.
correct? • the substance(s) transported.
• the basic nature of the processes.
A. Xylem use active transport for Transpiration.
B. Xylem cells are alive and do Translocation.
C. Phloem uses active transport to move
nutrients.
D. Phloem tubes carry out Transpiration
by passive means.
® Worksheet 11 Name....................................
keep it simple science Excretion & Water Balance
Fill in the blanks. Maintaining the correct balance of both
Water is vital to all living things because: water and dissolved i).......................... is
another aspect of j)...................................
1. It is the a)......................... of life, and
most substances in a cell are b).................. In vertebrate animals, the control of water
in water. balance is done by the k)...........................,
which also are responsible for excretion of
2. Water is involved in many l)............................. wastes.
c)........................ reactions, such as
photosynthesis or d)................................ Different animals produce different wastes:
the fish produce mainly m)...........................
3. Water has very high “heat while birds and insects produce
e)......................................” and “heat of n)........................... and mammals produce
f)....................................” so it is vital to o).........................
temperature control.
In fish, the kidneys are used mainly for
4. Water g)............................ and cushions p)........................ because excretion of the
cells and organs. For example, plants rely ammonia takes place from their
on water in cell h)........................... to keep q)................................
leaves and stems upright. INSPECTION COPY
for schools only
Worksheet 12 Name....................................
Water Balance in Plants & Animals
Fill in the blanks
Insects process their nitrogenous wastes A good example is the way that estuarine
into the chemical a)......................................... animals can maintain
which has very low solubility. This allows j)...................................... balance despite
them to excrete “urine” which is almost the fluctuations in salt concentrations as
entirely b)........................... the k)......................... change.
Many Australian mammals excrete very Mangrove plants deal with salt by special
c)........................ (small/large) amounts of root tissue to l).............................. its entry,
d)....................... (dilute/concentrated) urine. or by m).................................. salt onto their
They achieve this by having increased leaves, or by n).......................... salt in older
ability to reabsorb e)............................... leaves which are later shed.
from the nephron tubules, and can
f)................................. (actively/passively) Many Australian plants are well-adapted to
pump urea from g)............................. into the conserve water by such features as leaves
h)................................... which are o)...................................... (shape
& size) and are covered with a thick, waxy
When an organism can maintain p)........................... They often have fewer
homeostasis despite significant variations q)......................... on their leaves, or may
in the environment, this is called be covered with r)..................... to trap a
i).......................................... layer of air.
® Worksheet 13 Name....................................
keep it simple science Kidney Function
Fill in the blanks. So, an increase in ADH secretion leads to
greater u)...........................................
Each kidney contains about 1 million units (excretion/retention) of water, while a
called a)............................ There is a coiled decrease in ADH results in
blood vessel, the b)....................................... v)................................ (more/less) urine
which is inside the c).............................. production.
capsule. Here the process of
d)............................ takes place, where Another hormone called
water and many dissolved substances w).......................................... is produced by
leave the blood and flow throught the the x).......................................... glands
e).......................................... controls the reabsorption of
y).................................. Some people do
The second process is f).............................. not produce enough of this hormone and
in which any useful substances (most of so have a chronic salt-balance problem
the water, plus g)....................... and called z)................................. Disease. This
...........................) are absorbed back into disease is treated by
the h)........................... by a combination of aa)......................................... Therapy (HRT).
active transport and i).................................
If a person’s kidneys fail, they can have
Some water plus the j).................... are not their blood “cleaned” of wastes by the
reabsorbed but pass into a process of “Renal ab)...................................
k)................................. duct, and down the
l).......................... to the bladder to await This is similar to kidney function in that
excretion. both involve movement of dissolved
chemicals through ac).................................
The kidneys also have a role in membranes. It is different from kidney
m)...................................... by adjusting the function in that it involves only ad)............
amounts of water and n).............................. (number) process, which involves
that are reabsorbed into the blood. ae)...................................... (active/passive)
diffusion. Kidney function has
This function is controlled by the af)............................ (number) steps, and
o)..................................... which monitors involves both ag).......................................
“water balance” and controls the release (active/passive) transport and osmosis.
of the hormone p).......................... from the
q)................................... gland.
INSPECTION COPY
This hormone increases the permeability
for schools only
of membranes in the r)...............................
so that s)............... (more/less) water will
be absorbed, and t).............................
(more/less) urine formed.
®
Worksheet 14 Name....................................
Test Questions section 4
Multiple Choice 6. (4 marks)
1. Outline the processes of Filtration and
A freshwater fish: Reabsorption in the nephron of a mammalian
kidney. Identify where each process occurs and the
A. produces a large volume of dilute urine. main events occurring.
B. produces a small volume of concentrated urine.
C. excretes urea in large amounts via the kidneys.
D. excretes water from its gills and must
drink to replace it.
2. 7. (6 marks)
In the mammalian kidney nephrons the formation Compare and contrast the role of the hormones
of urine occurs in 2 stages. Which line describes “ADH” and “Aldosterone” in the maintenence of
correctly the location of each process? mammal homeostasis. Your answer should include
• source of each hormone
Filtration Reabsorption • precise effect on the target organ
A. Glomerulus Bowman’s capsule • how this contributes to Homeostasis
B. Renal tubules Ureter
C. Glomerulus Renal tubules
D. Bowman’s capsule Collecting duct
3.
An increase in the level of the hormone “ADH”
would cause the kidney nephrons to:
A. reabsorb less salt. 8. (5 marks)

B. reabsorb more water. a) Outline the process of excretion of nitrogenous
C. reabsorb more salt. wastes in insects, explaining how it contributes to
D. reabsorb less water. conservation of water in their bodies.
4.
Insects conserve water by excreting their
nitrogenous wastes in the form of:
A. a semi-solid paste of uric acid.

B. a small volume of urine, highly concentrated b) Using a named example of an Australian
in urea. mammal, explain how the excretion of nitrogenous
C. a large amount of ammonia-containing urine. wastes is achieved with minimum water loss.
D. pellets of solid urea.
Longer Response Questions

Use reverse if insufficient space.
5. (4 marks) 9. (8 marks)
Discuss briefly the importance of water in living a) What is “Enantiostasis”? Give an example of an
organisms, identifying 4 functions of water. environment where this process is vital and outline
some of the strategies for achieving enantiostasis
in the named environment.
b) Identify strategies for conservating water in 2

INSPECTION COPY named Australian plants.
for schools only
c) Describe 2 strategies used by mangrove trees to

maintain water balance in a saline environment.

Answer Section INSPECTION COPY
for schools only
Worksheet 1 Worksheet 3
a) metabolism b) speeds up 1. B 2. B 3. D 4. A 5. C 6. D
c) used up / consumed d)enzymes
7.
e) protein f) amino acids a) Enzymes are protein molecules and each has a a
g) 3-dimensional shape h) substrate(s) particular 3-dimensional shape which fits its
i) specific j) & k) temperature & pH substrate like a key fits a lock. Usually each
l) shape m) & n) acidity & alkalinity enzyme will only “fit” one particular substrate, so it
o) 7 p) below will only catalyse one reaction.
q) above 7 r) 7 / neutral
s) stomach t) acidic b) Any change in temperature or pH can change
u) stable / at the same level the shape of an enzyme, by causing the protein
v) temperature w) pH chain to alter the way it is folded and twisted. As
x) water y) blood sugar its shape changes, its ability to “fit” the substrate
z) negative aa) receptor will change too. Thus each enzyme only works
ab) control centre ac) effectors fully within relatively narrow ranges of temperature
ad) nervous ae) hypothalamus and pH.
af) brain
8.
Worksheet 2 a) Table should be ruled and have clear headings.
1. graph The values in the 3rd column should be:
-1
Activity
Reaction Rate (min ) Reaction Rate v Temp. Graph

2.a) reaction rate (=activity) 0.25
increases as temp. goes up 0.5
1.0
Reaction Rate (1/min)

because molecules are more
5
likely to collide and react with Temp 5.0
each other. 0.4
4
0.1
(These values
3
b) Above the optimum the shape of the enzyme
protein begins to change and be distorted. The are calulated as
substrate(s) no longer fit the enzyme perfectly, and 1/time taken) 2
activity declines rapidly. b) graph
1
3. graph c) No.
The graph shows 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Activity
that at human o
4. At the optimum pH the shape Temperature ( C)
of the enzyme is a perfect “lock body temp. (37C)
& key” shape to fit the the enzyme’s activity is almost zero. This enzyme
substrate, so activity is at a would NOT function in a human body.
maximum. pH
9.
5. At pH’s either side of optimum the shape of the a) Homeostasis is the process of maintaining a
enzyme changes so that the “fit” with the substrate stable, internal environment, for such things as
is no longer perfect, so activity declines. temperature, pH, water balance, etc.
6. graph b) Homeostasis is vital so that the optimum

conditions (of temp., pH etc) for enzymes to
Activity
7. a) As the function efficiently are maintained. Efficient

concentration of enzyme activity is essential so that the reactions of
substrate molecules metabolism occur at a rate appropriate for life
increases, it becomes functions.
more likely that they will
Substrate concentration c) example: thermostat control of an oven
collide with an enzyme
and undergo the A temperature sensor constantly monitors the
reaction. So reaction rate increases. temp. If oven is too cool, the control mechanism
sends an electrical signal to turn the heating
b) However, once all the available enzyme element on. (effector)
molecules are being used, (they are “saturated” If the oven is too hot, a signal is sent to turn the
with substrate) increasing the concentration heating element off, so the oven will cool down.
cannot increase reaction rate any further, so the By always taking action in the opposite direction
graph levels off. (negative feedback) a relatively stable temperature
is maintained.
7.
® Worksheet 4 c) Desert-living endotherms, such as the Bilby,
keep it simple science cannot afford the water loss involved with
sweating to cool off. Instead, they have large ears
a) hypothalamus b) effector
to radiate heat away. They seek shade in the heat
c) dilation d) more
of the day and are active only in the evenings and
e) sweat f) perspiration
early morning. Instead of sweating, they “pant” so
g) evaporates h) hormones
that evaporation from the mouth and throat has a
i) thyroid j) constricted
cooling effect.
k) the skin l) raised / erected
m) insulate n) shiver
8.
o) ectotherms p) reptiles
Sclerophyll plants have
q) Sun r) Blue-tongue lizard
• small, narrow leaves to reduce surface area
s) sunbakes t) seeks shade
exposed to Sun.
u) copperhead snake / corroboree frog
• shiny leaf cuticle to reflect some radiant heat
v) becoming dormant w) endotherms
• leaves which “droop” downwards. This allows for
x) & y) mammals & birds
absorption of light for photosynthesis in the cool
z) feathers aa) blubber (fat)
of the morning, but avoids heat absorption in the
ab) ears ac) lose water
heat of midday.
ad) fore arms ae) insulation
af) shunted back into the body
ag) deciduous ah) shed their leaves Worksheet 6
ai) stomates aj) needle / spine a) plasma b) red
ak) light al) sclerophyll c) haemoglobin d) oxygen
am) narrow an) droop downwards e) bicarbonate f) water
g) carbonic h) plasma
i) sugars j) amino acids
Worksheet 5 k) urea l) protein
1. A 2. B 3. D 4. C 5. C m) arteries n) pressure
o) heart p) Veins
6. q) valves r) flowing backwards
a) The hypothalamus is both the receptor and s) one cell t) tissues
control centre for regulation of temperature. u) digested nutrients v) liver
Blood flowing through the hypothalamus is w) processing & storage
constantly monitored by heat-sensitive cells. If x) urea y) kidneys
body temperature is even slightly high or low, the z) water & salts
hypothalamus sends nerve messages to various aa) oxygen ab) carbon dioxide
effector organs to either warm or cool the body ac) blood ad) cells
back to its correct temperature. ae) oxygen af) carbon dioxide
b) Veins and arteries can be constricted (narrowed) Worksheet 7
to reduce the blood flow to the skin. This reduces
the amount of heat lost through the skin, thereby
1. CO2 reacts with water to form carbonic acid
helping to warm the body. The opposite process of
dilating (widening) the blood vessels allows more CO2 + H2O H2CO3
blood flow to the skin. This allows more heat to be Carbonic is a weak acid which partly ionises
lost from the skin, thereby cooling the body. H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-
c) Three other effector organs: 2. CO2 is mostly carried as bicarbonate ion.

Sweat glands (perspiration), skeletal muscles
(shivering), thyroid gland (hormone thyroxine), 3. The equations show that carbon dioxide reacts
body hair muscles (goose bumps). with water forming an acid. If allowed to
accumulate, this would lower the pH, which could
7. seriously affect the activity of enzymes and disrupt
a) Endotherms are animals which generate their
metabolism.
own body heat.
Ectotherms rely on their environment to supply 4. As shown in the equations above, the presence
their body heat; they do not generate internal body of carbon dioxide lowers the pH. In tissue
heat. capillaries, the slightly lowered pH alters the shape
of the haemoglobin molecules slightly. This
b) Ectotherms such are the Blue-Tongue Lizard causes them to release the oxygen molecules they
often use instinctive behaviours to regulate are carrying, which then diffuse into the cells.
temperature. When too cold, it will sunbake,
flattening its body to increase the surface area INSPECTION COPY
exposed to the Sun. When too hot, it will seek for schools only
shade and avoid the heat of the Sun.
® Worksheet 8
keep it simple science 9.
Transpiration Translocation
a) red b) iron
c) haemoglobin d) 4 Vessels Xylem Phloem
e) oxyhaemoglobin f) carbon dioxide involved (dead cells) (living cells)
g) release h) diffuse
i) percent oxygen saturation Substances Water & Nutrients,
j) 95% k) Oximeter transported minerals especially
l) red light & infra-red light sugars
m) absorbed n) Red Processes Passive Active
o) immunity p) Platelet involved transport transport
q) Plasma r) blood volume
s) stored t) immune-responses
u) diseases v) Haemoglobin
w) Oxygen x) Perfluorocarbons Worksheet 11
a) solvent b) dissolved
Worksheet 9 c) chemical d) metabolic / chemical
a) xylem b) roots e) capacity f) vaporisation
c) leaves d) dead g) supports h) vacuoles
e) passive f) transpiration i) salts j) homeostasis
g) evaporates h) cohesive k) kidneys l) nitrogenous
i) phloem j) translocation m) ammonia n) uric acid
k) nutrients / sugars l) alive o) urea p) water balance
m) active n) use energy q) gills
INSPECTION COPY
Worksheet 10
1. A 2. A 3. B 4. D 5. C Worksheet 12 for schools only
a) uric acid b) solid / dry
6.
Arteries have thick, muscular walls. This allows c) small d) concentrated
them to withstand the high pressure blood they e) water f) actively
carry as the heart pumps. Being elastic, the walls g) blood h) tubules / urine
can expand outwards under pressure, then i) enantiostasis j) water & salt
contract and help squeeze the blood on its way. k) tides l) limit
Veins have thinner walls since the blood they carry m) secreting / excreting
back to the heart is at low pressure. Veins are n) storing / accumulating
equipped with valves to prevent back-flow. The thin o) small & narrow p) cuticle
walls of a vein allow them to be compressed by q) stomates r) hairs
neighbouring muscles, which helps squeeze the
blood forward.
Worksheet 13
7. a) nephrons
a) Oxygen is carried attached to the haemoglobin
b) glomerulus c) Bowman’s
molecules in the red blood cells.
Most carbon dioxide is carried in solution in the d) filtration e) renal tubules
blood plasma as bicarbonate ion, HCO3-. f) reabsorption
g) sugars / salts / amino acids
b) C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP h) bloodstream i) osmosis
j) urea k) collecting
c) The high concentration of dissolved CO2 causes l) ureter m) homeostasis
the pH to be slightly lower (because CO2 reacts n) salt o) hypothalamus
with water forming carbonic acid). This change in p) ADH q) pituitary
pH causes a change in the shape of the r) renal tubules s) more
haemoglobin molecule, which causes it to release t) less u) retention
oxygen, which can then diffuse into the
v) more w) aldosterone
surrounding body cells.
x) adrenal y) salt
8. z) Addison’s
Red Cell Concentrate contains about 2x as many aa) Hormone Replacement
red cells as normal blood. It is used to treat people ab) Dialysis ac) semi-permeable
with severe anaemia, or following severe blood ad) one ae) passive
loss. af) two ag) active
Platelet Concentrate is given to patients who need
extra blood-clotting capability, such as leukemia
sufferers.
® Worksheet 14 8.
b) The Spinifex Hopping Mouse is a desert-dweller
keep it simple science which produces very small amounts of very
1. A 2. C 3. B 4. A concentrated urine. This is achieved because:
• the nephron tubules are very long, allowing for
5. more reabsorption of water, and less volume of
Water is the solvent of life urine.
All the chemical reactions of metabolism take place • the cells lining the tubules are able to actively
in water solution, and the transport of materials transport urea from the blood into the urine. This
takes place in water solution. allows the urine to be even more highly
Water is involved in life chemistry concentrated than in other mammals.
Water is a reactant or product of many metabolic
reactions. 9.
Water is vital in temperature regulation a) Enantiostasis is a special case of homeostasis,
Water has a very high specific heat capacity. This in which an organism maintains a stable internal
helps stabilize the temperature of all living things. environment despite significant changes in the
Evaporation of sweat is an important cooling environment around it. An example of a habitat
mechanism in mammals. where this is important is a tidal estuary, where the
Water supports and cushions cells and organs tides cause the salinity of the environment to
Water solutions in the tissues helps to cushion fluctuate.
organs against bumps and impacts. To maintain their “osmotic balance” while their
(eg cerebrospinal fluid around the brain) evironment changes from virtual fresh water, to
salty and back again, requires estuarine organisms
6. to cope by strategies such as:
Filtration occurs in the glomerulus. Some of the • burrowing into the mud where the salinity is
water of the blood plasma and its dissolved more constant. (eg crabs & yabbies)
sugars, minerals, urea etc seep out of the blood • adjusting the functioning of their kidneys from
vessel, like water through a filter paper. Blood cells water excreters to water conservers as the tides
and proteins cannot leak out. change. (eg fish)
This “filtrate” flows along the renal tubules where
reabsorption occurs. Useful nutients (sugars, b) Spinifex Grass has fine hairs all over its leaves.
amino acids) are actively transported back into the This traps a layer of still air near the leaf, reducing
bloodstream. Most of the water in the filtrate flows the evaporative effect of the wind.
back to the blood by osmosis. A portion of the Gum trees, such as the River Red Gum, has leaves
water with dissolved urea flows on to be excreted with very few stomates, and a thick, waxy cuticle
as urine. to minimize water losses.
7. c) Mangroves:
ADH is secreted by the pituitary gland (under • secrete salty brine onto the leaf surface. This
control of the hypothalamus) It alters the washes away when it rains.
permeability of the renal tubules to water. • accumulate salt in older leaves which are then
Increased ADH allows greater water reabsorption, shed, carrying away a load of excess salt.
and less urine production.
Aldosterone is secreted by the adrenal glands. It
stimulates the cells lining the renal tubules to
actively transport more sodium ions back into the
INSPECTION COPY
blood from the renal fitrate. This retains more salt for schools only
in the body to adjust “osmotic balance”.
8.
a) The insect equivalent of kidneys are the
“malphigian tubes” which run all though the body
and collect and concentrate nitrogenous wastes in
the form of uric acid. Since this is basically
insoluble, the “urine” can be concentrated to a
semi-solid paste by reabsorbing virtually all the
water, before passing the wastes into the rectum
for excretion with the digestive wastes. This means
there is virually no loss of water during excretion.

Cheat Sheet PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Cheat Sheet PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

KISS Resources for the NSW Syllabus.

keep it simple science KEEP IT SIMPLE SCIENCE

You have downloaded an inspection copy of the “PhotoMaster”

“OnScreen” versions are formatted for computer or projection

The “PhotoMaster” version of this topic covers the same

The PhotoMaster versions contain multiple Worksheets which may be

They can also be converted for use as Microsoft WordTM documents, or

® KEEP IT SIMPLE SCIENCE

Topic Bio 9.2 Maintaining a Balance

Topic Outline Maintaining

1. ENZYMES & HOMEOSTASIS

2. TEMPERATURE REGULATION IN LIVING THINGS

3. INTERNAL TRANSPORT SYSTEMS

4. EXCRETION & WATER BALANCE

keep it simple science

Only this Different

Enzymes are highly “specific”. This means

Enzyme Activity Graphs

The Effect of Temperature

react. All chemical reactions show this response.

INSPECTION COPY If the temperature reaches an extreme level, the distortion of

Optimum Temperature Mammal

exactly the same shape graph. In mammals, most enzymes

An enzyme from a plant may show a much broader graph,

An enzyme from a thermophilic bacteria from a hot volcanic

keep it simple science

The explanation for

• at the optimum pH the enzyme’s 3-D shape is ideal for the

Effect of Substrate Concentration

keep it simple science

The process of maintaining a stable, • blood sugar levels.

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK ACTION

It never results in The result is that the temperature of the oven

Homeostasis is always “Negative Feedback” control.

keep it simple science

Bl eas for schools only

What the Effectors Do

Extreme Heat Extreme Cold

Temperature Control in Ectotherms

Responses of Plants to Temperature Change

Biology 9.2 “Maintaining a Balance” PhotoMaster Page 9

Blood RED BLOOD

There are 2 general categories of these cells:

Some veins contain valves to prevent back-flow of

Nitrogenous Wastes Hydrogen ion Bicarbonate ion.

The Need to Remove Carbon Dioxide

CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-

® Changes to the Blood as it Circulates

Nutrients & Respiratory Gases O2 & CO2

Sooner or later, every bit of blood flows through INSPECTION COPY

abbreviation for Many animal types descended from that

The main blood products are:

Red Cell Concentrate Plasma

Many of these problems could be solved by

At least 5 different products are being tested and trialled (USA),

keep it simple science

INSPECTION COPY Cell walls

Photo at left: Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

Translocation Works 2-Ways

If photosynthesis is not possible for an

What Makes the “Sap” Flow? Sugar is carried into cells

The pressure difference is osmosic pressure,

generated by active transport of sugars causing Translocation...