HANDBOOK OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL METHODS Volume II Edited by Herbert D. G. Maschner Christopher Chippindale 2 ALTAMIRA A Division of Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. Lanham + New York * Toronto + OxfordALTAMIRA PRESS A division of Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. Awholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200 ‘Lanham, MD 20706 www.altamirapress.com PO Box 317 ‘Oxford OX2 9RU, UK Copyright © 2005 by AltaMira Press All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Handbook of archaeological methods / edited by Herbert D. G. Maschner and Christopher Chippindale. p-cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-7591-0078-0 (alk. paper) 1. Archaeology—Methodology—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Maschner, Herbert D. G. I. Chippindale, Christopher, 1951- CC75.H337 2005 930.1'028—de22 2004026317 Printed in the United States of America ©™" The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992,22 Bioarchaeological Methods Michele R. Buzon Jacqueline T. Eng Patricia M. Lambert Phillip L. Walker Bioarchaeology is a rapidly developing anthropological special- ization in which researchers integrate osteological data from ar- chaeological collections of human skeletal remains into comprehensive reconstructions of past human health, behavior, and population history. Bioarchaeologists focus their efforts on human populations dating to the last 20,000 years or so, in con- trast to paleoanthropologists, who study more ancient fossilized remains. Using an interdisciplinary approach that incorporates methods and data from biological anthropology, archaeology, cultural anthropology, medical science, geography, history, and other related disciplines, bioarchaeologists formulate and test al- ternative hypotheses about human adaptation and change. This multidisciplinary strategy facilitates more accurate assessment and interpretation of osteological data, and the osteological data and interpretations in turn enhance the research of these special- ists (Walker 1996). In life, bones form a dynamic living skeletal system that pro- tects vulnerable organs and provides an elaborate framework for the attachment of muscles and connective tissues. This structure enables the vast range of movements necessary for the day-to- day interaction of humans with their physical and social envi- ronment. Bones also serve as a reservoir for mineral salts and a vital source of the blood cells that nourish the rest of the body. Throughout life, the skeleton undergoes continuous growth and 871872 / Chapter 22 remodeling in response to biological and environmental influ- ences. Through this dynamic process, a record of growth and development, nutritional status, disease history, habitual activi- ties, and injury becomes incorporated into the bones. This com- plex interaction between the skeletal system, nonskeletal systems of the body, and the external environment generates the morphological variation and skeletal changes on which bioar- chaeologists base their behavioral reconstructions. To the untrained eye, these skeletal variations, modifications, and pathological changes are often quite subtle. As a result, con- siderable practical experience with large collections of human skeletal remains is essential for anyone wishing to conduct bioarchaeological research. Knowledge of the normal range of variation provides the baseline necessary for recognizing an- thropologically significant skeletal variations. At the microscopic level of bone histology and molecular structure, a wealth of additional information concerning age at death, diet and nutrition, disease experience, genetic affinities, postdepositional history, and so forth can be obtained from bones. Gaining access to this information can be expensive and technically demanding. For this reason, bioarchaeologists also typically collaborate with histologists, biochemists, and other specialists with expertise in these microanalytic techniques. Bone Structure and Physiology Two hundred and six bones comprise the typical adult human skeletal system. Although they vary in shape and size, they all are composed of the same structural components and are main- tained through the same physiological processes. An under- standing of the basics of bone biology is essential for anyone attempting to understand how bioculturally significant informa- tion becomes encoded in the skeleton. Collagen and the mineral hydroxyapatite are the primary building blocks of bone. Colla- gen is an insoluble fibrous protein whose long elastic strands give bone its flexibility. These are surrounded by hydroxyapatite crystals, which provide the skeleton with its rigidity. In life, bone tissue grows and is maintained by three types of cells: bone-Bioarchaeological Methods / 873 forming cells (osteoblasts), bone-maintaining cells (osteocytes), and bone-resorbing cells (osteoclasts). These cell types are found in both compact and cancellous bone and are responsible for the remodeling that occurs throughout life in consequence of nor- mal growth and development, as well as in response to various environmental stimuli. Compact bone is the dense bone that forms the external (cortical) surface of the skeleton. Cortical bone is especially well developed in the shafts of weight-bearing long bones. Cancellous bone (also referred to as trabecular or spongy bone) is composed of many thin intersecting osseous plates and bars (White 2000), Bone with this honeycomblike structure is found in localized areas such as the bodies of verte- brae and the ends of long bones and can provide an environment conducive to the incubation and spread of some blood-borne in- fections (Ortner 2003). Aside from cartilage-covered joint surfaces, the outer surface of living bone is covered with a thin layer of connective tissue called the periosteum (pericranium in the cranial vault). This tough membrane functions in several capacities: it protects the net- work of blood vessels that penetrate the bone; it helps to anchor muscles that insert onto the surface of the bone; and with its in- ner lining of osteogenic cells, it is important in bone growth, maintenance, and repair. The inner surface of bones is also lined with an osteogenic connective tissue called the endosteum. These tissues are physiologically active, especially in youth, and re- spond to growth stimuli and the mechanical stresses associated with daily activities through bone deposition (Currey 2000). Var- ious pathological processes may also stimulate these tissues to produce proliferative lesions (excess bone growth) referred to as periosteal and endosteal lesions (Eyre-Brook 1984; Ortner 2003). In addition to its other functions, the skeleton is the site of blood cell production and fat storage. In adults, red marrow, the tissue that produces red and white blood cells and platelets, is found in areas of trabecular bone, such as the vertebral bodies. Yellow marrow, a reserve of fat cells, is found in the medullary cavity, the holiow space inside the shaft of tubular bones. In chil- dren, the need for red blood cell production is high, and red mar- row is present throughout the skeleton. During growth, most of the red marrow in long bones is replaced by yellow marrow.874 / Chapter 22 Osteological Terminology A basic knowledge of anatomical terminology is necessary for ef- fective communication about human skeletal remains. Particularly important are terms related to position and location. Standard anatomical position for the human body is standing with feet di- tected forward and hands at the sides with palms facing forward. Three planes can divide the body: sagittal, which divides the body symmetrically into left and right sides; frontal-coronal, which di- vides the body into anterior and posterior sections; and transverse- horizontal, which divides the body on a horizontal plane (superior-inferior). Knowing the directional terms used in anatomy is also useful: front is ventral or anterior, rear is dorsal or posterior, upper is cranial or superior, lower is caudal or inferior, medial is toward the midline, lateral is away from the midline, proximal is nearest to the trunk or head, and distal is farthest from the trunk or head. For detailed descriptive terminology pertaining to bones and teeth, the reader is directed to White (2000). Taphonomy When studying human skeletal remains, it is important to be able to distinguish between what happened to a skeleton during life (antemortem), what happened to it around the time of death (perimortem), and what happened in the years that followed dep- osition or burial (postmortem). Understanding factors contribut- ing to preservation or decay is the goal of taphonomy, the study of changes that affect the remains of an organism from the time of death to the time of its discovery and collection. Analysis of the taphonomic processes that have acted on a collection of hu- man remains is an essential part of any bioarchaeological inves- tigation. Alterations in completeness and degree of articulation of the skeleton, as well as bone surface condition and bone color, can yield important information concerning the various natural and human agents that affected the bones after death. The postmortem changes that can occur in skeletons have three main sources: environmental factors (including external bi- otic and abiotic agents), cultural factors (e.g., human mortuaryBioarchaeological Methods / 875 rituals), and individual factors (those properties of the deceased such as body size and age at death) (Micozzi 1991; White 2000). The decay rate of the organic and inorganic components of bone varies enormously depending on a host of environmental vari- ables. Abiotic factors such as soil acidity can result in the disin- tegration of inorganic constituents of bone and the decay of complex organic molecules such as collagen and DNA. The per- colation of groundwater through a site can produce marked changes in the chemical composition of bone through the leach- ing out of certain molecules and replacement with others con- tained in the water. For example, concentrations of reactive elements such as fluorine tend to increase in bone by replacing calcium. Plants and animals may also influence the dispersal and decay of bone through root penetration, churning, mixing, and trampling (Behrensmeyer et al. 1989). Exposure to rain, sun- light, or scavengers before burial can result in the destruction of bones or accelerate their disintegration once in the ground. Post- depositional environmental variables such as soil permeability and seasonal changes in soil temperature and moisture content can also profoundly affect bone preservation (Micozzi 1991; Nawrocki 1995; Wells 1967). It is important to identify how taphonomic processes have affected an assemblage of human remains, even though these postmortem changes do not provide information on the indi- vidual’s life experience. For instance, the roots of plants secrete acids that decalcify bone, leaving a network of root grooves on the bone surface that may be confused with a pathological con- dition. The activities of bacteria, worms, beetles, and termites can also cause bone to degrade in ways that might be mistaken for a disease process. Similarly, gnawing by rodents and carni- vores can produce pits and grooves in bone that are sometimes mistaken for cultural activities such as the processing of bodies for secondary burial. Finally, the chemical composition of bones can also be affected by taphonomic processes, which must be considered in studies using bone chemistry for dietary reconstructions or dating (Grupe et al. 1989; Schoeninger et al. 1989). Bone decay rates depend in part on the ratio of cancellous to cortical bone. For example, poorly calcified, immature skeletons876 / Chapter 22 with thin cortical layers and relatively more cancellous bone de- cay more quickly than those of adults (Gordon and Buikstra 1981; Walker 1995; Walker et al. 1988). Pathological conditions that reduce bone density, such as osteoporosis and certain types of cancer, also reduce the ability of bones to resist decomposi- tion. This finding has important methodological implications for paleopathological analysis: individuals with pathological condi- tions resulting in poorly calcified remains may be underrepre- sented in a skeletal sample, leading a researcher to miss or underenumerate those affected with the disorder. Understanding the sampling biases introduced by tapho- nomic processes is an essential part of any attempt to extract information about population structure from human skeletal assemblages. Age-related variation in the resistance of skeletal remains to decay can distort mortality profiles to the extent that they provide very little information about the age struc- ture of the living population (Nawrocki 1995; Walker 1995; Walker et al. 1988). As previously discussed, skeletons with less bone mass, such as those of infants and the elderly, do not always preserve as well as those of adolescents and young adults. Under conditions of poor preservation, these can be completely lost from the archaeological record. A demo- graphic profile constructed from a sample thus affected could significantly misrepresent the actual structure of the original cemetery population. Mortuary practices such as cremation, embalming, deflesh- ing, dismemberment, and secondary burial, as well as the trans- formation of bones into ornaments, tools, or vessels, can also profoundly affect bone preservation. For instance, the practice of cremation is a very destructive process that results in bone shrinkage and extreme brittleness through combustion of the flexible, organic constituents of bone. However, fracture patterns and colors of cremated bones can yield useful information about the duration of burning, the temperature of the fire, the fuel, and the availability of oxygen during the cremation process (Rhine 1998; Ubelaker 1989; White 2000). The burning of fresh (and fleshed) bone results in transverse fracture lines, irregular longi- tudinal splitting, and marked warping. When dry bones with low collagen content are burned, the result is cracking and lon-Bioarchaeological Methods / 877 gitudinal splitting without warping. Such breakage patterns can tell us if the body was burned immediately or long after the flesh was gone. A paradoxical aspect of cremation is that, although it is initially extremely destructive, the calcined bones that remain are subsequently very resistant to further decay owing to the in- hibition of bacterial activity caused by the loss of the bone’s or- ganic constituents, Other human-induced perimortem changes to bone include cut marks, chop marks, and scrape marks from weapons or tools used to kill individuals or process their bodies (Billman et al. 2000; Lambert et al. 2000; Turner and Turner 1999; White 1992). Cut marks are typically produced by the slicing motion of a bladed tool during defleshing, whereas chop marks result from a more forceful and abrupt impact of an edged tool on bone. Scrape marks (striae) are shallower than either of the above and can result from tools designed to scrape away flesh or those used in breaking bones. Additional perimortem modification includes peeling, which occurs when fresh bones are twisted to break or disarticulate them. White (1992) also describes a form of end pol- ishing that can occur on bone fragments cooked in utilitarian ce- ramic vessels. Determining whether human-induced damage to bones is recent or ancient is important because the former often occurs as a result of construction, excavation, and even curation activities rather than from activities associated with the death of the indi- vidual. Fortunately, it is comparatively easy to differentiate frac- tures that occurred long after death from those that occurred around the time of death. Owing to the elasticity of antemortem and perimortem bone, fractures in the bones of the living and re- cently dead tend to propagate at an acute angle relative to the surface of the bone in a pattern comparable to that seen in other plastic materials (Walker 2001). The disintegration of bone colla- gen after death makes bone brittle, and as a result, it tends to break at an angle perpendicular to the surface of the bone (Villa and Mahie 1991). Recent fractures in old bone can also be identi- fied by color, because the fracture surface is usually much lighter than the external bone surface owing to long exposure of the lat- ter to soil, groundwater, and other environmental factors that in- fluence the color of bone posthumously (White 1992).878 / Chapter 22 Excavation Procedures The archaeological recovery of human skeletal remains is a criti- cal stage in the process of bioarchaeological analysis. Proper re- covery procedures maximize the amount and quality of biological and cultural information a skeleton might yield. The archaeological context of a burial is a rich source of information on the social context of an individual within society, as well as on the religious beliefs, socioeconomic conditions, political systems, and so forth of the culture within which the person lived. A skele- ton lacking such contextual information has been robbed of much of its research value (Bass 1995; Buikstra 1991; Ubelaker 1989). The enormous variability in the contexts in which skeletal re- mains are discovered precludes any rigid procedural guidelines for documenting and excavating human remains. Nevertheless, some practical principles following when skeletal remains are encountered can help maximize the amount of information ob- tained. To a certain extent, burials of human remains can be treated like any other archaeological feature. The archaeological context of a burial should be thoroughly documented by plot- ting it on a site map with notes made regarding its elevation, stratigraphic relationships, feature associations, and so forth. Af- ter the skeleton is uncovered, it is essential that the burial be mapped and photographed to document burial position, orien- tation, and associations. These recording activities should be conducted in a careful and timely manner so that the skeleton does not sustain damage from trampling, sun exposure, or other destructive processes to which exposed remains are particularly susceptible. For example, fragile bones may be damaged or lost when excessive cleaning is done in the field by archaeologists preparing the burial for drawing and photography, thus affect- ing the quality of biological data that can be extracted from the skeleton. Before removal, it is advisable that soil samples be taken from the abdominal area of the skeleton, as well as from immediately outside the grave (controls). When conditions for preservation are good, such samples can provide useful dietary and parasitological data. The soil surrounding the burial should be processed using a fine-mesh screen (1/8 in) to recover small artifacts such as beads and shattered projectile points. Calcifica~Bioarchaeological Methods / 879 tions of paleopathological interest such as kidney and bladder stones may also be recovered in this way (Brothwell 1967). If the recovery of ancient DNA from the skeleton is contemplated, care should be taken to avoid directly handling the material (usually a tooth) that will be used in the analysis. Dental Caries, Abscesses, Cribra Orbitalia & Tooth Loss, Dental Hypopiasia Pototic Hyperostosis, Tooth Wear sas (e029 hn K Length M Female Age-Related & Sexually Dimorphic Age-Related & Craniat traits Sexually Dimorphic Pelvic Traits Long Bone Diameters ‘Osteoperiostitis Figure 22.1. Diagram showing some of the skeletal features studied by bioarchaeol- ogists.880 / Chapter 22 The inventory of instruments useful for excavating human remains includes the usual repertoire of archaeological excava- tion tools, such as a small trowel to loosen earth around the bones and a whisk broom to brush away loose soils from around (but not on) the bones. However, metal tools, including dental picks, should be avoided because they can cut through and dam- age bone. Instead, tools of soft materials such as bamboo or cane splints (with rounded tips), wooden dowels, and soft brushes are best. If bones are well preserved, they can be removed indi- vidually (Powell et al. 1997). If they are particularly brittle, the skeletal material may be taken out in blocks that can be exca- vated in the laboratory. Preservatives may be needed to consoli- date fragile bone, although such materials can affect bone chemistry and mask or distort bone surface features. It is best to let bones dry before packing, because wet bones are vulnerable to breakage and mold growth. All bones should be placed in pa- per bags or cardboard boxes labeled with the element, side, bur- ial number, site number, date of excavation, level, excavator, and any other provenience information needed to identify the burial and its context. Laboratory Analysis Cleaning and Labeling Once the skeletal material has been transported to a labora- tory or workspace for analysis, the first step is cleaning. To gain the maximum amount of information from a skeleton, the bones should be gently cleansed with water and soft brushes if preser- vation is sufficient to withstand such treatment. To prevent con- tamination from direct contact with humans, wear gloves during cleaning and handling if studies of organic molecules are planned. Inventory and Data Collection Analysis of human skeletal material should follow standard osteological protocol, such as that described in Standards for DataBioarchaeological Methods / 881 Collection from Human Skeletal Remains (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994). The skeletal material is first inventoried and initial tapho- nomic observations recorded. Age and sex determinations are made where possible, and data are collected on pathological conditions, activity indicators, and metric and nonmetric traits. Measurements taken of cranial and major postcranial bones can be used in the determination of sex, estimation of stature and an- cestry, activity patterns, and stress load (e.g., degree of sexual di- morphism). Demographic Data Age and sex data provide the foundation for addressing questions and hypotheses about the life and death history of a cemetery population. It is not possible to determine the exact age of an individual from the skeleton because humans do not ma- ture and age at exactly the same rate. For this reason, age esti- mates should include an error factor that reflects the age range for a particular trait (e.g., eruption of first permanent molars) in samples of known-age skeletons. Age is more accurately estimated for subadults than adults because skeletal and dental changes associated with growth and development are well known and follow a similar trajectory in all human populations. For subadult remains, age is determined from epiphyseal fusion (Bass 1995; Konigsberg 1987; Steele and Bramblett 1988; White 2000), dental development (Moorees et al. 1963a, 1963b; Smith 1991; Ubelaker 1989), and long-bone lengths (Ubelaker 1989). It is more difficult to accurately estimate age in adult skele- tons, because adult indicators of age are primarily degenerative changes and these can vary significantly among adults depend- ing on both genetic and environmental factors. Adult skeletal age is usually estimated from age-related changes of the pubic symphysis (Brooks and Suchey 1990; Todd 1921a, 1921b) and au- ricular surfaces of the os coxae (Meindl and Lovejoy 1989) when these bones are present for observation. However, degree of ex- ternal (ectocranial) suture closure can also be useful in estimat- ing adult age (Krogman and Igcan 1986), although the sutures do not always close in adulthood and thus may be of little use for882 / Chapter 22 age determination in some individuals. Researchers have re- cently been exploring methods for increasing the accuracy of adult skeletal aging techniques. Transition analysis, a method proposed by Boldsen and colleagues (2002), combines data from the pubic symphysis, auricular surface, and cranial suture clo- sure to estimate age based on regression analysis of these data (Boldsen et al. 2002). At minimum, the combination of multiple indicators results in an internally consistent age distribution (Wright and Yoder 2003). Tooth wear can also provide relatively accurate, internally consistent age data (Scott 1979; Smith 1984; Walker et al. 1991). In this approach, average wear rate for the sample is calculated based on wear in a subset of individuals whose age at death could be estimated from other age indicators. Average wear rate is obtained by regressing wear against age for this subset. Once established, this wear rate can be used to estimate the age of other individuals from the sample for which little or no age data are available (Walker et al. 1991). However, because wear rates differ among populations owing to variations in diet, food processing techniques, and so forth, the wear rate deter- mined for one population cannot be used to determine age in another. Recent research has also shown that tooth-cementum annulations can provide a reliable estimate of age (Wittwer- Backofen et al. 2003). Determination of sex in adult human skeletons is primarily based on sexually dimorphic features of the os coxae and cra- nium; of these features, sex differences in the shape and surface features of the pubic bone are most reliable. Sexual dimorphism is also usually evident in human crania: males generally have larger, more robust skulls. However, skull sexual dimorphism varies among populations and determinations are best made through reference to the specific pattern seen in the population under study (White 2000). Although researchers have proposed techniques for sex de- termination of subadult remains based on features of the ilium (Boucher 1957; Mittler and Sheridan 1992), a control study fo- cused on the ilia of fetuses and infants of known age and sex did not find strong sexual dimorphism in this bone (Weaver 1980). In a more recent study, Schutkowski (1993) used depth of theBioarchaeological Methods / 883 greater sciatic notch to correctly identify the sex of 81 percent of the male and 77 percent of the female subadults in his sample. This finding suggests that the ilium may yet hold promise for determining the sex of infants and children (Byers 2002). Demographic Patterns Age and sex data from a skeletal sample can be used to explore many aspects of the life experience of individuals and groups. However, human remains from an archaeological site may not accurately reflect the composition of the living population from which they derive. An archaeological skeletal collection usually contains human remains from multiple generations and does not necessarily contain the remains of all individuals from those generations. This situation could result from culture-specific mortuary practices, such as that of the Hopi, who buried infants who died before induction into the community separately from the bodies of older children and adults (e.g., Beaglehole and Bea- glehole 1935; Lambert 1999). As noted previously, another factor that can affect the composition of a mortuary sample is preser- vation. Less robust bones, such as those of infants or osteo- porotic adults, may not preserve as well as those of adolescents and younger adults, resulting in their undernumeration in some burial assemblages. Finally, inaccuracies in age and sex estima- tion can distort demographic profiles (Walker 1995). The recon- struction of lifeways and behavior will be affected by all of these issues (Larsen 1997). In view of these biases, what can the age structure of a ceme- tery population tell us? One way around the infant- undernumeration problem in studies focusing on fertility and population growth is to assess the ratio of deaths (individuals) over age 30 to those over age 5, which eliminates problems pre- sented by missing infants (Buikstra et al. 1986; Sattenspiel and Harpending 1983). Even with such precautions, significant methodological problems remain that make straightforward de- mographic interpretations of mortality profiles difficult. Rather than directly reflecting life expectancy and mortality rates, as one might think, it has been shown that the age structure of a884 / Chapter 22 cemetery population is much more indicative of fertility and birth rate (McCaa 2002). Cemetery populations with a lower av- erage age at death typically are derived from a living population with higher fertility rate than cemetery populations with higher mean age at death. This is due to the greater proportion of younger individuals who die in rapidly growing populations. Similarly, in populations with lower fertility, fewer young are present and the greater proportion of older individuals results in a higher average age at death. Thus it is possible to deduce mor- tality rates from the age structure of cemetery populations only if estimates of population growth rates are available from settle- ment data or other sources (McCaa 2002). Diet, Disease, Trauma, and Activity Patterns Although it is not possible to discuss all of the conditions that can be found in the human skeleton in this review, a broad overview of osteological studies can serve to illustrate the types of information that can be obtained from a person’s skeleton about that person’s diet, health history, and activity patterns. Those interested in greater details should consult Clark Larsen’s synthetic volume Bioarchaeology: Interpreting Behavior from the Human Skeleton (1997) and Donald Ortner’s recent edition (2003) of Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Re- mains. In addition, a recent edited volume furnishes technical re- views of several of the methodological approaches described later in the following (Katzenberg and Saunders 2000). Dietary Reconstruction Several different methods have been used to reconstruct ancient diet from bones (Larsen 1995, 1997). The most important of these in recent years is the study of the chemical composition of bone. Pathological changes to teeth are also useful for looking at diet, because the teeth interact directly with food and thus can be in- fluenced directly or indirectly by its composition and texture.Bioarchaeological Methods / 885 Isotopic and Elemental Studies Examining the chemical signatures in bone offers the re- searcher a window into the types of foods consumed by indi- viduals and populations. Stable isotopes in bone collagen (the primary living constituent of bone) provide information on the protein component of diet, whereas apatite (the inorganic com- ponent of bone) records the diet in its entirety. In paleodietary studies, stable isotopes are typically extracted from bone colla- gen and measured in a mass spectrometer using procedures re- viewed in Katzenberg (2000). An important part of such work is testing for evidence of diagenesis, changes in chemical compo- sition resulting from postmortem processes (Schwarcz and Schoeninger 1991). Although the elements most commonly used in paleodietary investigations are carbon and nitrogen, stable isotopes of other elements such as oxygen and strontium may also be extracted from bones and teeth and used in such studies. The ratios of 8C/?C and N/™N vary among different ma- rine and terrestrial ecosystems, and tissue concentrations of these chemical elements may also become enriched in the heav- ier isotopes (°C, SN) through the metabolic processes of con- sumers as the elements pass between trophic levels. Comparison of stable carbon isotope ratios against a standard is used to dis- tinguish between diets composed of plants that tend to concen- trate °C (C, plants, e.g., tropical grasses such as millet, sugar cane, and maize), those that are intermediate (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism plants, e.g., succulents), and those that do not (C, plants, e.g., most temperate grasses, fruits, and vegetables). Such dietary differences result in relatively more (e.g., -18 parts per thousand [%o]) or less (e.g., -10%o) negative standardized BC/YC ratios (88C values) that correspond to C, vs. C, dietary emphases. Studies of carbon isotopes have been particularly important in documenting the transition to maize agriculture in various re- gions of the New World (e.g., Katzenberg et al. 1995; Larsen 1995). Similarly, nitrogen isotopes have proved to be useful in distinguishing between diets emphasizing marine vs. terrestrial foods (e.g., Walker and DeNiro 1986; see also Larsen 1997) and886 / Chapter 22 in estimating the timing of weaning (e.g., Katzenberg and Pfeif- fer 1995). In combination, carbon and nitrogen isotopes provide a powerful tool for characterizing prehistoric diet (Schoeninger 1995). In addition, isotope analysis in conjunction with pale- opathological studies can shed light on the role of nutrition in morbidity. Trace element analysis is another method of bone chemistry research, where amounts of inorganic elements found in bone tissue, such as strontium, barium, calcium, iron, and zinc, are used to reconstruct and interpret diet in the past (Larsen 1997). In particular, ratios of Sr/Ca have been used to estimate the rel- ative contribution of animal and plant foods to the diet (ie., trophic position and levels), and logarithmic ratios of Ba/Sr and Ba/Ca have been used to differentiate marine and terrestrial di- ets (Sandford and Weaver 2000). The use of Ba, Ca, and Sr as di- etary discriminators is hampered by several factors, including diagenesis (see Kohn et al. 1999), and some studies have profited from the simultaneous analysis of groups of elements (Buikstra et al. 1989; Sandford 1992). In these multiple-element studies, zinc has emerged as the most stable dietary discriminator; zine is found in most foods (with especially high concentrations in meat and seafood) and is less subject to diagenesis than other el- ements. The technical issues involved in the analysis of trace el- ements are reviewed in Sandford and Weaver (2000). Dietary clues are also provided by evidence of dental disease caused by oral pathogens. Dental caries is a disease process in which organic acids produced during the bacterial fermentation of dietary carbohydrates erode tooth enamel. Mutans streptococci, a common oral bacterium, is an organism commonly linked with this disease of teeth (Hunter 1988). A carious lesion on enamel first appears as a white or dark opaque spot that progresses to tooth decay and may lead to antemortem tooth loss and dental abscesses. Dental caries and abscessing can lead to infections of the oral cavity, which in turn can develop into more severe sys- temic infections (Calcagno and Gibson 1991; Larsen 1997). The prevalence of dental caries tends to increase with in- creasing consumption of carbohydrate-rich foods such as corn, and thus the relative frequency of carious teeth and dentitionsBioarchaeological Methods / 887 among prehistoric skeletal series has been used by bioarchae- ologists to distinguish populations reliant on mixed diets from those emphasizing carbohydrates (Cohen and Armelagos 1984; Hillson 1979; Walker 1986a). Agricultural populations tend to have diets higher in starches and sugars relative to hunter-gatherer populations because of their greater reliance on grains and are thus more susceptible to increased incidence of dental caries. Bioarchaeological studies have shown that dental caries was not common until the adoption of agricul- ture (Larsen 1997), and thus rates of affected teeth and indi- viduals are valuable in detecting this type of dietary shift in prehistoric populations. Studies of tooth wear have the potential to provide dietary information in addition to data on tooth function and age at death (Ungar et al. 2003, Walker et al. 1991; Miles 2001). Stud- ies of microscopic scratches on tooth surfaces (dental mi- crowear) can be used to identify subtle dietary changes, such as a shift toward increased maize consumption (Schmidt 2001), and even distinguish between certain cereals (Giigel et al. 2001). Most microwear studies use photographs (micro- graphs) of tooth surfaces taken with cameras attached to opti- cal or scanning electron microscopes that provide a two-dimensional image. The three most widely used methods for quantifying microwear (Grine 1986; Teaford 1985; Ungar 1995) all use subjective identification of features broadly cate- gorized as scratches and pits. New approaches using high- resolution, surface-mapping techniques are being developed to remove this subjective aspect of dental microwear analysis (Walker and Hagen 1994; Ungar et al. 2003). Dental calculus, the hard material that forms on the surface of tooth crowns and roots because of the calcification of dental plaque, can also yield information on diet. Calculus deposits, for example, have been found to be heavier in groups that practiced mixed farming than in those that practiced intensive gardening (e.g., Littleton and Frohlich 1993). Microscopic remains of plant tissues embedded in these deposits, such as phytoliths, provide direct evidence of specific plant foods consumed (¢.g., Fox et al. 1996; Dobney and Brothwell 1988).888 / Chapter 22 Paleopathology Paleopathology is the study of disease in antiquity from histori- cal, diagnostic, and epidemiological perspectives that take into account various aspects of the physical and social environment (Larsen 1997; Ortner 2003). In bioarchaeology, human skeletal re- mains are the primary source for paleopathological information. When making observations of pathological conditions, it is best to follow a standard descriptive data collection protocol (e.g., Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994; Thillaud and Charon 1994) so that the osteological evidence for diagnostic interpretations is clear and can be easily evaluated by current and future researchers. Rather than leading the observer to specific disease diagnoses, the primary strategy in data collection (but not necessarily of analysis) is to record bone and tooth abnormalities in a standard, descriptive format. It is important that the observer be able to recognize the normal range of variation in héalthy bone, as well as changes due to postmortem, taphonomic processes. Abnor- mal bone can differ from normal bone in a number of ways. The shape or configuration of the bone may be altered, as in the lat- eral bowing of long bones in rickets, a vitamin deficiency disease (Ortner and Mays 1998). Bones may also appear swollen as a re- sult of a chronic infection such as endemic syphilis. The size of bones can also be abnormal; for instance, the hereditary disorder acromegaly produces enlargement of the bones of the hand and feet, whereas achondroplasia, another hereditary condition, re- sults in shortened long bones. General Stress Indicators Stress, the physiological disruption resulting from unfavor- able environmental conditions, is a key concept in the study of human biological adaptation. Examples of stressors that can negatively impact human health include food shortage, infec- tious disease, oxygen deprivation at high altitudes, and extreme cold. The cultural environment can have important influences on an individual’s capacity to resist stressors (the stimuli that produce stress), and this affects the health status of individuals in a population. Not all stresses can be effectively dissipatedBioarchaeological Methods / 889 through the biological and cultural buffers an individual has ac- cess to, When this happens, the duration and magnitude of the stressor and the biological reserves possessed by the individual for resisting the stressor determine the skeletal response (Good- man and Armelagos 1988). Not all stress episodes leave their mark on the skeleton (Wood et al. 1992). The body responds to stressors through a hi- erarchical system, with the skeletal system being one of the last to be affected (Goodman et al. 1984). Nevertheless, several non- specific stress indicators can be identified in the human skeleton. Evidence of growth disruption caused by systemic disturbance from starvation, acute infection, severe injury, or any number of other serious stressors can be seen in the structure of bones and teeth. Harris lines are transverse lines visible in longitudinal sec- tions or radiographs of long bones. These layers of dense trabec- ular bone form in the growth plate in response to growth disruption and persist long after the stress episode that caused them has subsided (Garn et al. 1968). Harris lines should be con- sidered as indicators of an episode of acute stress that resulted in growth cessation followed by a recovery period of rapid growth. Many different types of stressors can produce Harris lines, and the growth disruption that produces them may not always be severe or prolonged. For example, malnutrition alone or in com- bination with other environmental factors may result in a Harris line. With increasing age, Harris lines are gradually resorbed from the skeleton. As a result, their frequency depends on the age distribution of the sample being studied; this needs to be taken into consideration in their interpretation (Grolleau-Raoux et al. 1997). Enamel hypoplasia refers to tooth crown lesions caused by disrupted dental development (Figure 22.1). Clinical studies show that these deficiencies in enamel production can result from a variety of systemic stressors (e.g., high fever, infectious agents, malnutrition, and hormonal changes) similar to those that produce Harris lines (Dobney and Goodman 1991; Good- man and Armelagos 1985; Goodman et al. 1980; Goodman and Martin 2002; Guatelli-Steinberg 2001). Local trauma, hereditary conditions, and other factors can also produce them. The occur- rence of Harris lines and enamel hypoplasia do not always show890 / Chapter 22 a strong correlation (McHenry and Schulz 1976), which suggests that they provide slightly different types of information about a person’s health history. In contrast to the metaphyses of long bones where Harris lines are formed, tooth enamel does not re- model during life. The frequency and location of hypoplastic lesions on the crowns of adult teeth thus provide an especially valuable per- manent record of a person’s history of childhood growth distur- bances (Wright and Yoder 2003). Using dental-development charts, it is possible to determine with considerable precision the age at which a specific growth disruption episode occurred (Reid and Dean 2000). When studied at the population level, such chronological information can be the basis of inferences about important culturally contingent events such as the timing of first exposure to childhood diseases and the age at which weaning typically occurred in a population (Wood 1996; Blakey et al. 1994; Moggi-Cecchi et al. 1994). The size and shape of bones and teeth can also provide infor- mation on a persons health history (Goodman and Martin 2002; Larsen 1997). When nutritional disturbances in a young animal are severe, the bones are sacrificed (Park 1964). Extended, stress- induced secretion of cortisol from the adrenal cortex produces a stunting of growth (Fernald and Grantham-McGregor 2002). For children, this may result in delayed growth, evident in growth curves derived from demographic data (Bogin 1999). Persistent childhood nutritional deprivation and disease ultimately manifest themselves in reduced adult stature (Goodman 1991; Lambert 1993) and altered body proportions. Malnourished individuals are not only smaller than people with better diets; they also have pro- portionately shorter legs (Leitch 1951; Bogin and Rios 2003). Although tooth formation rates are less sensitive to unfavor- able environmental conditions than long-bone growth rates, stressful conditions nonetheless can result in reduced tooth size (Townsend and Brown 1978; Garn et al. 1979; Guagliardo 1982; Goodman and Armelagos 1988). Individuals under stress may show increased fluctuating asymmetry in their teeth (random deviations from perfect bilateral symmetry), which is a reflection of the body’s inability to develop bilaterally through normal growth pathways (Harris and Nweeia 1980). These types of dataBioarchaeological Methods / 891 can be explored through the collection of tooth measurements such as the length and width of tooth crowns. In addition to these indications of disrupted skeletal devel- opment, lesions resulting from abnormal bone formation (0s- teoblastic lesions) or loss (osteolytic lesions) may also be apparent in archaeological skeletal remains. Periostitis, inflammation of the tough membrane (periosteum) that surrounds bone, is a con- dition that has a variety of causes. Although periostitis cannot be observed in dry bone specimens, it results in the apposition of new bone on cortical surfaces of bones (osteoperiostitis) that is visible macroscopically (see Figure 22.1). Periostitis can result from any number of pathological insults, including most com- monly bacterial infection and trauma, but also vascular disease, nutritional-deficiency diseases, and a range of less-common dis- orders known to stimulate this response (Ortner 2003). Whatever its cause, bone production occurs when the osteoblasts underly- ing the periosteum are stimulated to lay down new (woven) bone. The resulting lesions appear as superficial plaques of bone that may have well-defined margins or appear as irregular ele- vations on the bone surface (Larsen 1997:83). When the lesion is unhealed, the bone matrix is loosely organized and appears wo- ven and porous. Although in the healed form the surface may re- main undulating and somewhat swollen, this excess skeletal tissue becomes relatively smooth as it is incorporated into the normal cortical bone. Bone lesions associated with pathological conditions can be focal, found at a particular place on a skeletal element or body part, or diffuse, with multiple sites of involvement. This differ- ence in distribution often provides a clue to the cause of the dis- order (localized vs. systemic). An isolated area of subperiosteal new bone formation on a long bone suggests a localized cause such as a traumatic injury to that area; osteoperiostitis at multi- ple sites throughout the skeleton, on the other hand, suggests a systemic disease such as syphilis or scurvy. Nutritional-Deficiency Diseases Many osteological stress indicators are associated with mal- nutrition. Scurvy, caused by inadequate intake of vitamin C,892 / Chapter 22 disrupts collagen production and manifests itself in the skull as ar- eas of abnormal porosity in the region just anterior to the ear canals and in the eye orbits. These lesions result from bleeding under the periosteum due to defective collagen (Ortner et al. 1999). The orbital lesions of scurvy can be confused with cribra or- bitalia, a porous lesion commonly attributed to iron deficiency anemia, of which inadequate intake of iron and iron loss through diarrheal disease and gastrointestinal parasites are some of the possible causes (Larsen 1997; Walker 1985, 1986b; see Figure 22.1). Criba orbitalia results from marrow expansion within ad- jacent skull bones and thus differs histologically from the super- ficial lesions of scurvy (Ortner 2003). Recent microscopic analysis of porous orbital lesions suggests that some of these may also be caused by osteitis and other pathologic conditions, as well as from postmortem erosion (Wapler et al. 2004). Porotic hyperosto- sis of the cranial vault is a related condition frequently seen in many prehistoric populations (Walker 1985; see Figure 22.1). Porotic hyperostosis lesions are porous areas on the surface of the skull that resemble those of cribra orbitalia. Cranial vault marrow expansion and porotic hyperostosis have been docu- mented clinically in cases of thalassemia, a severe hereditary he- molytic anemia (Stuart-Macadam 1987; Hershkovitz et al. 1997). Vitamin D deficiency (rickets) can also cause cranial lesions. In infants with active rickets, the cranial vault may become thin and soft in some areas. Rachitic long bones often have expanded ends, with narrowed medullary cavities, and the reduced strength of weight-bearing bones may lead to bowing and other deformities (Ortner 2003; Ortner and Mays 1998). These and other nutritional- deficiency diseases may occur in conjunction with each other and this can render affected individuals more susceptible to infectious pathogens. Such synergistic interactions can result in a confusing array of lesions not readily attributable to a single cause. Infection The skeletal system's response to infection is mounted through cellular reaction to the invading microorganisms and subsequent inflammation of the bone and its surrounding tis- sues. The osseous response, if indeed there is one, depends onBioarchaeological Methods / 893 the source and duration of the infection. If the pathogen is intro- duced through a penetrating wound, it may begin at the perios- teum. From there it can progress to involve the cortical bone and medullary cavity. Blood-borne infections, on the other hand, tend to originate in the medullary cavity and spread outward. The amount of osseous involvement depends on the capacity of the infected person’s immune system to mount an effective re- sponse to the insult. This has important implications for inter- preting the health of individuals because frail people can immediately succumb to infections without developing skeletal lesions. A healthier person, on the other hand, may be strong enough to mount an osseous response to the same infection be- fore dying. This could lead to a paradoxical situation: the frail person’s skeleton may appear “healthier” than that of the health- ier person because it lacks osseous signs of the disease (Wood etal. 1992). Osteomyelitis refers to inflammation of bone (osteitis) and bone marrow (myelitis) in response to infection by pyogenic (pus- producing) bacteria (Aufderheide and Rodriguez-Martin 1998). The pathological process involves pus formation, bone destruc- tion, and simultaneous bone repair (Manchester 1983). Like pe- tiostitis, the skeletal tissue with unhealed osteomyelitis has a woven, porous appearance, and when healed, the bone tissue is dense and becomes part of the underlying cortical tissue (Ortner 2003). The bone usually becomes enlarged partially or wholly and appears deformed. Bone death (necrosis) results in pitting and sur- face irregularities, and in some cases, cavities containing necrotic tissue form in the bone’s interior. These pus-containing abscesses often are associated with drainage channels (cloacae) that perforate the bone’s surface. Osteomyelitis is associated with a variety of pathogens. It can develop in consequence of a compound fracture that introduces bacteria directly into the medullary cavity, or it may originate from a systemic infection such as leprosy or syphilis (Andersen et al. 1994; Hackett 1976; Ortner 2003). Specific Diseases Although many infections leave little or no osseous traces, a few chronic infectious diseases produce clear skeletal manifestations.894 / Chapter 22 Treponematosis is one disease for which the bony characteristics have been thoroughly studied both clinically (e.g., Koff and Rosen 1993) and bioarchaeologically (e.g., Baker and Armelagos 1988; Lambert 1993, 2000; Powell 1988, 2000; Powell and Cook 2005). Three modern variants of this disease cause osseous changes: venereal syphilis, endemic syphilis, and yaws (Ortner 2003; Steinbock 1976). All begin with superficial lesions of the skin or mucosa and tend to involve bones only if they progress to their later stages (Koff and Rosen 1993; Steinbock 1976). En- demic syphilis and yaws are primarily diseases of childhood that thrive in rural settings where the climate is hot and sanita- tion is poor (Hudson 1965; Koff and Rosen 1993; Ortner 2003). Venereal syphilis, in contrast, is typically found among individ- uals who have reached sexual maturity in populations with higher levels of sanitation (Hudson 1965; Powell 2000). The skeletal lesions of the three forms are so similar that it is nearly impossible to distinguish among them. The bony response of all three types involves periosteal reactions in the limb bones. The tibia is especially likely to be affected and this may result in ex- cess bone development on the anterior crest, producing the pathognomonic, anteriorly bowed (saber shin) tibia of trepone- matosis sufferers. All three forms may also affect the cranial bones, although cranial involvement is far more common in the venereal form of the disease (Ortner 2003). The tertiary stage of venereal syphilis and, to a lesser extent, nonvenereal trepone- matosis is often characterized by nasal-palatal destruction and the development of craterlike lesions (caries sicca) of the vault that, in the healed state, take on a stellate (star-shape) appear- ance (Hackett 1976; Hutchinson and Weaver 1998; Ortner 2003). Tuberculosis, a mycobacterial infection that is spread through inhalation of infectious spores, primarily involves the pulmonary system and lymph nodes. However, in time it may spread to skeletal tissue, particularly in bones rich in blood- producing red marrow (e.g., vertebrae). Although any joint may be affected, bones adjacent to the lungs (vertebrae, ribs, and ster- num) and long-bone metaphyses are especially susceptible. Skeletal infection may result in extensive destruction of cancel- lous bone. In the spinal column, this can cause Pott’s disease, a condition in which abscesses in the vertebral bodies cause themBioarchaeological Methods / 895 to collapse and fuse (Ortner 2003; Roberts and Manchester 1995). Rib involvement tends to be proliferative rather than destructive and appears to result from contact with infected pulmonary tis- sue (Kelley and Micozzi 1984; Lambert 2002b; Roberts et al. 1994; Santos and Roberts 2001). Leprosy, which like tuberculosis is a mycobacterial disease, has a long incubation period of several years or more. Leprosy affects the bones indirectly through the damage it causes to the sheaths of the peripheral nerves. Loss of sensation due to inade- quate enervation results in repeated injury and local infection. Over time, various parts of the body, most often the toes, fingers, and nasal tissue, are disfigured or lost. Atrophied nasal and maxillary regions, alveolar resorption, anterior tooth loss, and atrophied and shortened hand and foot elements are the charac- teristic bony manifestations of this disease (Boldsen 2001; Ortner 2003; Roberts and Manchester 1995). Some malignant tumors also produce distinctive osseous changes. In multiple myeloma, a common malignant tumor of bone, bone lesions originate in areas where blood cells are pro- duced and are typically widespread and multifocal. The result is perforation of the cortex that has a characteristic punched-out radiographic appearance. The most commonly affected areas are the spine, skull, pelvis, and ribs. Ewing’s sarcoma is another ma- lignant bone disease that produces osseous changes that are quite different from those seen in cases of multiple myeloma. The Ewing's sarcoma tumor develops in cells in the interior of the bone, resulting in swelling that eventually perforates the cor- tex (Ortner 2003; Roberts and Manchester 1995). Histological and DNA Analyses In addition to macroscopic analysis of paleopathological conditions, it is also useful to microscopically examine bone. Pseudopathologies caused by bone decomposition and diagene- sis can easily be distinguished histologically from pathological conditions in this way (Schultz 2001). Through histological stud- ies of pathological lesions, it is also possible to obtain more reli- able diagnoses of specific diseases such as anemia, scurvy, meningitis, and treponematosis (e.g., Walker et al. 2004). Recent896 / Chapter 22 advances in techniques for the extraction and identification of pathogen-specific DNA from ancient bones are now allowing bioarchaeologists to identify the diseases that afflicted people whose skeletons show no obvious pathological lesions (e.g., Mays et al. 2001). For example, using dental pulp as a preserved source of bacterial DNA has enabled researchers to demonstrate that Yersinia pestis was the etiologic agent of the European Black Death in 1347 as well as two later epidemics in 1590 and 1722 in southern France (Drancourt et al. 1998; Drancourt and Raoult 2002). Although they are both expensive and destructive, such techniques have the potential to give us a much better under- standing of the causes of death in earlier populations. Activity-Related Pathology Pathological skeletal changes produced by specific move- ment patterns or environmental stressors associated with the performance of certain tasks can provide insights into occupa- tional activities and other forms of habitual behavior (Capasso et al. 1999; Larsen 1997; Walker and Hollimon 1989; Williamson 2000). Repeated activities are one of the causes of osteoarthritis; the more strenuously a joint is used, the more likely it is to be- come the site of arthritic changes such as marginal lipping and destruction of the articular surface (see Figure 22.1). In severe cases, areas of the joint surface take on a shiny, ivorylike appear- ance (eburnation) owing to destruction of the articular cartilage and subsequent bone-to-bone contact. Stress fractures and her- niations in the vertebrae (Schmorl’s nodes) can also result from mechanically demanding activities. In the cranium, ear canals subject to repeated and prolonged exposure to cold water tend to form bony growths referred to as auditory exostoses. The presence of these lesions can be used to infer water-related ac- tivities such as underwater diving and cold-water bathing, as well as gender-based differences in these activities (Kennedy 1986; Lambert 2001, 2002a). Traumatic injuries, either accidental or due to intentional vi- olence, can also provide information about risks associated with certain physical environments, social conditions, and activities (e.g., Bridges et al. 2000; Judd and Roberts 1999; Lambert 1997,Bioarchaeological Methods / 897 1999, 2002c; Milner et al. 1991; Walker 1989, 1997, 2001). It may be difficult, however, to determine the cause of the injury. Changes in bone due to taphonomic processes and excavation can mimic true injuries, and perimortem injuries, those that oc- cur at or around the time of death, may be difficult to distinguish from those that occurred shortly thereafter. Some injuries such as parry fractures in the shafts of forearm bones often occur when a person uses the arms to parry a blow to the face and upper body, yet they may also result from accidental falls (Jurmain 2001; Lambert 1994), The overall pattern of injuries seen both in individuals and at the population level often provides the most compelling evidence for the predominance of one etiology over another (e.g., Judd and Roberts 1999; Lambert 1994). Although skeletal injuries offer good evidence for interpersonal conflict and the nature of its conduct in individuals and populations (e.g., Bridges et al. 2000; Lambert 1997; Milner et al. 1991; Walker 1997), archaeological evidence and, in some cases, ethnographic observations must be considered when making such interpreta- tions (e.g., Billman et al. 2000; Lambert 1994, 2002c; Turner and Turner 1999; Walker 1989). Reconstructing Prehistoric Health The interpretation of paleopathological data is far from straightforward. Demographic differences between living popu- lations and the skeletal assemblages produced by living popula- tions present a formidable impediment to the interpretation of paleopathological data. Wood and coworkers (1992) have ar- gued that an “osteological paradox” makes inferring prehistoric health from paleodemographic and paleopathological data diffi- cult. They point out three fundamental conceptual problems that confound the statistical interpretation of lesion frequencies cal- culated from archaeological skeletal collections. One is the fact that small variations in fertility have large effects on age-at- death distributions of a population, whereas large changes in mortality have almost none (McCaa 2002). A second problem in- volves selective mortality, whereby data are biased because in- vestigators do not have a representative sample of all the individuals who were at risk of disease or death at a given age,898 / Chapter 22 but only those who actually died at that age. The third problem is hidden heterogeneity in risks, which refers to the fact that the population from which a skeletal series is drawn was made up of an unknown mixture of individuals who varied in their suscepti- bility to disease and death (frailty). Wood and coworkers (1992) assert that these problems make direct estimates of demographic or epidemiological rates from skeletal samples impossible. Goodman (1993) counters these arguments by pointing out that Wood and coworkers focus on single rather than multiple indicators of health. He argues that they misinterpret the goals of paleoepidemiology and that they construct models that do not reflect biological realities and credible cultural contexts. When addressing selective mortality, he states that most indicators are actually represented by lesions that signify survival for some time after the morbidity event. With regard to hidden hetero- geneity, he argues that there is a mathematical tie between indi- vidual and group frailty, namely, if group frailty changes, then either the size of subgroups or the frailty of one or more sub- groups must change. In response to the rather pessimistic view of paleodemography and paleopathology put forth by Wood and coworkers (1992), Goodman points to several recent ad- vances made in paleopathology: a shift in focus from disease in individuals to disease in groups, reconstruction of prehistoric health through a multiple-indicators approach, and the develop- ment of multiple lines of investigation to aid in clarifying the cultural contexts of skeletal lesions and the biological processes leading to their development. Since its formulation, bioarchaeol- ogists have increasingly attempted to address the issues raised by the osteological paradox and to be vigilant in their analyses to avoid or at least minimize erroneous interpretations of their data (Wright and Yoder 2003). Activity Patterns: Nonpathological Indicators In addition to pathological changes described earlier, behavior can also affect the skeleton in nonpathological ways. For in- stance, repeated squatting and kneeling can produce extended articular surfaces at the joints. Other areas of the skeleton canBioarchaeological Methods / 899 also be altered by specific activity patterns. Cortical defects, lin- ear depressions at sites of muscle insertion, can occur from chronic mechanical stress. Enthesophytes, projections of bone or irregularities at the insertions of tendons and ligaments, are also a common result of mechanical stress (Capasso et al. 1999) and provide insights into the kinds of activities ancient people en- gaged in (Larsen 1997). Finally, because the shape of long-bone shafts is influenced by the way we use our limbs, studies of cross-sectional geometry provide a means to accurately quantify and compare long-bone shape differences between sides, sexes, and populations. Such studies have been important in docu- menting varying modes of movement and locomotion associ- ated with different economies and lifestyles (e.g., Larsen and Ruff 1994; Ruff 1987, 1994). Genetic Relationships and Population History Studies aimed at discerning the genetic relationships and ances- tral affinities of ancient people are an important aspect of bioar- chaeological research. Such studies can be conducted at the local level to make inferences about the familial relationships of peo- ple within cemeteries and can also involve larger regional com- parisons designed to test hypotheses concerning patterns of gene flow, population movement, and ancestral affinities. Ques- tions such as these are typically addressed through the statistical analysis of metric and discrete trait observations made on skulls and teeth. The methodological challenge posed by this kind of research is to adequately account for the fact that both genetic and environmental factors contribute to the morphological vari- ation under analysis in complex, environmentally contingent ways. Environmental influences such as those associated with diet (Carlson and Van Gerven 1977) and cradling practices (An- ton and Weinstein 1999) can have important influences on both cranial form and discrete traits such as those related to cranial suture complexity. Nevertheless, certain features, such as facial dimensions and details of tooth form, have been shown to be un- der fairly strong genetic control (Sjovold 1984; Carels et al. 2001; Hughes et al. 2001). Craniometric data have been used to answer900 / Chapter 22 a variety of questions, including those related to functional mor- phology (Carlson and Van Gerven 1977), the genetic relation- ships of people living in local populations (Konigsberg and Blangero 1993; Stefan 1999), and the determinants of patterns of human variation seen at the global level (Hanihara et al. 2003; Relethford 2002). DNA extracted from archaeological human remains has begun to be used to directly assess the genetic relationships within and among earlier human populations (Keyser-Tracqui et al. 2003; Naumova and Rychkov 1998; Scholz et al. 2001; Stone et al. 2001; Stone and Stoneking 1999). Analysis of ancient DNA can provide information regarding individual, family, population, and species relationships, as well as genetic sexing. Although the process of ex- traction and analysis of DNA is complex, certain protocols can be followed to prevent and detect contamination. There are a number of ethical and methodological issues surrounding these studies that remain to be resolved. Nevertheless, continued rigorous re- search in this area within an anthropological framework promises to provide an enormous amount of new information on the genetic affinities of our ancestors (Kaestle and Horsburgh 2002). Gender and Ethnicity In bioarchaeological research it is important to maintain the dis- tinction between an individual’s biological identity and social identity. The biological sex of a person is related to gender in complex, socially constructed ways. Sex refers to the chromoso- mal and anatomical definitions of male and female. This is what bioarchaeologists attempt to determine when they examine sex- ually dimorphic skeletal traits. Gender, on the other hand, refers to socially constructed roles related to but not the same as these biological distinctions. Use of these terms as synonyms is ana- lytically incapacitating because it makes it impossible to explore the relationship between the biological and social identities of the people whose remains we study (Walker and Cook 1998). When attention is given to distinguishing between the two (e.g., Lambert 2001), it is possible to obtain anthropologically mean- ingful insights into the influence of gender on skeletal biology.Bioarchaeological Methods / 901 Anthropologically useful information may also be lost when the difference between a person’s genetic relationships and eth- nic identity is ignored. Many aspects of ethnicity can be explored through the bioarchaeological approach. For example, artificial cranial modification can reflect such varying ideologies as ethnic identity, social status, religious affiliation, and ritual role (Lam- bert 2002a; Torres-Rouff 2002). Artifacts, burial position, and burial treatment may also provide clues concerning ethnic iden- tity. Examining skeletal traits in conjunction with archaeological data will provide a more complete picture of human biocultural adaptation. Future of Bioarchaeology Bioarchaeological research appears to have a propitious future. The recent technological advances that have allowed minute quantities of DNA and stable isotopes to be extracted from an- cient human remains have been driven by research in the fields of biology and geology that shows every sign of continuing at an accelerated pace. These improved techniques, along with the new integrative theoretical approaches that bioarchaeologists are currently developing, undoubtedly will open up many new avenues for exploring the history of our species. This work is bound to greatly increase our understanding of the adaptations of earlier human populations and shed light on the processes of biological and cultural evolution that link these ancestral popu- lations to modern people. The spectacular, computer-driven increases over the last 30 years in our capacity to assemble and analyze large and complex data sets have exponentially enhanced our ability to quantify human variation across time and space. Unfortunately, to date less progress has been made in our ability to meaningfully inter- pret the enormous amount of data we can now collect and sum- marize statistically. This is due in large part to our continued lack of understanding of the nature and balance of genetic- environmental interactions that are the source of the phenotypic variation we now can record and quantify in such detail (Walker 2000a). More research into the developmental sources of human902 / Chapter 22 phenotypic plasticity is essential if we are to realize the vast po- tential of our technological innovations to reveal detailed life histories of ancient people from their skeletal remains. In addition to the challenge of using modern technology to develop more powerful analytic techniques, bioarchaeologists will also increasingly confront challenges to the ethical under- pinnings of their work (Walker 2000b). Researchers face formi- dable ethical dilemmas when they attempt to balance the concerns of descendant groups against the importance of the sci- entific information skeletal studies can provide on modern health issues and the history of our species. The political issues surrounding bioarchaeological research are especially acute in areas such as Australia and the United States, where indigenous peoples were decimated by European colonization. The great advances that have been made in wealthy, technologically de- veloped countries such as the United Kingdom and the United States in the eradication of institutionalized racism have em- powered the indigenous people of many countries whose land Europeans colonized. Many of these historically marginalized people believe that scientific research on ancestral remains is an affront to the souls of the dead and a continuation of the racist colonial policies that have robbed them of their sovereignty and land. In the past, researchers studying the remains of indigenous people have been able to ignore, if they chase to do so, these po- litical ramifications of their work. The passage of legislation such as the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) in the United States and the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Heritage Protections Act in Australia is beginning to dramatically change this situation. For example, NAGPRA gives federally recognized tribes control over the disposition of skele- tal remains that are culturally affiliated with their group. From a practical perspective, laws such as these make developing coop- erative relationships with the direct descendants of the people whose remains are being studied an increasingly important as- pect of bioarchaeological research. More important, however, are the insights and new directions that can emerge through such collaborative endeavors when, for example, scholarly assump- tions are challenged by those who are the living embodiment of the ancient people being studied. The future of bioarchaeologyBioarchaeological Methods / 903 has never been brighter; human skeletal remains have much yet to tell us about the history of our species, especially if we are able to rise to the challenges and opportunities presented by new technologies and find ways to better integrate the voices and concerns of the descendants of the people whose remains we study into our work. References Andersen, Johannes G., Keith Manchester, and Charlotte A. Roberts 1994 Septic bone changes in leprosy: A clinical, radiological and palaeopathological review. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 4:21-30. Anton, Susan C., and Karen J. Weinstein 1999 Artificial cranial deformation and fossil Australians revisited. Jour- nal of Human Evolution 6:195~209. Aufderheide, Arthur C., and Cornado Rodriguez-Martin 1998 The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Paleopathology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Baker, Brenda, and George Armelagos 1988 The origin and antiquity of syphilis. 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