THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS CHAPTER I THE RED MEN DISCOVER THE NEW WORLD Wuen our fathers and mothers studied geography in the little red school house of old, they were taught that there are Five Races of men—the White, the Yellow, the Red, the Brown, and the Black—all derived from one primeval stock (presumably neutral in tint) by passing through the magic prism of “local variation.” Today we dare not apply so simple a scheme of classification to the complex science of ethnology; anthropologists, like other scientists, have learned to proceed more cautiously from fact to theory than did their predecessors, whose imaginations were less hampered by exact knowledge. Nevertheless, though discussed under many learned names and divided and recombined according to every conceivable plan—linguistic, geographical, cultural, his- torical—the several distinct types of mankind persist and still challenge us to reverse the prism and reconstruct the mother race. Gropingly ethnologists are feeling their way, through patient archeological and biological researches, back through the ages to the approximate time and place of the birth of the human species. When we thus try to pierce the mists of prehistoric time and trace the origin of the Red race of America, we are led, by certain similarities of color and anatomy, to associate them with the peoples of eastern Asia. Noting the narrow sea which separates North America from {1]THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS Siberia, we find it not hard to imagine the possibility of migrations across so slight a barrier. Indeed, if we had no other evidence to guide us, it would be difficult to say whether the Asiatic races gave birth to the American as an offshoot, or whether a primeval American race colon- ized northeastern Asia. The vocabularies of the languages spoken by the American Indians, however, are now so utterly unlike those of Asiatic tongues that it is necessary to set the period of the migrations very far back in terms of cen- turies—certainly to a time more than 10,000 years ago. On the other hand, the human remains of western Europe represent a much earlier epoch than'do those found thus far in America, which seems to be a comparatively recent home of human life, counting time in geological ages. From such considerations anthropologists are in- clined to believe that the Indians are descended from the same ancestors as the reddish races of eastern Asia, and that they migrated from Asia to America, probably in several waves, many thousands, perhaps even tens of thousands, of years ago. This theory gains added weight from the researches of Dr. Ales Hrdlicka, who has found in different parts of Asia living remnants of the older yellow-brown stock from which our Indians were probably derived. Particularly in the southern slopes of the Himalayas, among the Tibetan tribes, are types so closely resembling the Ameri- can Indians that if they were transplanted into America nobody could possibly take them for anything but Indians “in physique, in behavior, in dress, and even in the intona- tions of their language.” Despite their Asiatic origin, however, the red men have inhabited America for so long a time that they may justly be regarded as native to its soil. Most people think of the aborigines of North America, excepting the Eskimo, as just “Indians,” but the study of their languages shows that they represent more than fifty different families, whose vocabularies are often as [2]THE RED MEN DISCOVER THE NEW WORLD distinct from one another as are ours from theirs. Doubt- less, however, resemblances may in future be brought out which will diminish somewhat the number of Indian stocks now thought to be unrelated. It is the presence of these distinct types among the American Indians which points to the probability of their having reached the New World in several separate waves of migration. In this connection Doctor Hrdlitka says: The newcomers, though all belonging to the same main race, were evidently not strictly homogeneous, but represented several distinct sub-types of the yellow-brown people, with differences in culture and language. ‘The first of these sub-types to come over was, according to many indications, the dolichocephalic Indian [i.e., those having relatively narrow heads] represented in North America today by the great Algon- quian, Iroquoian, Siouan, and Shoshonean stocks, farther south by the Piman-Aztec tribes, and in South America by many branches extending over large parts of that continent from Venezuela and the coast of Brazil to Tierra del Fuego. Next came, it seems, what Morton called the “Toltec” type, quite as Indian as the other, but marked by brachycephaly [i.e., with rela- tively broad heads]. This type settled along the northwest coast, in the central and eastern mound region, in the Gulf states, the Antilles, Mexico (including Yucatan), over much of Central America, reaching finally the coast of Peru and other parts of northern South America. Still later, and when America was already well peopled, there came, according to all indications, the Eskimo and the Athapascan Indians. The former, finding resistance in the south which he could not over- come, remained in and spread over the far-north land, developing various environmental physical modifications that have removed him, on the whole, farther from the Indians than is the case with any other branch of the yellow-brown people. The Athapascans, a virile brachy- cephalic type, on the one side closely allied physically to the prevailing Mongolian type of northeastern Asia and on the other to the earlier American brachycephals, may have reached the continent before the Eskimo. However this may be, their progress south was evidently also blocked, compelling the body of the enlarging tribe to remain in Alaska and northwestern Canada; but along the western coast some contingents succeeded in penetrating as far as California, where they left the Hupa, and to Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, and parts of north- ern Mexico, where we know them to this day as the Lipan and the Apache. [3]THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS Of the more than fifty distinct families composing the American Indians at the time of the coming of the white men, nine predominated over great areas of North America. Farthest north, on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts and along the shores which fringe the Arctic Ocean, lived then, as now, the tribes of the Esquimauan family, who may be regarded as Indians only in the broadest meaning of the word. In the interior of Alaska and the great northwest of Canada were the Athapascans, whose offshoots were widely scattered throughout the West. Two smaller families disputed part of this territory with the Athapascans: the Salishan of British Columbia, and the northwestern United States; and the Siouan, whose chief habitat was the northwest, centering in Dakota, but who had a strong offshoot in the eastern Carolinas, and were also represented on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. TheEast wasdivided chiefly between two mighty families: the Algonquian, who occupied most of eastern Canada and extended in the United States from Maine to the Mississippi River and as far south as North Carolina; and the Iro- quoian, who held the valley of the St. Lawrence, most of New York, and Pennsylvania, with offshoots in eastern North Carolina and the southern Appalachian Mountains. Of the three remaining great families, the Shoshonean occupied the Great Plateau and extended into California, and were represented on the Plains by one tribe, the Comanche; the Caddoans were found chiefly in Louisiana, Texas, and Nebraska; while the Muskhogeans held the eastern Gulf States. In addition to these there were over forty smaller but distinct families, mostly fringing the Pacific Ocean from Alaska to Mexico. Each family included one or more tribes or confederations of tribes, the names of some of which, as the Iroquois, Powhatan, and Apache, have be- come household words through traditions of the Colonial and later Indian wars. While not nomads in the ordinary sense of the word, all [4]Va ” Kinugumiut Eskimo of Cape Prince of WalesYakima woman of th Wasco man of the Chinookan Family in native native dress. Washington drcesmAceen aTHE RED MEN DISCOVER THE NEW WORLD the tribes were forced into seasonal migrations in search of food. These movements were greatest with the hunting tribes of the colder regions of the north and with those of the arid Western plains and plateaus, where agriculture was impracticable and game animals and edible plants were thinly distributed. The corn-raising tribes of the South supported themselves at home by their crops during a greater part of the year, but even they were forced to go long distances for their supplies of meat. The fishing tribes of the coasts possessed a fairly constant food sup- ply, but they too shifted from point to point, following the runs of different species of fish, and in winter they usually went into the interior to hunt. The lack of domestic animals prevented the population in the North and West from becoming as large and_as dangerous to its neighbors as the pastoral tribes of the Old World; but for the same reason the corn-raising peoples had to move about more, partly to obtain meat and partly because they had no fertilizer with which to main- tain the fertility of their fields. These conditions tended to keep down the increase of population in that part of _ North America now occupied by the United States and Canada. In southern Mexico and Central America a more favorable climate and a more abundant food supply gave rise to a denser population which culminated still farther south in the Andean section of South America; but nowhere was anything approaching the swarming populations of the warmer parts of Europe and Asia. The question of the number of the native population of America at the coming of the white man has been the subject of much speculation. Extremists on the one hand have imagined a population of millions, while on the other hand the claim has been made, and persistently repeated, that there has been no decrease, but that on the contrary the Indians have thriven under misfortune and are more numerous today than at any former period. The first error is due in part to the tendency to magnify [5]THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS the glory of a vanished past and in part to the mistaken idea that the numerous ancient remains scattered over the country were built or occupied at practically the same period. The contrary error—that the Indian has increased—is due to several causes, chief of which is the mistake of starting the calculation at too recent a period, usually at the establishment of treaty relations. Prior to that time, however, the natives had been subjected to nearly three centuries of destructive influences which had wiped out many tribes entirely and reduced others to mere remnants. Moreover, the Indian of the dis- covery period was a full-blood; the Indian of today is very often a mongrel, with not enough of aboriginal blood to be distinguishable in the features; yet, excepting in a few tribes, no official distinction is made. Among the chief causes of decrease since the coming of the white man may be mentioned smallpox and other epidemics; tuberculosis; sexual diseases; whiskey and attendant dissipation; removals, starvation, and sub- jection to unaccustomed conditions; low vitality due to mental depression under misfortune; and wars. The destruction by disease and dissipation has been greatest along the Pacific Coast, where also the original population was most numerous. In California, the enormous decrease from about a quarter of a million to less than 20,000, is due chiefly to the cruelties and whole- sale massacres perpetrated by the miners and early settlers. The almost complete extermination of the Aleut of the Northwest is attributable to the same causes during the early Russian period. Confinement in mission establishments has also been fatal to the Indian, in spite of increased comfort in living conditions. Wars in most cases have not greatly diminished the number of Indians. The tribes were in chronic warfare among themselves, so that the balance was nearly even until, as in the notable case of the Iroquois, the acquisition of firearms gave one body an immense superiority over its neighbors. [6]of Savages of Several Nati w Orleans, 1 e Batz, French engineer and painter. Courtesy of Mr. David I. Bushnell, JuniorTHE RED MEN DISCOVER THE NEW WORLD A careful study of the whole territory north of Mexico, taking each geographic section separately, indicates a total population, at the time of the coming of the white man, of nearly 1,150,000 Indians, which is believed to be within ten per cent of the actual number. Of this total 846,000 were within the limits of the United States proper, 220,000 in British America, 72,000 in Alaska, and 10,000 in Greenland. The number of Indians in the United States is now less than 400,000, but is gradually increasing. None the less is the modern Indian a representative of a vanishing race. Vanishing as are the buffalo, the deer, and the other native wild creatures of America, because of the resistless march of the white man’s civilization. It is this inevitable evanishment of the Indians as a distinct race which gives such importance and significance to the work of the Bureau of American Ethnology. The case was eloquently stated in an editorial in the Washington Evening Star of August 14, 1928: There is a general assumption that when Europeans first came to the Americas they found a nomadic population of naked savages with turkey feathers in their hair. That, in fact, was what many of the white pioneers themselves, as well as their present-day descendants, assumed that they had found. They set about cheerfully, with flintlocks and scriptural tracts, to civilize the poor, bronze-skinned wretches, The assumption, of course, was not altogether valid. What the white men actually found, even if they didn’t know it at the time, was a people with a culture little inferior to their own. But to the Europeans it was a strange, incomprehensible cuiture expressed in symbols foreign to their minds. The American Indian, in fact, had advanced a long way from sav- agery. He had developed an agriculture, a textile art, religions, literatures, and political organizations of his own from which the new- comers had much to learn. But these had been developed indepen- dently of European influences. Europeans did not feel at home in such a culture. Consequently they assumed that it either did not exist or was worthless. The Indian was offered his choice, for all practical purposes, be- tween extinction and adapting himself to a culture which was as foreign (71THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS to his processes of thinking as his own civilization was to the minds of the newcomers. Certain definite things which the Europeans brought with them were new to the Americas. The Indian had no gunpowder. He had no printing press. He had no facile system of writing. He was not familiar with those two fundamental inventions of the Old World, the wheel and the arch. He had domesticated few animals. Outside of these the white man had very little to give the red man. From the culture of the “naked savages” the invaders took immedi- ately a few things that have had a very important effect on the history of the world, notably corn and potatoes. They had much more to learn, but deferred the lessons until they had killed off their prospective teachers. Tt was not until the middle of the last century that the white man, so far as he was represented by the United States Government, set about to find out what was to be learned from the Indians. Already it was almost too late. Much of the native culture was dead and for- gotten. Much of the remainder was dying and half forgotten. The mind of the red man was changing into the mind of a white man. He himself was turning his back on the civilization of his ancestors for the more material civilization of his conquerors. At the very time when Indian tribes were making their last stands for independence the Bureau of American Ethnology was organized as a Government institution, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution. Its object was to preserve at least a record of the native cultures, to collect the inventions, the laws, the faiths and the songs of the vanishing peoples. Few Government bureaus have operated with less public atten- tion. ‘The staff consists of a small group of scholars who are working for the future. They are trying to preserve, until such time as it will be appreciated, one of the world’s great cultures. It is a priestly task. It is a task which has a threefold aspect—linguistic, archeological, and anthropologic. The first two of these may be regarded as important in proportion as they have supplied the tools for the anthropological work. Therefore we will briefly sketch the more striking pecu- liarities of the languages and the chief characteristics of the material culture, together with certain fundamental beliefs and customs, before proceeding to an account of some of the typical Indian tribes. [8]Yankton Sioux in full regaliaPLATE 5 A typical Zufii man, New Mexico A chief of the Acoma, New MexicoTHE RED MEN DISCOVER THE NEW WORLD REFERENCES Brinton, Danie. G. The American race. New York, 1891. Hoi, Wiitram H. On the race history and facial characteristics of the aboriginal Americans. Smith- sonian Inst. Ann. Rep., 1919, pp. 427-432. Wash- ington, 1921. Hrpuréxa, Aves. The génesis of the American Indian. Proc. 19th Cong. Americanists, 1915, pp. 559-568. Washington, 1917. —— The origin and antiquity of the American Indian. Smithsonian Inst. Ann. Rep. 1923, pp. 481-494. Washington, 1925. —— The peopling of the earth. Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc. Vol. 65, pp. 150-156, 1926. Mason, Oris T. Migration and the food quest: a study in the peopling of America. Smithsonian Inst. Ann. Rep. 1894, pp. 523-539. Washington, 1896. Mooney, James. The aboriginal population of America north of Mexico. Smithsonian Misc. Collect. Vol. 80, No. 7. ‘Washington, 1928. [9]