Povtos, H.G., 1968. Géotechnique, 18, 449-471 ANALYSIS OF THE SETTLEMENT OF PILE GROUPS H. G. Poutos, B.E., Ph.D., A.M.1.E.Aust.* SYNOPSIS An analysis is made of the settlement interaction between two identical piles in an elastic mass and the increase in settlement of each pile due to interaction is expressed in terms of an interaction factor «, It is then shown that, for symmetrical pile groups (those in which the piles settle equally and are also equally loaded), the increase in settlement due to interaction may be obtained by superposition of the -values of a for the individual piles in the group. On the assumption that superposition also holds for any general free standing pile group, the be- haviour of pile groups is analysed for the case of rigid pile cap (equal settlement of all piles) and a fiexible pile cap (equal load in all piles). For the case of a rigid pile cap, values are obtained for the ratio of the settlement of the group to the settlement of a single pile carrying the same total load (the group reduction factor Re), and the load distribu- tion within the group. For the case of a flexible pile cap, values of the maximum settlement and maximum differential settlement are given. ‘The influence of pile spacing, pile length, type of group, depth of layer and Poisson's ratio of the layer on the settlement behaviour of pile groups is examined. For a pile group in an ideal elastic two- phase soil, it is shown that, as with a single pile, the major proportion of the total final settlement generally occurs as immediate settlement. ‘Comparisons are made between reported observa~ tions on the behaviour of pile groups from model and field tests and the behaviour predicted by the theory. It is found that, as well as predicting the correct trends, the theory gives quantitative values which are in reasonable agreement with the observed values. On fait d’abord une analyse de V'interaction de tassement entre deux pieux identiques dans une masse élastique ot Iaccroigsement du tassement de chaque pieu di & interaction est exprimé en fone- tion d'un facteur d’interaction & On montre en- suite que pour des groupes de pieux symétriques (ceux dans lesquels les piewx se tassent d'une fagon Ggale ct supportent aussi des charges égales), I'ac- croissoment de tassement da & Vinteraction peut Ste obtenu par une superposition des valeurs de « pour les pieux individuels da groupe. : ‘En supposant que la superposition vaut ausst pour nlimporte quel groupe général de picux se tenant Tibrement, fe comportement des groupes de pieux est analysé dens le cas d'une longrine rigide (tasse- ‘ment gal de tous les pieux] et d'une longrine flexible (charge égale supporté par tous les pieux). Dans le cas d'une longrine rigide, des valeurs sont obtenues pour le rapport du tassément du groupe au tasse- iment d'un seul piew supportant la méme charge totale (le facteur de réduction du groupe Rg), et Is répartition de la charge a V'inténieur du groupe. Dans le cas d'une longrine flexible, on donne des, valeurs du tassement maximum et du tassement Giférentiel maximam. Liinfluence de Vespacement des pieux. de la longucur des picux, le type du groupe, la ‘profon- eur de la couche et le cocfficient. de Poisson pour Ja couche sur le comportement de tassement des groupes de picux est examiné. Pour un groupe Ge pleux dans un sol idéal élastique a deux stades, fon fmontre que, comme dans le cas dun seul piew, la plus grande proportion du tassement final total a Yeu généralement sous forme dum tassement im- médiat. ‘Des comparaisons sont faites entre les observa- ‘tions ayant fait l'objet de rapports sur le comporte- ment de groupes de pieax a partir d’essais sur maquette ¢t sur les lieux et le comportement prévu par la théorie. On s'apergoit que, outre une pré- vision des tendances exactes, la théorie donne des valeurs quantitatives qui s‘accordent do fagon raisonnable avec les valeurs observées. INTRODUCTION Despite the wide use of pile groups in current foundation practice, only approximate methods of estimating the settlement of pile groups are at present available. An examination of such methods by Bjerrum ef al. (1957) has indicated that they are far from satisfactory and may lead to an underestimate of settlement. The advent of computers has enabled the behaviour of a single axially loaded pile or pier in an elastic mass to be examined theoretically. Such analyses have been carried out by several investigators, e.g. Thurman and D’Appolonia (1965), Salas and Belzunce (1965), D'Appolonia and Romualdi (1963), Poulos and Davis (1968), and in the latter paper solutions * Lecturer in Civil Engineering, University of Sydney. 449450 H. G. POULOS have been presented for the settlement of an incompressible floating pile or pier in a finite elastic layer. Tt has been found that general trends in the behaviour of single piles and piers indicated by the theoretical analyses are in agreement with observed behaviour and that the theory is also capable of giving satisfactory quantitative predictions of pile displacements. ‘The successful use of clastic theory for analysing the behaviour of a single pile therefore suggests that it may also be used to examine the behaviour of pile groups. In this Paper the analysis of a single pile is extended to the consideration of the settlement interaction between two identical floating piles, such a system representing the simplest case ofa pile group. The analysis is then extended to the case of a general floating pile group with any configuration of piles within the group. For a general pile group two limiting cases are considered: that of a perfectly rigid pile cap, where all piles settle equally, and that of a per- fectly flexible pile cap, where all piles carry equal load. It is likely that the former case will be more appropriate for most practical cases. It is impossible to present detailed solutions for all cases which might be encountered in practice because of the large number of variables in this problem. The solutions which are given in this Paper are therefore generally confined to the case of square groups of piles con taining up to twenty-five piles. In the analyses carried out the piles are assumed to be incompressible, so that the solutions are relevant to the case of a pile group in a soft clay. No slip is assumed to occur between the pile and the adjacent soil and thus the solutions presented herein are valid only while purely elastic conditions prevail. However, an examination of load-settlement curves for pile groups obtained by several investigators reveals that these curves are essentially linear for loads up to one third or one half of the ultimate load. ‘Therefore for normal working loads the assumption of elastic conditions appears to be justified. Although an approximate analysis of the effects of local slip on the settlement of pile groups similar to that carried out for a single pile may be possible, it is outside the scope of this Paper. In all analyses, it is assumed that the base of the pile cap lies above the surface of the soil (i.e. the groups are free-standing). If the pile cap rests on the soil the analysis of the problem becomes more complex since raft action of the pile cap will also occur. A solution to this problem would therefore require the additional consideration of compatibility between the displacements of the pile cap and the piles. This aspect of group behaviour will be considered in a subsequent paper. i ake Pie 1 Pile 2 Fig. Group of two pilesSETTLEMENT OF PILE GROUPS 451 ANALYSIS OF A GROUP OF TWO PILES The first step in the analysis of the settlement of pile groups is to consider the effects of interaction between two equally loaded, identical piles. As previously outlined by Poulos and Davis (1968), the behaviour of each pile may be examined by dividing it into a number of cylindrical elements each loaded by a uniform load acting around the periphery of the element and a circular uniformly loaded base. Referring to Fig. 1, the displacement p; of the soil adjacent to the centre of the periphery of an element ¢ on pile 1 due to pile 1 itself and the adjacent pile 2 is a= 'S phlutsldtblaletsle) where J), is the displacement influence factor at element é due to a uniform ring load on element jon pile 1 aly is the displacement influence factor at element # due to a uniform ring load on element j on pile 2 al is the displacement influence factor at clement ¢ due to a uniform load on the base of pile 1, and similarly for af, A similar expression may be obtained for the displacement p, of the soil directly beneath the base of the pile jen pe =D Piller ale) + Pollet alee) a) where ;Jyyis the displacement factor for the pile base due to a uniform ring load on element j on pile 1, and similarly for aly sy is the displacement factor for the pile base due to a uniform load on the base of pile 1, and similarly for aly For the case of a semi-infinite mass, the displacement factors ,/y and g/,, may be obtained by integration of the Mindlin equation for vertical displacement, over the cylindrical ring elements j on pile 1 and pile 2 respectively, for the appropriate points é on pile 1. The factors itm and 2! may similarly be obtained by integrations of the Mindlin equation over the circular base of pile 1 and pile 2. Details of these integrations are given by Poulos and Davis (1968). For the case of a finite layer it is at present necessary to employ the approximation devised by Steinbrenner (1934) to obtain values for the influence factors in equations (1) and (2). From this approximation the influence factor for the displacement of a point X in a layer of depth A is given by Pompe pes... 8) where J°*® is the displacement factor for a point X in a semi-infinite mass I+ is the displacement of a point directly beneath X at a depth h below the surface of a semi-infinite mass The influence factors J°~* and I*~® due to a point load within the semi-infinite mass may be obtained from the Mindlin equation and integration of these factors for the cylindrical elements and the circular base will then yield the required influence factors Jy, alysilm and alte. For all the elements on pile | the vertical displacements of the soil adjacent to the pile may be expressed in matrix form as fF) = (I+ RMAl+Politlt bh). - w Since the two piles are identical, this equation also applies to pile 2.452 H. G. POULOS The soil displacement at each element may now be equated to the displacement of each clement of the pile. If this displacement is assumed to be unity, then for the pile elements 7 ) Equating (4) and (5) gives G+ +AGhI+bh) =O... - - s & Equation (8) may be solved to obtain the distribution of shear stress along each pile and the stress on the base for unit displacement of the pile, whence the displacement of each pile for a unit load may be calculated. In this manner the influence of an adjacent pile on the displacement of a pile may be deter- mined for various spacings between the piles. Solutions for a group of two piles Solutions to equation (6) were obtained by the use of the KDF9 computer at the University of Sydney. In all cases the piles were divided into ten elements. Since the factors ,/,,and of, were previously evaluated for the analysis of a single pile, it was only necessary to carry out integrations for fy and zl, for the relevant spacing between the piles. The additional displacement of a pile in a semi-infinite mass due to an equally loaded identical adjacent pile is expressed in terms of an interaction factor « where _ additional settlement due to adjacent pile settlement of pile under its own load For a group of two piles « ranges between 1 for a zero spacing between the piles (ie. one pile superimposed on the other) and zero for an infinite spacing between the piles. In Fig. 2 a is plotted against the centre to centre spacing between the piles for various values of L/d for the case v=0°5. The decreasing effect of interaction with increasing spacing between the piles is clearly shown in this figure. However, the values of « at large spacings are surprisingly large. For example, at a spacing of 40 diameters the value for L/d=100 is about 0-2, ie. the adjacent pile causes a 20% increase in settlement. The relative length L/d « oe ot 29 Interaction Factor 02 % 0 01 ay ° Fig. 2, Settlement interaction between two piles in a semi-infinite massSETTLEMENT OF PILE GROUPS 453 of the pile has an important influence on the value of « at any given spacing, « increasing as Lid increases. This effect becomes more pronounced as the spacing between the piles in- creases. The influence of Poisson’s ratio » of the mass is also shown in Fig. 2, where values of a are plotted for the case L/d=25 and y=0, At any given spacing the effects of interaction will be seen to be slightly greater for »=0 than for »=0'5, although the maximum difference between the values of « is only about 0-06. Thus the value of y has only a relatively minor effect on interaction and in the subsequent solutions in this Paper, attention has been con- centrated on the case v=0-5. The effect of the presence of an underlying rigid base on the interaction between two piles is shown in Fig. 3 for the case L/d=25 andv=0-5. Values of « are plotted against pile spacing s/d for values of the dimensionless layer depth i/Z ranging between oo and 1-2. As might be expected the effect of the rigid base is to ‘damp’ interaction, particularly at large spacings where the value of « for a finite layer is considerably less than that for a semi-infinite mass. For close spacings the value of is not significantly affected by the layer depth when h/L is greater than 2:5, but for more shallow layers « is markedly reduced by the rigid base, even for close spacings. ANALYSIS OF SYMMETRICAL PILE GROUPS The analysis for the interaction between two piles can be extended to any number of piles, provided that the arrangement of the piles is such that all piles in the group behave identically. Such a group will be termed here a symmetrical group. In a symmetrical pile group the piles are spaced equally around the circumference of a circle and each pile displaces equally while also carrying an equal amount of load. For a group of m piles, the analogous equation to equation (6) for two piles is GT) +LT] + Gl] GaP) + Po (To) +Lale] + ++ Lele} ++ +Oede]) = (1 7) where [;/] is the displacement factor matrix for all the elements of pile 1 due to the ring elements of pile & [sls] is the displacement factor matrix for all the elements of pile I due to the base load on pile & oe interaction Factor 02 % % Fig. 3. Settlement interaction between two piles in a finite layer454 H. G, POULOS oi Interaction Factor & o4 08 oe oe et oe 3 16 25 35 a % Fig. 4 Sottlement interaction—symmetrical pile groups gees A a. ar 4 iy Viros 3 olf sige ile 7 sath moun re Macks x ae SSeS A aN pestearyinteah 3 % 2 ol oa Fig.5. Eilect of pile interaction on distribution of Fig. 6. Elect of pile interaction on load shear stress along pile taken by baseSETTLEMENT OF PILE GROUPS 455 Equation (7) may be solved as before to obtain the distribution of shear stress and the displacement of each pile. For the case L/2=25 and »=05, solutions have been obtained for symmetrical groups of three and four piles. In Fig. 4 the interaction factor « is plotted against the spacing s/d between the piles for the above groups and also for a group of two piles. This figure shows that the additional settlement of each pile in the group due to the adjacent piles is almost exactly equal to the sum of the displacement increases due to each of the adjacent piles in turn, Thus, for a group of three piles, the value of « is twice the value for a group of two piles at the same spacing, while for a group of four piles at a spacing of s diameters, the value of a is given by enMmte 2. 2 es BO where a is the value of « for two piles at a spacing of s diameters eq is the value of a for two piles at a spacing of Vs diameters ‘The corresponding displacement of each pile in the group due to equal loads Py in each pile is thus p=Prp(it2nta) ©... 2. s . @) where py is the displacement of a single pile under unit load ‘A comparison between the distributions of side shear for a single pile and for groups of two, three and four piles is shown in Fig. 5 for a spacing of 2:5 diameters between the piles. As the number of piles increases the shear stress tends to decrease along the major part of the pile shaft, but increase near the pile tip, although the difference between the four distributions is generally small. ‘The percentage of load taken by the base for each pile group is shown in Fig. 6 for various spacings between the piles, For close spacings interaction causes an increase in the load transmitted to the base of each pile in the group as compared with the case of a single pile, The increase in base load becomés more marked as the number of piles in the group increases. As the pile spacing increases the base load decreases until, at a spacing of about 25 diameters, it is identical with that for a single pile. The remarkable applicability of the principle of superposition to symmetrical groups of three and four piles suggests that the displacement of any symmetrical pile group may be calculated from the relationship between a and s/d for a group of two piles, without having to solve equation (7) directly. Further, it appears reasonable to extend the use of the principle of superposition to the analysis of pile groups which are not symmetrical. ANALYSIS OF GENERAL PILE GROUPS For a general pile group, two limiting conditions may be considered : (3) equal loads in all piles—this case corresponds to a perfectly flexible pile cap (i) equal settlement of all piles—this case corresponds to a perfectly rigid pile cap For a group consisting of m piles, the displacement of any pile & in the group is, by super- position, tan a ec ) where a,, is the value of « for two piles corresponding to the spacing between pile & and pile j P, is the load on pile j is the displacement of a single pile under unit load If the total load on the pile group is Pa then . ten Po= ZR... ee ee ss AD fey456 H. G, POULOS For the case of equal loads in all piles, P,=Pg/m. Hence equation (10) may be used directly to calculate the displacement of each pile in the group and hence the maximum settlement and differential settlement between the piles. For the case of equal settlement the displacements are equated, giving m simultaneous equations which may be solved for the unknown loads P, in the group, whence the settlement of the group may be calculated. ‘Thus the analysis of any general pile group requires only a knowledge of the relationship between the interaction factor a and pile spacing for a group of two piles (Figs 2 and 3). ‘The foregoing analysis relies on the assumption that the principle of superposition holds for general pile groups as well as for symmetrical groups. In contrast to symmetrical groups, in general pile groups there will generally be piles between the pile at which the settlement is calculated and the pile whose influence is being considered. The presence of such inter- vening piles will have a reinforcing effect on the mass and will tend to decrease the influence of a pile on another pile, ‘Thus the use of the value of « obtained from an analysis of two piles using Mindlin’s equation may be somewhat inaccurate for this problem since Mindlin's equation is strictly applicable only to a uniform mass rather than to the pile reinforced mass which actually exists. At the present time an analysis of the reinforcing effect of piles on the displacements of an clastic mass is not feasible, and even if such an analysis were available, its application to this problem would result in an increase in complexity of the solution not commensurate with any increase in accuracy which might be obtained. Therefore, while some inaccuracy may result for large groups of piles, the application of the principle of super- position to general pile groups appears justified in view of the resultant simplification to the analysis, Further justification of the method of analysis is provided by the quantitative comparisons between theoretical and observed behaviour of pile groups described later. In obtaining solutions for the settlement behaviour of general pile groups many variables must be considered, including the following: (i) the type of pile group (ii) the L/d ratio of the piles in the group (iii) the relative depth h/Z of the soil layer (ia) Poisson's ratio y of the layer (2) the spacing s/d between the piles An exhaustive consideration of these variables is not practicable, so that the effects of them may only be readily examined in relation to typical cases. Attention in this Paper has been confined primarily to square groups of 4, 9, 16 and 25 piles, which will be subsequently denoted as 2%, 32, 4? and 5? groups respectively. The behaviour of each group is examined for spacings up to 40 diameters between adjacent piles, for the values of Z/d and h/Z considered for a group of two piles. Because the effect of son the value of « for a group of two piles is relatively minor, solutions are only reported for v=0'5. In discussing these solutions consideration is given to the influence of the type of group, the L/d ratio and the value of h/Z on the settlement and the load distribution in a group with a rigid pile cap, and the maximum and differential settlements of a group with a flexible pile cap. SOLUTIONS FOR PILE GROUPS WITH A PERFECTLY RIGID PILE CAP Settlements The most commonly employed parameter in considering the settlement of pile groups is the settlement ratio R, which is defined as the ratio of the settlement of the pile group to the settlement of a single pile carrying the same average load as a pile in the group. In many cases it is useful to express the settlement of the group in terms of a group reduction factorSETTLEMENT OF PILE GROUPS 457 ‘Table 4. Settlement influence factors I, for single pile (after Poulos and Davis, 1968) Rg where Rg is the ratio of the settlement of the group to the settlement of a single pile carrying the same total load as the group. For a group of m piles the settlement ratio R, is related to the group reduction factor Rg as Roa Rim oo ee ee 1) The value of Rg represents the reduction in settlement which results from using a pile group instead of a single pile to carry a given load. The actual settlement of the group is given by So= RS, = Rom... 2 ew ee. (18) where S; is the settlement of a single pile carrying the same average load as a pile in the group. From the analysis of a single pile carried out by Poulos and Davis (1968) S, may be ex- pressed as P Sapp ee where P is the load on a single pile Lis the length of the pile E is the Young's modulus of the surrounding soil mass 1, is the displacement influence factor for a single pile Since the total load on the group Pg =mP the scttlement of the group is P, Sa=pRRoh ee 8 Values of the single pile influence factor I, obtained by Poulos and Davis (1968) are tabulated in Table I for a range of values of h/ and L/d. For 2%, 3%, 4 and 5* groups, values of the group reduction factor Rg are tabulated in Table 2 for the case L/d=25 and v=0-5. These values of Rg, together with the values of I, in ‘Table 1, provide a rational basis for calculating the settlement of a pile group with a rigid pile cap in terms of the settlement of a single pile. From Table 2 it will be seen that the effect of the value of h/L on the settlement of square pile groups is similar to that on the group of two piles shown in Fig. 3, As A/L decreases the value of Rg decreases at any given spacing because of the damping effect of the rigid base. The smaller the value of h/L, the closer the spacing at which the limiting value of Rg for no interaction of 1/m (corresponding to a settlement ratio R, of 1) is reached. The effect of the value of L/d is shown in Fig. 7 where Rg is plotted against s/d for a 3* group in a semi-infinite mass. As L/d increases, the settlement for any given spacing in- creases, the increase being of the same order as that for a group of two piles shown in Fig. 2.H.G. POULUS 458 deo ISH Ha einos8—yustaeyies uo dnax8 jo oilhy 70 aozeMgUE “ESI ave piths eave dooaB .¢—amouanrnas wo py 70 1998 “LSESETTLEMENT OF PILE GROUPS 459 Table 2, Values of Ry—pile group with rigid cap. L/d = 25. v= 05 Group 2 2 HL iz @ | s | 2s | us | a2 | o@ | s | as | is | ae ae | | 7 1 | esa9 [osis | ois | 0745 | oa | 715 | 0677 | 0-670 0-468 25 | 0672 | 0638 | 0-629 | 0550 | 0443 | 0541 | 0495 | 0.479 0-283 3 | 0547 | 059 | oso | owz | 0948 | 041s | 0963 | 0909 [ 04195 10 | 0425 | adoa | 0985 | 0-923 0245 | 0-220 tat “a0 | 0368 | 03817 | 0297 } 0.267 0187 | 0-142 O16 “49 | 0907 | 0260 | 0-254 | 0-250 ony | od ont, Group # s aE 7 © 2s | 1s | 12 | o | 5 | 2s | 1s | 12 1 [oes | 0806 | oao0 | osw | osm | osm | oss | osm | ovat | ane” 25 | 0-460 | 0409 | 0886 | 0-80 | 0-206 | o40s | oso | 0025 | 0285 | 0-160 8 _| 0334 | 0277 | 0950 | oa76 | oi28 | 0281 | 0290 | 0104 | 0120 | ool 10 | 0227 | 0166 | 0-143 | 0100 | 008s | 0-180 | o119 | 0700 | 0087 | 005s 20 | 0148 | 0083 | 0-083 | 0069 | 0-066 | 0112 | 0-062 | 0054 | o0a5 | 0-082 40 | 0105 | 0.066 | 0-064 | 0063 | 0-063 | 0-070 | ovat | 0-047 | 0-040 | oo Fig. 7 therefore provides some basis for correcting the values of Rg in Table 2 to allow for dif- ferent values of Lid. The effect of the number of piles in a group on the value of Re is shown in Fig. 8 for the case L/d=25 and h{L=o0. As well as square groups values of Rg for groups of 2, 3, 5 and 6 piles are plotted. For the group of § piles, the fifth pile is situated centrally between the outer four piles, the spacing s being that between the outer piles. The reduction in settlement with an increasing number of piles in the group, for a given spacing between the individual piles, is clearly shown in this figure. However, at relatively close spacings (s/d<5) the use of an increased number of piles to reduce settlement becomes increasingly ineffective if the same spacing between individual piles is retained. For example, the settlement of a 5* group of piles at a spacing of 5d is only about 20% less than that of a 4# group of piles at the same spacing. It is interesting to note that, for the group of 5 piles, the settlement is identical with that of a 2? group for spacings up to about 10d, i.e. the additional centre pile has no effect in reducing the settlement. For a given size of pile cap the pile spacing will vary as the number of piles in the group is varied. The variation of R, with foundation breadth (centre to centre spacing between the outermost piles) for various square groups is shown in Fig. 9. For all but the group of 4 piles the value of Rg for all groups is identical up to a breadth of about 16d. Beyond this breadth, Ra tends to decrease as the number of piles in the group increases. Fig. 9 therefore suggests460 H. G. POULOS rs uses oy stompten ‘eke eengn cane oom ey, Fig. 9. Settlement against breadth of group—rigid pile cap Fig.10 (opposite, above), Relative importance of immodiate sottlement—pile groups with rigid cap Fig. 44 (opposite, below). Equivalent length of single pier for same settlement as pile group that over a considerable range of breadths the settlement of a pile group is primarily dependent on the breadth of the group rather than the number of piles in the group. The results of full-scale field tests carried out by Berezantzev, Khristoforov and Golubkov (1961), and data collected by Skempton (1953) confirm this conclusion, ‘Thus in the design of a pile group, the use of a small number of piles at a relatively large spacing is generally to be preferred to a Jarger number of piles at a closer spacing on the grounds of economy. However, in practical problems there may be a limit to the spacing between piles beyond which it is difficult to construct economically a pile cap of sufficient rigidity. ‘The relative importance of immediate settlement for various pile groups is shown in Fig. 10 where the ratio of the immediate settlement S, to the total final settlement Sip of the group is plotted against pile spacing. The case L/d=25 and h/L = ao has been considered and Poisson's ratio »’ of the soil skeleton has been taken as zero. The calculation of the ratio Sy/Sqr has been described by Poulos and Davis (1968) in connexion with a single pile. As with a single pile the predominant part of the total final settlement occurs as immediate settlement although the ratio Sy/Spp is generally less than for a single pile. As the number of piles in the group increases S,/Sqp decreases, but even for a group of 25 piles, between 60% and 70%, of the total settlement occurs immediately. For most real soils v’ will be considerably greater than zeroSETTLEMENT OF PILE GROUPS 461 tyres dre vo yreo {ait groups) % so that the relative proportion of immediate settlement will be even greater than that shown in Fig. 10. Hence it may be concluded that consolidation settlement is generally of second- ary importance for pile foundations and that accurate predictions of rates of settlement are therefore not essential, Figure 10 suggests a possible reason for the generally poor agreement between measured settlement of pile groups and that predicted by approximate methods which rely on the use of one dimensional consolidation theory. In one dimensional theory, all the settlement is assumed to derive from pore pressure dissipation, whereas with pile foundations the major proportion of the settlement occurs at constant volume under undrained conditions and only a small amount is due to pore pressure dissipation. Therefore the tendency of approximate methods to underestimate the settlement may be attributed either to the total neglect of the immediate settlement if a purely one dimensional approach is employed, or to the underesti- mate of S, which will oceur when the pile group is replaced by an equivalent pad footing in an approximate three dimensional analysis. In making preliminary estimates of settlement it may be useful to replace the pile group ‘by an equivalent single circular pier of the same gross area as the group. The length L, of such an equivalent pier may be obtained by comparing the solutions for the settlement of a462 H. G, POULOS pile group, as given in this Paper, with the settlement of a single pier (Poulos and Davis, 1968) and determining the required value of L, in terms of Z to give equal settlement of the pier and the group. For the case h/L=0o and »=0'5, values of L,/Z have been plotted against the pile spacing in Fig. 11 for values of L/d of 10, 25 and 100." It is interesting to note that the value of L,/L for any spacing is not significantly influenced by the number of piles in the group so that the curves shown in Fig. 11 are mean curves which apply to all square groups between 2 and 5%, The value of L,/L is markedly dependent on the pile spacing and the value of Ld. As the spacing increases L,/L decreases, indicating that the group tends increasingly to behave as a shallow pier. At a spacing of about 10d for L/d=10 and 20d for L/d=25, L/L becomes zero and the pile group may then be considered as a surface pad footing. As L/d increases the equivalent length L,/L increases for any given spacing, and for very slender piles (Z/d = 100) the spacing at which Z,/Z becomes zero and the group can be considered as a surface footing is in excess of 60d. For a pile group in a finite layer, the limiting spacing beyond which the group effectively acts as a surface footing is even less than that shown in Fig. 11 due to the damping effect of the rigid base. However, at the relatively close spacings commonly employed in practice the rigid base will have little effect on the value of L,/L, so that it may generally be stated, from Fig. 11, that L,/Z will lie between 0-9 and 0-6 in most practical cases, Load distribution within the group The ratio P/P,y of the pile load to the average pile load in the group for 32, 4? and 5? groups is tabulated in Table 3 for the case L/d=25 and h{Z=00. The key for the identifi- cation of the piles in each group is shown in Fig. 12, For close spacings, the load in the outer piles of each group is considerably more than the average load P,, while the load in the centre piles is less than Pay, and may even theoretically be negative (although it is doubtful whether negative loads would occur in practical cases). As the pile spacing increases the load distribution becomes more uniform, the load on the outer piles decreasing while the load on the centre piles increases. From Table 3 it will be seen that the load distri- bution is considerably influenced by the number of piles in the group, the major influence being that the load on the outer piles increases as the number of piles increases, The influence of the layer depth h/Z is shown in Fig. 13 for a 3? group. As the layer becomes more shallow the load distribution becomes more uniform at any given spacing. For the case #/L=1-2, all piles in the group carry equal load at a spacing of 20 diameters, whereas for a semi-infinite mass (}/L =o) a uniform load distribution is not attained until a spacing of about 60 diameters is reached, The effect of the L/d ratio on the load distribution within a 3? group in a semi-infinite mass is shown in Fig, 14. The distribution for L/¢=10 is more uniform than that for L/d=100 db 288 Baa sea a8 333 338 33833 ye ba aa8 poses Asa ges hh 8 BB 8 ret ee bee © 3? ome 48 Group 8? croup Fig. 12. Identification of piles in square groups163 SETTLRMENT OF PILE GROUPS, avo pis im duos3 -p—wopnq Ener peal to p,"7 yo. soromyor “sy Shy 24 feo pit epee dnou3 ,e—normncasisrp peotaomidep xaReT sO somwamUy “EE “BEE 4 om 2c oz i 4. a464 H. G. POULOS although the difference between the two distributions is not significant for practical purposes. In comparison with the type of group and the layer depth, the value of Ld therefore has a relatively minor inuence on the load distribution in a pile group. SOLUTIONS FOR PILE GROUPS WITH A PERFECTLY FLEXIBLE PILE CAP Maximum settlement For a general square pile group in which all piles take equal load the maximum settlement occurs at the centre pile or piles, while the minimum settlement occurs at the corner piles. For the limiting cases of zero spacing and infinite spacing, the maximum settlement Sax of a group with a flexible pile cap is equal to the settlement of Sy of a group with a rigid pile cap. For intermediate spacings, Sinx is generally greater than Sq, and comparisons have re~ vealed that the ratio Snax/Sa is almost independent of pile spacing for a practical range of spacings up to about 204, The estimation of the maximum settlement of a group with a flex- ible pile cap may therefore be greatly facilitated by multiplying the settlement of a group with a rigid pile cap S, by the appropriate value of Suax/Sa, Sp being calculated from the values of Rg given in Table 2. Values of Siiax/Sp are tabulated in Table 4 for the case L/d=25 and »=0°5 for various values of A/L and for 32, 4? and $* groups. It will be scen from Table 4 that Srax/Sp increases as the number of piles in the group increases. In the limit, this ratio would tend to the ratio ‘Table 3. Values of P/P,y in pile group with rigid cap. L/d = 25. y= 08. hiL = «0 Group a # 8 Pile Pile Pile sl 1)2)s |1])2) 9 |1,)?,)%) 4 )5)6 1 | 201 | 083 [187 | 290 | 075 |-o49 | 4412 | 075 | 187 [—1s6 | 003 f ris 25 | rea | o74 |—005 | 202] 096] 005 | 258) 11s8|116[ oot | 40 | 019 5 | 102 | oat | ost [171 | 099 | os [211] 120] 108/ 095 | 027 | 022 10 | £22 | 089 | 085 | 149] 100] 050 | 174 | 146 [107 | 066 | 047 | 097 2 | 41s foe | 72 | ras fron | 07s | rao [108 | 10s | 07 fom [oer 40 [a 098 | 088 | 103 | 099 | 09s | 127 107} 102] o8¢ | 080 | 075 Tables Values of Smac/Sx- Lid = 25, v= 05 a 2 a sid 25 13 Li? 116 bla 1-20 5 113 18, 113 bs 1-20 40 | 1-08, | 1-00 1-00 1-06 1:00SRITLEMENT OF Pili GROULS ine 2 tio a EE OM uate 1 wu aU WUOUDNTOS XOW/juswaraen an HDA ay a Me Fig. 48, Efteot of layer depth on maximum differential sot-le- ae ‘mext—3' groap with flexible cap Fig. 45, Effect of group size on maximum difteren:ial osttle— rnent—pile group ‘ith flexible cap 405468 E.G. POULOS between the corresponding settlements for a square area, The value of hj has a relatively small influence on Sinex/Sw at close spacings, but for 53 10d, Siux/Sn decreases rapidly as h/L decreases. The ratio Siaux/Sn is also slightly influenced by the value of L/d, decreasing as L/d increases. For example, for a 3? group the average valtie of Smax/Sq for Z/d=10 is 1-15 whereas the corresponding value for Ld = 100 is 1-10. However, in summary it may generally be stated that the use of a flexible rather than a rigid pile cap will result in an increase in maximum settlement of between 10% and 30%. Maximum differential settlement For various groups of piles with a flexible pile cap, the ratio Sq/Smmx of the maximum differential scttlement of the group to the maximum settlement is plotted in Fig, 15 for the case L/d=25 and k/L=co. At the limiting spacings of zero and infinity the differential settlement is zero, while at intermediate spacings the differential settlement increases to a maximum value at a spacing of about 15d and then decreases for larger spacings. The ratio Sa/Scoax increases as the number of piles in the group increases and for a 5? group, the maximum differential settlement may be as much as about 0-3 times the maximum settlement of the group. The effect of the layer depth /Z on the ratio Sq/Smax is shown in Fig. 16 for a 3 group. ‘At close spacings the presence of a rigid base tends to increase the relative differential settle- ment, but as the spacing increases Sq/Smax decreases more rapidly than is the case with an infinite depth. ‘The effect of L/d on the differential settlement is similar to the effect of the layer depth h/L. At close spacings Sq/Smax increases as I /d decreases, while at larger spacings the greater effects of interaction with relatively slender piles results in Sq/Smax being larger for larger values of Lia. COMPARISONS BETWEEN THEORETICAL AND OBSERVED BEHAVIOUR OF PILE ‘An indication of the applicability of the theoretical solutions presented in the previous sections to field problems may be obtained by comparisons between these solutions and pub- lished records of observations on model and full-scale pile groups. The results of tests on groups of model piles have been reported by Whitaker (1957), Sowers ef al. (1961), Hanna (1963) and Saffery and Tate (1961), while tests on full-scale groups have been carried out by Berezantzev, Khristoforov and Golubkov (1961). ‘Comparisons between the theoretical and observed settlements of 2%, 82, 4, and 5? groups with rigid pile caps are shown in Figs 17-20 in which the settlement ratio R, is plotted against pile spacing. A value of L/d=25 hes been assumed while v has been taken as 0-5. Because the depth of the soil layer in which the groups are founded differs in each case and in some cases. 4s not stated, theoretical curves have been drawn for two cases, h/Z==00 and h{Z=1°5, which represent the limits between which the experimental results probably lie. For all groups it will be seen that the theoretical curves generally agree with the observations and predict the decrease in settlement ratio with increasing spacing reasonably accurately. It is also interest- ing to note that there is some measure of agreement between the theoretical curves and the results of the model tests in sand carried out by Hanna (1963). ‘Skempton (1953) has also collected data from a number of field tests on groups of driven piles in sand, and on the basis of these data has suggested a single relationship between the breadth of a group and the settlement ratio R, for a given average applied pressure. For a given total load on the group, Skempton’s suggested curve, in terms of the group reduction factor Rg, is shown in Fig. 9, together with the theoretical curves for Z/d=25 previouslySETTLEMENT OF PILE GROUPS 467 Mecsured votes 7 © wntower 957 eonavt values ~ . © Derocoaey 1960 ” 2 E Sones at 196% 2 terrane ata (86 Mama i363) loose sons foes et (98 g cee ganze sons Seer eras er aa \ \e sottery one Tete (i960 7 : : i | » “| | petetiees acaceetehi oie — Usk Fig.17, Comparison between theoretical and Fig. 18. Comparison between theoretical and measured settlement ratios—2 group ‘measured settlement ratios—3* group Meonree tes © serorantevat at 981) & Soners et of 960 + Ferne'@963) loose sone 5 - Meosured values = © watowerti957) yr 24 > ceesomee at of 861) Serna 1863). loose sone hecretica! curve "+00 by x28 eee 2 uve eo byitt i 5 Treeretical cue Yeats gets % % Fig.19. Comparison between theoretical and _Fig.20. Comparison between theoretfoal and measured settlement ratios—é group "measured settlement ratios—S’ groupH. G, POULOS 468 dno23 e— dnos8 .¢—nonnqiaystp peoy pamsvour UOPNGNSYP PEOT pemsveur pus [eoReTONTI usemyeq wosmTdMOD “Te “SAL ‘pure Teomesoom useajequos|redMOD ‘zz ‘Bh % 5 s + & z 4 o, oo o atti zt ° ot a 2 % 7 z o P ! i Is 2 j | | / P ° / . / re wi ; ww 74 t ° a att ls Zé Bere tee=rer eee - ° ° ~ 3 3 eee P Saat 7 , vu 7 ’ lo . ’ ooh, eee eeeSETTLEMENT OF PILE GROUPS 469 described. It will be seen that Skempton’s curve lies somewhat above the theoretical curves, ‘but follows the theoretical trend very closely. The actual points on which Skempton’s curve is based are also plotted in Fig. 9 and these points, within the range of values of group breadth ‘to diameter shown, agree even more closely with the theoretical curves than does Skempton’s curve, Comparisons between measured and theoretical distributions of load within a pile group with a rigid pile cap are shown in Figs 21 and 22, In Fig. 21 the results of tests on a 3* group by Whitaker (1957) and Sowers et al, (1961) are plotted in terms of the ratio of the pile load to the average pile load. For comparison the theoretical curves for L/d=25 andy =0'5 and foran average value of h/L of 2-6 are shown. The theoretical magnitudes of load agree well with the results obtained by Sowers ef al. except for the centre pile 8, where, at close spacings, the measured load is small but not negative as the theory suggests. The load distribution ob- tained by Whitaker is considerably more uniform than that obtained by Sowers et al. or that given by the theory. Despite this difference in magnitude, for which no teason can be as- certained, Whitaker's results nevertheless confirm that the outer piles carry the most load and the centre pile the least, and that the load distribution within the group becomes more uniform with increasing pile spacing. The theoretical load distribution for a 5® group is compared with the observations of Whitaker (1957) in Fig. 22, As well as giving the correct trend the theory predicts magnitudes of loads which agree very well with the measured values, for all piles except piles 4, where the measured loads are greater than those predicted. From the foregoing comparisons between theoretical and observed settlements and load distributions, it may generally be concluded that the theoretical approach described in this Paper not only enables broad trends in pile group behaviour to be studied, but is also capable of predicting the magnitude of settlement and loads within the group with reasonable accuracy. In applying the theoretical sclutions to field problems, it must be borne in mind that the theory at present takes no account of various aspects which may influence the behaviour of a group, such as the order of driving of the piles and layering of the soil profile. Also the theory does not take into account any raft action between the pile cap and the soil. Any such action ina field problem may well have a significant effect in reducing the settlement of the group. Because of the difficulty in determining appropriate values of the soil parameters E,, E’ and ¥ for predictions of the immediate and total final settlement, it may be more satisfactory in many practical problems to carry out a field loading test on a single pile and then to apply the theoretical values of settlement ratio R, to the results of this test in order to predict settle- ments. With such a procedure, uncertainties in the experimental determination of soil parameters are obviated and variations of soil type or soil properties with depth are largely taken into account. It must, however, be borne in mind thet such non-homogeneity may modify the interaction between piles as compared with the case of a homogeneous mass, and thus limit the validity of the theoretical curves in this Paper, A study of the modifying effects of non-homogeneity of the soil on pile interaction may well be possible in the future by means of the finite element technique. CONCLUSIONS The method of analysis presented in this Paper enables the settlement behaviour of all configurations of pile groups to be determined by considering only the effects of interaction between two piles and superimposing the individual effects of adjacent piles in the group. It is therefore possible to relate the settlement of a pile group to the settlement of a single pile. Solutions have been obtained for the settlement and the load distribution in a group with a470 4H. G. POULOS perfectly rigid pile cap and for the maximum settlement and the maximum differential settle- ment of a group with a perfectly flexible pile cap. ‘The influence of the type of group, the relative length Ld of the piles in the group and the relative depth h/L of the soil layer on the settlement behaviour of a pile group have been examined. ‘The main conclusions may be summarized as follows. 1. For a group of two piles the interaction between the piles at a given spacing increases as the values of L/d and layer depth hj increase. For slender piles in a deep layer of soil the - increase in settlement of a pile due to an identical pile may be very significant, even for spacings as large as 50 diameters. However, as the depth of the soil layer decreases the effect of interaction tends to be reduced considerably as compared with the case of a semi-infinite mass, The value of Poisson's ratio v of the soil also slightly influences interaction, the inter- action factor a tending to increase as v decreases. 2. Because the behaviour of a general pile group is derived from the behaviour of a group of two piles, the effects of the values of L/2, h/L and v on the settlement of the group will be similar to those for the group of two piles. 3, For any given spacing between the piles the settlement of a pile group is largely in- fiuenced by the number of piles in the group. The larger the number of piles, the smaller the settlement under a given load. 4. For a pile group of given dimensions the settlement of the group under a given load is, almost independent of the number of piles in the group for a practical range of spacings. From a settlement consideration it is therefore more economical to employ a smaller number of piles at a larger spacing. 5. As with a single pile, the major proportion of the settlement of a pile group occurs as, immediate settlement, although this proportion is generally smaller for a group than for a single pile. 6, The load distribution within a pile group with a rigid pile cap is generally non-uniform at closer spacings, the outer piles taking the most load and the centre piles taking the least load. At any given spacing the load distribution tends to become more non-uniform as the relative pile length L/d and the depth of layer /Z increase. 7. The ratio of the maximum settlement of a group with a perfectly flexible pile cap to the settlement of an identical group with a rigid pile cap generally varies between 1-1 and 1:3, the higher values being associated with larger groups. 8, The maximum differential settlement in a group with a flexible pile cap increases as the number of piles in the group increases, and for any group is a maximum at a spacing of about 15 diameters. 9. Comparisons between theoretical settlements and load distributions and those observed in field and mode! tests show that, as well as predicting the correct trends in behaviour of pile groups, the theory is capable of predicting the magnitude of settlements and loads within the group with reasonable accuracy. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ‘The major part of the work described in this Paper was made possible by a grant from the Australian Research Grants Committee. Valuable assistance has also been received from Frankipile Australia, The computational work was carried out on the KDF9 computer in the Basser Computing Department of the School of Physics, University of Sydney. The Author gratefully acknowledges the comments and advice of Professor E. H. Davis, Associate Professor of Soil Mechanics, and Dr I. K. Lee, Senior Lecturer in Civil Engineering, University of Sydney,SETTLEMENT OF PILE GROUPS 47 REFERENCES, Bearzantzsy, V.G., Kunistoronoy, V. & Gotvaxov, V. (1961). Load bearing capacity and deformation ‘of piled foundations, Proc. Sth Ini. Conf. Soil Mech. 2, 11-18. Byennuss, L., Joxsow, W, & OsTanxe1b, C. (1987). The settlement of « bridge abutment on friction piles. Proc. 4th Int. Conf. Soil Mech. 2, 14. Drampotonia E. € Royoast, J.B, (1869), Load transfer in end-bearing stel Hepiles, Am. Soo. civ. ners. 88, SM2, 1-25, Hawwar tl, H, (1969). Model studies of foundation groups in sand. Géotechnique 18, No. 4, 334-351. Poures, H. G. & Davis, B, H, (1968). ‘The settlement behaviour of single axially-loaded incompressible piles and piers. Géotechnique 18, No. 3, 351-371. Sartoey, MI @ Tare, A.P. K. (1961). | Model tests on pile groups in a clay soil with particular roference ‘to the behaviour of the group when it is loaded eccentrically. ‘th Int, Conf. Soil Mech, 2, 129-134. Saas, JA, Bruzuncn, | A. (1968). Resolution théorique dela distribution des ores danse penx, Proc. Gik Int. Conf. Soil Mech, 2, 309-313. Sxsmprox, A. W, (1953). Discus ‘rd Int, Conf. Soil Mech. 8, 172. Sowsns, G.F, Martin, C. B., WILSON, L. 1. & FAUSOLD, M. (1961). | The beating capacity of friction pile groups in Sree clay from model studies. Proc. 6th Ink. Conf. Soil Mech, 2, 158-159. ‘n: piles and pile foundations, settlement of pile foundations. Proc. Pi Sromaeunnen, W. (1934), Tafeln cur Setzungberechaung. Strasse4 121. Tuunuan, A. G. & D’Arro.onta, E. (1965). Computed movement of friction and end-bearing piles em- Dedded in uniform and stratified soils. Proc. 6th Int. Conf. Soil Mech. 2, 323-327. Warraxer, T. (1957). Experiments with model piles in groups. Géotechnique 7, No. 4, 147. ae