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KEY WORDS: WOUNDS; WOUND HEALING; CELL PROLIFERATION; INFLAMMATION; WOUND REMODELLING
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as acute and chronic according to their time various factors, which prolong one or more
frame of healing.3,5,6 stages in the phases of haemostasis,
inflammation, proliferation or remodelling.
ACUTE WOUNDS These factors include infection, tissue
Wounds that repair themselves and that hypoxia, necrosis, exudate and excess levels
proceed normally by following a timely and of inflammatory cytokines.22 A continuous
orderly healing pathway, with the end result state of inflammation in the wound creates a
of both functional and anatomical cascade of tissue responses that together
restoration, are classified as acute wounds. perpetuate a non-healing state. Because the
The time course of healing usually ranges healing then proceeds in an unco-ordinated
from 5 to 10 days, or within 30 days. Acute manner, functional and anatomical
wounds can be acquired as a result of outcomes are poor and these wounds
traumatic loss of tissue or a surgical frequently relapse.3,23 Chronic wounds may
procedure.3,5 For example, an operation to result from various causes, including
remove a soft tissue tumour located in the naturopathic, pressure, arterial and venous
skin and underlying parenchyma can insufficiency, burns and vasculitis.20,23
sometimes result in a large albeit non-
contaminated wound that cannot be healed COMPLICATED WOUNDS
by primary intention, due to the large defect A complicated wound is a special entity and
within the tissue. Traumatic wounds are also is defined as a combination of an infection
frequently encountered. They may involve and a tissue defect.6 Infection poses a
only the soft tissue or they might be constant threat to the wound. The cause of
associated with bone fractures. These the defect, in contrast, evolves due to the
combined injuries have been classified by traumatic or post-infectious aetiology, or a
the classification system of the AO wide tissue resection (e.g. in tumour
Foundation (Arbeitsgemeinschaft fuer management). Every wound is
Osteosynthesefragen/Association for the contaminated irrespective of the cause, size,
Study of Internal Fixation),21 which is one of location and management. Whether or not a
the most comprehensive and widely used. manifest infection develops depends on the
Included within this classification system are virulence, number and type of micro-
closed and open fractures with the organisms, as well as on the local blood
assessment of skin, muscle, tendon and supply and the patient’s inherent resistance.
neurovascular injuries.21 A benefit of the AO Typical characteristics of infection are the
Foundation’s classification system is that the five signs and symptoms that have been well
extent of damage to muscles and tendons is documented: redness, heat, pain, oedema
taken into account, as it determines the and loss or limited function in the affected
prognosis of the injured limb.6 – 8 part. The frequency of wound infections
depends on the type or surgical technique
CHRONIC WOUNDS and the location of the wound.6,23,24
Chronic wounds are those that fail to Other criteria taken into account during
progress through the normal stages of wound classification include aetiology,
healing and they cannot be repaired in an degree of contamination, morphological
orderly and timely manner.3,4 The healing characteristics and communication with
process is incomplete and disturbed by hollow or solid organs.3,6,20 Aetiology
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hypoxia and acidosis in the wound wall functions in the immediate inflammatory
cause their passive relaxation, and bleeding response.3,10,14,15
resumes. Were it not for the formation of an
insoluble fibrin plug, the haemostatic INFLAMMATORY PHASE
mechanisms alone would be ineffective over The humoral and cellular inflammatory
the longer term.3,10 phase follows next, with the aim of
Together with haemostatic events, the establishing an immune barrier against
coagulation cascade is activated through invading micro-organisms. It is divided into
extrinsic and intrinsic pathways, leading to two separate phases, an early inflammatory
platelet aggregation and clot formation in phase and a late inflammatory phase.16
order to limit blood loss.12,13 As blood spills
into the site of injury, the blood components Early inflammatory phase
and platelets come in contact with exposed Starting during the late phase of coagulation
collagen and other extracellular matrix and shortly thereafter, the early
components. This contact triggers the release inflammatory response has many functions.
of clotting factors from the platelets and the It activates the complement cascade and
formation of a blood clot, composed of initiates molecular events, leading to
fibronectin, fibrin, vitronectin and infiltration of the wound site by neutrophils,
thrombospondin.3,13,14,17 The blood clot and whose main function is to prevent
platelets trapped within it are not only infection.11 The neutrophils start with the
important for haemostasis, as the clot also critical task of phagocytosis in order to
provides a provisional matrix for cell destroy and remove bacteria, foreign
migration in the subsequent phases of the particles and damaged tissue. Phagocytotic
haemostatic and inflammatory phases. The activity is crucial for the subsequent
cytoplasm of platelets contains α-granules processes, because acute wounds that have a
filled with growth factors and cytokines, such bacterial imbalance will not heal.3,7,16
as platelet derived growth factor (PDGF), The neutrophils begin to be attracted to
transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), the wound site within 24 – 36 h of injury by
epidermal growth factor and insulin-like various chemoattractive agents, including
growth factors.14 These molecules act as TGF-β, complement components such as C3a
promoters in the wound healing cascade by and C5a, and formylmethionyl peptides
activating and attracting neutrophils and, produced by bacteria and platelet products.3
later, macrophages, endothelial cells and Due to alterations in the regulation of surface
fibroblasts.11,14 Platelets also contain adhesion molecules, neutrophils become
vasoactive amines, such as serotonin, that sticky and, through a process of margination,
are stored in dense bodies and cause begin to adhere to the endothelial cells in the
vasodilation and increased vascular post-capillary venules surrounding the
permeability, leading to fluid extravasation wound.14,16 Then, the neutrophils roll along
in the tissue that results in oedema which, in the surface of the endothelium being pushed
turn, potentiates itself during the following forward by the blood flow. These adhesions
inflammatory phase.14,19 Eicosanoids and and rolling mechanisms are mediated by
other products of arachidonic acid selectin-dependent interactions and are
metabolism are released after injury to cell classified as weak attachments.16,17
membranes and have potent biological Chemokines secreted by endothelial cells
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An overview of the wound healing process
rapidly activate a stronger adhesion system, the inflammatory response, acting as key
which is mediated by integrins.17,18 Cells stop regulatory cells and providing an abundant
rolling and migrate out of the venules, reservoir of potent tissue growth factors,
squeezing between the endothelial cells by a particularly TGF-β, as well as other
process known as diapedesis.16 – 18 The mediators (TGF-α, heparin binding
subsequent migration now depends on epidermal growth factor, fibroblast growth
chemokines and other chemotactic agents. factor [FGF], collagenase), activating
Once in the wound environment, neutrophils keratinocytes, fibroblasts and endothelial
phagocytose foreign material and bacteria, cells.25 – 28,33 – 35 Clearly the depletion of
destroying them by releasing proteolytic monocytes and macrophages from the
enzymes and oxygen-derived free radical wound causes severe healing disturbances
species.17 – 19,25 due to poor wound debridement, delayed
Neutrophil activity gradually changes fibroblast proliferation and maturation, as
within a few days of wounding, once all the well as delayed angiogenesis, resulting in
contaminating bacteria have been inadequate fibrosis and a more weakly
removed.16,17 Upon completing the task, the repaired wound.17,31 – 33
neutrophils must be eliminated from the The last cells to enter the wound site in the
wound prior to progression to the next phase late inflammatory phase are lymphocytes,
of healing. Redundant cells are disposed of attracted 72 h after injury by the action of
by extrusion to the wound surface as slough interleukin-1 (IL-1), complement components
and by apoptosis, allowing elimination of and immunoglobulin G (IgG) breakdown
the entire neutrophil population without products.16,25,26 The IL-1 plays an important
tissue damage or potentiating the role in collagenase regulation, which is later
inflammatory response.16,26 The cell needed for collagen remodelling, production
remnants and apoptotic bodies are then of extracellular matrix components and
phagocytosed by macrophages.3,25 – 28 their degradation.16,29,30
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proteoglycans and type 1 and type 3 Resident endothelial cells are responsive
procollagen. All of their products are to a number of angiogenic factors, including
deposited in the local milieu.3,33,35 FGF, vascular endothelial growth factor
By the end of the first week, abundant (VEGF), PDGF, angiogenin, TGF-α and TGF-β.
extracellular matrix accumulates, which A fine balance is kept by the action of
further supports cell migration and is inhibitory factors, such as angiostatin and
essential for the repair process.30,35 Now, steroids.44 – 48 Inhibitory and stimulatory
fibroblasts change to their myofibroblast agents act on proliferating endothelial cells
phenotype. At this stage, they contain thick directly as well as indirectly, by activating
actin bundles below the plasma membrane mitosis, promoting locomotion and by
and actively extend pseudopodia, attaching stimulating the host cells to release
to fibronectin and collagen in the endothelial growth factors.49,50 Under
extracellular matrix.35,37 Wound contraction, hypoxic conditions, molecules are secreted
which is an important event in the from the surrounding tissue, promoting
reparative process that helps to approximate proliferation and growth of endothelial cells.
the wound edges, then takes place as these In response, a four-step process takes place:
cell extensions retract. Having accomplished (i) production of proteases by endothelial
this task, redundant fibroblasts are cells for degradation of the basal lamina in
eliminated by apoptosis.38 – 40 the parent vessel in order to crawl through
the extracellular matrix; (ii) chemotaxis; (iii)
Collagen synthesis proliferation; and (iv) remodelling and
Collagens are an important component in differentiation. FGF and VEGF play central
all phases of wound healing. Synthesized by regulatory roles in all of the
fibroblasts, they impart integrity and processes. 43,45,46,49 – 51
Initially, there is no
strength to all tissues and play a key role, vascular supply in the wound centre, so
especially in the proliferative and viable tissue, which is limited to the wound
remodelling phases of repair.39 – 41 Collagens margins, is perfused by uninjured vessels
act as a foundation for the intracellular and by diffusion through undamaged
matrix formation within the wound. interstitium.3,26,52 Capillary sprouts from the
Unwounded dermis contains 80% type 1 and surrounding edges invade the wound clot
25% type 3 collagen, whereas wound and, within a few days, a microvascular
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network composed of many new capillaries the cell.59 The actin network is well known for
is formed. its dynamic reorganization, it acts as a
Chemotaxis is the ability of cells to move mechano-effector and it is important for co-
along a chemical gradient.53 This biochemical ordinating cell migration. During the first step
mechanism enables cells to reply properly to of locomotion, actin polymerization takes
environmental stimuli that determine place at the leading edge, determined by the
proliferation, differentiation and migration. highest concentration of chemoattractive
Chemotactic agents act on cell surface substance, pushing the plasma membrane
receptors to direct the cell migration that is outward. A protruding structure forms, in the
involved in angiogenesis during wound case of the endothelial cell these are known as
healing.54,55 The contributing factors act as filopodia, and they are filled with filamentous
mediators for neovascularization and vessel actin.64 Unidirectional movement of the cell is
repair at the injury site. They are also maintained through the action of a cyclic
important modulators of cell growth and assembly and disassembly of actin filaments
differentiation, and they include endothelial in front of and well behind the leading edge,
cell growth factor, TGF-α, VEGF, angiopoietin- respectively.63,65 Multiple signalling pathways
1, fibrin and lipid growth factors.56 – 58 and regulatory proteins control actin
Migration is the consequence of chemotactic dynamics and the changes of cell
activity and is necessary for angiogenesis.59,60 morphology.59,62,66
As a complex process that involves co-
ordinated changes in cytoskeletal Adhesion
organization, signal transduction and cell Adhesion to a solid substratum is a
adhesion, migration is dependent on the particularly important step in cell
actin-rich network beneath the plasma migration.14,65,67 It is mediated by integrins,
membrane and is regulated by physical and which act as the primary receptors for
chemical factors in the vascular system.59 extracellular matrix proteins and are
Regulation is achieved by three mechanisms: consequently required for cell motility.61,68 In
(i) chemotaxis (migration towards the addition, these molecules are also involved
concentration gradient of the chemoattractive in signal transduction, and in regulating
substance); (ii) mechanotaxis (migration and stimulating migration.68,69
induced by mechanical forces); and (iii) Adhesion and migration are inversely
haptotaxis (migration in response to a proportional; an optimal rate of migration is
gradient of immobilized ligands).59,60 achieved with increasing adhesion, but
Cellular motility requires three distinct mobility is reduced with further
actions: protrusion at the cell front; adhesion, attachment.61,68 Endothelial cells can adjust
to attach the actin cytoskeleton to the their adhesion intensity, with weakly
substratum; and finally traction, propelling adhesive cells moving faster than highly
the trailing cytoplasm forward.61 – 63 adhesive ones. After attachment to the
extracellular matrix, the cell changes its
Protrusion morphology from an oval- or spindle-shape
With three types of interconnected filaments, to an irregular, flattened one. These
the cytoskeleton is anchored at cell–cell alterations in shape are governed by integrin
junctions and cell–extracellular matrix signalling and depend on integrin contacts
adhesions, providing mechanical support for with the extracellular matrix in focal
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complexes, forming initially at the ends of wound edges within a few hours of
the filopodia.61,67,68 Endothelial cells migrate wounding. A single layer of cells initially
fastest immediately after injury, then they forms over the defect, accompanied by a
enter a slower migration rate, which is marked increase in epithelial cell mitotic
maintained during the healing process.66,70 activity around the wound edges. Cells
migrating across them attach to the
Traction provisional matrix below. When the
Contractile forces, transmitted through the advancing epithelial cells meet, migration
integrin–cytoskeletal connections, allow the stops and the basement membrane starts to
cell to pull the cytoplasm forward by form.26,28,39
generating traction to the substratum.59 The
force for movement is provided by myosin REMODELLING PHASE
motor proteins, linked to contractile actin As the final phase of wound healing, the
bundles along the cell. Interactions between remodelling phase is responsible for the
myosin and actin fibres pull the cell body development of new epithelium and final
forwards. At the same time, the extracellular scar tissue formation. Synthesis of the
matrix-binding proteins on the trailing edge extracellular matrix in the proliferative and
of the moving cell must release their remodelling phases is initiated
connections.67,68 contemporarily with granulation tissue
The degree of strength of the integrin development. This phase may last up to 1 or
coupling to the cytoskeleton is influenced by 2 years, or sometimes for an even more
the rigidity of the substratum. With stronger prolonged period of time.33,35 The
couplings to a firm surface, force can be remodelling of an acute wound is tightly
transmitted through the migrating cell more controlled by regulatory mechanisms with
efficiently.68 During locomotion, the traction the aim of maintaining a delicate balance
forces generated at the sites of contact can be between degradation and synthesis, leading
high enough to deform the extracellular to normal healing. Along with intracellular
matrix and to rearrange it significantly.53 – 58 matrix maturation, collagen bundles
The direction of migration requires initial increase in diameter and hyaluronic acid
polarization of the cell and both physical and fibronectin are degraded.29,39 The tensile
and chemical stimuli influence it, as has strength of the wound increases progressively
been discussed above.44,71 – 75 in parallel with collagen collection.39,41
Macrophages, proliferating fibroblasts Collagen fibres may regain approximately
and vascularized stroma, together with 80% of the original strength compared with
collagen matrix, fibrinogen, fibronectin and unwounded tissue. The acquired final
hyaluronic acid, constitute the acute strength depends on the localization of the
granulation tissue that replaces the fibrin- repair and its duration, but the original
based provisional matrix.33,39 With collagen strength of the tissue can never be
accumulation, the density of the blood regained.3,41
vessels diminishes and the granulation tissue Synthesis and breakdown of collagen as
gradually matures to produce a scar.51,64,76 well as extracellular matrix remodelling take
place continuously and both tend to
Epithelialization equilibrate to a steady state about 3 weeks
Migration of epithelial cells starts from the after injury.30,41 Matrix metalloproteinase
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and it can have an important impact on the colour and clear demarcation.84 – 86 Dead
final clinical outcome. Physiological, muscle fibres do not contract on stimulation
endocrine and nutritional support at a and are poorly perfused. Special tissues, such
clinical level significantly influence repair as tendons and fascia, are not removed
and, without them, wound healing often despite not being vital because they promote
fails completely.6,24,29 the healing process in the wound; a surgeon
The first stage of wound management does so only in case of severe
should be a thorough assessment of the contamination.88,89
wound and the patient. The process begins The next important step is the lavage of
with a diagnosis of the wound’s aetiology and micro-organisms, dead tissue and foreign
continues with optimizing the patient’s bodies, which can further decrease tissue
medical condition, particularly blood flow to bacterial counts. Commonly, a bacitracin
the wound area.26,85,86 An acute wound in a solution is used. In contrast, Patzakis89
stable patient with normal blood flow should recommends irrigation with large quantities
heal successfully if appropriate care is given. of saline. Low pressure irrigation only
Guidelines of the medical procedures to use removes contamination on the surface.
during wound management have been Although high pressure irrigation reduces
extensively described elsewhere.6,10,20,23,25,28 – 30 bacterial colonization of the wound and the
The wound will need to be debrided and frequency of infections, a high pressure jet
dressed correctly.29,33,46 Sufficient debride- can damage fine tissues and push dirt
ment, defined as the removal of non-viable, particles deeper into the wound or even into
infected and hyperkeratotic tissue, forms the the bone. High pressure irrigation also causes
basis of non-delayed as well as delayed the soaking of wound margins with liquid,
wound healing. Debridement is essential as reducing the ability of the wound to resist
it accelerates wound healing and different infection. High pressure irrigation must be
techniques exist.26,86 In chronic wounds, the employed cautiously and is only
measures used to reverse medical recommended for very contaminated
abnormalities are complex and the aetiology wounds.88 Necrectomy and irrigation tend to
of the wound is not easy to identify. Correct complement each other. When it is not
debridement helps to convert a chronic possible to irrigate all of the bacteria and dirt
wound into an acute one, which can then from the wound or the infection has spread,
progress through the normal stages of necrectomy removes contaminated and
healing.40,77,86,87 devitalized tissue, which would otherwise
The accumulation of devitalized tissue in weaken the wound defence mechanisms.88 – 90
the wound promotes bacterial colonization
and impairs the body’s ability to fight Novel management options
infection, thereby preventing complete for wounds
repair of the wound.3 The aim of Various medical approaches and therapeutic
debridement is to remove ischaemic and interventions can affect the different
necrotic tissue, which presents potential for processes involved in the wound healing
infection and contamination of the tissue by cascade. Following wounding, the healing
bacteria and foreign bodies. During the time may be shorter when there is less injured
operation, necrotic and vital tissues are tissue, for example during minimally
distinguished by a lack of capillary refill, invasive surgery, which reduces the amount
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T Velnar, T Bailey, V Smrkolj
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of soft tissue damage and post-operative everyday pathology. They are of diverse
morbidity. Novel techniques of topical growth aetiology and different classification criteria
factor application and incisional priming exist. Any wounding damages the tissue and
with PDGF or IL-1 can optimize both the affects the local environment. The host’s
cellular and molecular environment, thus response to wounding involves various
decreasing healing time by modifying processes of tissue healing that are triggered
inflammation and accelerating the by tissue injury, and encompasses four
proliferative phase.91,92 Electrical field continuous phases including coagulation
stimulation may optimize the remodelling and haemostasis, inflammation,
phase by promoting more efficient fibroblast proliferation and wound remodelling with
recruitment and collagen deposition,93 – 96 scar tissue deposition. Correct clinical
prosthetic materials can favour tissue management may positively influence the
repair,4,97 and gene therapy,98 which is wound healing course and reduce potential
currently in pre-clinical development, may be complications.
able to provide a way for selective healing.
Conflicts of interest
Conclusion The authors had no conflicts of interest to
Wounds occupy a remarkable place in declare in relation to this article.
• Received for publication 14 April 2009 • Accepted subject to revision 30 April 2009
• Revised accepted 24 August 2009
Copyright © 2009 Field House Publishing LLP
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