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FOA - Tragedy, Pessimism, Nietzsche PDF
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Tragedy, Pessimism, Nietzsche
Joshua Foa Dienstag
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84 NEW LITERARY HISTORY
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TRAGEDY, PESSIMISM, NIETZSCHE 85
While the word "pessimism" itself came into widespread use only in
the nineteenth century, it clearly names a persistent thought, or set of
thoughts, that has recurred often in social and political theory, in
tandem with its opposite, at least since the Enlightenment. Leibniz first
used the term "optimum," as a correlate to "maximum" (and as opposed
to "minimum"), in his Th?odic?e of 1710. French writers then began to
refer to his doctrine as one of optimisme. The term apparently crosses
into English with the popularity of Voltaire's Candide ou VOptimisme of
1759. The first known printed appearance of "pessimism" in English
then follows a few decades later, although the context seems to indicate
that the term was already in use.5 Philosophically, however, one might
date the emergence of pessimism to the appearance in 1750 of Rousseau's
Discourse On the Arts and Sciences, with its characterization of modern man
as a moral degenerate. While Rousseau's ideas were seconded, in the
early nineteenth century, in such works as Leopardi's Moral Essays as well
as in his poetry, pessimism achieved its brief period of genuine popular
ity through the work of Schopenhauer, whose Parerga and Paralipomena
went through many editions after its initial publication in 1851. Thereaf
ter, pessimism, while never a dominant school in philosophy, was a well
recognized position for at least several generations.6 And this work was
part of the context that made possible the literature (for example,
Dostoyevsky, Ibsen, Strindberg) which we now readily refer to as
pessimistic. What the pessimists share, as I have argued elsewhere, is a
view of human existence as fundamentally time-bound and, hence,
subject to the vicissitudes of time, lacking in any permanent features.7
Schopenhauer is perhaps most famous for this view: "Time and that
perishability of all things existing in time that time itself brings about....
Time is that by virtue of which everything becomes nothingness in our
hands and loses all real value."8
Nietzsche's relationship to the pessimists who preceded him was
hardly one of uniform celebration. He called Rousseau a "moral
tarantula" and although initially inspired by Schopenhauer's philoso
phy, he eventually dissociated himself from its systematic conclusions
(while retaining a respect for its critical spirit). Nietzsche was also
unkind toward the pessimists popular in the Germany of his day,
especially Eduard von Hartmann, the prominent Berlin philosopher;
Nietzsche called him "completely abysmal."9 Nietzsche believed that the
pessimism of both Hartmann and Schopenhauer led directly to nihil
ism. Indeed, the very popularity of this form of pessimism in the late
nineteenth century was one of the factors that convinced Nietzsche that
nihilism would soon enjoy a temporary dominance of European society.
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86 NEW LITERARY HISTORY
II
The task that The Birth of Tragedy set itself was to explain not only the
appearance of Greek tragedy, but also its decline in Greek society after
Euripides. As is well known, Nietzsche hypothesizes that Socrates'
introduction (and Plato's furtherance) of a rationalistic philosophy
destroyed the preexisting cultural grounds for Greek tragedy (BT Slfi.).
But what exactly did Socrates destroy, and how was this possible? Why, in
any case, should a philosopher have had the power to affect the theater?
The answer lies in the pessimism that Nietzsche associates with the pre
Socratic philosophers and his belief that their ideas reflected the
original character of early Greek culture. "Tragedy," as he put it in a note
from this period, "is the outlet of mystic-pessimistic knowledge."12
Pessimism was the philosophical basis for the plays of Aeschylus and
Sophocles. This was the wisdom that the pre-Socratics possessed and that
later generations first denied and then forgot. Socrates is the agent of
this change because his philosophy is essentially optimistic (BT 91ff.) .13
Nietzsche did not think of optimism and pessimism as two equal, if
opposite, ways of looking at the world, as we might today; rather
"pessimism ... is older and more original than optimism" (KGW
4.1.208). Pessimism is the domain of the Ionian philosophers who
preceded Socrates and whose teachings we possess only in fragments.
Instead of trying to construct a systematic, ordering philosophy, as
Socrates and Plato were to do, the pre-Socratics grasped the chaotic and
disordered nature of the world and only attempted to cope with it,
insofar as that was possible: "Pessimism is the consequence of knowledge
of the absolute illogic of the world-order" (KGW3.3.74).
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TRAGEDY, PESSIMISM, NIETZSCHE 87
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88 NEW LITERARY HISTORY
From the beginning, too, this view is associated with the Dionysian,
"the mother of the mysteries, tragedy, pessimism" (KGW 3.3.309). The
Athenian public theatrical festivals were known as the Dionysia, and
Nietzsche goes so far as to claim the existence of a tradition "that Greek
tragedy in its earliest form had for its sole theme the sufferings of
Dionysus" (BT73).16 In Nietzsche's account, Dionysus suffers the proto
typical agonies of existence inflicted by time. He is severed from the
eternal flux and individuated, then torn to pieces and reunited with the
whole: "This view of things already provides us with all the elements of a
profound and pessimistic view of the world, together with the mystery
doctrine of tragedy: the fundamental knowledge of the oneness of every
thing existent, the conception of individuaci?n as the primal cause of
evil, and of art as the joyous hope that the spell of individuation may be
broken in augury of a restored oneness" (BT 10).
Dionysian suffering is essentially human suffering. In tragedy, this is
indicated by a connection between the various elements involved in the
public performance of the drama. The tragic hero, to Nietzsche, simply
personifies the "Dionysian state" of the chorus as a whole (BT73). The
chorus is likewise "the mirror-image in which the Dionysian man
contemplates himself and also "a vision of the Dionysian mass of
spectators" (BT63). Thus, actor, chorus, and public are all connected in
tragedy through their Dionysian character (PT165). Each is a fragment
torn from the whole. Nietzsche is here critiquing, but also reconstitut
ing, the traditional philological stance that the chorus represents the
Greek public itself. Although he sharply attacks the original proponents
of this view, he, in fact, proposes not to reject it but to modify it. He will
accept the connection of citizens and chorus only on the condition that
the Greek public is understood as a unique phenomenon, a "Dionysian
throng," that is, as a public already infected with the pessimistic wisdom
of the pre-Socratics.17
Nietzsche's conception is, then, just the opposite of the elitism it is
often associated with. Tragic knowledge is not something to which only
a privileged few have access. Instead, the tragic theater can function, on
his account, only when the ethos of pessimism is shared throughout the
demos. When Nietzsche rails against the "democratization" of taste in
post-Socratic Athens, he does not mean the larger population has a
natural distaste for tragedy; his complaint is only that the lower classes
are particularly susceptible to Socrates' optimism. Appealing to their
suffering, it has the effect of stoking their resentments against the rich.
(If people were naturally optimistic, Socrates' role would be unimpor
tant. If anything is "natural," it is pessimism, though Nietzsche, who
eschews such terms, will only speak of it as "older and more original.")
So, he writes, in a lecture on Sophocles, "Tragedy has always contained
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TRAGEDY, PESSIMISM, NIETZSCHE 89
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90 NEW LITERARY HISTORY
Ill
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TRAGEDY, PESSIMISM, NIETZSCHE 91
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92 NEW LITERARY HISTORY
attitudes toward sex and the body. What ought to be the most obvious
and immediate source of knowledge and pleasure is not merely ob
scured but almost entirely obliterated. Cruelty may be condemned by
morality but at least it is acknowledged; sexuality is eliminated from view
through a process of "moral castrationism" ( WP204, 383). Pessimism, by
contrast, puts the terrible power of sexuality at the center of tragic
drama.
Sexuality, not cruelty or violence, represents that part of life with
which it is most difficult to come to terms. It is the most difficult not
because it is inherently shameful ("It was only Christianity . . . which
made of sexuality something impure" [77 109]). The difficulty lies in
affirming the necessity for pain and suffering that accompanies any
growth. That is, it involves admitting that we ourselves (and not just the
world) are essentially flux and change, as our sexual experiences
demonstrate. With its constant dissolution of ego-boundaries, sexuality
is more threatening to the optimist than is the human tendency to
cruelty. This violation of self?simultaneously painful and pleasurable?
is the simplest and best evidence that our own nature is as unstable and
tumultuous as that of the rest of the universe and that, therefore, no
calculation of our best interest can ever be permanent. It is this situation
that tragedy makes visible.
The Dionysian is "the triumphant Yes to life beyond death and
change; true life as collective continuation of life through procreation"
(7/109). But this can come only at the cost of suffering, as the price to
be paid for continuous rebirth: "In the teaching of the mysteries, pain is
sanctified: the 'pains of childbirth' sanctify pain in general?all becom
ing and growing, all that guarantees the future, postulates pain. . . . All
this is contained in the word Dionysus" (7/ 109). The Dionysian is not
simply sexuality (Nietzsche is not Freud); rather, the repression of
sexuality represents the repression of the "fearful and questionable" as
such. (Likewise, Greek tragedies are not simply sexual conflicts, though
such conflicts are often at the core of them.) Accepting the necessity of
pain in a life of growth and change, setting aside the goal of happiness as the
ultimate aim of a human life, is what the Dionysian "yes" requires. To truly
embrace becoming at the expense of being means to take pleasure in the
suffering that accompanies the demise of whatever is. "The joy of Being is only
possible as the joy of appearance [.] The joy of becoming is only possible
in the destruction of the actuality of 'Beings,' the beautiful visions, in the
pessimistic annihilation of illusions. [I]n the destruction also of beauti
ful illusions, Dionysian joy appears as its climax" (i?GW8.1.114).
The Dionysian "yes" is not a matter of taking a sadistic pleasure in the
suffering of others. Rather, it is a decision to value the future over the
present. To be glad that ours is a world of becoming, rather than being,
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TRAGEDY, PESSIMISM, NIETZSCHE 93
means to be glad that things are always changing, that the future is
always coming and the present always passing away. It means detach
ment from whatever exists at present?something that will inevitably
appear as callousness towards others: "Dionysian wisdom. Joy in the
destruction of the most noble and at the sight of its progressive ruin: in
reality joy in what is coming and lies in the future, which triumphs over
existing things, however good" (WP417). This is what Nietzsche had in
mind by such phrases as "amorfati" or eternal recurrence. Not the idea
that we must relive the past again and again, but rather that this pattern
of destruction and creation is unalterable and must be borne. And it
cannot be withstood by means of faith in progress. We must learn to
hope in the absence of an expectation of progress. If this sounds almost
nonsensical to the modern ear, perhaps it is because we have been told
for so long that progress is the rational thing to hope for.
While no element of our life is unalterable, suffering is the unalter
able price to be paid for changing it. It is this condition that we have no
choice but to accept as a whole or to reject through the hypocrisy of
optimism.25 In a famous note, Nietzsche embodies the two choices as
"Dionysus and the Crucified": "The problem is that of the meaning of
suffering: whether a Christian meaning or a tragic meaning." We can
surely struggle to alter those elements of life within our purview, but we
will still be faced with the larger question where we cannot pick and
choose. One alternative is to reject life, and its afflictions, as a whole:
"The god on the cross is a curse on life, a signpost to seek redemption
from life." The other is to embrace life, with all the suffering entailed,
both for ourselves and for others: "Dionysus cut to pieces is a promise of
life: it will be eternally reborn and return again from destruction" ( WP
1052). If one accepts the pessimistic assessment of the world as a place of
chaos and dissonance, one faces the choice of retreating from it
wholesale or embracing it and trying to "let a harmony sound forth from
every conflict" ( WP 852).
IV
George Steiner, as far as I can tell, did not use the term "pessimism,"
or its cognates, in The Death of Tragedy; but his interpretation has been
characterized as pessimistic and, it must be said, with considerable
justice?so long as we use Nietzsche's understanding of this term, rather
than the conventional one. For Steiner's interpretation of tragedy
repeats important elements of Nietzsche's view. First, there is the natural
condition of disorder and flux in the world, which is expressed in
tragedy: "Tragedy," Steiner writes, "would have us know that there is in
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TRAGEDY, PESSIMISM, NIETZSCHE 99
University of Virginia
NOTES
1 Friedrich W. Nietzsche, The Birth of Tragedy and The Case of Wagner (New York: Vintage
Books, 1967), 21; hereafter cited in text as BT or CW, as appropriate.
2 Terry Eagleton, Sweet Violence: The Idea of the Tragic (Oxford: Blackwell, 2003), 20.
3 Paul Gordon, Tragedy After Nietzsche: Rapturous Superabundance (Urbana: University of
Illinois Press, 2001), 22.
4 Albert Camus, Resistance, Rebellion and Death (New York: Vintage Books, 1974), 57.
5 See "pessimism," in the Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed.
6 In the nineteenth century, one would list at least Leopardi, Eduard von Hartmann,
and then Hippolyte Taine; in the twentieth, Weber, Horkheimer and Adorno, Camus,
Cioran, and so on. Relaxing one's definitions a bit, a much longer list (including such
figures as Freud, Heidegger, Unamuno, and Sartre) could be generated. But I cannot take
up here the question of the proper boundaries of pessimistic thinking.
7 See Joshua Foa Dienstag, "The Pessimistic Spirit," Philosophy & Social Criticism 25
(1999): 71-95.
8 Arthur Schopenhauer, Essays and Aphorisms (New York: Penguin Books, 1970), 51.
9 Friedrich Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil (New York: Penguin Books, 1966), 111.
10 Friedrich Nietzsche, Human, All-Too-Human (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1986), 211.
11 Friedrich Nietzsche, The Gay Science (New York: Vintage Books, 1974), 331, hereafter
cited in text as GS.
12 Friedrich Nietzsche, Werke Kritische Gesamtausgabe, ed. Giorgio Colli and Mazzino
Montinari (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1967ff.), 3.3.73; hereafter cited in text as KGW by
volume, book, and page numbers.
13 A parallel analysis, but without the emphasis on pessimism, is offered by Tracy Strong,
Friedrich Nietzsche and the Politics of Transfiguration (Berkeley: University of California Press,
1988), 152ff; hereafter cited in text as PT.
14 Friedrich Nietzsche, Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks (Washington: Regnery
Gateway, 1962), 45 (see Werke Kritische Gesamtausgabe 3.2.312). This is a translation of
Nietzsche's German translation of the Greek original, which he slightly adapted to suit his
own understanding. A standard English translation of the pre-Socratics renders
Anaximander's fragment thus: "And the source of coming-to-be for existing things is that
into which destruction, too, happens 'according to necessity; for they pay penalty and
retribution to each other for their injustice according to the assessment of Time'" (G.S.
Kirk, J.E. Raven & M. Schofield, The Presocratic Philosophers [Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1983], 118).
15 Friedrich Nietzsche, Twilight of the Idols (New York: Penguin Books, 1968), 110;
hereafter cited in text as TI; and The Will to Power (New York: Vintage Books, 1967), sec.
851, hereafter cited in text as WP by section number.
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100 NEW LITERARY HISTORY
16 Nietzsche calls this tradition "undisputed," which seems doubtful. Again, however, the
accuracy of Nietzsche's construal of the philological literature and traditions is less
important here than how these were related to his own views.
17 Nietzsche identifies A.W. Schlegel as the originator of the other view; but, while he
proclaims that he gives Schlegel's formulation "a deeper sense," he certainly also
exaggerates his own distance from contemporary German thought about the Greeks.
18 Cited in an unpublished paper by Tracy Strong, "The Tragic Ethos and the Spirit of
Music," 15. I thank Tracy Strong for sharing this paper with me.
19 My brief account of tragedy has underplayed the role of the Apollinian as a counter
balancing element to the Dionysian. In the context of this discussion, however, it is less
salient, since it is the Dionysian element of tragedy that is particularly linked to pessimism
and that Socrates is particularly supposed to object to. Though the Apollinian/Dionysian
contrast is what the book is famous for, it largely disappears from view after the first forty
pages and is replaced by "the new opposition: the Dionysian and the Socratic" {Birth of
Tragedy, 82).
20 Nietzsche's characterizations of Socrates are given without reference to their source;
here it seems clear that he has in mind the conclusions of the Platonic Socrates of Gorgias,
Protagoras, and Republic, that true happiness can come only from virtue and that virtue is
equivalent to knowledge; a rather different Socrates could perhaps be constructed from
the Meno and other early dialogues.
21 I have set to one side here the issue of the anachronism involved in Nietzsche's use of
"pessimism" with regard to the Greeks, though I plan to deal with it elsewhere. Suffice it to
say that Nietzsche believes that the common axiom of a destructive time-bound existence,
shared by figures as diverse as Anaximander and Schopenhauer, justifies the retrospective
labeling of early Greek thought as pessimistic. While I would argue that modern ideas of
progress and pessimism are distinguishable from the ancient ones, this distinction has
more to do with the shape of time predicated by these ideas (rather than time's
destructiveness), which is not central to the argument here. Nietzsche, in any case, might
deny this distinction or date the emergence of "modernity" to Socrates.
I must also set to one side the question of the "truth" of pessimism to Nietzsche. He
does not claim pessimism as a certain product of a deduction, but, rather, as a description
of an ontological condition of living that can be grasped through ordinary experience.
22 The phrase "art of living" is from Pierre Hadot {Philosophy as a Way of Life [Oxford:
Blackwell, 1995], 272), who used it as a description of the intended goal of ancient
philosophy, "an exercise practiced at each instant." See also Alexander Nehamas {The Art
of Living [Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998]), who applies the phrase to
Nietzsche.
23 Friedrich Nietzsche, Thus Spake Zarathustra (New York: Penguin Books, 1966), 137ff.
24 Furchtbaren und fragw?rdigen could also be translated as, say, "terrible and doubtful."
For other uses of this term, see, for example, The Will to Power (852) and The Gay Science
(370). The phrase always refers to those things that the pessimist can bear the sight of
while others cannot.
25 Or suicide. This is perhaps what Camus had in mind when he wrote, "There is but one
truly serious philosophical problem, and that is suicide" (Albert Camus, The Myth of
Sisyphus [New York: Vintage Books, 1983], 3).
26 George Steiner, TheDeath of Tragedy (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1961), 128; hereafter
cited in text as DT.
27 Raymond Williams, Modern Tragedy (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1966), 54.
28 Williams's account of Nietzsche emphasizes this point. See Modern Tragedy, 41ff.
29 It is not often noted that Steiner repeats this point in miniature as well. The title of
Steiner's book actually overstates his case, for example: "It is not a play but an opera that
now holds out the most distinct promise of a future for tragedy" {Death of Tragedy, 289).
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TRAGEDY, PESSIMISM, NIETZSCHE 101
30 This is also the result, it should be noticed, of Williams's view, for example, "The ages
of comparatively stable belief ... do not seem to produce tragedy of any intensity" (Modern
Tragedy, 54).
31 Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958),
178.
32 Lily Bart, Wharton's protagonist, is slowly stripped of her social standing until she is
utterly alone, at which point she dies. But, like, Antigone, she goes "to the halls of Death
alive and breathing" (Sophocles, The Three Theban Plays [New York: Penguin Books, 1982],
102). Amores Perros has multiple, intersecting plots too complicated to describe here, but I
believe it too projects an overall ethos of unavoidable doom and simultaneously vibrant
life.
33 Camus, The Myth of Sisyphus, 119.
34 Arthur Schopenhauer, The World as Will and Representation (New York: Dover Books,
1966),1:322.
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