Chapter 5 Electrical Properties of Rocks and Minerals 5.1. CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL METHODS Electrical prospecting involves the detection of sur- {ace effects produced by electric current flow in the ground. There is a much greater variety of tech- niques available than in the other prospecting meth- ods, where one makes use of a single field of force or anomalous property ~ gravitation, magnetism, elas- ticity, radioactivity. Using electrical methods, one may measure potentials, currents, and electromag- netic fields that occur naturally ~ or are introduced artificially - in the earth. Furthermore, the measure- ments can be made in a variety of ways to determine a variety of results. Basically, however, it is the enormous variation in electrical conductivity found in different rocks and minerals that makes these techniques possible Electrical methods include self-potential (SP), tel~ luric currents and magnetotelluries (MT), resistivity, including mise-&-la-masse, electromagnetic (EM), in- cluding AFMAG, and induced polarization (IP). ‘They are often classified by the type of energy source involved, that is, natural or artificial. On this basis the first three and AFMAG above are grouped under natural sources and the remainder as artificial. Such a classification can be made for prospecting methods in general. Hence gravity, magnetics, and radioactiv- ity are included in the natural source methods, whereas seismic requires artificial exergy. In the following chapters we shali study the elec- trical methods in a slightly different sequence, group- ing three natural source methods together but considering AFMAG with EM, because the field techniques are quite similar. For the same reason IP will be considered immediately after resistivity. 5.2. ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCKS AND MINERALS 5.2.1. Electrical Potentials (a) General. Several electrical properties of rocks and minerals are significant in electrical prospecting. ‘They are natural electrical potentials, electrical con- ductivity (or the inverse, electrical resistivity), and the dielectric constant. Magnetic permeability is also an indirect factor. Of these, electrical conductivity is by far the most important, whereas the others are of minor significance. Certain natural or spontaneous potentials occur- ring in the subsurface are caused by electrochemical or mechanical activity. The controiling factor in all cases is underground water. These potentials are associated with weathering of sulfide mineral bodies, variation in rock properties (mineral content) at geo- logical contacts, bioelectric activity of organic mate- rial, corrosion, thermal and pressure gradients in underground fluids, and other phenomena of similar nature. There are four principal mechanisms produc- ing these potentials; the first is mechanical, the latter three chemical. (b) Electrokinetic potential. Also known as streaming potential, this is observed when a solution of electrical resistivity p and viscosity 7 is forced through a capillary or porous medium. The resultant potential difference between the ends of the passage is S8Pkp Fe (3.1)284 where { is the adsorption (zeta) potential, SP is the pressure difference, and X is the solution dielectric constant. ‘The quantity £ is the potential of a double layer (solid-liquid) between the solid and solution. Al- though generally of minor importance, the streaming effect may be the cause of occasional large anomalies associated with topography. It is also observed in self-potential well logging, where the drilling fluid penetrates porous formations (§11.3.1). (c) Liquid-junction (diffusion) potential. This is due to the difference in mobilities of various ions in solutions of different concentrations. The value is given by ROT -1) (G Ey Fl, 1) i 2} (5.2a) where R is the gas constant (8.31 1/°C), F is the Faraday constant (9.65 x 10* C/mol), @ is the abso- lute temperature, nis the valence, J, and J, are the mobilities of anions and cations, and C, and C, are the solution concentrations. In NaCl solutions, I,/T, = 149, hence at 25°C, Ey= -M16'0e(6/G) (5.26) E, is in millivolts. {d) Shale (Nernst) potential, When two identical metal electrodes are immersed in a homogeneous solution, there is no potential difference between them. If, however, the concentrations at the two electrodes are different, there is a potential difference given by (53a) Forn=1, 6 volts) 298 K, this becomes (£, in mill- = 59.1 108(,/G) (5.36) ‘The combined diffusion and Nernst potentials are known as the electrochemical, or static, sel-potential. For NaCl at T°C, the electrochemical self-potential (in millivolts) is n(G) #0 (7+ 273) IF When the concentrations are in the ratio 5:1, E, = £50 mV at 25°C, Electrical properties of rocks and minerals (e) Mineralization potential, When two dissimilar metal electrodes are immersed in a homogeneous solution, a potential difference exists between the electrodes. This electrolytic contact potential, along with the static self-potential, considered in Section 521 b, c, d is undoubtedly among the basic causes of the large potentials associated with certain min- eral zones and known as mineralization potentials. ‘These potentials, which are especially pronounced in zones containing sulfides, graphite, and magnetite, are much larger than those described in the preced- ing sections; values of several hundred millivolts are ‘common and potentials greater than 1 V have been observed in zones of graphite and alunite. Because of the large magnitude, mineralization potentials can- not be attributed solely to the electrochemical poten- tials described earlier. The presence of metallic con- ductors in appreciable concentrations appears to be necessary condition; nevertheless, the exact mecha- nism is not entirely clear, as will be seen in the more detailed discussion of mineralization potentials in Section 6.1.1 in connection with the self-potential prospecting method. ‘Other sources of electrical potentials in the earth should be mentioned. From Equations (5.2a) and (5.3a) it can be seen that the magnitude of the static self-potential depends on temperature; this thermal effect is analogous to the pressure difference in streaming potential and is of minor importance. Ob- viously metal corrosion — of underground pipes, ca bles, etc. ~ is a local source of electrochemical poten- tial. Large-scale earth currents (§6.2.1) induced from the ionosphere, nuclear blasts, thunderstorms (see AFMAG, §7.4.2e), and the like create small, erratic earth potentials. Currents of bioelectric origin flow- ing, for instance, in plant roots are also a source of earth potentials. Negative potentials of 100 mV have been reported in this connection, in passing from cleared ground to wooded areas. Most of the earth potentials discussed above are relatively permanent in time and place, Of the vari- able types, only telluric and AFMAG sources have been employed in prospecting. When measuring static potentials these fluctuations cause a back- ground noise and may be a nuisance. 5.2.2. Electrical Conductivities (2) General, Electric current may be propagated in rocks and minerals in three ways: electronic (ohmic), electrolytic, and dielectric conduction. The first is the normal type of current flow in materials containing free electrons such as the metals. In an electrolyte the current is carried by ions at a comparatively slow rate. Dielectric conduction takes place in poor con- ductors of insulators, which have very few free carri-Electrical properties Table 5.1, Resistivities of minerals: 285 Mineral Formula Range ‘Average Bismuthinite iS 18-570 Covellite cus 3x 1077-8 x 1075 2x jo"? Chaleocite cus 3x 1075-06 ot Chalcopyrite Cufes, 4a x 1075-03 4x 1073 Bornite CugFeSy 25 x 1073-05 3x 107? Pyrite FeS; 2.9 x 1078-15 3x 1077 Pyrthotite Feb 65 x 107825 x 107? yor! Cinnabar gs 2x Molybdenite MoS, 1079= 10° 10 Galena PbS 3 1078-3 x 10? 2x 1079 Millerite NS 3x 1077 Stannite CugFesns, 1077-6 x10? Stibrite 108-10? 5x10 Sphalerite 2n8' 15 = 107 10 Cobaltite Coass 35 x 1074-1077 Arsenopyrite Feass 2x 1075-15 107? Niccolite Nias 10-7=2 x 10-9 2x 107? Bauxite AQ) 0H;0 2x 102-6 x10? Cuprite C0 40-3300, 30 Chromite FeCQO, 1-108 Specularite FeO 6x 10-3 Hematite fe 35,x1979-107 Limonite egy 3H, 10-107 Magnetite Fey 5 x J073-5.7 x 10 lmenite FeTiO, 1073-50 Wolframite Fe, Mn, WO, 10-108 Pyrolusite MnO, 5x 1079-10 Quartz SiO, 4x 108-2 x 10" Cassiterite SO, 4x 1074-10 02 Rutile TiOy 30-1000 500 Unaninite (pitchblende) vo, 1-200 Anhydrite GaSb, 10 Calcite aco, 2x 108 Fluorite CaF, Bx 10 Siderite Fe,{CO,)s 7 Rock salt Nac 30-108 Sylvite ) io" - 107 Diamond c 10-10" Serpentine 2x 102-3 x10? Hornblende 2x 102-108 Mica 9x 108-10" Biotite 2x 10-108, Bitum. coal 06-10 Anthracite 30"3=2 x 108 Ugnite 9-200 Fire clay 0 Meteoric waters 30-10 Surface waters (ign. rocks) 01-3 x10 Surface waters (sediments) 10-100 Soll waters 100 Natural waters (ign. rocks) 05-150 9 Natural waters (sediments) 1-100 3 sea water 02 Saline waters, 3% 015 Saline waters, 20% 0.05286 ers or none at all. Under the influence of an external varying electric field, the atomic electrons are dis- placed slightly with respect to their nuclei; this slight relative separation of negative and positive charges is known as dielectric polarization of the material and it produces a current known as the displacement current. (b) Electronic conduction. The electrical resistivity of a cylindrical solid of length Z and cross section A. having resistance R between the end faces, is given by p= RA/L (5.5) If A is in square meters, L in meters, and R in ‘ohms, the resistivity unit is the obm-meter (fm). For dimensions in centimeters the unit becomes the cobm-centimeter (fem): 1 fm = 100 Bem, The resistance R is given in terms of the voltage V applied across the ends of the cylinder and the resultant current I flowing through it, by Obm’s law: R=v/l where R is in ohms and the units of V and / are volts and amperes. ‘The reciprocal of resistivity is the conductivity 0, where the units are siemens per meter (S/m). Then a= 1/p= L/RA = (1/A)/(V/L) = J/E (58) where J is the current density (A/m?) and & is the electric field (V/m). (c) Electrolytic conduction. Because most rocks are poot conductors, their resistivities would be ex- tremely large were it not for the fact that they are usually porous and the pores are filed with fiuids, mainly water. As a result the rocks are electrolytic conductors, whose effective resistivity may be defined as in Equation (5.5), where the propagation of cur- rent is by ionic conduction ~ by molecules having an excess of deficiency of electrons. Hence the resistiv- ity varies with the mobility, concentration, and de- gree of dissociation of the ions; the latter depends on the dielectric constant of the solvent. As mentioned previously, the current flow is not only slow com- pared to obmic conduction, but represents an actual transport of material, usually resulting in chemical transformation. The conductivity of a porous rock varies with the volume and arrangement of the pores and even more with the conductivity and amount of contained wa- ter. According to the empirical formula due to Archie 4942), 2, = a8 "Soy (3.7) Electrical properties of rocks and minerals where is the fractional pore volume (porosity), S is the fraction of the pores containing water, py is the resistivity of water, n= 2, and a,m are con- stants, 05 1, this simplifies to Pe Pa Sere 5.10) ms a Ce If the layer of resistivity p, is for water-saturated beds, this ratio might be quite large. (d) Dielectric conduction, The mechanism of di- electric conduction - the displacement current - was described briefly at the beginning of this section, where it was pointed out that the displacement cur- rent flows only in nonconductors when the external electric field changes with time. The significant pa- rameter in dielectric conduction is the dielectric constant k, sometimes called the specific inductiveElectrical properties 287 Figure $.1. Anisotropic resistivity as a result of horizontal bedding. capacity of the medium. In analogy with magnetic quantities M, H, k, B, and w (§3.2.1) we have an electrostatic set: electric polarization (electric dipole ‘moment/unit volume) P, electric field strength E, electric susceptibility 9, electric displacement (flux/unit area) D, and dielectric constant k. In electrostatic units, the relations between these are PenE D=E+4nP = E(1 + 40m) = kE (5.1) whereas in mks units, PanE D=qE+P=E(egt9) =e£ (5.12) and the dielectric constant k = 1 + 9/¢ = ¢/to In electrostatic units, P, E and D are volts per centimeter and y and k are dimensionless. In mks units ¢, ¢9, and m are in farads per meter, P, D are in coulombs per square meter, E is in volts per meter, and k is again dimensionless and the same in either system. ‘The dielectric constant is similar to the conductiv- ity in porous formations in that it varies with the amount of water present (note that water has a very large dielectric constant; see Table 3.5). We shall see in Section 6.2.3 that displacement currents are of secondary importance in earth materials because electrical prospecting methods generally employ low frequencies. 5.2.3. Magnetic Permeability Where EM sources are employed, the voltage in- duced in a subsurface conductor varies not only with the rate of change of magnetic field, but also with the magnetic permeability of the conductor. From Maxwell's equation, aH xE= 1 v a we see that currents induced in the ground are enhanced by the factor p. Practically, however, the permeability rarely is appreciably greater than unity, except for a few magnetic minerals (§5.4.3); conse- quently it is of no particular significance in electrical work, except when Fe,0, is present in large concen- tration. 5.2, Where a steady current is passed through an elec- trolytic conductor containing mineral particles it is possible, as described in Section 5.3.1, to determine the effective resistivity. If a current is suddenly switched on or off in a circuit containing an elec- trolyte, a finite time elapses before the potential increases to a fixed value or drops to zero. The delayed buildup or decay of current is characteristic of electrolytic conduction, and is due to accumula- tion of ions at interfaces between the electrolyte and mineral particles. As a result, a potential opposing Polarization Potentials288 Areas A Wein cap inereun, on) Electrical properties of rocks and minerals High impedance Figure 5.2. Simplified schematic of equipment for measuring resistivity of core samples. the normal current flow is developed across the interface. A similar effect is observed at the contact between electrolytes and clay particles. These are known as polarization potentials; the process is called the induced polarization effect. Induced polarization (IP) prospecting involves these interface potentials. ‘They will be considered in more detail in Section 9.2. 5.3. MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCKS AND MINERALS 5.3.1. Laboratory Measurement of Resistivity In order to measure directly the true resistivity of a tock, mineral, electrolyte, and so forth, sary to shape the sample in some regular form, such as a cylinder, cube, of bar of regular cross section, An experimental arrangement is shown in Figure 5.2 ‘The main difficulty is in making good electrical contact, particularly for the current electrodes. For this purpose tinfoil or mercury electrodes may be used and it is generally necessary to apply pressure to the current electrodes; sometimes the ends of the sample are dipped in soft solder. From Figure 5.2 and Equation (5.6) the resistivity is given by pmAV/LI ‘The power source may be de or preferably low frequency ac (400 Hz or less). The possibility of anisotropy can be checked by measuring the resistiv- ity in two directions, provided the shape is suitable for this. Obviously one can make these measurements in the field as well, on drill core, grab samples, even outcrop, if the electrode contact is reasonably good. Estimates of resistivity, made on samples by using an obmmeter and merely pressing or scraping the termi- nals of the leads against the surface however, are not very trustworthy. 5.3.2, Measurement of Dielectric Constant ‘An ac bridge may also be used to measure the resistivity of soils and electrolytes. At audio frequen- cies any reactive component — normally capaci- tive- must be accounted for in order to get a good bridge balance. Consequently the measurement de- termines the effective capacitance, as well as resistiv- ity, of the specimen. Since capacitance varies with the dielectric constant of the material, it is thus possible to determine the latter by substitution. The Schering capacitance bridge is suitable for this mea- surement in the laboratory (Hague, 1957).Typical values of electrical constants Table 5.2. Resistivities of various ores 289 Ore ‘Other minerals Gangue (am) Pyrite 18% 2% (chalco) 0% 300 6% 5% (ZnS) + 15% 20% 09 95% 5% (25) 10 Pyrrhotite 41% 59% 22x 1074 79% 2% 44 x 1075 95% 5% 14 x 19-5 Sb, in quartz 4x 109-3 x 107 FeAss 60% FeS 20% 20% SiO, 039 FeAsS. {0- 4-10"? CusFeS, ye CugFeSy 40% 60% SiO» 7x 10-2 Fe, Mn, WO, Coass 107-107 PbS, near massive 08 Fe, 01-300, Fej0s, massive 25 x10 ron Fe, 60% 45 75% brown iron oxide 25% 2x 108-8 x 108 FeO, 5x 10?-8 x 10 Tine 30% 5% PbS, 15% Fes 50% 075 20% 10% PbS, 10% Fes 17 x10 90% 5% PbS st 130 Graphitic state 0:3 Graphite, massive 1074-5 x 1073 MoS, 2x 107-4 x 10° MaG, colloidal ore Cos CuFes, CuFeS; 90% 2% FeS 8% SIO, FeCrO, 5.4, TYPICAL VALUES OF ELECTRICAL CONSTANTS OF ROCKS AND MINERALS 5. Resistivities of Rocks and Minerals Of all the physical properties of rocks and minerals, electrical resistivity shows the greatest variation. Whereas the range in density, elastic wave velocity, and radioactive content is quite small, in magnetic ibility it may be as large as 10°. However, the resistivity-of metallic minerals may be as small as 10> Qm, that of dry, close-grained rocks, like gab- bro as large as 107 Om. The maximum possible range is even greater, from native silver (1.6 x 10™* Qm) to pure sulfur (10'* Qm). A conductor is usually defined as a material of resistivity less than 10~* Qm, whereas an insulator is one having a resistivity greater than 107 Qm. Be- tween these limits lie the semiconductors, The metals and graphite are all conductors; they contain a large number of free electrons whose mobility is very great, The semiconductors also carry current by mo- bile electrons but have fewer of them. The insulators are characterized by ionic bonding so that the va- lence electrons are not free to move; the charge carriers are ions that must overcome larger barrier potentials than exist either in the semiconductors or conductors. A further difference between conductors and semiconductors is found in their respective variation with temperature. The former vary inversely with temperature and have their highest conductivities in the region of 0 K, The semiconductors, on the other hand, are practically insulators at low temperatures. In a looser classification, rocks and minerals are considered to be good, intermediate, and poor con- ductors within the following ranges: (a) Minerals of resistivity 10-* to about 1 Sm. (b) Minerals and rocks of resistivity 1 to 107 Qm. (©) Minerals and rocks of resistivity above 10’ 2m. Group (a) includes the metals, graphite, the sul- fides except for sphalerite, cinnabar and stibnite, all the arsenides and sulfo-arsenides except SbAs,, the antimonides except for some lead compounds, the290 Table 5.3. Resistivities of various rocks and sediments Electrical properties of rocks and minerals Table 5.4, Variation of rock resistivity with water content Rock type Resistivity range (m) Rock %H,0 > (am) Granite porphyry 45 x 10° (wet)-1.3 x 108 (dy) Siltstone osa 15 x 108 Feldspar porphyry 4 x 10* (wet) siltstone 038 56 x 108 Syenite 108-108 Coarse grain $5 039 96 x 108 Diorite porphyry 1.9. 10 (wet!-28 x 10° (dry) Coarse grain SS 018 10 Porphyrite 10-5 x 104 (wet)~3.3 x 10° (dry) Medium grain SS 10 42x 107 Carbonatized Medium grain $5 on 14x 108 porphyry 25 X 10? (wet) - 6 x 104 (dry) Graywacke SS 1.16 47 X10 Quartz diorte 2x 10-2 x 108 (wet) Graywacke $8 045 58x 108 18 x 10° (dry) Atkosic $5 10 14x10? Porphyry (various) 60-10 ‘Organic limestone " 06 x 10? Dacite 2x 10" (wet) Dolomite 13 6x10? Andesite 45 X10" (wet)=1.7 x 107 (dry) Dolomite 096 8x10 Diabase (various) 20-5 x 10” Peridotite on 3x10 lavas 10-5 x 108 Peridotite ° 18x10? Gabbro 10-108 Pyrophylite 076 6x 10° Basalt 10-13 107 (dey) Pyrophylite 0 wr Olivine norite 109-6 x 10 (wet) Granite o31 44x10 Peridonte 3X 10? (wet) 6.5 X 10? (dey) Granite 019 18x 108 Hornfels, 8 x 108 (wet) ~6 x 107 (dry) Granite ° 108 Schists Diorite 002 58 x 10° (calcareous Diorite ° 6 x 108 and mica} 20-108 Basalt 0.95 4x 104 Tufts 2 10? (wet) 108 (dry) Basalt ° 13x 10° Graphite schist 10-10? Olivine-pyrox 0.028 7x 108 Siates (various) 6 X 104 x 107 Olivine-pyrox. ° 56x 107 Gneiss (various) 68 X 10* (wet)~3 x 10° (dry) Marble 10°25 x 10° (dry) Skarn 25 x 10? (wet)~25 x 108 (dry) Quartaites (various) 10-2 x 108 Consolidated shales 20-210? Aggillites 10-8 x 10? Conglomerates 2x 10°- 10 Sandstones 1-64 x 10° Limestone 50-107 Dolomite 35x 107-5 x10? Unconsolidated wel clay 20 Maris 3-70 Clays 1100 Oil sands 4-600 tellurides, and some oxides such as magnetite, man- ganite, pyrolusite, and ilmenite, Most oxides, ores, and porous rocks containing water are intermediate conductors. The common rock-forming minerals, sil- ‘cates, phosphates and the carbonates, nitrates, sul- fates, borates, and so forth, are poor conductors. The following tables list characteristic resistivities for various minerals and rocks. The data are from various sources, including Heiland (1940, Ch. 10), Takosky (1950, Ch. 5), Parasnis (1956, 1966, Ch. 6), Keller (1966), and Parkhomenko (1967). Resistivities of the variovs metals in pure form, from antimony to zinc, vary by only about 2 orders of magnitude. (Bi ~ 1.2 10-* Om, Ag = 16 x 10° Qm). Tellurium is an exception (* 10-? 2m). Two other elements of common occurrence are graphite (5 x 10-7 to 10 9m range, = 10-? 2m average) and sulfur (107-10 2m range, = 10! Om average). The variation in resistivity of particular minerals is enormous, as can be seen from Table 5.1. Among the more common minerals, pyrrhotite and graphite appear to be the most consistent good conductors, whereas pyrite, galena, and magnetite are often poor conductors in bulk form, although the individual crystals have high conductivity. Hematite and spha- lerite, in pure form, are practically insulators, but when combined with impurities may have resistivi- ties as low as 0.1 Om. Graphite is often the connect- ing link in mineral zones, which makes them good conductors. The range of resistivities of various waters is notably smaller than for solid minerals; the actual resistivities are also lower than those of a great many minerals. Table 5.2 from Parkhomenko (1967) lists resistivi- for a variety of ores. In general it appears that pyrthotite in massive form has the lowest resistivity, that the resistivity of zine ores is surprisingly low (possibly due to the presence of lead and copper fractions), and that molybdenite, chromite, and iron ores have values in the range of many rocks. Table 5.3 lists typical values for rocks and uncon- solidated sediments. The ranges are quite similar to that for water, which is the controlling factor in many rocks.Typical values of electrical constants Very roughly, igneous rocks have the highest re- sistivity, sediments the lowest, with metamorphic rocks intermediate. However, there is considerable overlapping, as in other physical properties. In addi- tion, the resistivities of particular rock types vary with age and lithology, because the porosity of the rock and salinity of the contained ‘vater are affected by both. For example, the resistivity range of Pre- cambrian volcanics is 200-5,000 Om, whereas for Quaternary rocks of the same kind it is 10-200 m. ‘The effect of water content on the bulk resistivity of rocks is evident from Table 5.3. Further data are listed in Table 5.4, where samples with variable amounts of water are shown. In most cases a small change in the percentage of water affects the resistiv- ity enormously. As the depth of penetration of electrical methods is increased with new and refined equipment, it is found that the significance of water in lowering bulk resistivity of crustal rocks gradually decreases with increasing depth, whereas that of temperature and pressure increases, Hermance (1973) carried out deep sounding resistivity and magnetote!luric surveys in Iceland that indicated crust resistivities decreasing from 100 to 10 &m in the depth range 2 to 12 km. Because this is a geothermal area straddling the Atlantic Ridge, one would expect anomalous low resistivities at shallow (<2 km) depth, However, modeling of the data suggested that water persisted to 8 to 10 km depth, whereas solid conduction in dry crustal rocks at high temperatures (700 to 1,000°C) and pressures (1 to 4 kb) became dominant below this. Subsequent laboratory studies on dry granites, basalts, and gabbros in the temperature range 500 to 1,000°C by Kariya and Shankland (1983) provided rough agreement with the results of Hermance and showed a 2-order decrease in resistivity over the 500°C temperature change. 5.4.2. Dielectric Constants of Rocks and Minerals As mentioned previously, the dielectric constant is a measure of the electrical polarization resulting from an applied electric field. This polarization may be electronic, ionic, or molecular. The first type is char- acteristic of all nonconductors. Ionic displacement occurs in many rock-forming minerals, whereas wa- ter and the hydrocarbons are the oaly common ma- terials that exhibit molecular polarization, Because of the relatively slow mobilities of the charge carriers, molecular polarization - the largest of the three effects and ionic polarization are in- gnificamt at very high frequencies. Thus the diclec- tric constant, which is proportional to the degree of 2 g Table 5.5. Dielectric constants of rocks and minerals Rock, mineral Dielectric const. Gatena 18 Sphalerite 79-697 Cassiterite 2 Hematite 23 Fluorite 62-68 Calcite 78-85 Apatite 74-117 Barite 7-122 Peridotite 86 Norite 6 Quartz porphyry 14-493 Diabase 105-345 Tap 189-398 Dacite 68-82 Obsidian 58-104 Sulphur 36-47 Rock salt 56 Anthracite 56-63 ‘Gypsum 5-115 Biotite 47-93 Epidote 76-154 Plagioclase feldspar 54-74 Quartz 42-5 Granite (dry) 48-189 Gabbro as-40 Diorite 60 Serpentine 66 Gneiss 85 Sandstone (dry to moist) 47-12 Packed sand (dry to moist) 29-105 Soil (dry to moist) 39-294 Basalt 2 Clays (dry to moist) 783 Petroleum 207-214 Water (20°C) 8036 kee 3-43 Table 56. Magnetic permeabilities Mineral Permability Magnetite 5 Pyrrhotite 255 Titanomagnetite 155, Hematite +05 Pyrite 1.005 Rutile 1.000035, Calcite 0.999987 Quartz 9.999985, Homblende 1.00015, polarization, varies inversely with frequency. It is also indicative of the amount of water present, be- cause water has a dielectric constant of 80 at low frequencies. Table 5.5 lists dielectric constants for various minerals and rocks. Most of the measurements have been made at frequencies of 100 kHz and up. For very low frequencies the values would be generally292 higher by about 30%. In exceptional cases one ex- ample being certain ice samples the results have been larger by several orders of magnitude. 5.4.3. Magnetic Permeability of Minerals The effect of on electrical measurements is very slight except in the case of concentrated magnetite, pi 1+ 4k’ incgs units wo1+k inSlunits and p’ are dimensionless. Generally is too small to change » appreciably from unity. Table 5.6 lists ‘maximum permeabilities of some common minerals. Electrical properties of rocks and minerals REFERENCES Archie, G. E. 1942, The electric resistivity log as an aid in ‘determining some reservoir characteristics. Tran. AIME 146, 54-62. Hague, B. 1957" Alternative Current Bridge Methods ‘London: Pitman, Heiland, C, A. 1940. Geophysical Exploration, New York: Prentice-Hall Hermance, J. F. 1973. An electrical model for the sub- Icelandic crust. Geophysics 38, 3-13. Jakosky, J.J. 1950. Exploration Geophysics. Newport Beach, CA: Teja. Kariya, K. A. and Shankland, 7, J. 1983, Flectrical conductivity of dry lower crustal rocks. Geaphyricr 48, 52-61 Keller, G. V. 1966. In Handbook of Phytical Constante, S.P. Clark, Ir, ed. Geol. Soc. Am. Memoir 97, $53~76, Pasasnis. D. S. 1956, The electrical resistivity off some sulphide and oxide minerals and their ores. Geophys. Prosp. 4, 249-19. Parasnis, D. 1966. Mining Geophysics. Amsterdam: Elsevier Parkhomenko, E. 1. 1967. Electrical Properties of Racks, G. V. Keller, transl. New York: Plenum,