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Summary:
Welcome to the ME-242 laboratory! In this laboratory you will perform hands-
on experiments with the Instron tensile test machine and conduct analyses that will allow
you to determine the materials properties of several test articles. These materials properties
will include:
yield strength
tensile strength
elongation
Before testing, you will learn to calibrate the load cell and extensometer and select
appropriate operating conditions. After testing you will need the graphs from your chart
recorders along with the various measurements of sample geometry to calculate sample
properties. Your samples will include some or all of the following:
Instructions:
Your key to success in this lab is to come prepared!
Before arriving at the lab, read through this lab module so that you will understand
what the lab procedure is and how the lab equipment is used.
Each group should answer all the questions on the preliminary question sheet to
be turned in at the beginning of the lab.
Each group will write one report. General guidelines for writing this report may be
found in the section on weekly laboratory reports contained in the lab manual.
Timing: This lab takes the majority of one afternoon (approximately 4-5 hours).
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The resulting prototype was so successful that Mr. Hindman and
Mr. Burr formed Instron Engineering Corporation. The name was
derived from the ‘ins’ in the word instruments and the ‘tron’ in
the word electronics.
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Background:
The background for this lab can be found in most introductory materials science texts
such as Materials Science and Engineering, by Callister.
For a linear elastic material, these parameters are related by Hooke's law,
S E e
where E is Young's modulus. It is implicit here that only axial stresses and strains are of
interest. Otherwise, Hooke's Law is significantly more complex since stress is also
dependent on the strain in other directions. Note, it is assumed S 0 when e 0 so that
S E e represents a line that passes through the origin with E as the slope.
True stress and true strain differ from engineering stress and strain by referring to the
instantaneous areas and gauge lengths respectively. The symbols for these values are the
Greek letters and :
F dli
True stress, and True Strain, d
Ai li
The strain has a natural logarithm dependence because it is determined from the
instantaneous gauge length. To show this, we can integrate the instantaneous true strain
increment d
li
dl
d
0
l
lo
to obtain
l
ln i .
lo
Note that
1 2 1 3 1 4
ln 1 x x x x x ,
2 3 4
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so that when l lo ,
l l
ln o ln 1 e e .
lo
For strains of about 1%, the "error" is of order of or 10 -4. Consequently, there is no
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significant difference in the engineering and true strains when all measurements are of small
strains. The true stress and strain are also related by the modulus E , E since the
modulus is established at a small strain level where Ai is approximately equal to Ao and
li is approximately equal to lo .
A l
ln o ln i .
Ai lo
Thus, Ai Ao exp( ) . Note that a tensile true strain followed by an equal compressive
true strain reproduces that initial length of the specimen. This is not true for engineering
strain.
Returning to our discussion of the properties, the data we will record is the load elongation
curve. Since many materials are rate sensitive, the rate of elongation is controlled during
the tensile test by moving one of the grips at a fixed displacement rate relative to the other.
Usual testing rates correspond to engineering strain rates of about e 10 3 s 1 where the
represents differentiation with respect to time. For example, if the specimen had one
inch gauge length, the displacement of the machine is 10-3 inches per sec. and the load is
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recorded on a strip chart traveling at constant speed, say 1/10 inch per second, then it is
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clear that the 10 s-1 strain rate will produce 10-3 inch displacement in 1/10 inch of chart or
1% strain in one inch of chart. Chart length and strain are then parametric variables, both
dependent on time. This is the simplest way of measuring the load-elongation curve and is
the most common. However, the elongation determined in this way also included the
elongation of the grips, the ends of specimen, the load measuring transducer (load cell) and
the deflection of all the test frame. Typically, at the yield strength of a steel, the other
elongation outside the gauge length is about 5 times larger than the elongation inside the
gauge length.
Consequently, we cannot measure the elastic modulus from the slope of the load vs.
elongation curve determined in this way. To circumvent this problem and make direct
measurements, an extensometer is installed on the specimen that measures displacement
within the gauge length. This transducer is designed to produce a linear voltage output with
respect to displacement. Since the initial gauge length is fixed, the output is then
proportional to the engineering strain. If the load signal (voltage which is proportional to the
applied force) and the extensometer signals are plotted using an X-Y plotter, the initial slope
is then the elastic modulus.
For stability, the load must increase all the time. The tensile deformation is unstable
and strain is no longer uniform when the load reaches a maximum. Deformation
stability is achieved when the specimen hardens during deformation. The result is uniform
elongation. If the hardening rate is too low, a runaway situation called necking develops. To
avoid neck formation, the hardening rate must be faster than the decrease in cross sectional
area
d dA
.
A
dl dA
d .
l A
Substituting, we obtain the requirement for stability
d
.
d
d
When , then dF 0 and the sample is unstable. This can be shown as follows.
d
By definition
F
or F A .
A
dF A d dA .
When the load is maximum, dF 0 and
d
A d dA 0 or .
d
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This is the critical value for the work hardening rate. As a result the specimen may neck
down and begin local deformation. This occurs at the peak load. To determine the true
stress strain behavior beyond the peak load requires knowledge of the non-uniform
geometry of the neck in both the calculation of strain and the stress distribution. In certain
materials, the true stress at fracture can be several times the engineering stress.
Most data you will be exposed to are engineering stress and strain unless otherwise
specified. If there is a yield point, namely, a sharp transition between elastic and plastic
deformation, yield stress is defined as the stress at the yield point. If there is a yield drop,
the maximum stress is the upper yield point and the minimum stress is the lower yield point.
If the curve is smooth, yield stress is defined at a specific amount of plastic strain. Usually
0.2% permanent strain is used to define the yield stress. Then the yield stress is so
identified as S. The proportional limit is the stress where the flow curve first deviates
from linearity. This is intrinsically difficult to measure because it is related to the sensitivity
of your instruments. Try to estimate the proportional limit when you analyze your data. The
ultimate tensile strength is the largest engineering stress achieved during the test to failure.
The elongation to failure is the permanent engineering strain at fracture determined at zero
load. It does not include elastic strain but does include both the uniform strain and the
localized, necking, strain. The elongation to failure is usually stated as percent strain over a
given gauge length. The reduction in area is also a measure of ductility. The true strain at
fracture is determined by measuring the areas of the fractured specimen at the fracture site.
Recall using the constant volume approximation that
Ao
.
Ai
The area under the engineering stress-strain curve is a measure of the energy needed to
fracture the specimen. It has units of energy per unit volume of the gauge length and it is
sometimes referred to as a measure of a material's "toughness." However, the term fracture
toughness more commonly refers to the energy required to propagate a crack per unit area
increase of crack size.
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In order to perform a structural test a special
3-story test frame was constructed in which
dozens of actuators were mounted. The
actuators were attached to the Chandra
optical bench and various loads were applied
that simulated conditions that the structure
might experience during it’s launch into
orbit. In function these actuators are similar
to the Instron’s in that they apply a
controlled load in a specific direction.
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Apparatus:
Fixed Beam
Specimen
Grips
crosshe
ad
Load Cell
Bridge control
and
Chart
Recorder
Console
Up / Down /
Stop Start / Stop
Load Cell and
Buttons
bridge gain Speed control
Console
Load Cell
Shunt
Circuit
Calibration
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Selector
Figures 2 & 3: Control Consoles for Instron Tensile Tester
Next to the test frame is the associated electronics consoles. They contain the main
start/stop controls for testing and the adjustments for the sensitivity of the strain gauge load
cell (a strain gauge bridge) as well as a chart recorder to read the output of the load cell
bridge. The electronics consoles also contains the gear speed selection box for the gearbox
(allows us to select the various strain rates) and the main on/off switches for the instrument,
one to turn the instrument on directly and the other to turn the amplifier for the gearbox
motor on/off (called the Amplidyne switch).
In order to enhance the accuracy of our measurements of Young's Modulus we will add an
extensometer directly to the sample to measure the actual elongation between two given
points on the sample to record the load vs. elongation curve for the elastic region of the
sample only.
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Experimental procedure:
1. Equipment Calibration:
Calibration coefficients for the Instron load cell and extensometer must be generated
in order to convert the voltage data acquired during a tensile test to real data.
Since the extensometer (an LVDT) and the load cell are linear in our testing regions,
two point static calibrations will be sufficient for each device.
Prior to running calibration please switch the “Operation Mode” switch to CAL and
wait for the yellow LED to activate.
a. LVDT Calibration:
i. Run the LabVIEW program “Instron Tensile Tester Fall 2005.vi”
ii. Attach the extensometer to the provided calibration stand ensuring the
extensometer is fully closed.
iii. Measure and record the gage length of the extensometer with vernier
calipers.
iv. While monitoring the voltage output of the load cell on the LabVIEW
program ,zero the voltage output of the extensometer with the “Zero”
control on the LVDT Conditioner.
v. Collect 5 to 10 seconds of data with the Instron Tensile Tester Program
vi. Extend the calibration stand 0.010” and collect a second set of data.
vii. Using Excel, determine the calibration coefficient for the extensometer
in (volts/in).
NOTE: Although we are measuring strain (which is unit-less) with the
LVDT the calibration coefficient will be necessary to determine the
gage length of the test specimen in volts for the software to function
correctly.
After completing calibration please switch the “Operation Mode” switch to Test and
wait for the green LED to re-activate.
2. Measure and record the diameter and lengths of all the samples.
3. Install the first specimen in the grips. Be careful to follow the recommended
installation procedures as given by the instructor so that no damage occurs to you or
the test equipment. Be careful to avoid placing any part of your body at a pinch
point. The final coupling should be performed by trial and error by slipping the pin in
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by hand with the machine stopped. Move the crosshead up and down at a very slow
speed until you can do this manually.
4. Install the calibrated extensometer on the specimen. Be sure that it is centered and
straight and that it is fully closed. Rezero the extensometer with the zero control on
the LVDT Conditioner. Any deviation will be an offset error that will need to be
addressed when scaling your results.
5. Select the appropriate crosshead speed for the material being tested by the table
provided. The Instron speed scale is in cm/min, and the table gives speeds in in/min.
Be sure to do the conversion before continuing!
In the material specs tab on the Instron Tensile Tester.vi, input the following:
a. Crosshead Speed in (in/min)
b. Gage Length (in volts)
c. Strain for LVDT Release (extensometer release) (typically 2% strain is
sufficient)
6. Depress the Strain units button under the Real Time Stacked Plots of Load and Strain
tab in the VI (Virtual Instrument) this will enable the conversion of voltage data from
the extenosometer to strain values. The gage length must be entered correctly
for this feature to work properly.
8. Start Saving data, and select the Load – Strain Graph to view the data acquisition
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(Note, the Load Strain Graph has auto scaling axis, the noisy looking data will
transform as the test begins.)
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9. Double check the following:
a. Your test specimen is properly loaded in the grips of the tensile
tester
b. The lower grip pin is in place
c. The correct crosshead speed is selected.
d. The material specs are input into the LabVIEW VI.
e. The Strain units button is depressed (in the LabVIEW VI).
f. You are saving data.
10.Start the test by pressing the down button on the Instron control console.
11.Observe the specimen. Do not get too close because fracture of the specimen
liberates all the stored elastic energy in the specimen. Do you see bands
propagating along the steel specimen? These are Luders bands indicating the
multiplication and motion of dislocations. They will not be visible unless the
specimen is highly polished.
12.Be sure to record both load vs. time and load vs. strain for the initial portion of the
test. Remove the extensometer when the LabVIEW VI displays the “REMOVE
EXTENSOMETER” on the Load – Strain Graph and continue the test recording
the load vs. time curve until fracture. Observe the neck formation. Note that it occurs
right after the maximum load.
13.Do this for all of you specimens. (You will not use the extensometer on the 0.5 in
diameter plastic specimen.) Use the conditions given in the chart in the appendix for
each of these samples.
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Figure 6: As the specimen approaches ultimate stress the reduction in
area becomes clearly visible. This is referred to as “necking.”
Discussion:
Report the following data for each of the samples if it exists:
Young's modulus
Proportional limit
Upper and lower yield stress
0.2% yield strength
Ultimate strength
% Elongation at fracture
% Reduction in area
Compare your results of Young’s modulus, yield stress, and ultimate strength with published
values. Explain any discrepancies.
1. Determine the error that would result if you calculated Young's modulus from the
load displacement curve without the extensometer clipped on the specimen. Explain the
cause of this error. Consider an in-series spring representing the machine stiffness (that
would also include the grips and the part of the specimen outside of the gage length).
Determine and compare the values of the machine spring constant calculated from the data
for each specimen. Why are these values different?
2. Plot a true-stress versus true-strain curve for the cold rolled steel specimen (Hint:
use a constant volume approximation) and compare to the engineering stress versus
engineering strain plot. Plot only for the region where the calculation is valuable. What is
the limit of the calculation and why?
3. The stress-strain curves for plastics are very different for those of metals (e.g.
aluminum and steel). Explain in terms of the differences in atomic or molecular deformation
mechanisms.
4. The cold worked steel specimen does not show a yield point, the hot worked steel
does. Why? After plastically deforming the sample, would either of these samples show a
yield point upon reloading? Why?
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APPENDIX
Caution:
Changing the chart speed requires replacement of gears. The chart motor has considerable
inertia and requires several seconds to stop. Do not touch the gears while they are moving.
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EXPERIMENT A1 MECHANICAL TESTING
PRELIMINARY QUESTIONS
2. How does a1030 steel differ from a1040 steel? Be specific. Address what the
numbers mean as well as how the properties differ.
4. For a 1020 steel sample with a length of 2.25" and a diameter of .235" calculate the
maximum load you would expect to have to apply to fracture the sample. Based on this
value, what load cell range would you choose and why? Also, estimate the maximum
elongation a 2 inch sample would experience before plastic deformation (estimate this value
assuming yield occurs at 0.2% strain). Based on this value, what crosshead rate would you
choose for your experiment and why? At this crosshead rate, how long would you predict it
would take to fracture the specimen?
5. Assume that the load cell being used is set to a 2000 lb. full scale and has an
accuracy of 2% full scale.
(a) What will be the accuracy in reading a 1000 lb. load (in terms of a % of the
actual load)?
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(b) What will be the accuracy in reading a 200 lb. load (in terms of a % of the
actual load)?
6. Why do we put an extensometer on the sample rather than just use the extension of
the frame of the Instron? Is use of the extensometer important in measuring the elastic
modulus? Is the use of an extensometer valuable for measuring the ultimate strength?
7. Consider the Instron machine (with stiffness km ) and the sample (with stiffness ks ) as
springs in series with total stiffness kt. What is the relationship between these three
stiffnesses? During the test, you must keep track of the scales on each of your charts and
label them appropriately. If your computer gives a plot of force versus crosshead position
and another plot gives the force versus sample elongation from the extensometer clipped on
the specimen, what stiffness would be given by the slopes of each of these plots?
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