Af sienay opis a .N Vike - Radiographic Testing = “=~ % Lh WD Training Handbook. 2SUPISOS Institute of Quality Management Faizan Apartment, "B" Wing, S. V. Road, Jogeshwari (West), Mumbai - 400 102 j Tel. : 6285906, 6280217, 6244832 Fax : 6249457Preface Non destructive testing (NDT) is an important quality control tool. Most of the NDT techniques are designed to find out defects, based on which decision is taken, whether this defect is significant in the product's service life or service conditions. Radiography is one of the major NDT and one of the most widely used method. Radiography uses wide range of equipments accessories and tech- niques. Radiography thus requires qualified and skilled personnel to per- form the job. ‘This handbook is designed to brief the Radiographers about the basic radiation physics, radiation techniques, biological effects and other impor- tant variables, affecting radiography. ‘This handbook is designed, so that it is helpful for the Radiography personnel’s preparing for Level I and Level HI examination as per ASNT- SNT-TC-1A.Syllabus and Examination ‘The Levels of qualification as defined in SNT- TC-1A are as follows: Level I - An NDT Level I individual shall be Qualified to properly perform specific calibrations, Specific NDT and specific evaluations for accep. tance or rejection determination according towrit- ten instructions and to record zesults. The NDT Level I shall receive the necessary instruction or Supervision from a certified iwDT Level Il in dividual or designee. Level It- An NDT Level Il individual shall be Qualified to set up and calibrate equipment and to interpret and evaluate results v*h respect to ap- Plicable codes, standards and specifications. The NDT Level If shall be thoroughly familiar with the Scope and limitations of the methods for which Qualified and should exercise assigned respon- sibility for on-the-job training and guidance of trainees and NDT Level I personnel. The NDT Level II shall be able to organize and report the results of NDT. ‘The syllabus exzmination pattern for Level I and Level II will be as follows: Level I For Level I, following topics are to be covered. 1. Basic Radiation physics covering properties of matter, radioactivity & its production interac. tion of radiation with matter, detection of rad tion, Radioactive sources and X-ray machines, Biological effects of radiation, regulatory aspects and safe work practices, 2. Radiographic Techniques covering basic Principles, exposure techniques, processing of films, image quality and various variables affecting radiograph, Level Il 1. Reviewing the topics covered in Level I. 2. Knowledge about darkroom facilities, tech- niques, processing results covering unsatisfactory radiograph, density measurements etc. 3. Manufacturing process and associated dis- continuities, 4. Special radiographic techniques. 5. Evaluation of weld and castings. 6. Standards, codes and procedures. Examination Pattern 1. Vision examination a. Near vision activity. b. Color contrast differentiation, 2. General examination Awrittcn examination containing 40 questions related to the basic principles and theory of ap- plicable method. 3. Specific examination Awritten examination containing 20 questions Telated to the equipment, operating procedure, techniques, specification or codes of reference. 4, Practical examination ‘The candidate should demonstrate familiarity with and ability to operate the necessary NDT equipment, record and analyze the resultant infor- mation to the degree required. Passing Criteria Each paper - Minimum 70% Composite Grading - Minimum 80%Contents at a Glance (i rrr Introduction xii ‘The Structure of Matter = 1-1 Radiation and Radiation Sources 2-8 Interaction of Radiation with Matter 3-22 Radiation Detection and Recording 4-6 Elements of Industrial Radiography 5-29 Radiographic Techniques 6-45 Special Radiographic Techniques 7-59 Interpretation of Radiographs 8-73 ‘The Biological Effects of Radi 9-87 Regulations and Procedures 10-99 Glossary 11-109Table of Contents EE Introduction Nonéestructive Tests in Modern Industry Reasons for Use of Nondestructive Tests. ‘The Structure of Matter Early Atomic Concen'« Later Atomic Discoveries Particles of Matter Atoms and Elements Molecules and Componls Fundamental Particles ‘The Atom as a Solar System Atomic Number and Weight Isotopes Radiation and Rac lion Sources Electromagnetic Radiation ‘The Photon X-Rays and Gamma Rays Generation of X-rays ‘Transformation of Electron Energy into X-rays Production of Continuous X Radiation Production of Monochromatic X Ra Physical Principles Conservation of Energy Bremsstrahlung Characteristic X-rays ‘Thermionic Emission -10 Absorption “MN Basic Generator Construction 2-1 X-ray Tubes 2-11 Envelope 2-11 Cathode 2-11 Beam Focusing 2-12 Anode 2-13 Target 2-13 Hood 2-14 Coolant 2-14 Tank-type Head 2-14 Production of X-rays 2-14 General Operating Recommendations 2-15Baseline Data Equipment Literature Exposure Charts Focal Spot Size Causes of X-ray Tube Failures Radioactivity Historical Background Natural Radioactivity Half-Life Artificially Produced Radioisotopes Disintegration Mechanisms Measurements of Isotopes Definitions ‘The Curie The Helf-life Gamma Ray Energy Specific Activity Radiation Intensity Exposure to Radiation Characteristic Intensity Inverse Square Law Half-value Layer Specific Isotopes for Radiography Selection of Radiographic Sources Cobalt-60 Iridium-192 Decay Processes Thulium-170 Decay Processes Cesium-137 Source Handling Equipment Requirements Classification Safety Considerations Survey Meter Equipment Dosimetry Equipment Interaction of Radiation with Matter Radiation Absorption Categories of Absorption Absorption of Photons Photoelectric Scattering of Phow Compton Scattering Coherent Scattering Pair Production 2-15 2-15 2-15 2-15 2-15 2-16 2-16 2-16 2-17 2-17 2-17 2-17 2-17 2-18 2-18 2-18 2-18 2-18 2-18 2-18 2-18 2-19 2-19Photodisintegration onization Tonization and tons Ionization by Particles Tonization of Electromagnetic Radiation neers RSEees Radiation Detection and Recording Gaseous Ionization Detectors Mechanism of Ionization Specific lonization Ionization by Gamma Rays Tonization by Neutrons Design Considerations Selection af Gas Ionization Chambers Direct ReadingDosimeters Thermoluminescent Dosimetry LiF Properties BRESSRRRRRRRR 4 4 4 4 4 4 as 4 4 4 4 4 Elements of Industrial Radiography ‘The Process of Radiography ‘The Radiograph Applications of Radiography Industrial Radiography Sources of Radiation Geometric Principles General Considerations Sharpness of Shadows Distortion of Shadows Enlargement Summary Specimen Radiation Scattering ‘Types of Scatter Radiographic Film Radiographic Contrast Subject Contrast, Film Contrast, H & D Curve Speed Gi Film Contrast, Speed, and Graininess Radiographic Lead Foil Screens Fluorescent Screens ininess reensFilm Processing Introduction Developing Stop Bath (Arresting Development) Fixation Washing Drying Film Processing Facilities The Darkroom Equipment DARKROOM DON'TS General Cassettes and Screens Dry Films Chemicals and Solutions Why-Reasons General Cassettes and Screens Dry Films Chemicals and Solutions What to do- Action General Cassettes and Screens Dry Films Chemicals and Solutions Radiographic Techniques Introduction Exposure Calculations Chemicals and Film Processing Films Screens Geometry Specimen - Stee! Equivalent Thickness Radiation Energy Versus Specimen Thickness. Source Emissivity Gamma Ray Exposure Time X-ray Exposure Time. Control of Scatter Exposure Arrangements Unsatisfactory Radiographs High Density Low Density High Radiographic Contrast Low Radiographic Contrast vil 5-39 5-39 5-40 5-41 5-41 5-42 5-42 a Eh gm Baas wan EERRRRRERERESE ANNUPoor Definition 6-57 Fog 6-57 Streaks 6-57 Yellow Stain 6-57 White Scum 6-57 Physical Damage to Film Emulsion 6-58 Miscellaneous Problems 6-58 Special Radiographic Techniques Selection of Equipment Accessory Equipment Diaphragms, Collimiators, and Cones Filters Screens Fluorescent Screens Lead Screens Masking material Penetrameters Shim Stock Film Holders and Cassettes Linear and Angular Measuring Devices Positioning Devices Identification and Orientation Markers Area Shielding Equipment Densitometer X-Ray Exposure Charts Gamma-Ray Exposure Charts Dated Decay Curves Film Characteristic Curves Radiographic Equivalence Factors Special Techniques Fluoroscopy Use of Fluoroscopy Image Amplifier Television Radiography Xeroradiography Exposure ‘Transfer Process Stereoradiography and Double Exposure (Parallax) Stereoradiography Double Exposure (Parallax) Flash Radiography In-motion Radiography Interpretation of Radiographs 8-73 vilBasic Concept General Ideas About Interpretation Acceptable Quality Levels. Specifications, Codes and Standards Specification, Codes, and Reference Standards Specific Interpretations Radiographic Sensitivity Percentage Sensitivity Pentrameters Discontinuity Categories Inherent Discontinuities Wrought Cast Processing Disconti Service Discousinuities Radiography Butt joints with square groove Butt joints with prepared groove Single bevel joints Double bevel joints, J-Groove joints U-Groove joints Radiographs of Welds Gas Holes and Porosity Weld Slag Inclusions Cracks or Breaks Lack of Penetration Lack of Fusion ‘Tungsten Inclusions External Discontinuities Casting Radiography ‘The Casting Process Heating and Cooling 1 Problems Encountered in Casting Radiography ‘The Radiographic Source Radiographic Coverage Radiographic Scheduling Radiographic Interpretation Choice of Reference Radiographs Conclusion Typi Radiographs of Castings Gas Holes Porosity Shrinkage Cavities InclusionsMisruns 8-85 Cold Shuts 8-86 Cracks 8-86 Core Shift 8-86 Hot Tears 8-86 Segregation 8-86 Microshrinkage 8-86 Surface Irregularities. 8-86 ‘The Biological Effects of Radiation 9-87 Sources of Information 9-87 Animal Experiments 9-87 Occupational Experience 9-87 Medical Uses 9-87 Atomic Bombs 9-87 Measurement Units 9-87 Roentgen 9-88 Rem 9-88 Rad 9-88 RBE 9-88 ‘The Nature of the Radiation Health Problem 9-89 External Radiation 9-89 Internal Radiation 9-89 Biological Half-life 9-90 Effective Half-life 9-90 Levels and Symptoms of Radiation Injury 9-90 Mild Dose 9-90 Moderate Dose 9-90 Median Lethal Dose 9-90 Lethal Dose 9-91 ‘Common Terms of Reference 9-91 Radiation Sickness 9-91 Radiation Injury 9-91 Radioactive Poisoning 9-91 Personnel Monitoring 9-91 Permissible Exposure = 9-91 Exposures Exceeding Permissible Exposure 9-92 Maximum Permissible Dose for Occupational Conditions. 9-92 Radiation Banking Concept Physical Examinations Contamination Summary of Biological Effects of Radiation Radio-Sensitivity Classification of Body Cells in Order of Radio-Sensitivity‘Types of Biological Effects of Radiation Somatic Effects ‘The Rate at which the Dose is Administered ‘The Extent of the Body Irradiated ‘The Part of the Body Irradiated ‘The Age of the Individual ‘The Biological Variation Among Individuals Genetic Effects Regulations and Procedures ‘The Authority for AEC Regulations Requirements for a Specific License to Use Byproduct Materials for Radiography Conditions and Control of Licenses General Standards for Protection Against Radiation Definitions Exposure of Individuals to Radiation in Restricted Areas Permissible Levels of Radiation in Unrestricted Areas ‘Symbols and Signs Limits on Levels of Radiation for Radiographic Exposure Devices and Storage Containers Radiation Survey Instruments for Radiographic Operations ‘Tagging Sources Precautionary Procedures Surveys Storage of Licensed Material Personnel Monitoring Caution Signs, Labels, and Signals Instruction of Personnel and Notices to Employees Waste Disposal Security Records, Reports, and Notification Qualifications and Training ‘Training Programs ‘The Initial Training Program Periodic Training On-the-job Training Methods for Determining Qualifications of Personnel Organizational Structure of Radiography Programs Operating and Emergency Procedures Encapsulation of Radioisotopes Leak Testing Sealed Sources ting acteristics of Gamma Radiography Sources Glossary 10-99 10-99 10-99 10-99 10- 100 10-100 10-100 10-100 10- 100 10-101 10-101 10-101 10-101 10-101 10-101 10-101 10-101 10-103 10-103, 10-103, 10-103 10-103, 10-104 10-104 10-104 10-104 10-105 10-105 10-105, 10-105, 10-108 10-108 10- 108 11-109Introduction Nondestructive Tests in Modern Industry In the past two or three decades the art of testing without destroying has developed from a laboratory curiosity to an indispensable tool of Production. No longer is visual examining ade- uate quality. Nondestructive tests in great variety are in world wide use to detect variations in struc- ture, minute changes insurface finish, the presence Of cracks or other physical discontinuities, to ‘measure the thickness of materials and coatings, and to determine other characteristics of industrial Products. Scientists and engineers of many countries have contributed greatly to nondestruc- tive test development and application. Reasons for Use of Nondestructive Tests. Modern nondestructive tests are used by manufacturers for the following reasons : 1. To ensure product reliability. 2. To prevent accidents and save human life. 3. To make a profit for the user. a. To ensure customer satisfaction and to maintain the manufacturer's good name. b. To aid in better product reliability. ¢. To control manufacturing processes. 4. To lower manufacturing costs, ¢. To maintain a uniform quality level, ‘There has been a vast change in NDT technol- gy brought about by the increasing complexity of the products to be tested, and by simultaneous changes in NDT’s supporting technologies: electronics and engineering materials. The fun- damentals, however, remain unchanged, xii Radiography, and all other nondestructive tests, have five essential features : |. supplying a suitable form and distribution of energy from an external source to the test —object; 2. modifying the energy distribution within the test object as a result of its discontinuities or variations in material properties which correlate to serviceability; 3. detecting the change in energy and intensity by a sensitive detector; 4. indicating or recording the energy intensity Measurement from the detector in a form useful for interpretation; and 5. interpreting the indication, and judging the corresponding serviceability of the test ob- ject. Radiographic testing problems are specificand demand specific solutions; as with all nondestrue- tive testing, radiographic tests must be designed for validity and reliability in each individual ap- plications. There is no such thing as a general nondestructive test applicable to every kind of material, part or structure, nor toall their functions or operating conditions. Instead, each test design must be based upon a thorough understanding of the nature and function of the part being tested and of the conditions of it's service. For this reason, specific radiographic proce- dures must be developed, written and adhered to in both the production and the interpretation of the radiographicimage. These procedures must be based on applicable specifications, codes and standards, and the interpreter must be thoroughly familiar with their requirements in order to properly assess the image and product quality.of st The Structure of Matter Early Atomic Concepts __ Speculations about matter extend back to early Greek times. Thus we find that Democritus, a Greek philosopher who lived about 460 B.C, con- sidered matter to be made up of very small in- visible particles. These he called atoms, from the Greek work atomos which means something that cannot be cut. Other Greeks did not accept this idea and believed that all substances were made of earth, water, fire, and air, Aristotle considered matter to be composed of mixtures of the four qualities hot, cold, wet, and dry. Thus, dryness and hotness made fire, dryness and coldness made earth, and wetness and coldness made water. Such theories as these persisted until the seventeenth century when scientific progress really began. At about this time Cassendi of France put forth a theory that the tiny invisible balls of matter had hooks by which they connected together to form a substance. Newton believed that solids, liquids, ‘gases, and light were composed of atoms or small articles that could not be further subdivided, Lavoisier in 1774 proved that airwas composed ‘of two substances-oxygen and nitrogen. He went on to discover and identify twenty of the elements, Later Priestly and Cavendish showed that water was composed of two clements that were normally gases-hydrogen and oxygen. ‘Then it was discovered that when certain cle- ‘ments combined they always did so in a fixed Proportion by weight. John Dalton guessed this meant that elements must be made up of particles that cannot be divided. He also developed some basic ideas about atomic weight using hydrogen as the standard. At about the time of Dalton it was discovered that water could be broken down by connecting two wires to a battery and placing their ends into the water. Oxygen gas bubbled from one wire and hydrogen from the other. Mendeleev in 1869 developed the periodic table of elements. He was able to place the then known elements in order starting with hydrogen, the one with the smallest weight. Certain proper- 1 ties of elements were repeated and they could be placed in groups. Since not all the elements were known, gaps appeared in Mendeleev’s table and he predicted that more elements would be discovered to fill the gaps. He even predicted the properties of these elements. Many of his predictions were found to be correct. Later Atomic Discoveries The Greeks found that if a piece of amber was rubbed with animal fur it acquired the ability to attract lightweight particles of matter.These ef- fects came to be called to be called electricity because the Greek word for amber is “elecktron.” Benjamin Franklin's famous kite experiments with electricity are well known. In 1796, Volta produced electricity chemically by using two different pieces of metal between which he placed a piece of wet paper. Geissler, about the middle of the nineteenth century, showed that electricity could flow through space. He sealed a wire in each end of a glass tube and exhausted the air from the tube. When the wires were connected to an electrical source, there was a discharge through the vacuum in the tube. It was found that rays of some kind came from the negative wire in the tube. They were first called cathode rays, from the Greek word “kathodos” which means negative. In 1895, Roentgen showed that rays unknown to him at that time, caused certain chemicals to become fluorescent and that they could penetrate solid substances. These were called X-rays. An- toine Henri Becquerel, at about this time, dis- covered rays coming from uranium salts which blackened photographic plates in their package. ‘Then the Curies isolated from several tons of pitchblende ore, a small bit of material which they called radium, The ability to produce rays which affected photographic film was called “radioac- tivity.” Rutherford, England, found that uranium emitted two types of rays or radiation which he called alpha and beta radiation. He laid the foun-dation for the modern concept of the atom that it is not a solid particle but mostly empty space with asmall solid core or nucleus. In 1900, Villard, a French scientist, found a third type of radiation which came from some radioactive elements which he called gamma rays. These were found to be somewhat similar to the X-rays discovered by Roentgen. Albert Einstein, in 1905, proposed his famous theory of relativity, which was the real beginning of modern physics. Many old concepts of classical physics were changed, and a new approach to un- derstanding energy, matter and time was made. Part of his theory, the famous E=mc* equation, related mass and energy ina new way and foretold the possibility of securing large amounts of energy from a small amount of matter. In 1913, Niels Bohr proposed a new theory about the forces which hold the atom together. This resulted in a better understanding of the structure of the atom, By 1932, many of the par- ticles making up the atom had been found. Thompson had identified the electron, and Rutherford the proton. Chadwick explained a new kind of radiation by proposing the neutron as anew particle. Thus, the three important building blocks of nature were known. Discovery followed discovery in rapid succes- sion, New particles were found. Nuclear science ‘was soon to make a great impact on the world with the explosion of an atomic bomb. Einstein wrote his famous letter to President Roosevelt and a crash program of nuclear research began. In 1942, a nuclear chain reaction was produced at the University of Chicago. In 1945, the first atomic bomb was detonated at Alamogordo, New Mexico. A few weeks later atomic bombs destroyed the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In 1946, the Atomic Energy Commission was set up to control atomic energy in this country. Since then scientists have delved deeper into the mysteries of the atom and have developed new weapons of war and new peaceful uses of this source of energy. Radiography, the use of penetrating radiation to make “photographs” of solid materials, has become an important commer- cial process. Particles of Matter How do we know that a substance is made up ‘of numerous tiny particles ? Some simple examples lead us to the reasonableness of this concept of matter. Table salt dissolves when put into water and disappears. So do many substances when placed in water. Where does the salt go? There ‘must be holes in the water for the particles of salt to go. Acolored dye placed in a glass of water soon spreads throughout the water. The particles of dye must spread out and fill in spaces between the particles of water. Itis known that a quart of water mixed with a quart of alcohol is less than two quarts of mixture. ‘The particles of one liquid occupy spaces between particles of the other liquid. If two very smooth edges of a bar of gold and a bar of silver are placed together and left, it will be found that some par- ticles of each have mixed with the other bar. ‘This suggests that a smooth continuous surface of matter is deceiving. Really there are almost countless holes or spaces in all matter. This can be explained by thinking of matter as being composed of tiny small particles or atoms with spaces be- tween the atoms. Atoms and Elements Substanees such as hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, gold, silver, iron, and many others are called “ele- ments.” Other substances such as wood, rock, rub- ber, salt, and hundreds of thousands more are combinations of the comparatively few elements. ‘These combinations are called “compounds.” It took many years of work for scientists to find and isolate the elements. Many were known in ancient times, such as silver, gold, and carbon, However, the people did know the elements were different from other substances such as salt or water. Some of the more familiar elements with their chemical symbols are: Aluminium Al Copper Cu Nitrogen N Calcium Ca Gold Au Oxygen O Carbon C_— Hydrogen H_ Silicon Si Chlorine Cl tron Fe Silver Ag Cobalt Co Lead Pb Sulphur S The smallest particles of elements are atoms. For example, consider carbon atoms, Efforts can 1-2ore. the ha wre. ven, var- ace ost sed be- be made to chemically change atoms by mixing them with acids, alkalis, or other substances. Ef- forts can be made to physically change atoms by freezing or putting them under great pressure. Evenif carbon atoms arc heated or burned to form a gas, the carbon atoms can be converted back to their original form. Atoms enter into many com- binations with atoms of other elements to form many materials, but other reactions can always reclaim the atoms back from these materials. Therefore, it seems that carbon is an elementary material. By 1940, nearly 92 of these elementary substan- ces had been found. Seven more were man-made as aresult of the development of the atomic bomb. The almost infinite variety of materials in the world is made up of combinations of these ele- ments. Molecules and Compounds Generally, materials which are not elements are called compounds (consisting of two or more elements). The smallest is called a molecule. A molecule may be broken down into the atoms that, compose it. Water may be broken down into hydrogen and oxygen. Table salt may be broken down into sodium and chlorine. Atoms making up a molecule of a substance always combine in the same ratio by weight. Thus, if spark is shot through a tank of hydrogen and oxygen, water will form, For every ounce of hydrogen, cight ounces of oxygen will be used to form water, Each water molecule is composed of one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms. Until recently, these concepts of atoms and an atom or molecule. However, the electron microscope provides fairly clear pictures of some of the largest moleculessuch as the proteins. These contain thousands of atoms per molecule. It is noteworthy that the first direct photographs of molecules, looked in size and shape just as scien- tists had predicted they would. Fundamental Particles Even before the twentieth century, chemists knew that the concept of the atom as a homogeneous tiny ball or particle was wrong. ‘Atoms join together to form molecules. Balls do not fasten together in combinations. Thus, oxygen can hold two hydrogen atoms, as in H12O or water. Carbon can hold two oxygen atoms, as in carbon dioxide, CO2. The bonds are often spoken of as, valences. Later it will be seen how the chemical union of atoms comes about. Over a period of years, scientists have dis- covered that atoms themselves are composed of tiny particles. The fundamental particles which are of primary concern in atomic theory are : (1) Proton - a particle carrying a unit positive electrical charge. Its mass is approximately one atomic mass unit. (2) Neutron - an electrically neutral particle having approximately the same mass as the proton, (3) Electron a particle carrying a unit negative electrical charge. Its mass is 1/1840 AMU. (4) Positron - a particle having the same mass as the electron but with a unit positive clectrical charge. The Atom as a Solar System on: molecules were mainly theories. No one had seen Early in this century, Bohr and Rutherford oe developed theories that led to the nuclear concept ith of the atom. The atom came to be viewed as having a small, relatively heavy nucleus. About this N | nucleus, electrons revolve in path os orbit. The 7 | space in the atom outside the nucleus ts very large si | | as compared to the size of the nucleus or the aa | electrons going around the nucleus. { vate The hydrogen atom has a single electron A poacsue ate 7 up of two atoms of hydrogen revalving about a nucleus. ‘The hydrogen atom is : very small, Its diameter is about 1/200,000,000 of an inch, If the nucleus were enlarged to the size of 1-3a baseball, thesingle electron would be nearly half amile away. Thus, the volume occupied by an atom is almost empty space. Bea) Se > SNS SO Planet Nucleus Electron ——+1 ‘THE SOLAR SYSTEM ‘Figure 12 The Atom and the Solar Stem The hydrogen atom is the simplest of all atoms and has the assigned atomic number 1. Other ele- ments have atoms with more protons in the nucleus and more electrons in orbit about the nucleus. The electrons seem to revolve in shells, about the atoms. For example, the element potas- sium has 19 electrons arranged in shells consisting of 2, 8, 8, and 1 electrons. ‘These shells have been designated “K," “L," “M,” “N, Chlorine has 17 electrons, arranged in shells con- sisting of 2, 8, 7 electrons. The chlorine atom may seize the single electron on a potassium atom, and and so on. the two atoms are said to be united in a chemical reaction. © tron (Negative Charge) ®) Proton (Positive Charge) © Neutron (No charge) Figure13 Particesin an Atom. wk” Blectrons 2-8-8-1 Figure 14 Potassium and Chlorine. Bohr’s basic ideas about atomic structure have been kept in about the same form in present-day theory. His ideas led to the explanation of many experimental results, More modern concepts hold, however, that exact descriptions of the motion or paths of electrons in the shells of atoms cannot be given. It is convenient to think of the shells as clouds of varying densities, one inside the other with the nucleus inside all the cloud-shells. A cross section cut of the atom would reveal that each cloud-shell varies in density with the probability of finding the electrons in the shell being highest 5). where the cloud-shell was most dense (Figure 1-4‘These shells are sometimes referred to as electron clouds. Such a model or image does not give a precise orbit or path to electrons in a hell. Instead the most dense part of each shell does correspond in radius to the paths described in earlier static models of the atom. For convenience, picturesshowing plane orbits ofelectrons about the nucleus of the atom may still be used. The path is not so important in some respects as are the energy levels of the electrons. Straight horizontal lines may be used to denote energy levels of electrons in the shells. This is a useful way of visualizing energy relationships of electrons. Atomic Number anc Weight While the electron arrangement in the shells outside the nucleus of an atom is of interest to the chemist, the nucleus itself is of interest to the "Electron Cloud Density and Energy Loves. physicist. The nuclei of atoms are made up of Protons and also neutrons (with the single excep- tion of the simplest hydrogen atom), The charge ‘on the nucleus of an atom is determined by the number of protons in the nucleus. The 92 elements found in nature have been numbered from 1 to 92. Number 1 is hydrogen and number 92 is uranium. Symbols for the elements are commonly written with subscripts and superscripts. Examples: hydrogen 1H! oxygen 01° helium = 2He* uranium 92? The subscript is called the atomic number and denotes the nuclear charge or number of protons in the nucleus. The superscript refers to the sum of the neutrons and protons in the nucleus. Also, this Superscript is approximately the atomic weight. ‘The weight of one carbon atom has been ar- 1 5 bitrarily set as 12 units of mass. On this basis, the atomic weights of other elements have been deter- ined. Examples: hydrogen 1.008 cobalt 58.9 helium = 4,003 lead (207.1 nitrogen 14.0 uranium 238 Note that these are very nearly whole numbers. Dalton's atomic theory came early in the nineteenth century. It motivated a search for ele- ments which by the middle of the century resulted in discovery of some 75 elements. Study of these showed that they differed in atomic weight and that, furthermore, they could be placed in serial order. Also noted was the fact that some groups of elements seemed to have similar properties. For example, lithium, sodium, and potassium were soft shiny metals, easily tarnished in air. Their com- pounds were similar. Sodium chloride, table salt, isa salty tasting white crystal which dissolves easily in water. Lithium chloride and potassium chloride have the same properties. Mendeleev, in 1869, arranged elements in a pattern called the Periodic Table (Table 1-1). This grouped together similar elements and enabled the prediction of new ele- ments and even the properties of new elements which were then unknown, Using this table, the structure of the nucleus and the electron shells for an atom may be visualized. Also the atomic num- ELEMENT NO. 1 (HYDROGEN) ELEMENT NO. 3 ELEMENT NO. 4 (Urrntun) (BER YLLIUM) Figuee 1-6 Atoms of First Four Elements,ber and weight may be found. ‘The structure of the atoms of several elements may been seen in Table 1-1. Note that the atomic number tells how many protons, or positive unit charges, are in the nucleus and how many electrons, or negative unit charges, are in the shells about the nucleus. Isotopes Atoms of an element are composed primarily of electrons, protons, and nentrons, The protors and neutrons are particles having approximately the same mass, and they make up the nucleus of the atom. The electrons are arranged in shells abou: the nucleus and at a relatively long distance from the nucleus. The number of protons in the nucleus (the atomic number) equals the number of electrons in shells about the nucleus. This number determines the chemical properties ofan element. The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus (the atomic weight) primarily determines physical properties of an element. ‘Thus, all atoms with one proton in the nucleus are hydrogen, All atoms with 8 protons are oxygen and all atoms with 27 protons are cobalt, If the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is changed, the resulting atom will be a different element, The number of protons in atoms varies from one in hydrogen to 92 in uranium. Atomic work during and since World War II has resulted in producing several new elements which have atoms with more than 92 protons. The number of electrons in orbit about the nucleus of an atom ordinarily equals the nucleus of an atom ordinarily equals the number of protons in the nucleus of the atom. By a process called ionization, the number of electrons may be changed but not the nucleus. It remains an atom of the same element as it was originally The number of neutrons in the nuclei of atoms ranges from zere for the hydrogen atom to 146 for uranium. In Figure 1-6 it may be seen that the nucleus of a hydrogen atom contains one proton and no neutrons. The next clement, helium, has an atom containing 2 protons and 2 neutrons. Thus, it is said that hydrogen has an atomic weight of one and helium has an atomic weight of four, Is there anything with an atomic weight in between these ? Scientists found what was thought to be a sample of a pure element containing identical atoms. This was really a mixture of atoms with different atomic weights. These atoms had the same number of protons in their nuclei but-had different numbers of neutrons. The atoms retained the same chemical properties while differing in atomic weight. These atoms of the same element having different numbers of neutrons were called isotopes of the element. CO® HYDROGEN = DEUTERIUM =—_TRITIUM. common rare (radioactive) stable form stable form unstable form Figure 1-7 Isotopes of Hydrogen. Hydrogenwas found to have two isotopes other than the ordinary hydrogen atom. By cooling hydrogen gas to a liquid and allowing it to evaporate, a concentration of heavier atoms remained. The nucleus of the “heavy” hydrogen (deuterium) atom contains a neutron as well as the usual proton. Heavy hydrogen atoms combine with oxygen to form “heavy” water. Only about one hydrogen atom in 14,000 is a heavy atom, More recently a still heavier hydrogen atom (tritium) has been discovered. The number of isotopes for each element varies. While hydrogen has three isotopes, tin has 25 isotopes. Uranium has several isotopes. One is called uranium-238. Its nucleus has 92 protons and 146 neutrons for a total of 238 particles. Another isotope, uranium-235, has 92 protons and 143 neutrons, or 235 particles. Both of these react chemically in the same way. In all, more than 1,500 isotopes have been found. About 900 of these isotopes are radioactive. This means they are un- stable and they will change in some way to attain a stable condition, aas THSUHHaTKRR BETH HRS BRB ORG TES wae “swuoma[g JO qe] Mpow T-1 AGEL, a2 bofepe ie orf wz fe] sche if-[ >| urfal gee Be || eof uf oo 5 oblehe Fla abe fle he Febe esfobe fo] ef E polfs Beh tefepange zope a be aefafee fe ef éRadiation and Radiation Sources Electromagnetic Radiation The Photon ‘The German physicist Roentgen discovered X-rays in 1895 while working with a high-voltage gaseous discharge tube. Electrons were esmitted from a cathode and accelerated toward a target, which they struck with a high velocity. He found that a very penetrating radiation was emitted from this bombarded target. Almost immediately this radiation was used to penetrate the human body and solid materials, and radiology and radiography were well on their way to becoming important parts of their respective fields, medicine and non- destructive testing. Farther research over the many years since Roentgen’s discovery indicated that the radiation photon has a dual character, acting sometimes like a particle and at other times like a wave. This Guality was hinted at by the quantum theory as put forth by Planck at the turn of the century. Planck postulated that the photon energy was contained inan electromagnetic packet of radiation, or quan- tum, and was proportional to its frequency. His equation E =hv (where £ is the energy associated with the quantum, v is its frequency, and A is Planck’s constant) has been used successfully to explain many physical phenomena. Alll radiant energy has like characteristics and varies only in frequency. Photons all have equal velocity, have noelectric charge, and have no mag- netic moment. A chart of the radiation spectrui shown in Figure 2-8. Only a very small region of the chart is occupied by the visible spectrum. X-Rays and Gamma Rays X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation ng wavelengths in the region of 10° to 10° m. ‘They are usually produced by allowing a stream of high-energy electrons to impinge on a metallic target, thus producing photons by deceleration of the electrons. Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation of nuclear origin and have very short wavelengths. Whereas X-rays originate in the ex- tranuclear structure of the atom, gamma rays are emitted by atomic nuclei in the state of excitation. ‘The emission of gamma rays usually occurs in close association with the emission of alpha and beta particles. Generation of X-rays X-rays are emitted whenever matter is bom- barded by a stream of electrons. If it is assumed that an electron starts with zero velocity at the surface of the cathode, its kinetic energy upon arrival at the target of an electrostatic X-ray tube (in joules) is : W = Vamev® = eV where, W = electron energy, in joules ‘me = mass of the electron v = electron velocity (small compared with the velocity of light) ¢ = charge of the electron, in coulombs V = applied potential difference between the cathode and the target, in volts. Radiation Wavelength i Angstroms (Nanometer) io) 1060 tot ag? 10 1, 10% 10? 103 so 08 r ?) 7 10°) r) 10%) 105) 0 Go ao) ash Go’) ae’) 9) Gary a0) a0) Go) ao) a4 un }—— -Rays —= Rafe] tnirared — ee : Gamma Rays Cosmic Rays —~ 5 1 ae =o 1 10” 10% 107 10% 10° 104 - w" 1 0 Photon Figure2-8 The Electromagnetic Spectrum.Transformation of Electron Energy into X-rays When an clectron with kinetic energy eV strikes the target of an X-ray tube, the energy may be transformed in several ways. The simplest trans- formation occurs when the electron interacts directly with the nucleus of a target atom, The electron is stopped by the nucleus, which, due to its heavy mass, is not appreciably disturbed and so gains no energy. Hence, all the kinetic energy of the electron is transformed into a quantum of radiation whose minimum wavelength (in angstroms) is: Amin =H6, = 12395 mn eV v where, h = Planck’s constant ¢ =the velocity of light Production of Continuous X Radiation Most of the impinging electrons interact with electrons associated with the target atoms. Only a part of the energy of a high-speed electron is re- quired toremove an electron from an atom. When an impinging electron has lost some of its energy in this way and then is suddenly stopped by an atomic nucleus, the energy that is transformed into an X-ray photon is less than the original kinetic energy, eV, of the electron. The quantum of radi tion produced in this manner has a wavelength greater than Amin. In general, X-rays of many wavelengths are emitted. The X-ray spectrum is continuous. K series Continuous spectrum Intensity Wave ogi Figure 29 Complete X-ray Spectrum When an electron is removed from an atom of the target, the atom is left in an unstable state with greater than normal energy. [fan electron replaces the ejected electron, the atom returns to its normal 2-9 state. Itemits one or more photons with an energy ho/A corresponding to awavelength 4 characteristic of the element. These narrow bands of wavelengths are called characteristic spectral lines. They are of higher intensities than the con- tinuous spectrum. Both phenomena occur at the same time in the operation of an X-ray tube. The complete X-ray spectrum is shown in Figure 2-9. Production of Monochromatic X Radiation Homogeneous, monochromatic X-rays may be obtained from such spectra by using filters. Physical Principles Radiation of an unknown type and origin was discovered in the year 1895 by Wilhelm Roentgen. Called X-rays by their discoverer, they were soon found to be a form of electromagnetic radiation with extremely short wavelengths. Conservation of Energy Electromagnetic theory had long predicted that a charged particle undergoing acceleration would emit radiation. This theory can be used to qualitatively explain the continuous portion of a typical X-ray spectrum (Figure 2-10). Although a complete study of the continuous spectrum re- quires the use of many disciplines within modern physics, an understanding of the spectrums basic principles may be gained by considering just one of the fundamental laws of physics, the conserva- tion of energy. As its name implies, the conserva- tion of energy. As its name implies, the law states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, although it is possible to change it from one form to another, In the case of X-rays, a stream of quickly moving charged particles, usually electrons, strikes a target material and is brought rapidly to a halt Much of the electrons’ kinetic energy is trans- formed into heat energy as the stream strikes the target. In fact, except for the case of very high energy generators,. almost all of the electrons’ kinetic energy (more than 97%) is converted into heat; disposal of this thermal energy is an impor- tant design consideration Bremsstrahlung Assmall portion of the energy will also be givenoff as packets of electromagnetic radiation called photons. The X-ray photons can have energies ranging from zero to a maximum which is deter- mined by: (1) the original kinetic energy of the electron; and (2) by how rapidly the electron is decelerated. This process produces the continuous portion of the X-ray spectrum and is known by the German term Bremsstrahlung for braking radia tion. Energies of the electrons (and the X-rays) are frequently given in terms of keV (kiloelectron volts) or Mev (million electron volts). The mean- ing of electron volt becomes clear we consider the charged electron. Under the influence of a voltage difference (technically called a potential dif- ference), charged particles will experience a force which causes them to accelerate. A negatively charged particle, such as an electron, will move from a place of low voltage (-) to a place of high (+) or even zero voltage, and inerease its kinetic energy as it does so. Thus the unit, kev, cor- responds to the amount of kinetic energy that an electron would gain while moving between two points that differ in voltage by onc thousand volts (1 kilovolt or kV). Similarly, an electron would gain 1 MeV of kinetic energy 73 while moving between two points that differ by one million volts. ‘The two points of differing voltage are called the cathode (-) and the anode (+). Characteristic X-rays In addition to the Bremsstrahlung there are several characteristic peaks in a typical X-ray spectrum. These intensity spikes are caused by interaction between the impinging stream of high speed electrons and the electrons that are bound tightly to the atomic nuclei of the target material. If we picture the simplified model of an atom as a planetary system, with the nucleus of protons and neutrons at the center of the system (Figure 2-11) and the electrons moving in orbits around the nucleus, we can again apply the law of energy conservation to describe the origin of charac- terist radiation. Modern physics predicts that these orbital electrons near the nucleus will have very well- defined energies, with electrons in different orbits having different energy levels. If'a vacancy in par- ticular level were created by knocking an electron from its orbit, an electron from a higher energy level would, after a time, drop down to fill the void, In order to do this, it would have to lose (emit) energy. Because the energy levels of an atom are well specified, the exact amount of energy lost by an electron making such a transition would also be ‘specified. E Relative Intensity Figure 2-10 ‘Typical X-ray Spectrum. Using the conservation of energy law, we recognize that the energy is not really lost but given’ off as electromagnetic radiation in the form of an. X-ray photon. Because each atomic element has its own distinct set of energy levels, the line spectrum’ produced in such a mannér is characteristic of the’ particular target material. Interest in these charac- teristic X-rays lies in their application to X-ray) diffraction and other analytical applications. By a’ combination of filtration and diffraction, charac- teristic X-rays can be used to produce a monoener- getic beam of X-rays. Thermionic Emission ‘Two final concepts are of interest in this brief! treatment of the basic physics of X-ray production. B Figure 211 Planetary Model of Atomic Structure 10nergy void. emit) mare ast by tsobe w, we tgiven vofan hasits :etrum of the tharac- X-ray s. Bya harace oener- 's brief| uction.| ‘The first process, thermionic emission, provides electrons which are accelerated to high speeds by the voltage difference between the cathode and anode. When metal (in this case the X-ray tube fila- ment) is heated to incandeseence, a small portion of free electrons is actually able to escape the ‘surface of the material. Without an accelerating voltage, the electrons form a cloud-like space charge around the filament. Under the influence of a potential difference, however, the electrons are quickly accelerated toward the anode of the tube. Absorption ‘As X-rays pass into or through a material, they are absorbed in a manner that depends on: (1) the energy of the radiation; (2) the density of the material; and (3) the atomic number of the material. In equation 73 form, the intensity, I, asa function of thickness, has a standard exponential form given by: T= Ioe™ where I is the intensity after passing through the material; x is the thickness of the absorbing material; Jo is the initial intensity; and 4 is the linear absorption coefficient (characteristic of the material for a particular X-ray energy range). The absorption is important in selection of materials for tube construction, beam filtration and shield- ing. Basic Generator Construction A conventional X-ray generator consists of three main components: (1) X-ray tube; (2) high voltage source; and (3) control unit, ‘These components are common to all conven- tional units and are examined in detail below. X-ray Tubes Early X-ray tubes used gas-filled tubes and a cold cathode from which electrons were freed by Positive ion bombardment. Modern tubes used in radiography are of the high vacuum variety, allow- ing for reduction in size, extended tube life and more stable operation Electrons are supplied by thermionic mission from the filament. The accelerating potential and the tube current can then be independently varied, with the exception that, at low accelerating vol- tages, tube current is affected by the space charge which accumulates around the cathode. Envelope Envelopes for X-ray tubes are usually of the glass or metal-ceramic type (Figure 2-12and 2-13.) Glass envelope tubes, although still in common. use; are-susceptible-to-thermal-and mechanical shock and are being replaced in many industrial applications with the more durable metal-ceramic tubes. ‘The vacuum envelope of the metal-ceramic tubes consists of a metal cylinder capped on both ends with ceramic disks, usually made of aluminium oxide. These ceramic insulators are designed to allow for more effective use of the insulation characteristics of both the ceramic and the high tension grease used in sealing connections between the high voltage source and the tube. This, design permits a reduction in the size of the tube housing that is especially important for higher energy units. Cathode The cathode includes the tungsten filament which provides the thermal electrons for accelera- tion, The filament is usually powered by alternat- ing current (50-60 Hz) from a separately control- led transformer, although in some units the fila- ment current is fixed or automatically controlled to maintain a constant tube current. Normally, filament currents range from one to ten amperes, (A). The tube current passing between the cathode and anode by means of the high-speed electrons, ranges from several hundred microamperes (#A) for microfocus units up to 20+ milliamperes (mA) for conventional indust it Glass X-ray tube, Figure 212 a1. Metal envelope 12. Ceramic disk insulator |3. Filament mounting structure Filament 5. Target mounting structure {Target Figure 7-13 Metal-eeramie X-ray Tube, Beam Focusing At times, the filament is located in a recess in the cathode called a focusing cup. This surrounds the emerging beam of electrons with an electric field which repels the beam away from the cup wall and into a more localized form, The importance of a well-defined beam of electrons arises from the fact that the sharpness or unsharpness of an image is dependent on the focal spot size (Figure 2-14.) ‘The relationship for geometric unsharpness, Up, is: F U=% where, Ug is a measure of the penumbra effect of the focal spot; Fis the focal spot size; Dis the distance from the target (focal spot to the object); and ‘is the thickness of the object. From the equation, we see that Ug increases directly as the focal spot size increases. Because the beam originates at the filament, reduction of the filament size might seem to be a solution to geometrical unsharpness, but this approach is limited by durability of the filament. One alternative, called line focussing, is to project the approximately rectangular beam produced by the filament onto a target which is angled with respect to the beam (approximately 21°). This projects an X-ray beam that appears to emanate from a focal spot with approximately ‘equal lateral dimensions (Figure 2-15). In practice, this method allows production of units with focal sizes in the range of 1.00 3.0 mm (0.04 to 0.12in.). By use of a deep focussing cup, advantage can| also be taken of the screen effect (Figure 2-16). This refers to the removal of the lower energy electrons which are produced during that portion of the AC cycle where the potential difference between cathode and anode is significantly less than maxi- mum. In practice, this improvement is not without cost to the output of the unit, A loss of ap- proximately 25% is experienced in units with high screen effect. This can be compensated for, in part, with higher filament current though this adversely affects the lifetime of the filament. Tet uw) Image — Figure 2-14 HMlustration of G ometti | Unsharpness. 2-12 re. us co ho Tectice, 2in). se can} 1. This’ strons re AC, ween ithout if ap- vhigh 1 part, ersely Figure 2-15 Diagram of ine Focussing Set-up. Anode ‘As mentioned previously, heat is the major form of energy produced as the electrons strike the target. Uncontrolled, this heat would quickly cause the surface of the target to erode, which in turn reduces the definition of the focal spot. In addition, the vaporized target material reduces the high vacuum of the tube and leads to premature failure due to conduction within the tube. To avoid over- heating of the target, the anode to which it is attached is composed of a material with high ther- mal conductivity, such as copper. If the cooling demands are relatively low, as for alow energy unit or intermittent use, cooling is often accomplished by means of a conductor which passes through the tube end for connection to the high voltage source; this allows for radiation of heat into an oil or gas reservoir surrounding the tube. For higher energy units in continuous use, itis usually necessary to cool the anode by injecting coolant directly into it. This is accomplished by hollow construction of the anode conductor. Target In radiographic applications, the target is usually tungsten and is bonded to the copper anode. However analytical units make use of several other target materials to take advantage of the characteristic X rays produced. Some of these materials include copper, iron and cobalt ‘The orientation of the target with respect to the electron beam strongly influences the size and Shape of the focal spot. Orientations from 0" to 30°” 0 Time Hales) Figure 2-16 Graph of Screen Effect. are used for various applications. For example, zero isan angle used for panoramicunits. An angle of 20° is commonly selected for directional units because, in this case, the distribution of X rays is predominantly in a direction perpendicular to the tube axis. This is shown graphically in Figure 2-17. cs [Angle 20° -13°-10° 00? 13°20” Intensity 31% 70% 80% — 100% WOH 105% 95% Ca = Figure 217 Xcray Distribution Graph, 2-13,Hood Addition 01 4 hood the anode provides the two-fold function of (1) eliminating a portion of the X-ray beam outside the central cone of radia- tion and (2) electrically shielding the insulating Portions of the envelope (glass or ceramic) from charge build-up due to electrons scattered from the tungsten target or released by the photoelectric effect (Figure 2-18). 1. Anode hood 12 Cathode 3. Berylium window - Figure 2-18 Hooded Anode Tube, Removing the unused radiation directly at the anode reduces the amount of radiation shielding that must be provided externally or incorporated into the tube housing. The hood, normally con- structed of copper, may have materials with high atomic numbers, such as tungsten, incorporated to increase absorption. The electrical shielding func- tion of the hood may be improved by the addition of a beryllium window over the X-ray port. A window several millimeters in thickness will stop electrons with negligible effect on the overall X- ray beam. Coolant ‘The coolant may be highly dielectric gas or oil. If ol is used, simple convection may be sufficient for lower output units. For larger units, an oil circulating pump combined with a heat exchanger, either internal or external to the tube head, may be used. Tank-type Head ‘The housing itself protects the tube, contains the coolant and forms the structural support forthe X-ray tube, clectrical connections, fittings, pumps, thermal and high voltage overload sensors and radiation shielding contained in the head. For the tank type unit, the tube head also houses the hig voltage and filament transformers. If the unit has separate components, the tube head will also pro- vide for connection to the high voltage source. Production of X-rays To produce X-rays, the anode is connected to the positive pole of a high voltage generator, the cathode to its negative pole. A suitable current is passed through the filament to attain high temperatures,up to 2,300° or 2,400°C. When the temperature of the filament is high enough for it to emit an electron beam (according to Richardson's law), current flows between cathode and anode. By controlling the filament current, and therefore its temperature, it is possible to control the cathode electron emission and the tube current, ‘The electrons, accelerated by the high voltage applied across cathode and anode, begin their trajectory at the filament and endit on the tungsten target, where they dissipate their energy. The zone which the electrons strike is called the focal spot. On its surface a small portion of the electron ener- ay is transformed to X-rays; the remainder be- comes thermal energy. Such a tube is a diode and should have a volt- age-current characteristic showing considerable saturation (Figure 2-19). The presence of the cathode-focusing cup makes this characteristicless sharp, and the current increases slightly with higher potentials. {mA ‘Theoretical curve e219 Characeristic curcent versus vollage ig current (ma); Va = Voltage (hyp) 2-14sgt ro- dto the tis sigh the writ to ode ent, 2 to ube lage heir sten ‘one pot. ner- volt able the vith General Operating Recommendations Baseline Data ‘Once a unit is acquired, actual operating char- acteristics should be checked against the quoted values and recorded for future reference, This baseline information is useful not only for techni- que determination, but also for trouble-shooting purposes. Equipment Literature Information available from the manufacturer might include: weight and size, energy, tube cur- rent, inherent filtration, focal spot size, normal gas. pressure and pressure rise (for gas filled heads), coolant requirements, line current, operating temperature, etc. Service manuals also supply use- ful information and should be acquired for all units. This information should not simply be kept should be utilized by personnel operating the unit. A separate specification for the X-ray tube is often available from the manufacturer or from the tube supplier. Exposure Charts For any unit that will be utilized in a variety of applications, a set of exposure charts at different output energies is very useful. This should be done under conditions that are representative of proce- (Causes of X-ray Tube Failures. dures at the particular facility. It is necessary to do this for each unit (or, at least, for each type of unit) due to the differences in generator characteristics, tube efficiency and inherent filtration. To produce a chart for a particular energy range, several exposures of astep wedge are made, All variables including kV, mA, focus-to-film dis- tance, film type, screens, chemistry and processing times are kept constant for each chart; only the exposure time is varied. At least three, preferably five, exposure times are then selected which ade- quately span the range of possible exposure times. ‘The exposures are made and processed. Density measurements are then made for each thickness represented on the radiograph, Usually densities of 1.5, 2.0 and 2.5 are chosen and the correspond- ing material thickness and exposure times are plotted on semi-log paper. This is done to convert the exponentially increasing graph into a straight line representation. Production of such a graph not only allows for accurate determination of exposure techniques but also allows the unit performance to be checked at any later date by comparison with established chart values. Focal Spot Size As previously discussed, focal spot size and beam intensity are important factors affecting ie main causes of X-ray tube failures are given in the table here. Mechanical fractures fechanical fractures ing fracture of the glass incturing of the glass ‘lament burn-out. inverse filament burn-out elted focal spot 2- Mechanical shock. Internal stresses caused by poor annealing of th glass; recognizable as the fracture progresse asa ring on the glass envelope. Electric spark, Puncturing of glass is caused bj faulty mounting and /or by bubbles in the glass. 1, Excessive heating current. The wire of the fila ment is thinned by evaporation and burns out| 2. Excessive filament voltage applied because of faulty connection. The wire of the filament melts, sten form at the end of the wire. Backfiring in tubes fed with alternating voltage because of overloaded focal spot. Load, exceeding instantancous ratings, caused by poor control by the user, or by failure of th timer on milliampere circuit | Heat-storage capacity exceeded. Tube overloaded or poorly outgassed. | 15radiographic quality. In addition, many codes re- quire calculation of geometric unsharpness for technique approval. Because the focal size is sub- ject to change due to target wear and variation in the electronic focusing circuitry, periodic meas- urement is necessary to ensure the accuracy of calculations and, more importantly, the quality of the radiographic image. For conventional X-ray units up to 300 kV, ‘measurement is done using a standard pinhole aperture. Using a fine grained film without screens, an exposure is made of the aperture. The film is processed and the image is measured. Radioactivity Historical Background Until the year 1896 it was generally believed that the elements represented the most stable form ofma tter occurring in nature; nothing was known that could change their characteristics, Chemical compounds could be built up from the elements and by various means transformed into other com- pounds, but all attempts to reduce the elements to simpler forms were unsuccessful. After the 1896 discovery of X-rays by Roentgen in Germany, Be- ‘equerel discovered that certain uranium ore gave off penetrating radiation. Under his direction, the Curies isolated and identified radium and polonium which were less stable than the uranium. The unstable elements were described as being radioactive. Rutherford, in England, and Villiard, in France, identified the radiations emitted by radioactive elements. Rutherford also developed the concepts of the elements’ isotopes and the existence of the neutron. Around 1930, Cockcroft and Walton, in Rutherford’s laboratory, dis- covered that if atoms of hydrogen or helium were accelerated in a high-voltage generator to several hundred kilovolts energy, their impact upon various target elements would cause some of the targets to become radioactive. The Curies dis- covered that alpha particles interact with beryl- lium to produce neutrons. Fermi, in 1934, dis- covered that such neutron sources could produce radioactivity. His study of neutron-rich radioisotopes of the clements made a whole new realm of unstable isotopes available. ‘A decade later, with the advent of nuclear reac- tors that could generate tremendous neutron in- tensities, artificial isotopes became available in very large quantities. The nuclear reactor also produced radioactive isotopes by a previously un- known process: nuclear fission. Here an atom of the reactor fuel, uranium-235, captures a neutron and there upon splits into two fragments that are highly unstabie. These immediately eject one or more neutrons which are used to split further uranium nuclei. The remaining portions of the fragments are generally unstable and therefore radioactive; they can be chemically separated from the reactor fuel and used as sources of radiation. ‘These fission products are produced in great abun- dance by present-day reactors. Some of the fission products are useful, valuable radioisotopes for in- Gustry, medicine and research while others are radioactive waste. Natural Radioactivity All elements higher in atomic number than bismuth are radioactive and result from the decay of either uranium-238, uranium-235 or thorium- 232. Radioactive decay of these elements and thei decay products involves the nuclear release of either a helium nucleus (alpha particle) or an electron (beta minus). Each emission transforms the parent (original) isotope into a daughter isotope having a different mass and nuclear charge. This process continues until the daughter isotope is stable. The radioactive series always terminates in one of several isotopes of lead. The original parents of the three series have a very low prob- ability of decay or a very long half-life and there- fore still exist in nature. Half-Life Half-life (T) is the time required for one-half the original number of atoms to decay or change to the daughter atoms. Half-life describes the probability if decay for large numbers of atoms and is much more commonly usedthan the actual prob- ability, ? (decay constant), of an atom disintegrat- ing per unit time. The number of atoms disin- J tegrating per unit time can be expressed as times | the total number of parent atoms (N): 2-16DECAY CHART FOR IRIDIUM-192 ( Half - life : 74.5 days) DECAY CHART FOR COBALT-60 (Half - life : 5.27 years) than ecay ium- thelr 00 02 04 06 08 10 cof ran arms - 0.98 0.96 0.94 0.92 0.90 shter arge. 0.88 0, 86 0.84 0. 82 0. 80 0.78 tope 0.76 0.75 0.73 0.72 0.70 0. 69 rates ginal 0.67 0.66 0. 64 0.63 0.61 0. 60 rob- rere 0.58 0.57 0.56 0.55 0.54 0.53 0.51 0.50 0.49 0.48 0.47 0. 46 0.45 0.44 0.43 0.42 0.41 0.40 -half ange 0.39 0.38 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.35 the tart 0.34 0.34 0.33 0.32 0.32 0.31 »rob- 0.30 0.29 0.29 0.28 0.28 0.27 grat- fisin- J 0.26 0. 26 0.25 0.28 0.24 0.24 imesdisintegrations, time ‘The curie (Ci) is the unit used to describe 3.7 x 10! disintegrations per second. The SIsystem uses =1N the becquerel (Bq), which is one disintegration per second. The half-life (T) is related to the decay constant by T = a where, 0.693 is the natural logarithm of 2. The number of radioactive atoms or the number of ‘atoms decaying per unit time changes exponential- ly with time. ‘The rate of decay (or intensity) of radioactivity (0, and the number of atoms at any time, can be ‘expressed in terms of time as numbers of elapsed. half-lives: L_dy o~ or Amore convenient expression in terms of time elapsed (#) would be: I To Artificially Produced Radioisotopes Antificially produced radioisotopes have large- ly replaced natural radioisotopes, such as radium, for industrial radiography. Presently, artificial production falls into three major categories: (1) neutron activation; (2) fission product separation; and (3) charged particle bombardment. While other nuclear reactions produce a variety of radioisotopes, neutron bombardment in nuclear reactors constitutes the major method for obtaining industrially important radiographic Source materials. Two such nuclear reactions are er tn Soory rtn~ % +y Cobalt-59 and iridium-191 exist in nature and are stable, Exposure to the large thermal neutron flux (neutrons with energies less than 0.4 eV) al- ows stable isotopes to capture a thermal or slow Neutron and thus become one mass un The cobalt and iridium are normally irradiated as small metal pellets (1x L mm to 3x3 mm [0.04 .04in, to 0.12 0.12in.]) which can be put together in stainless steel containers to form encapsulated radiographic sources. A less commonly used radiographic source, cesium-137, is produced by a completely different process: fission. The fission of uranium-235 in a nuclear reactor fuel also produces fission frag- ments or fission products. The reaction can be represented as: +n 2 fission fragments +2Vsn +200 MeV The cesium-137 is recovered from used uranium fuel through chemical treatment or reprocessing. The recovered cesium is available in the chemical form CsCl. Conversion to a ceramic or glass form before encapsulation as a radiographic source is now common. The CsCl, similar to NaCl, can cause stress corrosion crack- ing of the stainless steel capsules and can also easily form an airborne dust. Some radioisotopes are produced by bombard- ing stable isotopes with charged particles. High- energy machines such as Van de Graaff and linear accelerators and cyclotrons are being used com- mercially to produce radioisotopes. Disintegration Mechanisms Regardless of how they are produced, radioac- tive atoms disintegrate by one of five primary modes: 1. emission of an alpha particle (helium nucleus); 2, emission of a beta particle; 3. electron capture or positron emission; 4, emission of a gamma ray (photon); or 5. spontaneous fission. Emission of a gamma ray photon may follow some of the first three disintegration modes and only rarely occurs alone. Measurements of Isotopes Definitions Characteristics of radioactiv ¢ isotopes are specified by a number of parameters, which are defined below. The Curie ‘The curie (Ci) isa measure of the disintegration rate of a source. Originally equal to the disintegra- tions per second in one gram of radium, it is now defined as 3.7 x 10" disintegrations per second 2-17