3 Introduetion to Mechanical Testing Hardness Testing “Tension Testing Compression Testing Fracture Testing Ienpact Testing Fracture-Toughness Testing teed by 6. et DESIGN of soucrures and systems requires determination of component dimensions and is Dated on the appropriate mechanical properties ‘of materials. For sac loading at low tempers: ture, design eniteria may include: 1. Excessive elastic deformation 2 Iniation of plastic deformation 3. Excessive plastic deformation 44, Unstable crack propagation. CCrtrion 1 states that a certain component can undergo a specific maximum elastic sain. The elastic modulus of the material is the imporant because italows, through Hooke’s Law, sablishment of the maximum sess. Criterion limits the stains to elastic (recoverable) stains ‘and prohibits plastic stains: the important prop- ey of the material isis veld suess. Criterion S accepts a certain amount of plastic deforma ‘on; imporant material properties are ultimate ssmeagth, uniform elongation, and work harden- ing, Criterion 4 acceps tne possible existence of ‘racks or defects, and maximum loads are based fn fracture toughness a conjunction with static loads, most struc: tures are subjected to eyelial loading conditions. ‘When the Toads are not constant, the possible damage due to fatigue must be considered and the appropriate fatigue properties must be con- sidered along with the staue design requ "AL bigh temperature, the mechanica! proper- ties of metals are time-dependent and the prop- eres used at low temperatures are not applica- ble. Under high-temperature conditions, metals teod to deform with time, and the appropriate rechanical properties of inwrest ae creep prop- Tension ang Compression Testing... “Tm mieral on eson esting thet goer in hs ctr was eo ram Wordly Testing Techngues. a erean Seb for Meas, 1964. The mater faxauecrase gavin ae ast Ineo a facuretavgrmesststag wag sarine fm Aagcaton of Facute Mectans or Seecton cf Mesa Stucurl Matra eote by J Cambel W.'W. Gefbencn ane, ¥Uncerwoae Arercan Soc tr tas, 1982 adeno mural nh secon seed on te Waa Enianing Ica couee fn Necuns Teiing of Mane. oy ie MEL” Mecunes Testng of mas Deweopmen Conan. W dase (Garman: Unveey of Temesste JA Ofer 0! Tecmotgy ASsesamers KT” Sarat Daty Machine Co. 6. Goorcmn One & Cov JP ossttr. Can Covey, TM Bouton, Tus (ie Tern Machine Co. dT Came i Veet fesearen sons, ne” Des. Arerean Sooty for Mesa rerec GE Over, Urwersry cl Mayan heron Meron Testng Lass: PM. Muto, UUptes elation carp: C" Poa, General Eee Go." 0” Sone, Unversity of lines & Urban Cham ban 4 Won CN I. —_____ Introduction to Mechanical Testing In this section, procedures for evaluating the mechanical properties of metals—ie., the re spoase ofa metal to a particular imposed loading condition —are reviewed. STANDARDIZED TESTS In the United States, most common mechani- cal tests have been standurdized by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). In ‘other counties, similar standards have been de- ‘eloped by the appropriate standardization agen- Ges, Ifa mechanical te is being conducted by the manufacturer, user or testing laboratory, and if te results are used outside the organization. itis imperative that the procedures outlined in ‘ASTM standards be followed and that this is specified in the presentation of the results. For imernal work, comparative studies and research studies, specific procedures which may differ from ‘hase of ASTM can be developed on approval of all pares: in such instnees, specific test con- iions should be specified. For specific infor- ‘mation on ASTM slandards, test methods. def rons, specifications anc recomm=nded paces, the reader is referred to ASTM. Each year a new ‘edition of the Book of Standards is published. Because modifications and revisions may be in- troduced on an annual buss, iis not Wise To Use biolete editions. For reference. the appropriate ‘ASTM specifications wtich ae applicable to this fection ae listed in Table 1, In this able. those Standards that have been approved as American National Standards are given. These standards (except for tose under te headings “Comosion” and “Erosion and Wea") are presented in the 1983 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Addi ‘ional information can be obtained in the Special Metals Handbook Desk Edition Chapter 34, American Society of Metals, (1985). ' | —~ ANICAL TESTING 1 HARP U A BY : TAY 4 HEGTLANI GAL E PN Edited by Mare A. Meyers, New Mexico Insitute of Ming anc Technoleey seecS4et Fatigue Testing .esesseeszves 42 : Sed Grete, Sheor snd Torsion Testing “Seas sera “Green ano Creep Aupture Testing 33s Sete Shear Tesing Ses Seis _ Torsion Testng S335 ‘Sete Formabiity Testing sess. : Sess Sine Selected Relerences on Mechanical Testing -......0/342 ‘Beat Technical Publications (STP's) published by ASTM, a numberof which are listed under "Ad- ‘ional Reading” at the end of this arcle, 10- ‘ether with other useful sources of information. MECHANICAL TESTING MACHINES Numerous machines have been designed 10 the wide variety of mechanical tests listed {Table I, In each ofthe following articles, test ‘machines which are designed for a specific test tare described in the separate section of that at- ‘ele devoted to that paricular test. In this article. the basics of “universal testing machines,” which can be used for tension, compression. formabil- iy and fatigue tests, are reviewed. 'A wide variety of universal testing machines, produced by several manufacturers, are avail- ble, The basic elements of & universal testing ‘machine are shown schematically in Fig. 1. In ‘most moder machines. load is measured with & load cell (ve. force wansducer). Most load cells consist of @ deflecting member which is instru- rmenteg with stain gages and wnich is coupied toa signarconaitioning system. The voltage cu put of the signal-conditionng system vanes lin- arly with load and is used as input to a display (oF recording system, ‘The various universal testing machines differ primarily in how the displacement-conte! (or foree-contol) system operates. Displacement is usually imposed by ether a mechanical ora hy ‘raulie system. ‘ara: (Open-Lop) Machines. Conventional hy- raul est equipment operates largely onthe bs fis of open-loop contol. Figure 2 shows a yp- ical system of this type that is used to position the piston rod of a hydraulic actuator, An oper- 34434:2 Mechanical Testing Table 1 ASTM procedures for mechanical testing Sate __ uae ene — ~ Wie Ber and esa tne | Uae Taneat epsocin Ri Sol wn cose Frere E209:7011979) Bees sie test eer ee | stacey a rt tod ‘Apobtins exssa Net for ‘ded Bend Tet for Doi of Weids £190.80 SMtchming Pesormance of Feros Metals Using 39 Stns Outed Beg Text for Duct of Nei Asti Sere Bar Nace, Evsting zis “Siena E081 ‘heat and torsion testing Metois and Defaiions foe Matec for Stearic! Testy of Ste! Products aso ‘Shea Teng of Alum an Alurinum-Alloy Rivets Catieaion of mechanical testing machines. exersomctery and sain gages ahd Cold-Heading Wie and Roce 3565-75 1981) Meds of Caron ‘Torsion Teng of Wie ESS815 Fore Messing Inseument for Venfying the Loud Residual stress measurement ‘nicaon of Testing Marines Es Mabou tor Matas of Venfesiono ‘Dereminine Residual Sueses by the Hole ring Exenomsten. and Casiicion of 55.67 1960) ‘Sen ge Neto essa Tesang sachs 483 ‘eng Alignment of Keay Dicction Tea oe On itemstenston for Resa Stress Memuremen ests cuca ie 251.67 1960) as Compr ing Sess Relaraton Tess for Materials and Stezes ...... E328-78 Conpresion Teng of Metalic Maer a Room “Tension tetng Texperre e541 Menods for » PaType Bearing Tex of Mic Maveras £238.65 1978) ‘Meanie Tesig of Suet Products ann racer fr Teasion Teng of Met Fo Bisa ‘Coopremion Tvs of Mec Mtl at Elevated el Teng of Mele Nari ry “Fompenres wih Convensonal o Rapes Heng eng Wrought ad Cast Alun ae an Sun Rates £20845 sen ena a osace agg BONA Duclty and formabilty testing Magnesia Alay Posse (Metie} ss7M81 Metoas fo Tex Mebod for Bed eng or Mec Fae Masa or Spring "anse Sain Ratio r for Sheet Meta Estat ‘oplcatons coscing + Ball Punch Deformation Tex for ‘Thine seasrement Meni bhet Mvenal 63.78 Tex Meta fon Decsliy Trang of Mei Fo ‘Epesl “Thichos of in Foland Fm by Weighing 252-78 ‘Tet Medes fr Fatigue “Team Sin Hacdning Exponens (Vans) of Deftios of Terms Relig 1: Mele Shc Maras Eee 78 ‘Cons Arpitie, Low-Cyele Fugue Tsing... E513-74 (1980) Defnons on mechanical testing Fatigue Lodi E1283 Defi of Tens Reatag Fae Tei so te SacalAnaa or Fae sn "Mecbarcl Tering of Str Products aso - E206 Metods of Mechanical Testing Beat al ages Ci vin Aes” ‘an properten Prctca for oe fet Matods for "Cossaat Amplinde Axal Fugue Tess of Metalic ‘Pouon's Ratio at Room Temperate £15261 1979) a am e642 ‘Shear Modulus t Room Tempest 145-61 1979) Coasan-Anpliode Low-Cvce Fatigue Teste E0680 ‘Ste Deernaton of Young's ols of Meso Prsevation of Conta Armplide Fatigue Tes Ress ‘tow tad Eievaed Tempers 231-49 981) "ar Monlic Macau Eioe82 ‘Young's Modan, Tagore oul, ané Chord Mowuins E1182 a Met ct x touted Sow Lis ardnes testing “Sey and Seti (ed) Fats Das 739.80 Text Mebods for Cone Dynami Usdin an ‘Basel arises of Mec Manas £1078 ‘Asal Load Paigue Testing Mache 6776 98 Harness Conversion Tales for Stas eiticnsiip ‘erweea Bevel! Hurst, Vickers Harness. Rockwell . eta Rotel Spi Harb, td Rap E783 E1079 Inteunten Hadas of Meailc Meas by ona To etos fet arises Tess En0s2 Gea Sueagh of Slow-Bend Preccked Charpy Mechanical Testing of Sie! Pods 07 Specimens of High Sueagt Meals Maenas siz) Mcrbardes of Steals Be as Drop. Weight Tear Tet of Fert Steels £43675 (1980) Indenacon Haren Tesiag of Mele Maris E1031 (1979) Bt fear esungof Neale crs Esa Rotiwel Harner and Rockwell Soper Hares, Drees of Roker tourhoos East of Meal Matias ‘hie Senin Fscare Toughness of Mellie Mera... E2093 Vises Harts of Mele Maras ‘Shar-Noteh Tension Tesung of High-Seeng Shest Pace fer ‘Muenals E3581 ‘Srowacope Hares Tring of Metalic Maerls starpNoteh Tension Texing wih Cyndie) Specimens E602st tts Pactee fo peste Frc Testng wit Suice-Crack Tension Species ‘echnical Testing of Stel Prous aso See Deerinaton Notched Bar inact Tesung of Metalic Waters 282 ‘Teqmasony Reig Linear thermal expansion test Test Medods for usm — ‘oer Expansion of Seals oo B95 1979) Mato foe {sear Thermal Expansion of Rigi Solids wi a ‘reprton and Use of Ben-Beas Sues-Coroicn ‘Viaeous Sica Dstomcet cove BIOETH) SPHERE cess eccenes oxe-73 Or tether @DTable 1, (ceninvey) Sie Conroe tet of Temperate Recomenue Frctany Mesos or ‘Sega ane Se Conon Testing i 3.5 neces Susror osers earn Tape ng sl any te CRig Sven-Cononn Cre sate Be “er Secipee, oos.73 Low an Eeaed Tengen Ming Seo Ung Bene Sres Bit | aw Nea 38 GSIARC Acconsing to Table 3. matenas raving 5 Bae woo Bit | Tero ba je ISS harness of 63 BRC most be approwmaely E Bal SN Ree | Sor 202008 Sa 8.038 in mick for an accurate test using the C F Be ST Ree a SS Scale: Thereoves tis sel sp shout ox be § BE Ree a STS feud onthe seal. At this pot check the # Bat mak |S a print corners arte ete : : Crkwell sealer equivalent to 63 HRC. These t Bal DG Ree | ise Ba S Tg—_‘Rackwel sales ARC. These x Baked | SOK a ane) en frm a conversion table — ae. 63 ¢ Bal SO Red | ase 00a 3 HRA, TO HRGSN. 80 HRSON and 91 HRISN R Bal Ree | Ty Ba $$ Refering again Table 3 for hardened 0.014. 5 Balad | oy Soa invick material, there ae only thee Rock well x Bases ay a Seales to chose from=— a8. 30N and ISN. The le 2. Typical applications of regular Rockwell rdness scales (Copper soy, s0f sels. aluminum ‘loys, malleable ron bbe made is whether the C, A.D. or the 45N. SON, or ISN scale is applicable, Whatever the bhoice, the number of possible scales has been reduced to six. The Dex step is 1 find a scale ‘ther regular or superfeial. that will guarantee Securaey, sensitivity and repeatability of testing ‘45N scale is not suitable because the material should be at least 74 HRSSN. On the 30N seal. OOlein-thick material must be at least 80 HR3ON, and the material at hand is 80 HR3ON, On the ISN scale, the material must be atleast 176 HRISN. and this matenal is 91.5 HRISN ‘Therefore. either the 3ON or LSN scale may be ‘used, Afterall limiting factors have been elimi> c Sil ar eat won, perc ines fener of Wo Mea The metal m-naled. and aenoie eit between two or More alee fon ann. Sen cae ati around te mdemaign i a Rock- sale, the sale ppg the Hest oad should Durcened sel and cer matenal’ eit hardness testis cold worked. The depth of be sed. The heavier ioad will produce 2 l a CiMSRE Dam JOOHEE oq __-mateia affected during lesng is onthe evder of indentation. covering & greater portion ofthe ma- see caenaees tea tEn umes the depth ofthe indentation. Therefore, tena, and a Rockwell hardness number more > ‘riley SSIRtilm ctargenee unis the thickness ofthe metal being tested is epresentaive ofthe material as a whole will be Weel cnd peat malesle won” atleast ten tines the depth ofthe indentation, an Gbaied. In additon. the heavier the load the e (cron, auminam and magnsiem accurate Rockwell harness test cannot be ex- greater the sensitivity ofthe seal. Checking any loys bearing metals pened Conversion table and comparing the 150 sale to F Anca copper alloy, hin st “The depth of indenution for any Rockwell the 30N scale wil show tain te haste range . Pee sentiam copper, artes testcan easly be compute. in prachce, ference in haréest of one point on he SON mngorbenz,belun cmp, weve, computation isnot necessary. because sale epresensafference of only 0.5 pont on leah wom Ue ins 72 ables of minimum thicknesies are avaiable forthe 15N seal, Therefore, smaller differences in # tsi end fxample, see Table 3). The vals for minimum hardness can be detected when wsing the 30N Kime. thickness do follow the 10Wo-1 rauo in some scale : TSA Bearing masa oer very sot han tues. Use sale ball tod envest fond at o aot ve anv tee. otal shame bekent © curb can Biel rerarne rt fe saree ners ‘Table 3. Minimum workmetal hardness values for testing various thicknesses of metals with regular and superflal Rockwell hardness tesirs(a) Minin ardor tera ne (Si pe, When mine cence we mene. per acy SA we DO a Oe a ES z Sass “2 SPF kd de ce ae =o i i i © fe we i eo Selection ot Rockwell Seale oe 2201 98 * ‘Where no specification exists or there is doubt 0.008." 99 7 aboutte sibility ofa specified sale anamae 00100000 8890 Ys should be mode of thoce factors thane O02 BT ace te selection ofthe proper sale. These in- 12 5 8 Duensing factors ae found inthe folowing four 01S gee trod categories soe ee me § & « 8 w a ivo 1. Type of work meu! oer b 6 2, Thickness of work meta! toe a 6 5. Wet of area 0 be tested Saas L 8 OB Bw 4. Seale imitans. dose OH ioe & . ome &) mo ¢ 8 @ : Intones fT ot Won Me The pes ofwork G60 Mm om © & & 6 © & 2 & & w octal normally tested using the different regular 032 |.) ©) ® 8 8 Rockwell hardness scales ace given in Table 2. 00M. @) ® 8 & This information also canbe helpfl when one ©.035 8 Hw oe & of the speriial Rockwell sales may bere 9036-0. 8) ® x ire, For example, note that the CA a 2 2 ® ee o puted. For example. eC AmD ooo mm @ % & & 2 wi Eales—all with diamond indenters— are used (on hard materials suchas steel and tungsten car~ bide. Any mater inthis hardness etepory would be tite with a diamond indenter. The choice 0 or re Se, es dts aris ua em of ace Sees eget iy dpe oe te eh en be348 nical Testing woul also apply i pees'd be used The above appr hi Vruenee ot Cabs ve sits. 4g sation to she ligutaion of :rdercien deh for a workpiece of given thickness ane harunes. were isa him- fing factor on tht minimum with of material Te the indentation is placed t09 close o the edge ofa workpiece, the edge wil veform outward fad the Rockwell hardeess number will be de- ‘reased accondinsly Ecperience hat shown that she stance from the center ofthe indentation 10 the edge of the ‘workpiece must be atleast 2s times the dlam- te of the indentation co ensure an accurate tes. ‘Therefore, the width of a narow textarea must be at least five indentaion diameters when the indensaton is placed in zhe center LUmtavees ot Recewel Seales. The potential range ‘of each Rockwell scale can be determined read- iy from the ialgage divisions onthe tester the black seal (for diamond indentce} on all regular hardness-tester dial gages is numbered from 0 12 100, with 100 corresponding to the “set” posi- tion, the red seale (for ball indenters) is sume bored from O to 130. with 130 being the “set” position. On the supertieial hardness tester. the ial gage has ony one set of divisions. numbered ‘fom 0 to 100. ‘Use of the diamond indenter when readings fll below 20s oot recommended, since there is loss (of Sensitivity when indenting this tar down the ‘conical setion of the indenter. Beale indenters ae not calibrated below values of 20, and if used fn soft materials there is no assurance taut there ‘will be the usual degree of agreement in results ‘when replacing the indenters, Another scale should be used—for example, the B scale ‘Support for Wertsleee. A fundamental require- ment of the Rockwell hardness testis that the ‘surface ofthe workpiece being tested be approx: imately normal tothe indenter and thatthe work piece must not move or slip in the slightest de- [Bee a8 the major load is applied. The depth of {Sdentation is measured by the movement of the plunger rod holding the indenter. therefore, any Slipping or moving of the workpiece will be flr lowed by the plunger rod and the motion tans- ferred t0 the Gial gage, causing an error to be fmtroduced into the hardness test. AS one point of Bardaess represents a depth of only 0.00008 in., a movemeat of only 0.001 in. could cause an cor of over 10 Rockwell numbers. The sup- ‘ort must be of suficient riidty to prevent its ‘deformation in use Figure 7 shows five types of anvils that. col- lectively, cam accommodate a fairly broad range lof workpiece shapes, VICKERS HARDNESS TESTING ‘The Viekers hardness test follows the Brinell principe, in that an indenter of definite shape is Dresied into the material (0 be tested, che load Femoved, the diagonals of the resulting insen- The indenter is made of diamond, and isin the form of a square-ase ovramid having an angle (of 136" berween faces (Fig. §). This indenter thus ‘has angle across comers. or so-called edge angle. (of 148° 6° 42.5". The faces are highly polished tod fee from surface imperfections, andthe pout (eryeser (a) Cyindron Fig, 7. Several commoniy used types of anvils that are designed to support var: fous shapes of workpieces during hardness testing in a Rockwell teste Dera tndater vera! Fig. 8. Schematic representation of the square-base pyramidal dia- ‘mond indenter usec in a Vickers hardness tester, and of the result- Ing indentation in the workpiece {is sharp. The loads applied vary from 1 to 120 ‘eg; the standard loads are 5,10, 20, 30, $0, 100, snd 120 kg. For most hardcess testing, $0 kg is ‘With the Vickers indenter, che depth of inden tation is about one-seventh ef the diagonal length ofthe indentation, For cermin types of investi- tution, thee ae advantages o such a shape. The ‘Vickers hardness number (EV) is the ratio of the load applied to the indente: to the surface area ‘of the indentation. By formula: HV = 2P sin (0/2)/a" ee eeeeste carers elt crear rants eens ees rm el ae oases acces Seaoeete earner sss ee esesceae eacanieaes a en Resa ena ee ee reece ae freaee ‘The accuracy of the micrometer microscope should be checked spainst a stage micrometer. which consists of ruled lines. usually 0.1 mm par, that have been checked against cerufied length standards. The average length of the ‘0 diagonals is used in determining the hardness valve. ‘The comers of the indentation provide indi- ‘ators of the length of the diagonals, The area ‘must be calculated from the averaze of reacines of both diagonals. The indentations are usually ‘measured under Vertical ilumination with ama fication of about 125 diameters, The included angle of the diamond indenter should be 136" with @ tolerance of less than 120,50", which is readily obtainable with modern iamond-grinding equipment, This would mean an erorof less than 15 inthe hardness number. ‘The indenters must be carefully controlled during manufacture 30 that in Use the indentations pro- duced will be symmetrical. Tables are available for converting the values of the diagonals of in- entation in millimesres tothe Vickers hardness ‘umber, Several types of hardness testers have proved sccepaable for making the Vickers test in ac- cordance with the above requirements. One ype 'Stlustted in Fig. 9. This hardness tester. which has a maintrame section that carries the stage and staring handle having a 20-10-1 ratio. applies {he load through a thrst rod tO a cube, Which Is free to reciprocate vertically, and which cares the Vickers indenter at it lower end. Anached to the mainframe is a smaller frame that contains the control mechanism. The plunger reciprocates verieally under the influence of a rotating cam, ts purpose being to apply and release the test Jad. The cam is mounted on a drum, and wen the staring Randle has been depressed. the cam is rotted by 2 weight atached by a lexble wire, the speed of rotation being conliea by a pisson and an olliled dashpot. The rate of uispa rent of tne oi is regulated by an agjustal tol valve. The plunger caries. a ruober pad at ‘ts upper end, which engages with a cone mousted in the beam, thereby snsuring a very slow and diminishing rate of application for the lat por- ‘bon ofthe loading cycle. Because the cam Both lowers and raises the plunger. errors due to in- ceria and premature load removal are eliminated ‘The microscope is usually mounted on a hinged bracket and may be moved to position over the‘naka alice the workpiece has been lowered sufficient cle the microscope. A krife-edge tye oF micrometer eeu #8 provided. and ths Indemitions are read 10 kniteredzes. The rea ings ae taken trom digits! counter mounted 9 the microscope. Tables for convening cisital readings to Vickers hardness numbets ate supe plied. The micrometer ocular may be routed fbvough 90°50 that each diagonal may be mea site. Th use, the workpiece is placed on the stage which is raised by a handwheel on the side of tne hardness tester unt the workpiece nearv touches the diamond indenter The Toad is applies by tipping the staring handle. The time taken in the application and. duration of the load may be adjusted by the oi] conzol valve inthe dashpot ‘within a range of 10 10 30 § minimum. the workpiece has not been elevated suff- ciently forthe testing load to be applied satis: factory, a waring is given by an automatically facunted'buzzer. A foot pedal will ready the Dardness tester for the nex! test after a test eyele ‘completed. The stage may be fied with a V~ block for supporing cylindrical work. routine hardness testing s 10 be cared ovt. 4 sliding table may be atached tothe stage and the microscope may be mounted on an auxiliary bracket onthe righichand sige ofthe tester so that hardness testing may be continuous without the ‘eed for winding the sage up or down. SCLEROSCOPE HARDNESS TESTING ‘The Scleroscope hardness test is essentially a dynamic indentation hardness test, wherein & ‘iamond-tipped hammer is dropped from a fixed ‘eight onto the surface ofthe material being tested ‘The beight of rebound ofthe hammer is 2 mea sure of the hardness of the metal. The Sclero- scope scale consists of units that afe determined by dividing the average rebound of the haramer Fig. 8. Principal components type of Vickers hardness tester of one froma qucnehed to masimum hardress) and an tempered watet-hardenin? tool ste! int 100 unit. Tre wale is continued shave 100 to permit test ‘ng of matenals having hardnesses greater tan tha of falls hardonce tal tet. Tener, Two topes ot Seleroscope hardness testers are Showe in Fig. 10. The Model C ‘Sceroscope consists of vertically disposes bar ‘el conaining a precison-bore pass tube. A base- mounted version of Model C Seieroscone is Shown in Fig. 10a), The scae is graduated From O'to 140. Its se behind and is visible throush the glass tube, Hardness read from the verical scale. usually with the ad of the reading riass ached to the tester. A poeumatc actuating hea, affixed 0 the top of the barel, is manually op- trated by a rubber bulb and tube. The hammer Stops and rebounds withthe glass tube “The Model D Scleroscope hardness teser (Fi. 1p) is a dia-reading tester. The tester consists ‘of vervealy disposes tare! tha contains a clutch to arrest the hammer a: maximum height of re- bound. Ths is made possible because ofthe short rebound height. The hammer i longer and heavi- fr than the hammer in he Model © Scleroscone and develops the same striking energy although Gropping a shorer distance. ‘Both models ofthe Seleroscope hardness tester ray be mounted on various types of bases. The (Cframe base, which rests on three points and is for bench use in hardyess testing small work pieces, has 2 capacity about 3 in. high by 2! In. deep. A swing arm and post is also for bench Use, but bas height and reach capacities of 9 and in. respectively. Arother type of base is used for mounting the Scleroscope hardness tester on rolls and other cylindrical objects having a min- imum diameter of 2! n., oF on flat, horizontal surfaces having a minimum dimension of 3 by 5 in. The Model C Seleroscope hardness tester is commonly used unmounted. However, when the hardness tester is unmounted, the workpiece should have a minimum weight ofS Ib. Te Model D Scleroscope hardnes tester should not be used ‘unmounted, Wolcs Surface Frith Requirements. As with other ‘meuallurpieal hardness testers, certain surface Bish requirements on he workpiece must be met for Scleroscope hardness testing (0 make an a©- curate hardness determination. An excessively coarse surface finish vill yield erate readings. Hence, when necessary, the sutfae of the work piece should be filed, machined, ground or pol [Shed to permit accurue, consisient readings 10 be obtained. LUmitabons on Wortpiece and Case Thickness. Case- hardened steels having cases as thin a8 0.010 in can be accurately hardness ested provided the ‘ore hardness is n0 less than 30 Scleroscope Softer cores require a minimum ease thickness ‘f.0.015 in. for accurate results. ‘Thin suip or sheet may be tested. with some limitations, but only when the Scleroscone hard ness tester is mounted inthe clamping stand. Ide ally, the sheet should be flat and without undu- Ion. Ifthe sheet material is bowed. the concave side ehould be placed up to preclude any possi- bility of erroneous readins due to spring effect. ‘The minimum thicknesses of sheet in various eat- fegories that may be hardness tesed are as fol- lows: Hardened steel 0.008 ia. Cold finished steel sip 0.010 ‘Annealed brass sup Soo Hialfhard brass sp ‘0.010 ei (0) Mode Dt reang| Sevoscone arenes te Fig. 10. Principal components. of two types of base-mounted Scleroscope hardness testers Test Procedure. To perform a hardness test with either the Model C or the Model D Sclerascope hardness tester, the tester should be held o° set im verucal postion, with the bottom of the bar- relin firm contact with the workpiece. The ham- mer is raised to the elevated position and then Allowed to fall and seike the surface ofthe work piece. The height of rebound is then measured. ‘which indicates the hardness. When using the Model C Seleroscope harcness tester, the har- rer is raised to the elevated position by squee2. {ng the pneumatic bulb. The hammer is releas by again squeezing the bulb. When using the ‘Model D Seieroscope hardness tester the ham mer is raised to the elevated position by turning the knurled contol knob clockwise until a defi- rte stop is reached, The hammer is allowed to34:10 Mechanical Tecting sre the workpiece by ceasing ze contol wb. ‘The reading is recorded on the dial Seteng of ngentaos, Indentations should be at lease. 30 ram 1.029 sm) par und only on at the same spot. Fst soekpieces sith parsley ses may be hardness ested thin i 10) of the edge when properly clumped Tatog te Readings. Experience 1s necessary 10 merpet the hardness readings accurately on 2 Model C Scleroscope hardness ester. Thin ma- terial or those weighing less than $ ib must be securely clamped t0 absor the inertia of the hammer. The sound of the impact is an indica: tion ofthe effectiveness of the clamping: 2 dul ‘hod indicaus thatthe workpiece has been clamped solid, whereas a hollow ringing sound indicates that the workpiece is not tighuy clamped or is veerped and not properly supported, Five hard: ‘est determinations should be made ard their av rage taken a5 representative of the hardness of 2 particular workpiece. ‘vaiags ofthe Scleroscope hardness test are sommanzed 88 follows: 1. Tests can be made very rapidly —over 1000, vests per hour are possible 2, Operation is simple, and does ot require highly skilled technicians 3, The Model C Scleroscope tester is porable and may be used: unmounted for hardness ‘esting workpieces of unlimited size—rolls, large dies and machine-tool ways 4. The Seleroseope hardness testis = nonmar- ‘ing test; no craters lett, and ony inthe most unusual instances would the tiny Rammer mark bbe objectionable on a finished workpiece 5. A single scale accommodates the entire hard- ‘ess range from the softest tothe hardest met- as. LUmiatone of the Seleroscope hardness test are summarized as follows: 1. The hardness tester must be ina vertical po- sition or the fre fall of the hammer will be {impeded and result in eratc readings, 2, Seleroscope hardness est are more sensitive to variations in surface conditions than some ther hardness tests 3. Because readings taken with the Model C Scleroscope hardness tester are those ob- served ftom the maximim rebound of the Tbammer on the fist bounce. even the most fenced operators may disagree among themeves by one of two poinis i the read ing. ‘MICROHARDNESS TESTING ‘The term “microhardness” usually refers to in- eotaton hardness tess made with loads not ex- ‘zeding 1 kg (1000 g). Such hardness tests have ‘been made with a load as light a8 1g, although ‘he majoriy of microardness tests are made with loads of 100 t0 $00 g. In general, he term is related tothe size of the indsnrtion rather than 10 the load apps ita of Asta, Microhardness testing is e2- pable of providing information regarding the Eardness characteristics of matenals that cannot be obtained with hardness tess such as the Ba- ‘ell, Rockwell or Seleroscope. Because ofthe required degree of precision for both equipment and operation. microhardness testing is usually, although not necessarily, per {formed ina laboratory. Such a laboratory. how ‘ever, is often a process-conrol laboratory and may Fig. 11. Schematic representation ‘of 8 pyramidal Knoop indenter, and of the resulting indentation in the ‘workpiece be located close to production operations. Mi crohardness testing is recognized a8 a valuable ‘method for comtolling sumeous production op- rations in addition to is use in fesearch applic ‘ations. Specific fields of application of micro- harness testing include: |. Measuring hardness of precision workpieces that are foo smal to be measure by the more common hardness-esting methods ‘Measuring hardness of product forms such as foil or wize that are t00 thin of too small in diameter (© be measurec by the more con- ‘venient methods 3. Monitoring of carburizing or nitriding oper- ‘ions, which is usually accomplished. by hardness surveys taken on cross sections of test pieces that accompanied the workpieces through production operations 4. Measuring hardness of individual microcon- 5. Measuring hardness close to edges. thus de- tecting undesirable surface conditions such as ginding burn and decarturization 6, Measuring hardness of surface layers such 25, plating or bonded layers. Inter. Microhariessesing is pefomed with sitter the Knoop or the Vixens indenter. Tae Kaoop indenter is the more widely used in the United States the Vickers indemer isthe more dey used in Earpe ‘Knoop indentation testing is performed with a diamond. ground to. pyramidal form that pro: duces a damond-shape indentation having at 3b: primate ratio between long and sor diagonals SF 7 to 1 ig. 11). The pyramidal shape em. ployed hasan included longtudinal angle of 172" 50" and an included mansverse angle of 130" The depth of indentation is about one thirieth of is length. Because ofthe shape of the indenter. in deviations of accurately measurable lengths are obtained wit ant loads ‘Tae Knoop hardness number (HK) i the ratio of the load soplied to the ener to the une- covered projected area of sndenation. By for aula HK = P/A = P/C? where P isthe applied lad, in tlonrams: Ais the unrecovered projected wea ot indentation Square millimenes 8 the measure length of the tong. diagonal, in milimenes. and Cis O.07028, a constant of he dente elaine pro= jected area ofthe indentation fo the square of he fengu of the long diagonal, For details of tne Viek is elemed to Fig. 8. Figure 12 presents a comearsen vt oe tations made by the Knoop and ¥ fs Each has some aamtases 9 For example, the Vickers indenter penetrates aut fice as far in the workpiece as docs the Knoop Indente and the diagonal ofthe Viekers inden ‘ation is about one-third ofthe total lensth of ‘Kaoop indentation. Theesfore. enter is lest sensitive fo minute aiferences Surface conditions than is the Knoop sdonter However, sie Vickers indentation, because of the Shoner aiagoaal, #8 mote sensitive "0 emOrs ‘measurement than is the Knoop indentation. = re i — 10008 —_ 5008 5008 — ° ms 1009 x idenotane Viner nde Fig. 12. Comparison of indenta- tions made by Knoop and Vickers Indenters in the same work metal ind at the same loads WMicrobarness Tena, Several types of micro- hardness testers are available, The most accurate ‘operate through the direct application of load by dead weight, ot by weights and lever ‘The Tukon tester is widely used for micro- hardness testing. Several different designs of this microhardness tester are available: they vary ‘mainly in Joad range. but al can accommodate both Knoop and Viekers indenters. "The Tukon microhardness tester shown in Fi. 13 has a load range of 1 to 1000 2g. Loads are applied by dead weight, The microscope is {ur ished with ree objective lenses having mag- fications of about 130, 300 and 600 diameters loading, vibration, rate of loed application. dar ration of contact period. and impact. To iimit ne Shock that can occur when the operator removes the load (this generally has an adverse etfect on indentations made with loads below S00 2). an automat test eyele is built into the Tukon ‘ie ‘rohardness tester. With this automatic test cyie the load is applied ata constant rate, maintained ‘in the work fr 18 5. and smoothly removed. Thus. the operator does aot need to touch the tester ule the load is being applied and removed. The de ‘ign of microhardness testes wiil vary trom one type to another, but itis essental to remove the applied load without touching he cesse if clear {Bt indentations are to be obtained. ‘A movable stage (0 Suppor the workpiece is an essential component of 2 micronazines tester. Tr many applications the indentation must be in 2 selected area, usually limited to a few thou- Sandths of a square millimetre. in tesuing with the type of Tukon microhardness tester shown in Fig. 13, first the required area is loeated by look ing trough the microscope and moving the me-