<0 alga Poo, wih st fort cleo Te ona cn ttl ES ws ry ular ih he tres el ( ea ute el isin ia sor res tle pve Te NE ray tc ng ies nd eyo a ass SEA Sere vr ian, Sxesil asis a saa ante atrty on te co oe et cont gat Cine sn an 9 re an exunng esaon Te an eet ate Red Reon out exes 8 ae snes andi egution orbn ve oa nat te Vanes rere el i i cig en ey rn 1 = ta eth nut 8 Hei depen the sa rand proved i fishermen who worked the co re ld staple for Vietnam's rce-based det Fearing the In 128 aid 1287, the Mongol rae Ra hon was etd ns (eps froth Chinese ae oer often swept in over the South China Sea, the fishermen painted the eyes or heads of dragons on their boats to frighten the evil water spirits who were believed to stir up the sea ‘The Chinese never gave up their hopes of reconguering Viet ‘nam. in 1284 and 1287, the Kublai Khan, the Mongol ruler of China, sent huge armies to conquer Vietnam. Both times, the Mongo ar. ries were defeated. Later, however, Vietnam suffered a Series of defeats atthe hands of neighboring kingdoms tothe south and west, and, in 1407, the Chinese regained control of the county. A resist: ance movement founded by a landowner named Le Loi fought back against the invaders and drove them out of the capital, Hanoi. In 1427, the vietorious Le Loi proclaimed himself emperor of Vietnam, thus establishing the Le dynasty. An Expanding Kingdom From the time oftheir arival inthe Red River region, the Vietnam: se had been partly shielded from other kingdoms onthe Indo chinese peninsula by the western mountain ranges. Under the Le dynasty, Vietnam began to push southward, In the pas, the Viet ‘ames had fought frequent war with the Chams, whose Kno cf Champa inchuded mast of what snow the central part of Vietnam, Like the Rhmers, who oecupied the southern part ofthe Indochinese ‘eninsua, the Chams practice the Hindu religion and were heavily influenced by the Indian civilization. A seafaring people, the Chins had sled orth on several occasions ad defeated Vietnamese a ries, once burning ano During the 1400s, the Vietnamese defeated the Chams and e- tablished Vietnamese Settlements and military colonies throughout Champa. The conquest ofthe southern tertories opened up new landholdings for the Vietnamese peasnty, and the kingdom's wealth and mifitary power were greatly increased. The Le rulers introduced humane legal codes that gave property ownership rights<> qo women who in Vietnamese society had a mich lowe si 9 to ween men. The ruling dynasty also cared out and reforms that aided the peasants. seer toe, Confucianism tad almost cool reek sdf a the dominant religion in Veta Conca ae ings emphasized the importance of knowledge and eS and re emese provinces were administered by roval officials ROOT vaeearne, who were wellschoned in Confuianlst Wochints ied or examination in Conca isan hak ‘termined whether they were fit fo become mandarin rriregh most new developments i te ats oxcured + opal ent ain he rer cits he wile remained te back ro emamese society. Each vgs ected ts own fs bane of pons formating ore, tying cbt ese an8 me sare that taxes were collected Inthe delta region, ages actu ofthe year resrng ies, dasa cals OE ere ures, and working on other public projets, Vilages Wt tase te dike embankments and wee conneted 19 20) cat aah tat ran alo the tp ofthe alls Vila aie a sgned in large clans, whose members met to practices vfhuls such asthe honoring ofthe clan's ancestors Tad ny shor periads of domestic peace during the eign of the Le dynasty, a Ue county ws raced bY STE Tgpting between competing aortic fms Aout le fe ald thei of peor unl near te end of he 1)

aie ie tt he eee a ei tc rary cng th Sth Hoe ee ito ator wal aco th rier of thr nd ‘repulsed every Trinh attack. The Nguyen were given militar 7 ‘Bune by the Dutch, wo i stun wre ted the gt ‘establish trading centers in the South. et {In 1772, three brothers (who were named for their home, the ‘central Vietnamese village of Tay Son) organized a peasant rebellion that quickly grew into 2 powerul national movement. The rebel terthvew the Nguyen in 1777 and then marched north and defeated the Tinh after a nine-year struggle. The youngest Tay Son brother declared himself emperor. ‘The Tay Son ruled over a united Vietnam for only short period. ‘uyen An, 8 member ofthe defeated Nauyen fami, won contro atthe South withthe help of French mercenaries. Popular sepport forthe Tay Son died when the brothers fale to take steps to improv ‘al conditions for the common people. By 1802, Nguyen Anh had dleteted the Tay Son and crowned himself emperor of Vietnam under the name Gia Long, French Control Under Gia Long and succeeding emperors of the Nguyen dynasty, ‘Vietnam enjoyed a period of national unity. Much of the country atwork of canals and dikes ad fallen into disrepair during the revs years of tumult, ad Gia Long established huge nations Public works program to estore crumbling strucares ad build new Evidges and castles. To help bind the nation together, the Neuyen structed a wide road from Hanoi to Saigon. They also formed 8 Strong war fle to protect Vietnam’ coastline ‘The Nguyen left most ofthe responsibilities of administering Vietnam's provinces to local governors and thus had Title contact vith the common people. Gradually, some of the provincial lords tesan to challenge the authority ofthe vling dynasty. The Nawven mperors crushed most ofthe revolts, but their increasing isolation from ther eubjeets eft the country vulnerable to foreign intrusions. The assault on Vietnam’ independence was not fon in coming. ‘By the early 18005, the French had decided {0 establish a strong Teathold in Indochina. French merchants and Catholic missionaries, eos o ae, colonial state in Vietnam. # ee —o Sentara itish attacked Chinese ports and forced China to mak miliating trade concessions. Sail Seon a ee 9 Kg. ing hank ef Vn: The Proc ‘lowed ‘ern Vietnam in 1858. fo nan ean eee this period, the French also seized control of Cambodia. pannese ain cer cae ae crt re © ge Rare a the oes Vea a se, introducing ve esr ning ss an exe ei sn the 1965, Ho Ob i gon establish inset th er of Vitnan's Camis peru. : and helped to further scentfc research in ther own country, How- ‘ever, the broadening of Vietnam's cultural base was acquired at the ‘expense of traditional Vietnamese learning, which was scorned by the Prench and ignored in public school Vietnamese resentment of French rule spurred the growth of a vigorous liberation movement in the early 20th century. The na Uionalist leader Phan Boi Chau was especially ative in organizing protests against the colonial administration. The French retaliated with beatings, arrests and sometimes even executions of Vietnamese patriots. The liberation movement was checked for the moment, bt, the Vietnamese desire for independence could not be stifed forever ‘The Struggle for Independence Jn 1939, World War I broke out in Europe, Early in the war, Ger mary invaded France and free to surrender. The conflict became a tral between the Ais powers (German, Italy, and Japan and the lies (rain, the United States, and the Soviet Union). While the Germans fought to dominate Europe, thei ally Japan was trying tocreate an empire in este Asa fer invading China inthe early 1990s, Japan pushed southward. By the early 1940, the Japanese toons ocapied al of Southeast Ai “pan alloved French colonial ofc to govern Indochina but forced them to follow the orders ofthe Japanese accupation forces ‘As Fane's old over Indochina began to sli, Vietnamese nationalist soups gained contol over areas ofthe Vietnamese countryside, The Indochinese Communist party, «group that supported radical social reforms such a seizing land from wealthy landlords and ving it to peasants, emerged asthe mast powerful ofthe reitance groupe. in 1981, the Communists leader, Ho Chi Minh, organized a coaliton of tiberation grqups known as the Viet, During World War I, the Vetminh gave the Ales information about Japanese troop roverents “Athough litle fighting occurred in Vietnam during Work! Wat tthe Vietnamese suffered tnily fom famine. AS many as 2m Tion people may have starved to death in northern Vietnam during the lest yar ofthe war. By early 1945, the tide of the war had turned inst Japan. Aer the As fred France from German contr ‘he paneae decided that French colonial administrators in Indo hing could no longer be trusted. In arch 1945, the Japanese ar stgted all French official in Vietnam and set up a new government Treated by the Vitramese emperor Bao Dai The Japanese declared Rat vietwam was an independent nation, but it was sill supervised by Japan’ armies. in August 1945, Japan surrendered to the Alles and give UP control over Southeast Asia. Backed by popular support the Vit ‘rin quickly asumed power and forced Bao Dat to step down Tuler, On September 2, 145, Ho Chi Minh, the lade ofthe new Tfovenment, announced the formation of united Vietnam under err aame of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV). The seat of government was Han “The Vietnamese stil ad a Jong battle shead for their inde pendence, Refusing to sve up contol ove her former Indociness etary, the French struck back, In late 1945, their toons reine cere of Cochin China, the southern patt of Vietnam. Hoping t2 seid a war withthe French, Ho Chi Minb agreed to allow French oops to establish ses in northern Vietnam in return for French vevognition ofthe DRV, But each side accused the other of violating {Cea obligations, and in December 1946, the French-Indochina War broke oul between the Vietminh and the Pench for more than 7 yeas, French colonial troops battled Vietminn queria iter. The hea aed French Woops conto 3 he major eis, but they were unable to crush the mobil, ehsiye ict, Based in the rural areas of northern Vietnam, the Viet iy maintained ood relations withthe peasants and enlisted them Proch rps, wary ry 6 ng tsb the commas Ve ‘ro Vim ht tl a at iB Pa onthe ether an conned ne tir rng ith military ‘munist Chinese republic. See eee pti wg Stn oon ct ae nd Meee ‘Two months later, representatives of the vietmin, a0 Dai government, France, Cambodia, Lacs, China, the Soviet a the United States, and other nations met in Ge va, Switz " nee Vir wel tempor be itn ort ent eons United States. The American government was determined to stop the spread of communism throughout Southeast Asia and feared that South Vietnam would fll to the NLF if Diem were forced out of office. By 1963, the popular feelings aguinst Diem’ repressive policies, had grown too strong, and the United States withdrew its support for the president. A group of military officers overthrew and killed Diem. The new government was fully committed tothe war against the communist rebels, whom it called the Vit Cong, andthe Amer: Jeans promised the Saigon government greater military support. ‘The fighting in South Vietnam developed into a major war, In August 1964, American and North Vietnamese ships had two hostile engagements in the Gulf of Tonkin. The United States declared that it had been attacked, launched immediate bombing strikes against North Vietnam, and began sending thousands of troops to South Vietnam to back up the Saigon government. With the assistance of the United States, Australia, New Zealand, South Korea, and other alles, the South Vietnamese government renewed its tempt to ‘expel the NLF from its stronghos in the countryside ‘The US. and South Vietnamese armies tried to overwhelm the NLP guerillas and their North Vietnamese ales with a punishing display of firepower. American bombers raided Hanol and other cities in the North and destroyed dams, bridges, and railroads. South Vietnamese forests were sprayed with herbicides such as Agent Or- ange to strip them of ther foliage so that American troops could locate guerrilla outposts. The NLF suffered heavy casualties, but its fighting spirit remained high. The guerils kept themselves sup- ‘led with captured weapons and with ams from North Vietnam that ‘were brought down the “Ho Chi Minh tail," a network of jungle paths running through Laos and Cambodia, ‘The South Vietnamese government, which by 1965 was led by the military regime of President Nguyen Van Thieu, did not protect<> ie poole frm te wars destruction. The countsle wos te bombings andthe bates betwen dria Pans and gov bythe Wpeone Thousands of vilgers died the crass ‘and ee fed from their homes and sought ster i S310 and rae fe Even there, the hebess popuation was battered by querrilla rocket attacks, a spoct the ean, the communist gues feainet © dear ole inde gk: the avert ofthe Saigon ene cea erent ith ari ha cou! Be Une the wn I government. The Communists called the contes We of wre aferation. Under the leadership of the BAA North rations defense miter, Vo Nguyen Gap the NLF (Ou raat and launched » major ast on Sout Vetnes dose ay outposts in anor 1968, Kaown 36 the Tt OFT and ging began ding the Vermese New Yet S010 eet the NUF attack wos repulsed with ea losses fr bth sides. though defeated, the NLF offensive proved t Be 8 laborers inthe governments special “economic zones.” The former city dwellers endured constant hardships because ofthe shortage of food and housing in the war-ravaged economic zones, Even after the fighting in Vietnam ended, thousands of people continued to swell the ranks of those fleing to refugee camps in, ‘Thailand, Malaysia, and other nations in Southeast Asia. Many of these refugees were members of Vietnam's Chinese population or of other ethnic minorities that were harshly treated by the new com ‘munist regime. Thousands of them crowded into tiny boats and attempted to escape by sea. Many of these so-alled “boat people” But in 1986, three members ofthe country’s former hard-line regime resigned, paving the way for a more moderate administra tion. The new leaders began to loosen government control over pri vate enterprise. Als in the 198, the United States and Vietnam de veloped an active relationship covering a range of humanitarian Issues, particulary the U.S. desire to account for American military people missing since the war. The countries agreed to handle these issues as a separate, humanitarian agenda, without reference to po litical dferences. ‘This relationship was strengthened in 1992 when sweeping ‘changes to Vietnam's constitution were approved. The new consti tion marked the beginning of a major restructuring ofthe govern :ment. However, itso reafiemed the continued role of the Commu nist party asthe leading force inthe state In 199, as progress was made in recovering the remains of American servicemen, the United States dropped its objection to lending to Vietnam, In 1994, the US. trade embargo was lied: in 1995, the two countries announced the restoration of diplomatic e- Jations; and in 1097, the frst US. ambassador since the Vietnam War arived in Hanoi Today, Vietnam is enjoying remarkable industrial and eco- ‘omic growth, largely because ofa surge in foreign investment and the loosening of government restrictions on free trade within the county. A number of economic problems persist. For example, the unemployment rate remain high, and the financial and legal struc tues required to maintain economie growth are nat yet strong. But the current situation hs stired hopes that a stormy and divisive era in Vietnamese history has finally ended,