356 INTRODUCTION TO AIRCRAFT FLIGHT MECHANICS for damping ratio, The 2-DOF high ¢/8 approximation has poor predictions for both natural frequency and damping ratio (despite this being a elatvely high $/B case). The limitations of each approxiniation are, of course, ditectly related to the assumptions made. 7.4 Dynamic Stability Guidelines mn designing an aireraf, there are several guidelines available for natural frequency, damping ratio, and/or time constant for each of the dynamic modes. These guidelines are based on approximately the past half century of flying experience. Dynamic stability characteristics directly affect the “flyabil- " oF handling qualities of an aircraft. The interface between the human pilot ith al limitations) and inherent aircraft response character- cs must allow for accomplishment of mission objectives throughout the flight envelope. Precision tasks such as landing approach, tackit tion flying can only be accomplished successfully Stability characteristics are within acceptable ranges. ‘These ranges are usually presented in terms of the dynamic course, another aspect of acceptable aircraft handling qualities involves suff. cient control authority (usually referred to as control power) to trim and maneuver the aircraft throughout the light envelope. We will focus on accepta- ble dynamic stability characteristics as presented in a Military: Specification (MIL-F-8785C)' Although this specification is no longer a requ ltary aircraft, it does provide a good reference for the designer and estab igh-authority control fly-by-wite control systems (F-16 and F-22) stability characteristics that do not conform to classic ‘second-order responses. Military Standard 1797 is currently used to address these advances. However, for purposes of this text, MIL-F-8785C Drovides a good first step in the’ discussion of acceptable dynamie. stability ‘characteristies. 74.1 Aircratt Class Acceptable flying qualities are a function of the size and mission of an aireraR. To account for this, MIL-F-8785C specifies four classes of aircraft as presented in Table 7.4. The determination of aircraft class is usually the fist Step in utilization of MIL-F-8785C. 7.4.2 Filght Phase Category MIL-F-8785C dynamic stability requirements also are a function of the fight phase, or mission segment, that an aircraft is engaged ent demands are placed on the pilot. For example, requires a higher degree of dutch roll dampi ing fight. The differ cnt flight phases may also be associated with different dynamic pressure condi. tions, which have a direct effect on dyn lity characteristics. Table 7.5 AIRCRAFT DYNAMIC STABILITY 357 Specific examples I 16 Light observation 01,02 ‘Heavy uilty/search and rescue cat Light or medium transport/cargo/tanker C130 arly waming/BCM /Consmand & control BD Anti-submatine 83a, Assault transport C130 Reconnaissance “Tatical bomber Heavy attack “Trainer for Class It Class I Heavy transpor/eargo/tanker larg, Heavy, Heavy bonnber fow-to-medivm Patrol/Early warning/ECM/Command & control ‘maneuverability Trainer for Class It aiplanes Chass 1 Figher/Intecepter high Attack ‘maneuverability Tactical reconnaissance sinplanes Observation Trainer for Class 1V Presents the three fight phase categories into which MIL-F-8785C divides all ‘mission segments for military aircraft. Terminal refers to the takeoff and land- ing phases accomplished in a terminal area, Normally, the gear and flaps down configuration is associated with the terminal flight phase (Category ), while the gear and flaps up configuration is associated with Category A and B. When no flight phase category is stated in a dynamic stability requirement, ‘hat requitement applies to all three categories. 74.3. Flying Quality Levels An aircraft's compliance to the dynamic stability requirements of MIL- 8785C is defined in terms of three fying quality levels. These are summarized in Table 7.6. Level 1 is the highest level of flying qualities and is the requirement within the operational flight envelope with all aircraft systems in their normal operat. ing state. It is important to define the term operational flight envelope. Flight envelopes are usually defined by boundaries of speed, altitude, load factor, angle of attack, and/or sideslip. The operational flight envelope is the inner. ‘most or inside envelope when compared with the boundaries of the service968 INTRODUCTION TO AIRCRAFT FLIGHT MECHANICS Table 75 MIL-F-8785C Might phase categories tegory A Those nonterminal fight phases that require rapid maneuvering, precision tracking, or precise lightpath contol. lncd inthis category are (@) Airsto-aie combat (CO) (0) night refueling (receiver) (RR) (b) Ground stack (GA) (@) Terrain following (TF) (©) Weapon delivery/launch (WD) (b) Antisubmarine search (AS) {(€) Actal recovery (AR) (Close formation flying (FF) (©) Reconnaissance (RC) Category 1 Those nonterminal flight phases that are nonmally accomplished using fraual maneuvers and without precision tracking, although accurate Aight-path control may be requited. Inchide in this category ate (@) Climb (CL) (6) Descent (D) () Crwise (CR) (0) Emergency descent (ED) (6) Loiter (LO) () Emergency deceleration (DE) (2) Inflight refueling tanker) (RL) (h) Aerial delivery (AD) Category C Those terminal fight phases that ate normally accomplished using gradual mmeuvers and. which usually requite accurate fight-path, contol sled inthis eategory are: (2) Takeoff (TO) (@) Wave-off/go-around (WO) (b) Catapult takeot (CT) (©) Approach (PA) flight envelope and the permissible flight envelope (to be discusted later in this section), The boundaries of the operational flight envelope are set by mission. requirements, Expected missions are analyzed to determine what speed, alt tude, load factor, angle of attack, and/or sideslip ranges will be needed to accomplish each mission, and this information is used to define the operational flight envelope. Level 2 implies an increase in pilot workload and/or a degredation mmission effectiveness because of decreased dynamic stability (or control power) characteristics. Level 2 is considered acceptable when the cumulative probabil. ity of all failure states that could result in Level 2 flying qualities within the ‘operational flight envelope is less than once every 100 flights. For example, an arerat has ten failure states that result in Level 2 flying qualities inthe opera ‘Table 7.6 MIL-F-8785C flying quality tevels Flying qualities clearly adequate for the mission Might phase fs adequate to accomplish the mission fight phase, but some pilot workload or degradation in mission effectiveness, or both, Level | Level 2 Flying qual exists Level 3 Flying qualities such me can be controlled safely but pilot festveness is inadequate, or both, Category A flight phases can be terminated safely, and Category 8 and C fight ‘be completed AIRCRAFT DYNAMIC STABILITY 359 {ional flight envelope, two of which each have a probability of § x 10-3/tight, and the other eight each have probabilities of I x 10-"/fight. Such a situation fils the MIL-F-8785C requirement because the cumulative probability i 1.8 < 10-7/Might, nearly twice the allowable limit. The reliability of these fail we slates would have to be improved to meet the cumulative requirement, Level 3 requires that control ofthe airplane is maintained but allows exces- ive pilot workload and/or inadequate mission effectiveness. It is basically a get home” level and is considered acceptable when the cumulative probability of all failure states that result in Level 3 in the operational flight eavelope less than once every 10,000 fights, and the cumulative probability of all falure States that result in Level 3 in the service Might envelope is less than ‘ones £221 100 flights. Before defining the service flight envelope, we will define the outermost Might envelope, the permissible flight envelope. The boundaries othe permissible flight envelope are set by aiterah performance and safety limits. The aircraft either is not capable of exceeding these limits, on if it ecg exceed these liits, potentially catastrophic failures tay occur (euch as ste, {ural failure oF engine failure) when beyond these limits. The boundaies ofthe servie flight envelope are between the operational light envelope and the Dermisible fight envelope (ha is, ts boundaries contain the operation ight envelope but itis contained within the permissible flight envelope), Outside the Service Hight envelop, but within the pemissible fight envelope, the hanling ualives with the airera systems in the normal state are expected to be ot teas recoverable. This means that controlled fight may be temporarily lost (os in a Mall, but the pilot ean safely retum to the service light envelope aed reanin conrl. The service fight envelope basically acts as a safety margin between the operational Hight envelope and the permissible Tight suvelose, The handling qualities of an aircraft may degrade as it nears the limits of the Permissible fight envelope, but we want the degradation to be gradval, wot Sudden, Level 2 handling qualities are generally the minimum tequiremons, With ll systems in the normal state, within the service Night envelope, bu, usd the eperational flight envelope. This ensures thatthe plot has handling aualites good enough to avoid entering or exceeding the permissible Might ewelope inadvertently. A level better than the one specified i also consideed aeccepable for a given failure situation, Section 7.3.5 will discuss the Cooper, arper rating seal for srcraft lying qualities which has a ditet conelaticn to the MIL-F-8785C levels discussed thee. A. simplified decision process. for ‘using MIL-F-8785C is presented in Fig. 7.18." 7.44 Short Period 'y guidelines for the short period mode are covered in two Both will be addressed in this section 7441 MIL:F-8785C. MIL-F-8785C requires thatthe short period mode * beth a damping ratio and natural frequency requirement. The equivalent ratio requirements are presented in Table 7.7 and are a function of Prive communication with D, Leggett, De. 1999960 INTRODUCTION TO AIRCRAFT FLIGHT MECHANICS ‘io ight melo ‘What te area isthe crn? ‘ie? ‘operon series, (coxa fate, ‘perme ‘ec fle) ‘What ive of thing ie Level) ‘What gh pe category is the aera i ‘Caepury A Cte B, “Category C) Requirement ig. 7.18 Simplifed decision process for using MIL-F-878SC. category. ‘The term equivalent is used so that aircraft with high authority augmentation systems or fly-by-wite systems can also be included, These airral have dynamic response characteristics (by design) that are significantly different fiom those of the base aitfan MIL-F-8785C require thatthe short period natural frequency fall within an ‘upper and lower limit as a fanetion of the aircrafts n/a ratio and flight phase category. Figures 7.19-7.21 present the Level 1, 2, and 3 regions for short Period natural frequency by category. Notice the logarithmic scale for n/a ‘This parameter can be estimated for an aiceraft using (7.59) n/a can be thought of as a fod factor (n) sensitivity parameter. I increases with inreases in C;, and wing are, and it decreases as Weight increases The MIL-F-8788C: shor period requirement willbe sated if the roots of the short petiod mode fll within a region on the s plane In general terms, this region is presented as the erosshatched are in Pig. 722 Minimum Maximum Level 1 030 2.00 Level 2 020 200 Level 3 os no maximum ost ‘no maxim slits above 2.00 if approved by the pocting activi AIRCRAFT DYNAMIC STABILITY 961 Hig. 7.19 | MIL-F-878SC short period natural frequency requirements—Category A Aight phases. 7.44.2 MIL-STD-1797A MIL-STD-1797A provides almost identical ‘equirements for the short period mode to those presented in MIL-F-8785C. ‘The terms “equivalent frequen:y” and “equivalent damping ratio” are used, as ‘with MIL-F-8785C, to account for the dynamics experienced by highly augmen. ted aircraft. The concepts of short period natural frequency and damping ratio are ‘eiained when using these guidelines. The MIL-STD-1797A short period require. ‘ments are recast in terms of the control anticipation parameter (CAP) over an362 INTRODUCTION TO AIRCRAFT FLIGHT MECHANICS Fig. 7.20 MUL-P-8785C short period natural frequency requirements—Category B fight phases. acceptable range of damping ratios. The CAP is estimated as ate 7.60 CAP 7 (7.60) ‘The CAP is represented on Figs. 7.19, 7.20, and 7.21 as the sloped boundaries of the Level 1, 2, and 3 regions.’ MIL-STD-1797A. presents. short-period compliance regions in terms of the CAP (which is directly proportional to the AIRCRAFT DYNAMIC STABILITY 363, Fig, 7.21 MIL-F-8788C short period natural frequency requirements—Category C Aight phases, Square of short period natural frequency) and damping ratio using Fig. 7.23, ‘The ‘only. difference between the MIL-F-8785C. requirements and: those in Fig. 7.23 is that MIL-STD-1797A has dropped the lower Level 3 For the short period, these equivalent system requirements: work y augmented aircraft as long as the aircraft has a classical-looking response such as with an a-command, q-cotmand, or g-command system (see ‘Chapter 9). They do not work well for nonclassical response types such as364 INTRODUCTION TO AIRCRAFT FLIGHT MECHANICS Sime errr Joy, = ower ay om My. 7.22, Sp command or flight path command systems, Consequently, MIL-STD-1797A also contains requitements on fiequency-response shape that are.not defined as ‘function of the classical dynamic modes discussed in this text? ‘The level boundaries in Figs. 7.19-7.21 are specified in MIL-STD-1797A using Table 7.8 In practice, the parameter of equivalent time delay must be considered when applying either MIL-F-8785C or MIL-STD-1797A. Only a snapshot of MIL. STD-1797A has been presented in this section. A detailed reading of this document is necessary for application to an actual aircraft design or Might test evaluation. 74.5 Phugoid MIL-F-8785C has only a requirement on damping ratio for the phugoid ‘mode. This requirement is independent of class and category and is presented in Table 7.9. For Level 3, the phugoid mode is allowed to be unstable as long as the time {o double amplitude is greater than or equal to 55s. Equation (7.49) can be lused to compute 7, Under Level 3 conditions, a phugoid with neutral ot posi. re stability will always sat me to correct for any undesirable phugoid characteristics. However, it can be portant during unattended or divided-attention operation of the alrcraf. Figure 7.24 presents the acceptable region for Level | phugoid roots on the + plane. 7.46 Roll MIL-F878SC specifies maximum limits on the roll mode time constant (r,) hich depend on class and category. Table 7.10 presents these requirements. AIRCRAFT DYNAMIC STABILITY 3 ro ear ai § i eR a8 5) & b caine 0 [reegeoreerrerrerrreent tte —t—__ _1 ess DAMPING RATIO, DAMPING RATIO, DAMPING RATIO, C,, ©) CATEGORY C FLIGHT PHASES b) CATEGORY B FLIGHT PHASES 8) CATEGORY A FLIGHT PHASES Fig. 723 MIL-STD-1797A short-period dynamic requirements, 365966 INTRODUCTION TO AIRCRAFT FLIGHT MECHANICS Table 7.8 Additional short-period d Flight Avera Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 phase class category A All = O6rad/s Gy > 0.15 may be relaxed ‘above 20,0008 B All Ty, the time to double “ampli based on the unstable ro, shoul be Fess than 6 Inthe Imesece of any other Level 3 flying qualities, Gy should be a least ots. c LMC ty = O87 m/s cy > 0.6 rad/s Wo nfa> 2.7 g/m nja> 1 8g/rad MAL," ey > O.Trad/s toy > OA rad/s n/a > 20g/rad_— n/a > 10rad ‘Table 7.9 Phugold damping irements Level 2 oo Fig. 724 S-plane MIL-F-8785C phugold level 1 compliance region, i. ‘AIRCRAFT DYNAMIC STABILITY 367 ‘Table 7.10 Maximum roll mode time constant (seconds) light phase Class Level Level2 Level 3 category a Tand IV 10 14 Mand tL 14 30 B Al 1 30 10 c LALC and V1.0 14 10 MeL and Lad 30 10 Because the roll mode is first order, the root will ‘and the compliance region as shown in Fig. 7.25, ‘By specifying a maximum roll mode time constant, MIL-F-8785C is essen- tially specifying that the step response of the roll mode must be faster than or ‘equal to the time constant value specified. 7.4.7 Spiral MIL-F-8785C specifies that the spiral mode meet the requirements for the {o double amplitide of the bank angle as presented in Table 7.11 for bank angle disturbances of up to 20deg. Therefore, an unstable spiralis acceptable if the time to double amplitude is slow enough. Obviously, any stable spial (negative root of the characteristic equation) is Level 1. The normal fight test ‘on the negative real axis In Complince ren) Fig. 7.25, Sp ‘MIL-E-8785C roll mode compliance region.368 INTRODUCTION TO AIRCRAFT FLIGHT MECHANICS ‘Table 7.11 MIL-P-8788C spiral mode mum time to double amplitude Flight phase Level! Level 2 Level 3 category A and € approach to evaluate the spiral is to trim the aircraft for wings-level, zero-yaw rate flight and then bank the aircraft to a 20-dleg roll angle and neutralize the controls. If the time 0 40deg is less than the time specified in Table 7.11, then the spiral requitements of MIL-F-8785C are not met Recalling Eq. (7.49), the spiral mode root of the characteristic for an unstable spiral is equal to: the compliance region for the spiral root in the s plane becomes ‘on the real axis to the left of: The spiral compliance region is shown in Fig. 7.26, 74.8 Dutch Roll ‘The MIL-F-8785C requirements for the uch rll consist ofa minimum {, 4 minimum oy, andl a'minimum Gory, a8 shown in Table 712. The table must Compliance on Fig. 7.26 MIL-F-8785C spiral compliance region, AIRCRAFT DYNAMIC STABILITY 369 ‘Table 7.12 Minimum dutch roll frequency aud damping, Flight phase ‘Minimum Minimum — Minimum Level category Class e ‘AO, GA,RR,TE 1th ill, and IV 04 RC, FR, and AS) A Tand IV 019 035 10 1 and Mt 019 035 04 B All 0.08 ous 4 c IMC, and V0.8 os 10 UL and Il 008 10 04 2 All All oo 005 04 3 all All ° 04 ee 4Thegoveming damping requirement is that yielding the lage vale of Cy, excep that ay of 0.7 ‘he maxi required for Clase I itera be modified if «514/Blyg > 20 ad?/s? by increasing the fay requirement (details are provided in MIL-F-8785C). A generlized compliance region for dutch roll rots is presented as the shaded area of Fig. 7.27. Example 7.15 For the Lear Jet in cruise using the same flight condition (40,000 and ‘M-=0.7) and data. used in Examples 7.10 and 7.12, determine if the aircraft satisfies the dynamic stability requirements of MIL-F-8785C for Level 1. ‘To start the evaluation, we must first determine the aircraft class and cate- gory: Class Il, Category B (Cruise) Mig. 7.27S-plane MIL-F-8785C dutch roll compliance region.370 INTRODUCTION TO AIRCRAFT FLIGHT MECHANICS Longitudinal Modes of Motion: ‘Short Period: From Example 7.10, 2.836 rad/s Gsp = 0.335 Referring to Table 7.7, because {,, > 0.3 and fy < 2.0, the Lear Jet passes the ‘damping ratio requirement at Level 1 To evaluate «,, for compliance, we need to determine n/a. Fro (759), and knowing that Z, is equal to 451.7 f/s? for this aircraft condition, we have Using Fig. 7.20 for a Category B Flight Phase, we plot «,,. at an n/a 14.03, The point falls within the Level 1 compliance re therefore passes the Level 1 short period natural frequency requirement. Because the Lear Jet passes both short period dynamic stability requirements at Level 1, the Lear Jet's short period dynamic characteristics are considered Level | Phugotd: From Example 7,10, Son = 0.076 Referring to Table 7.9, fry > 0.04 and the Level 1 phugoid requirement is passed. The Lear Jet (at this Might condition), therefore, meets the MIL-F-8785C Level 1 dynamic stability requirements for the longitudinal modes of motion (short period and phugod) Lateral-Directional Modes of Motion: Roll: From Example 7.12, lors Using Table 7.10 for Category B, 1, > 1.48 an iment. Because t, < 45, it passes Level 2. Therefon ‘Spiral: From Example 7.12, the spiral mode is stable (s = ~0,00101) with a time constant of fails the Level 1 require the roll mode is Level 2 +, = 9918s AIRCRAFT DYNAMIC STABILITY art Because the spiral is stable, the time-to double-amplitude requirements of ‘Table 7.11 are automatically met, Thetefore the Lear Jet spiral mode passes the Level | MIL-F-8785C dynamic stability requirement. Dutch Roll: Fram Example 7.12, yyy = 1-168 rad/s Con = 0.036 Referring to Table 7.12, we will look at the dutch roll damping ratio require- ‘ment ist Con = 02036 < 0.08, 1.036 > 0.02 Sor it passes Level 2 ‘We will next look at the Table 7.12 requirement for (pg(y,q- This product ‘must be greater than 0.15 to pass Level 1. For our case, Ton hing = 0.0582. < 0.15 therefore, it fails Level 1 for this requirement. Because Cpp0y,, > 0.05 it barely passes Level 2 Finally, we must Took at the dutch roll natural frequency requirement in Table 7.12, We have Op, = 1.618 rad/s > 0.4 rad/s therefere, the Lear Jet meets the Level 1 dutch roll natural frequency require- ment. ‘The Lear Jet dutch roll mode is rated Level 2 based on failing the Level 1 Sonny, dynamic stability requirement in MIL-F-8785C. ‘The’ Lear Jet lateral-directional mode is rated Level 2 based on both the dutch roll and roll mode characteristics being rated Level 2 Overall, the Lear Jet meets MIL-F-8785C Level 2 dynamic stability require- ‘ments because of the dutch roll and roll mode characteristics. 7.5 Cooper-Harper Ratings Al of the previous discussion on dynamic stability guidelines may imply that good aircraft handling qualities are simply a matter of satisfying published ctiteria on parameters such as natural frequency, damping ratio, and time constant for each of the dynamic modes. Nothing could be further from the truth, The criteria discussed provides a starting point for designers and a tool for fight testes to evolve the handling qualities of an aircraft. A vital contribu-ie costed Som enesrec: Kahccoe bece aeronases Yequsenas Cones 237 "PART 25—AIRWORTHINESS STANDARDS: TRANSPORT CATEGORY AIRPLANES ‘Section Contents Special Federal Aviation Regulation No. 13 rt A—General § 25.1 Applicability. §25.2 Special retroactive requirements. 25.3 Special provisions for ETOPS design approvals. Subpart B—Flight General § 25.21 Proof of compliance. § 25.23 Load distribution limits. § 25.25 Weight limits. § 25.27 Center of gravity limits. 25.29 Empty weight and corresponding center of gravity. § 25.31 Removable ballast. § 25.33 Propeller speed and pitch limits. Performance § 25.101 General. § 25.103 Stall speed. § 25.105 Takeoff. § 25.107_Takeoff speeds. § 25.109 Accelerate-stop distance. § 25.111 Takeoff path, § 25.113 Takeoff distance and takeoff run. § 25.115 Takeoff flight path. §25.117_Climb: general. § 25.119 Landing climb: All-engines-operating. § 25.121 Climb: One-engine-inoperative. § 25.123 En route flight paths. § 25.125_Landing. re :Stalls § 25.201 Stall demonstration. § 25.203 Stall characteristics. § 25.207 _ Stall warning. Ground and Water Handling Characteristics 25.231 Longitudinal stability and control. § 25.233 Directional stability and control, § 25.235 _Taxiing condition. § 25.237_Wind velocities. § 25.239 Spray characteristics, control, and stability on water. Miscellaneous Flight Requirements § 25.251 Vibration and buffeting. § 25.253 High-speed characteristics. § 25.255 Out-of-trim characteristics. Subpart C—Structure General § 25.301 Loads. § 25.303 Factor of safety. § 25.305 Strength and deformation. § 25.307 Proof of structure. Flight Loads § 25.321_General. Flight Maneuver and Gust Conditions § 25.331 Symmetric maneuvering conditions. § 25.333 Flight maneuvering envelope. § 25.335 Design airspeeds. § 25.337 Limit maneuvering load factors. § 25.341 Gust and turbulence loads. § 25.343 Design fuel and oil loads. § 25.345 High lift devices. § 25.349 Rolling conditions. § 25.351 Yaw maneuver conditions. Supplementary Conditions § 25.361 _Engine torque. § 25.363 Side load on engine and auxiliary power unit mounts. § 25.365 Pressurized compartment loads. § 25.367_Unsymmetrical loads due to engine failure. § 25.371_Gyroscopic loads. § 25.373 Speed control devices. Control Surface and System Loads§ 25.391 Control surface loads: General, § 25.393 Loads parallel to hinge line. § 25.395 Control system. § 25.397 Control system loads. § 25.399 Dual control system. § 25.405 Secondary control system. § 25.407 Trim tab effects. § 25.409 Tabs. § 25.415 Ground gust conditions. § 25.427 _Unsymmetrical loads. § 25.445 Auxiliary aerodynamic surfaces. § 25.457 Wing flaps. § 25.459 Special devices. Ground Loads §25.471_General. § 25.473 Landing load conditions and assumptions. 25.477 Landing gear arrangement. § 25.479 Level landing conditions. § 25.481 _Tail-down landing conditions. § 25.483 _One-gear landing conditions. § 25.485 Side load conditions. § 25.487 Rebound landing condition. § 25.489 Ground handling conditions. 25.491 Taxi, takeoff and landing roll. § 25.493 Braked roll conditions. § 25.495 Turning. § 25.497 _Tail-wheel yawing. § 25.499 Nose-wheel yaw and steering. § 25.503 _Pivoting § 25.507_Reversed braking. § 25.509 Towing loads. §25.511_Ground load: unsymmetrical loads on multiple-wheel units. § 25.519 Jacking and tie-down provisions. Water Loads § 25.521 _General, § 25.523 Design weights and center of gravity positions. § 25.525 Application of loads. § 25.527 Hull and main float load factors. § 25.529 Hull and main float landing conditions. § 25.531 Hull and main float takeoff condition. § 25.533 Hull and main float bottom pressures. § 25.535 Auxiliary float loads. § 25.537 _Seawing loads. Emergency Landing Conditions § 25.561 General. § 25.562_Emergency landing dynamic conditions. § 25.563 Structural ditching provisions.Evaluation Fatique Evaluation § 25.571 _Damage—tolerance and fatique evaluation of structure. Lightning Protection 25.581 Lightning protection. Subpart D—Design and Construction General § 25.601 General. § 25.603 Materials. § 25.605 _ Fabrication methods. § 25.607 Fasteners, § 25.609 Protection of structure. § 25.611 Accessibility provisions. § 25.613 Material strength properties and material design values. § 25.619 Special factors. § 25.621 Casting factors. § 25.623 Bearing factors. § 25.625 Fitting factors. § 25.629 Aeroelastic stability requirements. § 25.631 Bird strike damage. Control Surfaces § 25.651 __Proof of strength. § 25.655 _ Installation. § 25.657 Hinges. Control Systems § 25.671_General. § 25.672 Stability augmentation and automatic and power-operated systems. § 25.675 Stops. § 25.677 _Trim systems. § 25.679 Control system gust locks. § 25.681 Limit load static tests. § 25.683 Operation tests. § 25.685 Control system details. § 25.689 Cable systems. § 25.693 Joints. § 25.697 _Lift and drag devices, controls. § 25.699 _Lift and drag device indicator. § 25.701 Flap and slat interconnection. § 25.703 Takeoff warning system. Landing Gear § 25.721 General. § 25.723 Shock absorption tests. §§ 25.725-25.727_ [Reserved] § 25.729 Retracting mechanism. § 25.731 Wheels.§ 25.733 Tires. § 25.735 Brakes and braking systems. § 25.737 Skis. Floats and Hulls § 25.751_Main float buoyancy. § 25.753 Main float design. § 25.755 Hulls. Personnel and Cargo Accommodations § 25.771 Pilot compartment. § 25.772 Pilot compartment doors. § 25.773 Pilot compartment view. § 25.775 Windshields and windows. § 25.777 Cockpit controls. § 25.779 Motion and effect of cockpit controls. § 25.781 Cockpit control knob shape. § 25.783 Fuselage doors. § 25.785 Seats, berths, safety belts, and harnesses. § 25.787 _Stowage compartments. § 25.789 Retention of items of mass in passenger and crew compartments and galleys. § 25.791 Passenger information signs and placards. § 25.793 Floor surfaces. § 25.795 Security considerations. Emergency Provisions § 25.801 Ditching. § 25.803 Emergency evacu: § 25.807 Emergency exits. 25.809 Emergency exit arrangement. § 25.810 Emergency egress assist means and escape routes. §25.811_Emergency exit marking. §25.812__Emergency lighting. 25.813 Emergency exit access. § 25.815 Width of aisle. § 25.817 Maximum number of seats abreast, § 25.819 Lower deck service compartments. including galleys) § 25.820 Lavatory doors. Ventilation and Heating § 25.831 Ventilation. § 25.832_Cabin ozone concentration. § 25.833 Combustion heating systems. Pressurization § 25.841 Pressurized cabins. § 25.843 Tests for pressurized cabins. Fire Protection § 25.851 Fire extinguishers.§25.853_Compartment interiors. § 25.854 Lavatory fire protection. 25.855 Cargo or baggage compartments. § 25.856 _Thermal/Acoustic insulation materials. § 25.857 Cargo compartment classification. § 25.858 Cargo or baggage compartment smoke or fire detection systems. § 25.859 Combustion heater fire protection. § 25.863 Flammable fluid fire protection. § 25.865 Fire protection of flight controls, engine mounts, and other flight structure. § 25.867 Fire protection: other components. § 25.869 Fire protection: systems. Miscellaneous § 25.871 Leveling means. § 25.875 Reinforcement near propellers. § 25.899 Electrical bonding and protection against static electricity. Subpart E—Powerplant General § 25.901 Installation § 25.903 Engines. § 25.904 Automatic takeoff thrust control system (ATTCS § 25.905 Propellers. § 25.907 Propeller vibration § 25.925 Propeller clearance. § 25.929 Propeller deicing. § 25.933 Reversing systems. § 25.934 Turbojet engine thrust reverser system tests. § 25.937 Turbopropeller-drag limiting systems. § 25.939 Turbine engine operating characteristics. § 25.941 _Inlet, engine, and exhaust compatibility § 25.943" Negative acceleration. 25.945 Thrust or rf augmentation system. Fuel System § 25.951 General, § 25.952 Fuel system analysis and test. § 25.953 Fuel system independence. 25.954 Fuel system lightning protection. § 25.955 Fuel flow. § 25.957 Flow between interconnected tanks. § 25.959 Unusable fuel supply. § 25.961 _Fuel system hot weather operation. § 25.963 Fuel tanks: general. § 25.965 Fuel tank tests. § 25.967 Fuel tank installations. § 25.969 Fuel tank expansion space. § 25.971 Fuel tank sump.§ 25.973 Fuel tank filler connection, § 25.975 Fuel tank vents and carburetor vapor vents. § 25.977 Fuel tank outlet. 25.979 Pressure fueling system. § 25.981 Fuel tank ignition prevention, Fuel System Components § 25.991 Fuel pumps. § 25.993 Fuel system lines and fittings. § 25.994 Fuel system components. § 25.995 Fuel valves. § 25.997 Fuel strainer or filter. 25.999 Fuel system drains. § 25.1001 Fuel jettisoning system. Qil System § 25.1011 General. § 25.1013 Oil tanks. § 25.1015 Oil tank tests. § 25.1017 Oil lines and fittings. § 25.1019 Oil strainer or filter. § 25.1021 Oil system drains. § 25.1023 Oil radiators. § 25.1025 Oil valves. § 25.1027 Propeller feathering system. Cooling § 25.1041 General. § 25.1043 Cooling tests. § 25.1045 Cooling test procedures. Induction System § 25.1091 Air induction. § 25.1093 Induction system icing protection. 25.1101 Carburetor air preheater design. § 25.1103 Induction system ducts and air duct systems. § 25.1105 Induction system screens. § 25.1107 __Inter-coolers and after-coolers. Exhaust System § 25.1121 General. § 25.1123 Exhaust piping § 25.1125 Exhaust heat exchangers. §25.1127_ Exhaust driven turbo-superchargers. Powerplant Controls and Accessories 25.1141 Powerplant controls: general § 25.1142 Auxiliary power unit controls, § 25.1143 Engine controls. § 25.1145 _ Ignition switches. § 25.1147 Mixture controls.25.1149 Propeller speed and pitch controls. § 25.1153 Propeller feathering controls. § 25.1155 Reverse thrust and propeller pitch settings below the flight regime. § 25.1157 Carburetor air temperature controls. § 25.1159 Supercharger controls. § 25.1161 Fuel jettisoning system controls. § 25.1163 Powerplant accessories. § 25.1165 Engine ignition systems. §25.1167_Accessory gearboxes. Powerplant Fire Protection § 25.1181 Designated fire zones: regions included. § 25.1182 _Nacelle areas behind firewalls, and engine pod attaching structures containing flammable fluid lines. § 25.1183 Flammable fluid-carrying components. § 25.1185 Flammable fluids. § 25.1187 Drainage and ventilation of fire zones. § 25.1189 Shutoff means. § 25.1191 Firewalls. § 25.1192 Engine accessory section diaphragm. § 25.1193 Cowling and nacelle skin. § 25.1195 Fire extinguishing systems. § 25.1197 Fire extinguishing agents. § 25.1199 Extinguishing agent containers. § 25.1201 Fire extinguishing system materials. § 25.1203 Fire detector system. § 25.1207 Compliance. Subpart F—Equipment General § 25.1301 Function and installation. § 25.1303 Flight and navigation instruments. § 25.1305 Powerplant instruments. 25.1307 Miscellaneous equipment. § 25.1309 Equipment, systems, and installations. § 25.1310 Power source capacity and distribution. § 25.1316 System lightning protection. § 25.1317 _High-intensity Radiated Fields (HIRF) Protection. Instruments: Installation § 25.1321 Arrangement and visibility. § 25.1322 Waring, caution, and advisory lights. § 25.1323 Airspeed indicating system. § 25.1325 Static pressure systems. § 25.1326 Pitot heat indication systems. § 25.1327 Magnetic direction indicator. § 25.1329 Flight quidance system. 25.1331 Instruments using a power suppl § 25.1333 Instrument systems.§ 25.1337 Powerplant instruments. Electrical Systems and Equipment § 25.1351 General. § 25.1353 Electrical equipment and installations. § 25.1355 Distribution system. § 25.1357 Circuit protective devices. 25.1360 Precautions against injury. 25.1362 Electrical supplies for emergency conditions. § 25.1363 Electrical system tests. § 25.1365 Electrical appliances, motors, and transformers. Lights §25.1381_Instrument lights. § 25.1383 Landing lights. § 25.1385 Position light system installation, 25.1387 Position light system dihedral angles. § 25.1389 Position light distribution and intensities. § 25.1391 Minimum intensities in the horizontal plane of forward and rear position lights. § 25.1393 Minimum intensities in any vertical plane of forward and rear position lights. § 25.1395 Maximum intensities in overlapping beams of forward and rear position lights. § 25.1397 Color specifications. § 25.1399 Riding light. § 25.1401 _Anticollision light system. § 25.1403 Wing icing detection lights. Safety Equipment § 25.1411 General. 25.1415 Ditching equipment. § 25.1419 Ice protection. 25.1421 Megaphones. § 25.1423 Public address system. Miscellaneous Equipment § 25.1431 Electronic equipment. § 25.1433 Vacuum systems. § 25.1435 Hydraulic systems. § 25.1438 _Pressurization and pneumatic systems. § 25.1439 Protective breathing equipment. 25.1441 Oxygen equipment and supp) 25.1443 Minimum mass flow of supplemental oxygen. 25.1445 Equipment standards for the oxygen distributin system 25.1447 Equipment standards for oxygen dispensin units. 25.1449 Means for determining use of oxygen. § 25.1450 Chemical oxygen generators. 25.1453 Protection of oxygen equipment from rupture. § 25.1455 Draining of fluids subject to freezing. § 25.1457 Cockpit voice recorders.§ 25.1459 Flight data recorders. § 25.1461 Equipment containing high energy rotors. Subpart G—Operating Limitations and Information § 25.1501 General. Operating Limitations § 25.1503 Airspeed limitations: general. § 25.1505 Maximum operating limit speed. § 25.1507 Maneuvering speed. 25.1511 Flap extended speed. § 25.1513 Minimum control speed. 25.1515 Landing gear speeds. § 25.1516 Other speed limitations. § 25.1517 Rough air speed, VRA. § 25.1519 Weight, center of gravity, and weight distribution. 25.1521 Powerplant limitation: 25.1522 Auxiliary power unit limitations. § 25.1523 Minimum flight crew. 25.1525 Kinds of operation. 25.1527 Ambient air temperature and o; rating altitude. 25.1529 Instructions for Continued Airworthiness. 25.1531 Maneuvering flight load factors. § 25.1533 Additional operating limitations. § 25.1535 ETOPS approval, Markings and Placards § 25.1541 General. 25.1543 Instrument markings: general. 25.1545 Airspeed limitation information. § 25.1547 Magnetic direction indicator, § 25.1549 Powerplant and auxiliary power unit instruments. 25.1551 Oil quantity indication. 25.1553 Fuel quantity indicator. § 25.1555 _ Control markings. §25.1557_ Miscellaneous markings and placards. § 25.1561 _ Safety equipment. § 25.1563 Airspeed placard, Airplane Flight Manual § 25.1581 General § 25.1583 Operating limitations. § 25.1585 Operating procedures. § 25.1587 Performance information. Subpart H—Electrical Wiring Interconnection Systems (EWIS) § 25.1701 Definition. § 25.1703 Function and installation: EWIS, § 25.1705 Systems and functions: EWIS.§ 25.1707 System separation: EWIS. 25.1709 System safety: EWIS. § 25.1711 Component identification: EWIS. § 25.1713 Fire protection: EWIS. § 25.1715 Electrical bonding and protection against static electricity: EWIS. § 25.1717 Circuit protective devices: EWIS. § 25.1719 Accessibility provisions: EWIS. § 25.1721 Protection of EWIS. § 25.1723 Flammable fluid fire protection: EWIS. 25.1725 Powerplants: EWI: § 25.1727 Flammable fluid shutoff means: EWIS. § 25.1729 Instructions for Continued Airworthiness: EWIS. 25.1731 Powerplant and APU fire detector system: Ewis. § 25.1733 Fire detector systems. general: EWIS. Appendix A to Part 25 Appendix B to Part 25 Appendix C to Part 25 Appendix D to Part 25 Appendix E to Part 25 Appendix F to Part 25 Appendix G to Part 25—Continuous Gust Design Criteria Appendix H to Part 25—Instructions for Continued Airworthiness endix H to Part 25—Instructions for Continued Airworthiness Appendix | to Part 25—installation of an Automatic Takeoff Thrust Control System (ATTCS, Appendix J to Part 25—Emergency Evacuation Appendix K to PART 25—EXTENDED. OPERATIONS (ETOPS) Appendix L to Part 25—HIRF Environments and Equipment HIRF Test Levels