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    MONTVERT PUBLICATIONS WARRIORS OF EURASIA -} FROMTHE f VIII CENTURY BC Dreier o Meanaraoig79 Mikhael V Gorelik WARRIORS OF EURASIA FROM THE VII CENTURY BC TO THE XVII CENTURY AD Dr Mikhael V Gorelik Colour Plates by the Author Published by Montvert Publications Published in 1995 by Montvert Publications ‘©Copyright 1995 Montvert Publications All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic or mechanical including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval system. without the prior written consent of the publishers. ‘Montvert Publications, 2 Kingswood Grove, Reddish, Stockport SK5 6SP Montvert Publications (Distribution), PO Box 25, Stockport SK5 GRU ISBN 1 874101 07 8 A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. A note to the reader: This is one of a series of Montvert titles which aim to present some of the best up to date analyses of the history, dress, equipment and organization of various ancient and medieval armies. Printed by Joseph Ward Colourprint Ltd. Dewsbury, Yorkshire AUTHOR’S DEDICATION To Galina PREAMBLE As far as content is concerned this book represents a slight departure from others in the series, in that rather than being a detailed analysis of warriors froma relatively small ‘slice’ of time and geography it is something of a broad overall ‘sweep’. Itis the plan to deal with some of the peoples encountered in this volume in more minute detail ata further point in time. We hope and trust that the appetite of our readers has been whetted. The colour plates and their corresponding texts have been arranged as far as possible in chronological order, although sometimes a case could be made for reversing positions, This applics mainly to Plates 3 and 4, Plates 6 and 7, and Plates 12 and 13. In any work dealing with ancient peoples from foreign lands, spelling in English is often something of a minor problem, for example ‘Genghis’, ‘Genghiz’, ‘Jenghis’, “Jenghiz * and ‘Chinghis’ are all spellings of the same name. Any attempt to follow a particular system completely, inevitably leads to some familiar names being spelt in unfamiliar manners and so this policy has been avoided, however endeavours have been made to use unique proper names consistently throughout, These will be found in the ‘People and Places” index. Dr. Philip Greenough (editor) PREFACE In ancient and medieval times the lands of what is now referred to as the former Soviet Union provided the battlegrounds for some of the most fantastic warriors history has known, The purpose of this book is to give us a glimpse of what they looked like. It featuzes twenty-two full colour plates showing expert reconstructions of nearly seventy exotic warriors from places as far apart. as from the Danube in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east, where Chuckchi warriors even terrorised the inhabitants of the western coasts of America! Each plate is accompanied by its own text giving a short historical outline and a description of the military characteristics and arms and armour of its principals, fa | INTRODUCTION War is the most tragic part of human existence, yet it has been with us since Neolithic times. Wars have Been waged between neighbours either +0 106 or to guard against robbery of possessions aid fared. Strange as it nay initially seem, but because of the importance of armed forces to their societies, ‘warcraft’ has alwnys een the focus of great human endeavours of intellect and craftsinanship. Hence the medieval man-at-arms was virtually ex emBodiment of the tecfinological and artistic achievements of fis community. However, te fevel of 4 society's sfills in warcraft fins not afways cen directly in proportion to its fevel of tecfiological, social and economic development. Many underdeveloped, ‘barbaric’ societies fave displayed surprisingly effective military organization, in contrast to some figlify sophisticated civilizations whiclt fave not, buit, ultimately, early societies which failed to bring their level of warcraft up to sufficient standard were inevitably doomed to perish. ‘The received wisdoin tfiat Grackets nations into those with a military tradition and those to be considered as doves of peace’ has to be rejected, for the fatter cease to exist. For example, she allegedly ‘peaceful’ Churebeht were up to the 19th century AD a spectacularly warlike nation who terrified aff the infabitants of the Befuring strait shores, Having berten off the Cossacks ofthe Tear, they acquired unique status as a free commonwealth of the Russian Empire subject neither to the yasaé tribute nor to Russian eivil (aw. Hopefully, by understanding, rather thaw ignoring, the military traditions and fiistory of the past we cart obtain the knowledge which will enable us to avoid the grave mistakes whieh end in bloodshed. ‘The study of ancient warcraft is a specialised enc complex branch of historical stud). The specialist fas to analyse the archaeological record, etfirographic materials, surviving items of weaponry, different, anf ofter conflicting, written sources, and last Gut not feast, the visual record loft to us by the fine arts. Moreover, given the conditional and, sometimes, deceptive nature of the date, a-training in philofogical, nguistic and art study techniques is a distinct advantage. Specialists or not though, the startling discoveries of the past will never cense to amaze us. MG. fel re Plate 1 - FROM THE TAUROS MOUNTAINS TO THE TAURICA STEPPES VI century BC JIT century BC WK Fafcher, Vi century BC ed 1 ik FROM THE TAUROS MOUNTAINS TO THE TAURICA STEPPES ‘The Urartians, who spoke a northern Caucasian language cognate of those of the Chechens, Ingushis and the majority of thie Dagfiestant peoples, flourished in the 1st millennium BC. ‘The kingdom of Urartu, centred on Lake Vane in eastertt Anatolia, encompassed vast conquered areas in-wfiat are riow eastern ‘Turkey, Armenia and north-western Iran. The Urartian army consisted of infantry, outstanding eavairy and powerful chariot units. The sciences of fortification and fiorse-breeding for military needs were well developed. In combat Urartian warriors wore an armour made either of tied bronze plagues or of iron scales sewn onto a soft base, broad chased bronze girdles, tall Gronze or (more rarely) tron: fielinets, Sreastplates or pectorals. They were equipped with. shells of bronze or wood, of feateer or osier with bronze bosses (umbes). Chargers, especially chariot horses, were barded. As offensive weapons the warriors used arrows, maces, bronze battfe-nxes, stone and clay balls for use with slings. Swords, daggers, spears ard battle pitckforks were hammered from iron. The highly standardised. Urartian weapons were manufactured according to the highest aesthetic and tecunical criteria. In the early 1st millennium BC, the autochtorious population of Transcaucasia and the Caucasus spoke a rnumber of fanguages akin to those spoken at present it Hiese areas But excfuding the Indo-European (Armenian, Ossetian, Tat) and Turkic (Azerbaijanian, Karacfiai-BalRarian, Kumyf and Negai) ones. They formed a mosaic small independent ehiefioms or ‘countries’, dozens of tem being named fv Urartian texts. They were governed fy the tribal nobitity, who occasionally formed coalitions. Inspite of their Cow standard of social development at ‘that time, Caucasian ‘countries! had enormous econoinie potential. They became the arms worksltop of a vast region, Bronze maces, battle-axes, swords, daggers, spears and 6attle-pitchforks were tlieir favourite weapons. Arrows often had obsidian: ends, just hard enough to penetrate a soft armour and brittle entough to Breaf after piercing the enemy's flesh. Wicker shields were covered with feather. Girdles of sheet bronze or feather Gecame their favourite defensive equipment; metal plaques of different dimensions were sewn to feather armour. Bronze fefnets, similar to those manufactured in Asia Minor, were occasionally worn. Te warriors fougfit matnly on. foot, with cavalry and chariots tending to 6e used as sfiock units. ‘The steppes froin the northern Pontic area to thie Arif Sea and beyond were infabited by Irantan speafing nomadic tribes of eattle- and forse-breeders. In the early 1st millenium BC, tficy Became the first people to put mounted archers ito the field. Some of the triGes in thie steppes of northiern Ciscaucasia came into contact with focal proto-Adys trides, outstanding metallurgists wfo produced not only Bronze weapons anf ornaments, but iron Blades as well. In the 8th century BC hosts of mounted archers poured throughs fie mountaiit passes into Transcaucasia and further to the Near East, Asia Minor and northern Mesopotamia. They became known as the Cimmerians. Their new battle order utterly surprised the enemy, and victories were gained onc after another. ‘The peoples of the Near East were cager to adopt the achievements of the nomads: the fight Bridle and the soft sadale, a small tight Gow and arrows with superior Ballistic cfiaracteristics. Besides Sows and arrows, the Cinmerians used iron daggers and (quite rarely) swords. They also fougtit with spears, bronze Caucasian Battle- ames, stone maces and picks - the archaic weapons of their ancestors. Defensive arms, except for shields of wood and leather, were afitiost never used, Only the noblest warriors occasionally wore armour, imported from beyond the Caucasus. The fare of the Cimmerians and their exploits has survived in the Georgian language where the word gmsiré means ‘giant’. But the lustre of their achievements was short-lived. To the north, in the steppes of Ciscaucasia, new forces were gathering . pal Ee Plate 2 - THE SCYTHIANS, THE GREEKS, THE MEOTIANS AND OTHERS... 2A - Scythian warrior, V century BC 2B - Pontic Greek hoplite, IV century BC 2C - Scythian heavy cavalryman, V century BC ed 2 ee THE SCYTHIANS, THE GREEKS, THE MEOTIANS AND OTHERS ..« The great historian of antiquity, Herodotus, “The Father of History’ fias described the ancient inhabitants of soutfi-eastern Europe. Among them we know Sest of all (owing to the archaeological record, artefacts, descriptions and (inguistic data) the Iranian-speaking Scythians, the Adyg-speaking Meotians of the Kuban region and the Greeks. Whereas the Greeks and the Seyzhiians had come to the northern shores of the Black Sea inthe 7th century BC only shortly before Herodotus’ time, the Mcotians were by that time rightly considered tobe the autochitons of the Kuban area. ‘The culture of the Seythians was very much akin to that of the Meotians, thouglt the fatter wore engaged in sedentary eattle-Breeding and farming and the former were mostly nomads, This culture ad taken shape in the inid-7tf century BC as a result of Scythian campaigns in the Near and Middle East, whence they fia acquired suck equipment as a scaly metal armour, a cast metal helmet anf « ceremonial and defensive forse bridle, The Scythians, routed By the Medes, streamed Gack to their bases in the Kuban region where they had played a decisive role in the genesis of early Meotian culture, Thence they conquered vast lands as far as the Danube to the west and to the latitude of Kiev to the north, and established the three Seythian kingdoms tere. The population of these Kingfoms consisted of the royaf house, the men-at-arms stratum and free commoners. Scythian society wns highty militarised. The fame and notoriety of the Seythians, who drank the 6lood of their enemies, used their scafps for towels and the shin of their hands for quivers, spread like wildfire. They were espectally renowned and feared as matchifess mounted archers, overwhebining the enemy's fighting spirit with a rain of short arrows with Bronze Keads, foased from smal composite resifient Bows. Yet the Scythians (and the Meotians) were not onfy fight archers. With their javelins they were able to hit afoping fare at full gallop and to picree armour. Their offensive gear included a short (ciren 2m) an a fong (circa 31m) spear, battle-axes, short and long daggers (akinakes) and {ong (70-100 em) swords, In batefe, volleys of arrows were followed By a charge with: lances followed by hand-to-fiand combat for which the bulk of the men-at-arms dismounted. Only the Bearers of for swords were able to remain on horseback througftout. The Seythiians and the Meotians wore an elaborate panoply. It consisted of armours of different design fong- sleeved, short-sleeved and sleeveless, with ong greaves, short cuisses, abdominal and shoulder pieces and semi- soft Gack-picees. All these were made of leather on which iron or (more rarely) ronze scales were sewn. Helmets in the 7th-Gth centuries were cast in-bronze inthe shape of rounded casques. Later helmets resembled scaled hats. Many fiefmets were purchased from the Gree; these were often remodelled after Seythian fashion. The armour also included « battle-gindle/sword belt, often. covered completely with sewn-on narrow vertical iron or bronze plaques. Very large girdles/corscfots were also in use. Occasionally greaves made of verticat bronze bands sewn to leatfier or Greek forged Anemides mimicking the faunan shin and calf were worn, Rectangular, ovat and funate shields were manufactured of thick feather, often armoured with iron strips or scafes. Shields anc armour Greastplates were decorated with golden images of Beasts or of their ieads, hooves an claws. Greek colonists brought with them from their native fand Greek weapons: a short sword (xxipfas) and a farge mactiete (machaira), Sronze helmets anf armour cuirasses, greaves (emides) and round shields covered with cfiased bronze. In the Pontic steppes, the Greeks could hardly use their battle formation, the phalanx. It scons likely that they used fess rigid infantry formations. Moreover, they constantly enlisted focal Seyehian and Meotiai: contingents, whieh fed to an interaction of Gree and ‘barbarian! warcraft. tal Fal Plate 3- FROM THE HEART OF THE ASIAN STEPPES rr | FROM THE HEART OF THE ASIAN STEPPES While Alexander of Macedon was fighting valiantly in the Near and Middle East, in Central Asia and northern Industan, in the steppes of Inner Asia amidst the Saka tribes, new processes were maturing that were to revolutionise the whole system of warcraft inan immense territory for centuries to come. When Alexander's cavalry clashed in their epic battle with the Persian army they narrowly avoided being crushed by its Saka detachment. Later, the Saka supported Spitamenes, the chief of the Central Asians fighting for freedom from the Macedonian king. Eventually, having forced a crossing of the Syr-Darya, Alexander's army routed the Safa. Before the erossing the Macedonians hurled missiles from catapults at the Saka crowded on the opposite bank. According to one ancient account, an arrow piereed a feavily armoured Saka warrior. Not fong 6efore this event, the Saka did not widely use costly defensive armour. It is worth noting that the full set of armour came into use amid the westernmost and the easternmost Saka tribes: in the west owing to the fight against Persian rule, in the east due to their active participation in the turmoil on the north-west frontier of China, In both cases the achievements of the Persians and the Chinese respectively in the development of defensive arms were Borrowed, Gut the autoctonous tradition was by no means abandoned. Asa result of an interaction of Borrowed ard focal traditions, a set of armour for a feavy cavafryman was rapidly designed. 1t consisted of an armoured jacket fitting ct the waist, with a fight armoured reck-guard, Srassands of steel or hard leather bands and rings, greaves and a helmet. The fatter, though originally Seing a cast Gronze casquie, was riveted or welded of several iron pieces. An armoured horse-cfoth protected the charger, whose head was covered by a chamfron made of hard leatfier and iron. Offetisive weapons underwent sone changes as well. The main weapon, the bow, Gecane more tight after the eastern nomads, the Huns, the Saka began to make the horns of their bows fonger and faced them with Gone, Bronze arrowheads were replaced by the iron ones of a different size. Iron swords became widespread. It is noteworthy that their method of securing ther sword 6ett and accoutrements, was borrowed from China. Ever. the pomiels, the guards, the loops or scablbard slides , the scabbard tips, often made of jade, were directly imported from China, Spears were used for the first charge. In fact, all these weapons had been seer before, faving Been used By the Seythians and the Persians as well as by Chinese chariot fighters and infantrymen. Yet only among the Safa in the fate ath-3rd centuries, di this set of arms become prevafent amongst the heavy cavalry suche that this army component turned into a decisive factor on the battlefield. The use of this set of weapons enabled the Safa end the Yueshii to press the Huns. However, in the 3rd century BC the latter took ‘heir revenge and thetr western nelgfiBours were forced to flee westwards. Amongst them were the Kushans, who in the 3rd century BC created an enormous empire which spread from Centra Asia to India. In their weaponry, the principles of the Saka weapon. set were most impressively accomplished, fiaving undergone some drastic improvements. Inthe 3rd century the Parna nomads conquered ancient Parthia (in what is now Turkmenistan). In the first centuries of the Parthian empire, the heavy Parthian cavalry gained victories over thie Romans, and had domain. from Turkinenistan to Syria. They wore a scaled armour of the Persian and Scythian type. Five hundred years later, when the empire was nearing its decline, Parthian knights also wore an armour of farge plates joined by thongs or iron rings as well as a mail-cont invented by the Celts as early as the 4tfi century BC and borrowed By the Parthians from the Romans. Also from the latter came metal masks on pointed fielmets. Swords, bows and spears were similar to those of the Kushians. The miflennial history of the tactics of oriental knights, mounted archers, fancers and swordsmen fad begun. (ea 4 Ey THE NORTHERN PONTIC SHORES ON THE EVE OF THE NEW ERA Inthe fate Lst millennium BC - early 1st millennium.AD the northern shores of the Black Sea remained one of the centres of classical civiftsation constantly in contact witht the ‘barbarian’ world of the steppes. By this time various tribes had migrated from Geyond the Don, from the steppes of the Volga region, Central Asia and SiGcria. Known to classical authors as the Sarmatians, they became the supreme power in the steppes. They fad routed the Scythtans, partly assimilated, partly annifiated then and, having thus broken through to the Danube, Began to attack the Transdarubian Dacians and, fater, the Romans who fiad come to this region. With the Antter, the Sarmatians fiad to cfasit in Crimea in the Lower Don region, in Transcaucasia where after Pompeius’ conquest in the 1st century BC many Roman. garrisons were stationed. The Sarmatians scored their biggest successes in the Ist century AD. At this time, the Alanians who had moved into the northern Pontic area from the steppes of Tian-Shan, played the feading part among tfent, From their distant fiomeland the Sarmazo-Afanians hed brougiit a new mifitery system utilizing property equipped ficavy cavalry as the shock force. Their offensive weapons were very simifar to those of the Parthians and the Kusfans. They inefuded a fong (some 4m) spear with a large head, a fong (1m and foriger) sword, with the pommel in the shape of a stone dise, in a scaBbard secured to the swond-belt througia special foop or slide (sucht slides, of Chinese workmanship, were frequently Brought directly from China), and a short dagger in a sheath with four twin foops enabfing, the dagger to be strapped to tfc right hip and to the Gelt. Both heavy and fight cavalry were equipped with powerful bows. These were larger thin those of the Seythians, fong ranged and reinforced with orny facing-plates. The arrows of thiese Bows fad trilobate iron heads. The Bow and arrows were Rept ina. gorytos akin to that of tie Parthians and the Kusfians demonstrating the common origins of cultures of those peoples. Defensive gear, however, differed. The Sarmatians of the northerrs Pontic aren probably seldom used it and, of all the types of armour, preferred the maif-cont Sorrowed from thie Romans. The maif-coat was often reinforced wish sealed armour eitfier in the sfiape of secles woven into the tnail-cont or as a separate armour with scales sewn to a [eather or finen base (whose form was also of Roman origin). Sarmatiart armour was occasionally decorated with pliakrae, richly ornamented metal disc-shiaped twin breastplates. Sarmatian frorses were but rarely bared. ‘The redoubtable glory of the Srrmatian kriglits and the effectiveness of their weaponry induced the warriors of the Bosporan Kingdom, sfie Grecks and thie men-at-arms from various autochtonous arid new!y-come nations toadopt completely their military system, for it must Ge remembered, the Bosporan kingdom, though a dependency of Roine, was entirely independent culturally. ‘The GackBoite of the Roman army was of course the Lionary, « ficavily armed foot soldier. By the eve of the new era, fis weaportry fad Been Brought to astate of perfection with respect to tecfiofogy and standardisation. Offensive weapons included a pair of javelins (pila) with a sinafl head on a fong rod made of pig iron, a short sword! (gladius) and a dagger. he frelinet wes in itself « feat of engincering, absofutely impervious to slashing strofes, Maifarmour and the unlque (erica segmentata armour of tron strips tied on the inside by vertical thongs were equally widespread, though the fatter, flexible and fight, was at the sane tine more softd than mail, The warrior was also protected by an arinoured belt with an armoured ‘apron’ and a large wooden tile-shaped shield with an iron Goss at the centre ard Bronze Bindings along tfie edge bal | 10 Plate 4 THE NORTHERN PONTIC SHORES ON THE EVE OF THE NEW ERA ak. ea 5 ig THE BARBARIANS AT THE TURNING POINT OF HISTORY It is common friowledge that the Greakdown of the Roman Empire signalled the ond of antiquity and the Beginning of the Middle Ages. This breakown was caused by the great migrations of the ‘barbarians’. Moving initially only to the frontiers of the Empire, they ultimately put an end to four thousand years of ancient history. This great movement began from the heart of Central Asia. The Huns, proto-Turkic nomads wfio in {former times had crushed the Kushans and the Saka and terrified China, were routed in Mongolia by the proto- Mongols, the Sienbi, and moved west, These Bearers of a well-developed nomadic cufture enrichied by Chinese influence mixed with: focal Iranian-speaking catele-breeders in Central Asia and the Tian-Sfuar region, and created in the 3rf-4th centuries AD a magnificent set of weapors based on Central Asian traditions of the carly st millerutiuo AD, It consisted of a fong cavalry spear with a pennant or a bell attached to the shaft, a fong two-handed double-edged (sometimes single-edged) sword andl a dagger either strapped to the right hip or slung from the belt at the front. The main weapon of the Hurs was an enormous Sow with bone and fiorny reinforcing facing plates. The bow was kept ina gorytas either strung or unstrung. ‘The defensive arms were very rich including a felct of iron strips crowned witha finial, Bearing a plume or a figurine of a fabulous Beast with a (eather or a mailed enmaif. The throat was protected by & high armoured gorget. Mail was widespread, although. it was worn underneatfe a more solid fong faineflar arnour (composed of strapped together plates) witha scaled ‘pelerine!, shoulder pieces and Brassards (Goth made of steel strips). Greaves of steel strips were secured to overlap mail chausses, The equipment of the Huns and their fiorses was riefify adorued with gold ard silver plaques with inlaid red stones or fess. The Huns, who had mixed with: the Ugric tribes and the Sarmatians ard wiped off the face of the earth those who stood in their way, became known to the entire world. The appearance of a Hun-warrior of the 3rd- Ath centuries AD west of the Urals slightly changed in comparison. with former times. Mail became even more widespread, the helmet more rounded and occasionally made in two parts. Alf this was due to the Roman influence, fiowever, the Huns’ warcraft, in its turn, greatly influenced that of their neigfibours and adversaries, the Sarmatians and the Romans. In 375 AD, in the steppes of the Lower Dnieper, thie Huns routed the troops of the state of the Gotlis, a Germanic people who fied fived along the Duteper and the Dniester for more tan 150 years and who fiad recently been Christianized. Then both the Huns and the Gothis pounced upore thie Roman Empire. Inthe 4th-Sth centuries, the armament of the Goths (as well as that of other Germanic tribes of Central Europe) comprised a fong dagger, the sae, « spear, javelins and a fong sword derived from the fate Roman cavalry sword, the spatha, Brttle-axes were also in-use, Simple bows were nade of a single strip of wood. Arrows were Rept in a cylindrical wooden quiver strapped to the back. The Gotfiie noblemen who fought mounted fad, besides swords, a rich. defensive panoply in which the Roman traditions and te Germanic achievements fiad Geen synthesised. Most often tfiey wore a maif-cont, sometinnes with fong sleeves and a mai coif. The e9g- shaped helmet was composed of four or two parts tied by a wide framework, richly adorned and gifted. The feelmet iad cheek-pieces and ofter also a camaif and was crowned By a fair or feater pune. Large round shields were made of planks. They were occasionally covered with leather and painted. The edges of the shield were reinforced by iron clips; at the contre there was « rounded iron wnbo. Shields were ofter: adorned with [aid-on. metal figurines of Birds, Beasts, mounted and foot warriors as well as with crosses. bel Ea Plate S - THE BARBARIANS AT THE TURNING POINT OF HISTORY $A - Middle Asian Hu 3 iyrropean Hun ~ Gothic Pitggigr, V century AD if croretiky é 13 a «oc «4 ON THE GREAT SILK ROAD The Gth-8th centuries saw events of global importance take place ix Eurasia. These were connected primarily with the activity of Turkic tribes whose homeland fad Been situated in Mongolia - in the Mongolian Altai, in the Hangai, in the Orkfon valley. Thence the Turki, faving made their kindred nomads join them, went to conquer new pastures and sedentary subjects. The lands they conquered stretched from the Baikal region to the Caucesus, 6ut the Turkic empires, the gaglanates, were short-fived though constantly revived under the rule of one and the same royal house, the Ashina. The military power of the ancient Turki was based on their powerful cavalry, consisting of mounted archers equipped witht composite fong bows with whining arrows. The arrows were fept ina stocking-shaped case slung from the Belt or. the left side (the whole set was called saadal). The warriors also carried fairly (ong battle-knives (often also swords) stung from another belt. This sword-belt was, so to speak, an ‘identity card? of some sort; its fabric and shape, the mumBer and position of metal plaques indicating prectsefy the social position of its owner. The heavy cavalry formed the shock strength of the Turkic army. The horsemen were equipped with (ong cavalry spears,a sword, a broadswvord or (in fater times) a sabre; often a battle-axe with a small head wes also used. They wore helmets constructed from several riveted pieces with aplunne and a meif tippet of chins or camail of tied plates, and a famnelfar armour whose plates were made of steel or thick and hard lacquered feather. They had fairly large round wooden shields, sometimes greaves and brassards, The steeds of the heavy cavalrymen were often protected by chanafrons, neck bards and “horse-clotls! of tied tron. or leather plates. Controf over the Sift Road, which connected China with the West and the Near East, was one of the economic pillars of Turkie empires. Along this route were situnted the colonies of the Irantan-speaking Sogdians, artisans and merchants whose core area had Been the regions of Samarkand, Bukfiara ard Pyanjifent. In te 7th century these cities reached their heyday only to fall under the 6fows of Istaunic invaders, The victorious Arabs, fiaving routed one by one the Sogdian rulers, had cleared the way to Central Asia for the islamised eastern Persians, the Tajits The Sogdian warriors, the smallholders (azats) and big {andowners (idiifans) used high-quelity weaponry cither of focal origins or Borrowed from their suzersins, the ‘Turki. The focal tradition was represented by narrow fong swords ard daggers, while knives and brondswords as well as saadaks were borrowed. Unik the Turki, the Sogtians preferred mail-coats and mail chiausses, yet for greater safety, a fong famellar armour was worn on top. Over the armour, a leather ‘pelerine’ to-which shoulder pieces were attached was worn. The head was protected by an efegant spheroconical helmet with ornamented car-pieces. A camaif often covered the entire face except the eyes. Underneath the fiefmet a feather quilted comforter was worn, that could occasionally be nused independently, The arms and fogs were protected By articulated Srassards and greaves mnade either of single plates or of bracelets’. Sogdian shelts were always round, made of wood covered with (eather. The larger shiels bore a mash of a mouster (1 reminiscence of the Greek Gorgons), the smaller ones were covered with black feather and reinforced with a decorated border and four or five iron. Gosses, The steeds, in all probability, were not Banded, yet the Bridle was equipped wielta cur6 for Setter governing. A metat eftemfron was used. Magnificent painted images of Sogdian knights charging the enensy in close order, with their spears thrust forward have survived. Even after the Arabian conquest, te traditions of the Sogdian fights axed their equipment remained for a long time a model for the men-at-arms of the Middle East and Central Asia. al Fa 14 Plate 6 - ON THE GREAT SILK ROAD Gevior, VIL eo] 4 BF he eure H. ry AD Sogdian nolfinety cavalry yman, VII century AD 15 fa a s ‘THE ‘ROMANS’, THE SLAVS AND THE AVARS Inthe 6th century AD in Eastern Europe, in the nortfiern Pontic steppes in the Balkans and in the Lower Danube, events of great importance were taking place. The Eastern Roman Empire, Byzantium, acquired a military strength: hitherto unheard of and was resolutely re-establishing te former frontiers ofthe great empire, North Africa and Italy, as well as otfier areas came back under the aegis of Constantinople. Dependencies of this Second Rome? were also situated in the Crimea, in ABRfiazia and in part of Armenta. The Byzantine army consisted of the most feterogerteous contingents, inctuding professional units, conscripts, warriors recruited from the dependent population, and tribal ‘Garbariaw’ corps serving for money. Tribal corps kad their own weapons, but other units were, as a rule, equipped 6y state armouries, However, Goth the ‘Garbarian’ mercenaries and the neighbours of the Empire did their Gest to acquire « variety of high-quality Byzantine weapons. Offensive weapons varied acconting to the Granch of the army: ‘The light infantry was equipped with javelins, slings and daggers. Composite bows, powerful and resifient, used Both by foot sotiers and cavalrymen, were akin.to those of the Parthians and the Huns. They were worn. about the neck while arrows were kept in a cylindrical quiver on the Back. Heavily armoured warriors, etther mounted or wnmourited, were equipped with fong spears and swords, with sea66ards usually slung from a shoulier-belt. Defensive gear comprised a large round or oval shield made of wood covered with riclity decorated feather, with a high iron umboand a helmet of several riveted pieces with chicek-picces and a crest. The warriors wore either a mail hauberk, sometimes with 4 food, or a lamellar (made of plates attached to each: otfir) or sealed (made of plates sewn. to a soft base) armour, as well as fong high-necked shirts, fiose and shoes and a cloak with a hood. Inthe 6th century the Slavonic tribes that had reached the Lower Danube became the main threat to the Empire. In the 5th century, the Slavs spread in aff directions from their fiomeland (situated north of the Carpathians), were inducted into the Hun kingdom and warred against the Goths. Slavic warrior bands raided the Byzantine territory, drove away cattle, plundered, Kiet or carried away people. Ir: more than one place the frontier of the Empire was brofen through and whofe clans anc tribes of Slavs populated Thrace (what is now Bulgaria), the larger part of thie Balkans and some arcas of Greece. The Enipire retaliated with punitive expeditions, yet at the same time tried to enzof the Slavs as solfiers for they were considered to 6e powerful, adroit, sturdy and courageous warriors. They were equipped wish javelins and spears, Batile-axes, sniall simple Bows with poisoned arrows and were protected by enormous wooden oval shields or small rourd ones, They wore fong narrow trousers, featfier feggings, sometimes also embroidered shires and cfouks. The main threat to both the Slavs and Byzantiun came from the steppes north of the Black Sea, ‘These were invaded by the Avars, Turkic-speaking nomads from Central Asia, who had routed the southern Slavonic tribes and included them into their kingdom. Byzantium was attacked by Slavic infantry followed Sy Avar cavatry, The Avars brought to Europe a sadcle with high pominels, stirrups and straight singie-edged Blades which they fater transformed into sabres. The heavy cavalry of the Avars wore fielmets which were either riveted or made of narrow strips of iron tied together, with a finiaf and a panache, ear-pieces and mail tippet (camail), a fameflar-armour cuirass with shoulder-picces, cuisses and rassards of iron strips. Rownd wooden shielés were Gut rarely used. The Avars also brought to Europe special feeds for cavalry fances, quivers of a specific shape, and fong Bows Kept unstrung in. stocking-shaped case. Even the (ong caftans of the Avars came ito vogue in Constantinople, al Fa 16 Plate 7- THE ‘ROMANS’, THE SLAVS AND THE AVARS 7A - Avar heavy cavalryman, VII century AD 7B - SI 7C~ Byzantine heavy infantry, VI century AD 2 3 iS THE KNIGHTS OF THE STEPPES AND FOOTHILLS After the Hun invasion and the migration of the Avars, the steppes of tfie Don.and the Kuban, the foothills of Daghestan and the Volga arca were inhabited by Turkic tribes, the remnants of the Hun ‘empire’. The majority of these were called Bulgars or Bulgarians. Their fanguages formed a distinctive group within the ‘Turkic family (among the modern Turkic languages, onfy the Chuvash Gefongs to this group). In the second half of thie 7th century the Bulgarian tribes of Ciscaucasia and the Azov Sea region formed thuree states: the Savir kingdom on the shores of the Caspian sea, the Great Bulgaria Khanate in the Kuban area and the Azov sea region, and the Khazar gaghanate inte Daghestan steppe. Inthe fate 7th century the Khazar gaghans Gefonging to the noblest royal house of Ashina, which had ruled over the Ancient Turkic quaghanate, crushed Great Bulgaria ruled by the Kans of the noble Turkic house of Duo. Some Bulgarians fled to the Danube, some to the Volga, Gut the majority of them submitted to their Kinsmen, the Khazars. In the early 8th. century the Khazar qagfanate fike a great many oriental states was invaded by the Arabs. Yet, unlike the peoples of Central Asia and ‘Transcaucasia, the Khazars, in spite of several lost Battles, succeeded in upholding their independence thereby shielding Eastern Europe from Arabians conquest. However, they hid to feave ravaged Ciscaucasia for the Lower Volga region where their capital fad been founded, and the Don region where Khazar fortresses were erected. ‘These were surrounded by the sites of Slavonic farmers and Alanian artisans. The Iranian-speaking Alanians, the descendants of Sarmatians and the ancestors of the Ossetians, were included into the Khazar qaghanate and spread up to the Crimea and the Don region. The Khazar rulers reigned over the fands from the Middle Dnieper (whore in Kiey, the contre of the Slavonic tribe of the Polyans, the residence of the Kfiazar governor, the tun, the ShamBat-Manfermen fortress, was situated) up to thie Middle Volge. The principal strength of the Khazar army was the several thousand-strong guard of the qagfian whicfi served for pay, and the forces of Khazar, Bulgarian and Alanian chiefs. The army consisted of fcavy and light cavalrymen. Their war-gear maintained the traditions of the Turki qagfianates, Gut was subject 0 influences {from the Caucasus, Byzantium and Central Asia. A powerfulcomposite Gow andaarrows were the most important weapons. However, tfie sabre (together with the broadsword) assumed ar-ever-growing importarce. It acquired at the time its ‘classical’ shape. To « cavalry spear, Battle-axes, preferred by the Alanians, and flails with weighits, cherished by the Khazars, were adifed. Long 6attle knives were very popular. More rarely pairs of finives that seem fkely to have Been. missife weapons are encountered. Defensive gear was abundant. Riveted spheroconical helmets with mail tippets, maif and lamellar armours were worn by everyone. Probably, the Khazars possessed additional pieces of equipment redofent of Central Asia, the homelard of their rufers, typically brassards, greaves and bards. Khazar armour was fairly original its plates were clamped by iron rivets but not 00 tightly so that the armour remains flexi(e. This method of manufacture was more laborious, But rendered the armour more resistibfe. Round wooden shields were reinforced by a high round iron wmBoat the centre. In the second half of the 9th century a wave of Magyar (Hungarian) nomads poured west from the soutlt Urals. The Magyars were friendly with the Khazars and emBraced ruumerous efements of their culture, incfuding warcraft, yet conserved their own quite impressive traditions showing a strong Central Asian influence. Their fieavy cavalry was akin to that of the Khazars, Bulgarians and Alanians, Sut fooked smarter and moze ‘Asiatic. At first, the Magyars settled in the Lower Dnieper region and terrorised Danubian Bulgaria and Byzantiun, but were in their turn routed by the Pechenegs. They then went up the Dnieper, past Kiev and through the Carpathians reaching their new homeland in the fate 9tfi century. During this movement the Magyars came into contact with the Slavs of the Drtieper region, and Slavic warcraft became enriched with Magyar elements. Plate 8- THE KNIGHTS OF THE STEPPES AND FOOTHILLS century AD tury AD (ea 9 E FROM THE URALS TO LAKE BAIKAL Inthe 9th-110h conturies, when in Eastern Europe the early Russian kingdom was arising and Becoming firmly established, west of the Urals equally large and warlike ‘state formations’ of Turkic-speaking nomads were tafing shape. The qagfanate of the Kimak tribe, stretcfiing from the Irtysh river to the Tian-Shan. was the largest, yet at the same time the most precarious among them. The Kimaks not onfy raised cattle in the steppes, they Suilt impregnable strongholds with high walls and deep moats. Kimak armourers supplied their warrlors with pointed fielmets, either forged or riveted of steel sections, with mail tippets. The warrior’s body was also protected by mail, often supplemented with a fainellar cuirass made of a set of attached-togethier plaques. Long spears, 6roadswords and sabres, small batsle-axes, fails and indispensable Sows and arrows were af used as offensive weapons. Round shields were sometimes used. It scems likely that bards, probably of quilted (eather or thick felt, were not unknown. The steppes of Minussinsk (swfiat is now Khakassia) were the homeland of the Kyngfiys, who in the 9th century, as cartier, refused to be subordinate to the gagfans, the rulers of Central Asia, They spread from their native frallow to thie vast southern aris, routed Uighur troops, conquered Mongolia and Tuva and extended the power of their rulers, the aso, to the easterr: limits of the Kazakh steppes and the Batkalarea. This empire did not fast Cong; a hundred years later the Kyrgfiyzes left the vast fards which were of no use to them. However, they wert on ruling southern Siberia for many centuries while the Kimag state coflapsed fairly soon; the Kypefiaks (Cumans) as well as a number of otfier tribes set up on their own. ‘The weaponry of tlie Kyrgliyzes, though fairly similar to that of the Kimaks, tad its own distinctive traits. Kyrghiye fiefmets were not so perfect front the technical point of view. Mail was unfrown, onfy famellar armour Being used. The archaic character of their weaponry was emphasised by the use of wooden elements of armour including brassards, shoulder-pleces and greaves. The Kyrgfiyzes did not use flails and maces, but small Sattle- axes were widespread and, Sesides sabres and brondswords, swords were widely used. Among the finds of Kyrghiyz wenpons, fine blades imported from Central Asia and Iran, are encountered. Of particular interest are metal omaments from Kimaf anf Kyrghyz panoplies, namely belt plaques and horse fiarness Suckles. Of very similar forms, they are of sirthing finesse and splendour of ornamentation, showing diversified and elaborate designs. In the LOth-11¢h centuries the power int 2 number of states was seized from Islamic nobles of Iranian and Arabian origins by Turkic warlords, either the chiefs of independent tribes oF gulans (bought slave soldiers). For upon Becoming a ruler of an Islainic state one fad to adopt Islam, and thee new converts, though not well-versed in Islamic commandments, had Become the mast ardent fighters for their new religion. The interaction of the steppe and sedentary traditions engendered in, Centraf Asia an easter Ivan certain interesting forms of weapons and military equipinent, Helinets with camails carried or: tfe Sogdian. tradition, Defensive armour combined @ funellas, mail or quifted armour with forg mail or quilted oversleeves and a quitted fiem. Cavalry sfitelds were round, those of the infantry were large and oval. Tops of the Goots made of hard Ceatfter served as greaves. Stceds were fully protected by bards of painted feather. The rich. array of offensive weapons comprised spears and javelins, sabres, swords arid diggers, maces of different sfiape, Guttie-aaes, picks, Bows and arrows, slings and arbalests, pal Fa 20 Plate 9— FROM THE URALS TO LAKE BAIKAL x w., ry AD

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