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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES
AGRICULTURAL ISSUES CENTER
ANR PUBLICATION 3417
LABOR MANAGEMENT IN AGRICULTURE: CULTIVATING PERSONNEL PRODUCTIVITY (2 ND
Edition)
ISBN 1885976062
ANR Publication 3417
This publication has been anonymously peer reviewed for technical accuracy by University of
California scientists and other qualified professionals. This review process was managed by the ANR
Associate Editor for Human and Community Development.
Printed by Parks Printing and Lithography, Modesto, California. Cover design by Harrison Aquino. Cover photos and
photographic effects by Gregory Encina Billikopf.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the written permission of the publisher and the
author. Printing or reproduction of photographs in any form, except as part of complete chapters as indicated below, is
strictly forbidden. There is no implication that the people or farms depicted in the photographs were involved in the
incidents recounted in the text. The photos were taken by the author unless otherwise indicated. Printing of this book, or
complete chapters of this book, is permitted for personal, non-commercial use as long as the author and the University
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University affiliation, and course title to Gregory Encina Billikopf (at gebillikopf@ucdavis.edu).
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To those who work in agriculture
David Marsing Billikopf
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Gregory Encina Billikopf was born Billikopf’s agricultural extension
and raised in Chile’s Central Valley. His research and teaching efforts have
interest in agriculture and farm labor focused on such topics as employee
issues has been developing since his selection, compensation, performance
youth, part of which was spent in his appraisal, discipline and termination,
family’s vineyard in San Javier. supervision, interpersonal relations,
Billikopf obtained a BS in plant science conflict resolution, and negotiation
with emphasis in production agriculture skills. Gregory has been a frequent
at the University of California, Davis, national and international speaker in the
and a MA in labor management from field, and has had the opportunity to
California State University, Stanislaus. give presentations in Russia, Canada,
Before coming to the University of México, Uganda, and Chile. He is also
California in 1981, he worked in the manager of the international
migrant education and farm worker agricultural human resource electronic
training programs. forum, AG-HRnet, and the electronic
newsletter People in Ag.
C O N T E N T S • vii
CONTENTS
Acknowledgments viii
Preface ix
Index 235
viii • A C K N OW L E D G M E N T S
PREFACE
Research shows worker output is not
a constant. As a farmer or labor
contractor you can play an important
role in shaping work outcomes. My
intention with this book is to present
sound theory and practices hopefully
leading to a better understanding of
worker performance and output—and
improved management of human
resources on the farm. The emphasis of
this publication is in areas most critical
to the productivity of personnel on your
farm.
Besides teaching and research, an
important part of my job as farm advisor
is to work directly with individual farm
employers, helping them with
challenging issues they face. This
second edition has been substantially
revised and tested in the field. Some of
the changes are subtle, such as the order
in which to approach a problem.
Perhaps the greatest change has been the
addition of numerous examples of how
farm employers have dealt with many of
the issues. Some of these examples have
been altered but others stand essentially
as they happened.
This book was written on the
premise that those who read it will want
to maximize farm output as well as
long-term profits. For labor management
to be successful, it must benefit both
farmer and worker in the long run. I
hope this will be a useful reference for
years. The emphasis is on management
of management tools, and suggests that and solutions to challenges, and this
farm employers can really affect potential is seldom tapped to its
organizational results. Chapters 2 and 3 potential. Conducting effective meetings
promote a selection process in which is the subject of Chapter 11. Decision-
practical tests play a specially critical making meetings can tap into the
role. Who is hired is one of the most creative potential of employees. Chapter
important decisions a farm manager will 12 focuses on day to day issues of
make. In agriculture, as in so many interpersonal relations, and includes
other types of organizations, employers topics of special interest to farm
often select people based on first employers with a multi-cultural
impressions, or insufficient data. Issues workforce. Interpersonal contact can
related to movement of employees lead to conflict, and that is the topic of
within the organization, including the Chapter 13.
role of seniority vs. merit are addressed Chapters 14 helps supervisors
in Chapter 4. separate and deal with performance
Chapter 5 provides tips on training problems. Suggestions are provided for
employees, and establishes parameters ways of approaching employees so the
for training partnerships with public or problem is not compounded.
government organizations. Chapter 6, Terminating employees without stepping
contributes a new approach to on their dignity is the topic of Chapter
performance appraisal, one that leans 15. When employees leave, management
heavily on effective negotiation often loses a valuable asset. Chapter 16
strategies. Compensation is the subject considers what employers can do to
of Chapters 7 and 8, dealing with reduce unwanted turnover. Personnel
internal wage structures and incentive policies and handbooks are considered
pay. Wage structures deal with equity in Chapter 17. A sick leave policy is
issues in terms of what people get paid used as an example of how employees
in contrast to others, both within and can turn a policy that encourages people
outside the organization. While to be sick, to one where employees feel
compensation is not the only reason an incentive to come to work.
people work, it is important to Chapter 18 is new to this edition. It
understand how compensation affects is a bit of a review, and also provides a
employee motivation and morale, as test of people-management skills,
well as business viability. A number of through the use of various scenarios.
incentive pay strategies are discussed. A Because of its importance, much of the
persistent lack of understanding in the book deals with negotiation principles in
area of incentive pay management has one way or another. The essence of
frequently kept agricultural employers effective negotiation is understanding
from benefiting from this immensely that long-term solutions are more likely
powerful tool. when the needs of all the participants
Supervisory power is the subject of are considered.
Chapter 9. Power can only be This book is meant to stimulate and
maintained when it is not abused. Abuse structure positive action. Some ideas
of power can take different forms, such seem unique, and no matter where I go,
as favoritism, dishonesty, and sexual someone will say, “That won’t work
harassment. Chapter 10 sets the stage here.” Yet almost invariably someone
for more effective delegation. else will comment “It works, and we are
Employees often have much to already doing it.”
contribute in terms of creative thinking
1
Managing People on the Farm
One day I was taking photos of farm Farm personnel are certainly not a
workers when one vineyard pruner constant. Whatever control over
explained with a twinkle in his eye, “My production you have at your farm, it is
photo will cost you $10.” I smiled, as I achieved through people, whether they
asked why that would be. are in production, supervisory,
“You see,” the pruner explained, administrative, or management
“I’m the best!” positions. How these individuals are
Now my interest was peaked even selected and managed makes all the
more. “How can you say that,” I difference.
continued with humor in my voice, People management skills can be
“when those two pruners a couple of broken down into three essential
rows over are ahead of you?” ingredients: (1) a concern for
“Well, there you have it,” he productivity and for employees; (2) an
concluded matter-of-factly. “You said it understanding of human resource
yourself, two pruners. Both are pruning management; and (3) purposeful action.
the same row while here I am on my Effectiveness in people management
own, right on their tail, and there is only skills calls for a mix of all three
one of me,” he concluded in triumph. ingredients. Concern and action alone
Research shows that, indeed, the best cannot make up for inadequate
farm employee can consistently be four understanding. Nor can plentiful care
to eight times better than the worst. and knowledge succeed without action.
2 • L A B O R M A N AG E M E N T I N A G R I C U LT U R E : C U LT I VAT I N G P E R S O N N E L P R O D U C T I V I T Y
thought that the grower wanted them to in one area may serve well in others. For
plant those vines the other way ... how example, a detailed job analysis may be
was he supposed to know?”2 used during the selection process. The
A clear understanding of same analysis may yield data to
management tools includes the proper establish pay differences, fix
application of the same. One orchardist, performance parameters, and help tailor
after learning of a neighbor’s success a training program.
with an incentive program switched his An overview of human resource
pay system. The peach grower offered management is presented in Figure 1-1.
crew pickers a full day’s pay—and the The list in the left column shows
right to leave as soon as they finished— external constraints that are placed on
if they would pick an additional bin for the workplace, the center column lists
the day. The pickers were delighted. labor management tools and practices,
Most were through before 11 a.m. The and the column to the right lists
farmer was thrilled with the increased potential results or outcomes.
productivity. But after the initial I like to think of the tools in the
excitement wore off he started to feel middle column as filters or magnifiers
that the bargain was not so good. He affecting the results column. In the
tried to even out matters by asking for absence of effective human resource
yet one more bin per day. The workers, management practices (the middle
who may have originally accepted the column), external influences may have a
extra bin as a fair exchange, now instead pronounced effect on productivity and
voted for union representation. Crew other sought after results.
workers felt the farmer had broken an For instance, an employer might
oral contract. choose to hire the first twenty applicants
When labor management principles who show up for a citrus-picking job
are properly understood, the more likely without testing their skills. By so doing
a manager will choose the right set of she forgoes the opportunity to use a
tools—and apply them correctly—to selection filter to hire more productive
deal with a given challenge. Time and workers.
effort spent on improving management Let’s briefly examine the elements
competence pays off. Once the within these three columns before
foundation is laid, new skills are easier moving on to the importance of
to acquire. Also, tools developed for use purposeful action.
Adapted from Rosenberg, H. R. et al. (2002). Ag Help Wanted: Guidelines for Managing Agricultural Labor,
Western Center for Risk Management Education (p. 24).
M A N AG I N G P E O P L E ON THE FA R M • 5
Lack of focus. One of the major tasks A key understanding is that (1)
in pursuing a difficult goal is avoiding workers differ in both ability and
distraction. People can use a number of motivation and (2) farmers can manage
devices to help stay focused on the goal: much of that variation. There are
reading material related to the objective; numerous labor management tools that
setting aside specific time for farmers can use to temper challenges or
contemplating the subject; or posting a improve results. Managers must avoid
visual reminder, such as a photograph or the tendency to rely on a limited number
note in a prominent place. of tools.
Faulty planning, evaluation, and Impulsive or overly cautious action
correction. You have probably heard the can worsen personnel challenges. It
saying, “an unwritten goal is simply helps to have a plan with timetables, and
wishful thinking.” Although somewhat to incorporate ways of evaluating
exaggerated, this remark emphasizes the progress toward goals. Perseverance is
need for careful planning, evaluating, often better than uncoordinated bursts of
and correcting. Planning may involve effort. A lack of management
establishing goals and sub-goals and intervention may cause producers to
There is a balance found scheduling a logical sequence of events. forgo control over long-term
somewhere between Regular appraisal of progress that has profitability and other desirable
been made is part of the evaluation outcomes.
premature, hasty action
process. Finally, correction may
and doing nothing. encompass dealing with challenges, CHAPTER 1 REFERENCES
failures (including going off course), or
contingencies (the “what ifs”).
Though taking appropriate action 1. LaVine, P. (1982). Personal
when managing a work force is critical, communication.
speed is not always essential. There is a 2. Lodi, California. (2000). Grape grower,
balance to be found somewhere between personal communication.
premature, hasty action and doing 3. Milkovich, G. T., and Boudreau, J. W.
nothing. Some decisions require more (1994). Human Resource Management
(7th ed.) (pp. 661-662). Burr Ridge,
time and careful planning before being
Illinois: Irwin.
implemented; other situations call for 4. See Vroom’s Expectancy Theory. Cited in
immediate reaction. Often, steady Tosi et al. (1986). Managing
plodding will move an organization Organizational Behavior (p. 242).
further towards positive changes than Marshfield, MA: Pitman Publishing Inc.
fast, yet short-lived, efforts. 5. Bednar, R. L., Wells, M. G., and Peterson,
Action alone, without consideration S. R. (1989). Self-Esteem: Paradoxes
for worker needs and productivity or and Innovations in Clinical Theory and
without understanding the dynamics of Practice. Washington, D. C.: American
labor management, may yield mixed Psychological Association.
results.
SUMMARY
The three essential ingredients of
effective labor administration are (1) a
concern for productivity and people; (2)
an understanding of human resource
management; and (3) purposeful action.
Labor management may suffer if any of
these are absent.
A concern for both employee needs
and worker productivity is fundamental
to effective management. In the long
run, labor management must benefit
both farmer and worker.
2
Practical Steps to Employee Selection
“My dad used to manage this ranch before I did, and I remember he used to tell me
that sometimes you just have to put up with lousy employees. I believed that up to a few
years ago. I realize now that you don’t have to do that. You can hire somebody who can
meet all your expectations and maybe more.”1
Chris Nelson, Farm Manager
Cattle Ranch, El Nido, California
While keeping within the law, who with both legal, economic, and practical
an employer hires is pretty much her consequences. Once a person is hired,
determination—but one that ought not there often needs to be a compelling
be taken casually. Hiring the right reason for termination. If an employee is
person for the job may be the most not working out, action must be taken
critical management decision you will promptly, however. The longer a worker
make. Consider the farm manager who is permitted to retain a job, the greater
lost $80,000 in alfalfa. He had trusted an the potential consequences associated
employee who claimed to know how to with a discharge (see Chapter 15).
bale. Or, the thousands of dollars lost by Given the importance of employee
a hog producer in only three months as a selection, two chapters are dedicated to
result of hiring the wrong person. the topic. This one describes a step-by-
Although employee termination is step sequence to selection. We consider
normally an option, it is one plagued such factors as needed skills for the job,
10 • L A B O R M A N AG E M E N T I N A G R I C U LT U R E : C U LT I VAT I N G P E R S O N N E L P R O D U C T I V I T Y
Job description. From the job individual’s job description. This is also
In considering what talents
analysis and specifications, farm true where employees are represented by
are needed for a job, do not employers can develop a job description, a union.4 Nevertheless, it is a good
take any skill, ability, or which is used to give applicants a practice to include, under examples of
feeling for what the job will be like. duties, the line “other duties as
knowledge for granted.
These are brief (usually 1- to 2-page) assigned.” From a practical perspective,
position narratives with a job title, job however, employees need to be exposed
summary, examples of job duties, to a large variety of duties within a short
supervisory relationships, and working time of their selection. Morale is likely
conditions (Figure 2-2). to fall when employees feel that a task is
Title. Whatever title is used must not part of their job description.
accurately reflect the duties of the job.
Job titles communicate subtle messages
to applicants about the job. For instance,
Job Title
Last revised: ____________
Job Summary:
though the jobs might be identical, there
is a difference in connotation between
the titles of “herdsman” and “herd
manager.” Examples of Job Responsibilities:
Job summary. The job summary is 1.
2.
usually a brief narrative containing 3.
information on duties. Additional 4.
information, such as hours of work, //
10. Other duties as assigned.
vacation, and other benefits may be
included in this section. Relationships:
Job responsibilities. The list of
duties usually starts with the most
Working Conditions:
important or most frequently performed.
Providing estimates of the percentage of
Salary and Benefits:
time to be spent on important tasks can
give workers a sense of the job
components. Arbitrators recognize that
FIGURE 2-2
management generally has the
prerogative to add duties to an Job description structure.
P R AC T I C A L S T E P S TO E M P L OY E E S E L E C T I O N • 13
Relationships. This section includes one farm employer may give greatest
information on reporting (who this importance to skills in operating a wheel
individual will work for), as well as tractor or crawler, but less to the ability
supervisory responsibilities, if any. to hook up implements. (An example of
Working conditions. This is a good a weighted scorecard is found in
place to give applicants an idea of the Chapter 3, Figure 1.)
hours of work and overtime To arrive at the proper weight for a
requirements, how much work is given factor, you can make forced
performed inside or outside, and the comparisons between two skills,
type and condition of farm tools and abilities, or knowledge areas. For
machinery to be used. instance, a cattle breeder might consider
Salary and benefits. Farmers this question: “If two applicants are
determine what they feel a job is worth equal in every other way except their
and what is an appropriate starting proficiencies in animal nutrition vs.
salary for a qualified applicant (see computer use, which one would I rather
Chapter 7). Setting a salary is a delicate hire?” By comparing imaginary
process. Using the term starting salary candidates you can adjust the weights to
implies that employees will obtain raises reflect your preferences.
as they acquire experience on the job.
It is good to mention a starting Step 4: Determine the recruitment
salary. Leaving pay considerations until strategy
later may well be a waste of time for
Among the most frequent objections
both farm employer and applicant if
to the systematic selection approach
their wage expectations differ
discussed in this chapter, are concerns
considerably. Also, if a farm employer
about getting enough applicants. How
has a good sense for the prevailing
many people apply partly depends on
wages, little is gained by advertising a
your recruitment efforts, the type of job,
starting salary as negotiable. You may be The recruitment process is
labor market, pay, and the reputation of
inadvertently encouraging applicants to
your farm. The larger the applicant pool, critical to effective
ask for higher wages.
the greater the chance of finding
The salary and benefits section employee selection. The
qualified applicants. The most thorough
should also detail information about the most thorough selection
selection approach cannot make up for a
location and condition of any housing
poor candidate pool. approach cannot make up
provided and about other benefits, such
Sources to help you advertise the
as paid vacation, sick leave, and health for a poor candidate pool.
position include present employees,
insurance coverage.
other farm employers, previous
The Americans with Disabilities Act
applicants, trade journals, newspapers,
of 1990 (ADA) has given job
vocational schools, universities, and
descriptions additional importance:
employment agencies. The radio is a
those written before a job is advertised
particularly good recruitment source for
can help defend employers’ decisions
many agricultural jobs. Farm employers
about what constitutes the essential
who are trying to attract Hispanic
functions of a job if they are challenged
applicants often find great success
under the ADA.5 through Spanish radio stations.
Paul and Laura Fouts of Cortland,
Step 3: Weight the job specification
New York, found that radio ads allowed
items
them to be quite creative, such as using
Weighting job duties can help the sound effects. The radio station
farm employer assess the qualifications personalities helped write and read
of competing candidates. Each skill, these. Their success with the radio spots
knowledge area, and ability is rated led them to be more creative with their
according to its importance to the job. A newspaper ads. Employees help by
skill may be given less importance, for giving feedback or helping with ideas.
instance, if it can be easily acquired or is The Fouts’ are trying to attract people
seldom used. In hiring a tractor driver who may or may not have had previous
14 • L A B O R M A N AG E M E N T I N A G R I C U LT U R E : C U LT I VAT I N G P E R S O N N E L P R O D U C T I V I T Y
experience with farming.6 Some farmers questions, provide information about the
fear that by advertising job vacancies so job and operation in general, as well as
openly they may attract undesirable an invitation to participate in an
applicants, but these may be eliminated orientation day (more about this below).
at a later step. Addressing the mailer can be time
Bernie Erven of Ohio State consuming, however. When extensive
University is a pioneer in the area of efforts are taken to recruit, it helps to
effective recruitment. Erven suggests reduce the total clerical work involved.
that farm employers talk about the many Farm employers can ask applicants to
positive aspects of farm work, including enclose a self-addressed envelope during
the opportunity to raise a family in a the application process. The farm
healthier environment. Sometimes we employer should make it clear that the
can make working on the farm sound applicant does not have to place a
negative, he suggests. A creative ad can stamp, however, or this could give
make a big difference. Bernie found this potential employees the wrong idea.
clever ad in Hoard’s Dairyman: Other time saving possibilities
“Minnesota Dairyman, caring, include a Web page or telephone
understanding, witty, intelligent, recording, where the farm employer can
ambitious, divorced, 45 years old, seeks include additional information about the
woman of similar character who enjoys job, including the date and time for the
life and would help milk cows, etc. orientation day. The more information
Cows first, romance second.” that is provided, the greater the chances
An excellent source of potential that potential applicants can make a well
candidates are persons who come thought out decision as to whether or
looking for work when you may not not to apply. The added advantage of a
have any job openings. Sometimes Website, is the possibility of including a
farmers ask such visitors to fill out an map to the farm, a more extensive job
application form. Anyone who has filled description, photos of the farm
out an application lately knows, operation, and other pertinent data. In a
however, that they tend to be too traditional ad there is simply not enough
detailed, ask too many questions, and room for much information. One can,
often are not worth the effort for just a however, include a Website address and
“maybe” for the future. A better a phone number that will contain pre-
approach is to simplify the process by recorded information.
asking potential applicants to fill a 3 by
5 card with the bare essentials: 1) DESIGN THE SELECTION
applicant name; 2) desired job; and 3)
phone number, or other information on PROCESS
how to contact them in the event a
position becomes open. A well-designed selection process
Some farm employers prefer not to will yield information about a
have potential applicants contact them candidate’s skills and weaknesses,
directly, so they may take out a post enabling the farm employer to make an
office box for that purpose. Other informed choice.
farmers want to take advantage of their
positive reputation, and may provide the Step 1: Determine which selection
farm name in the ad, but include a “no tools to use
phone calls” request. While the first call Applicant skills can be evaluated
may be exciting, by the time the farm through applications, interviews, tests,
employer gets a dozen, she may get tired reference checks, letters of
of answering questions and dealing with recommendation, and physicals. Some
the interruptions. The first caller may selection tools are more effective than
get a forty-minute description of the job; others, but a combination of tools is
the last one may get two minutes. usually best. Some farm employers feel
A mailer is a good way for growers strongly about using a one or two week
and producers to answer many potential trial period. A trial phase in conjunction
16 • L A B O R M A N AG E M E N T I N A G R I C U LT U R E : C U LT I VAT I N G P E R S O N N E L P R O D U C T I V I T Y
with the rest of the tools described in Table 2-1 can serve as a checklist of
this chapter can be very effective. A trial attributes to be verified by selection
period makes a poor substitute for a tools.
systematic selection approach, however. Areas of inquiry can help determine
All too often, if a person is barely good an applicant’s aptitude for interpreting
enough for the job, he is allowed to stay plant or animal health distress signs,
on. The chances of selecting the right capability with measuring instruments,
individual for the job based solely on a command of another language,
trial period are greatly diminished, as understanding of labor management
we shall see in Chapter 3. principles, lifting strength, or welding
Factors reflecting worker motivation, expertise.
such as punctuality and attendance, may Results are used to assess a
be elicited within the interview, but candidate’s technical knowledge, general
contacting previous employers may give problem-solving ability, interest in the
more reliable information. If possible, operation, and other job-related
try to verify evidence of specific skills, attributes. Some queries or activities will
knowledge, and abilities at more than elicit responses that can be judged
one point in the selection process (Table objectively, such as how much pesticide
2-1). Time constraints may limit should be mixed into a given number of
choices. gallons of water. Other responses may
be more subjective, such as to an inquiry
Step 2: Prepare questions and on how to deal with a negligent
situations for written and practical employee.
tests, the interview and reference
checks Step 3: Assign a sequence to hurdles
At this point the farm employer The farm employer can think of the
converts important skill areas into selection process as a series of hurdles
specific questions or activities for the that applicants must clear in order to
application, interview, and tests. Also, obtain the job. Each hurdle eliminates
questions for the reference check may some applicants from contention. The
be drawn up. The left-hand column in sequence of these hurdles needs to be
TABLE 2-1
Skills, knowledge, and abilities may be measured using different tools at
Determining where to check for skills, different stages of the selection process. An "X" indicates a principal method
knowledge and abilities for measuring that skill, knowledge, or ability; an "O" indicates a secondary method.
Maintaining equipment X O X
Using implements
(disk, plow) X O
Controlling weeds, pests, X O
diseases
designed with care. Generally, the most Furthermore, employers should not
expensive and time-consuming selection be overly influenced by nice-looking
tools are used later in the selection applications that may have been typed or
process. completed by someone other than the
For example, in the selection of a candidate. Professional résumé services
herd manager, 12 candidates may have can make candidates appear quite
passed the dairy records and computer attractive on paper. The caution here,
test. Since this is not the most important then, is that there is little relationship
part of the job, high passing scores between an applicant on paper and on
should not be a strict hurdle to eliminate the job.
contenders. Otherwise, the applicant Written exams for technical or
pool might be narrowed inappropriately managerial positions are an effective
to those who understand records and early hurdle (when ability to write is a
computers but lack important hands-on requirement) because they are less
skills with cattle. expensive to administer than interviews
If there are only a few applicants, or practical tests. Reference checks and
progressive hurdles are unnecessary. medical screening are usually the last
When selection tools are not used as two hurdles. (U.S. law requires that
hurdles, their sequence is less important. medical screenings, if they are used,
If all applicants will be interviewed and take place after a job offer has been
all take a practical test (or job sample), made.)
it does not matter much which of the When candidates are encouraged to
steps comes first. apply, invitations may include a
Often employers use biodata description of the steps in the process,
(information from applications and their sequence, and any required
résumés) as the first step in eliminating applicant preparation. The sequence of In a realistic job preview
applicants from consideration. This is hurdles may be programmed to
useful if some applicants do not meet minimize travel and expense for both farmers try to present the job
specific requirements, such as having a applicants and employer. A preliminary the way it really is. Selected
driver’s or pesticide applicator’s license. telephone interview with out-of-state applicants who have an
But excellent candidates may be applicants may eliminate unnecessary
eliminated if employers rely on more travel. Written tests can sometimes be accurate understanding of the
general qualifications—such as years of mailed out-of-state when they can be job—of both its desirable and
experience—as a screening criterion. administered to applicants by a trusted, difficult aspects—are more
Longevity in a position may have little qualified third party.
correlation with job proficiency. likely to stay and succeed.
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Step 4: Provide a realistic job preview point the farm employer does not have
to make any decisions about eliminating
Applicants who have a clear
applicants from the next stage, but some
understanding of what the job entails
will drop out on their own—better now
can make more informed decisions as to
than after they are on the job!
whether they want to apply. For
Bruce Burroughs received over 300
instance, will the job meet their
applications for a cow feeder position
financial, emotional, and social needs?
and invited all to an orientation day.
Selected applicants who have an
Only 60 potential candidates showed up.
accurate understanding of the job—of
That was a little indication of how
both its desirable and difficult aspects—
serious the others were about the job.
are more likely to stay and succeed.
Bruce had the opportunity to talk to
When described to workers,
applicants about the position
conditions do not have to be labeled as
requirements, what the selection process
positive or negative. Workers can make
would be like, and tour them around the
their own judgment. For instance,
dairy operation. Furthermore, Bruce
working alone will be viewed positively
took the opportunity to give a mini-test
by one applicant and negatively by the
to the applicants. This test helped him
next (see Chapter 16).
decide who to invite to the next hurdle.
The realistic job preview begins with
This was done in part because many of
the job announcement and position
them had come from far away. The
description. As prospective applicants
natural selection filter had to be a
inquire about the job, farm managers
written test as it would not be practical
can provide applications, position
to give a job sample test to all the
descriptions, and additional information.
applicants, and Bruce did not want to
Although some employers use the
over-burden applicants by having them
preliminary interview to learn about
drive all the way back another day. The
applicants, the best use of this selection
written test was very simple.
tool is to provide information to
One question that a farm employer
applicants.
could ask in such a test might be, “You
If interviews as well as practical and
have seen a cow in heat, and there is no
written tests truly mirror the job
one around. Please write to me a note
requirements, these can also help
that cow number 312 is in heat.” If the
candidates understand the job. If an
person will need to deal with numbers
applicant must lift half a dozen 3-wire
on the job, perhaps a simple math
alfalfa bales as part of the practical
question could also be included. Bruce
exam, he may eliminate himself if he
did not want to eliminate people on the
has a bad back.
basis of how well they wrote, but since
ability to communicate in writing was
EXCHANGE INFORMATION important, it would be the basis for
WITH APPLICANTS inviting the top 20 candidates for the
next hurdle in the process. More about
written tests will be mentioned under
Step 1: Conduct a pre-interview that heading.
(orientation day)
Step 2: Review applicants’ biodata
Good communication during the (applications and résumés)
preliminary interview can minimize
doubts about the job. One agricultural A properly designed application will
enterprise manager scheduled small help you check applicants’ minimum
groups of applicants for a tour of the skills as well as their employment
ranch operation. This sort of informal history. Very short employment periods,
pre-interview, where applicants have a vague reasons for leaving previous jobs,
chance to ask questions about the job and large gaps in employment history
and learn more about working may all be cause for concern. Yet, too
conditions, is very effective. At this much credence has traditionally been
P R AC T I C A L S T E P S TO E M P L OY E E S E L E C T I O N • 19
for a job that if he’d ‘ve asked me if I arriving late to work. Applicants were
flew an airplane I’d ‘ve told’m I asked, “What would you do if you were
could’ve.”12 Interviews are extensively the supervisor in this situation?” Some
used for middle and upper level jobs in immediately responded with
agriculture, but often yield inferior unequivocal answers, whereas others
results unless they are carefully planned showed superior diagnostic skills by
and combined with practical tests. asking appropriate questions: “Is this the
When effective interpersonal first time it has happened?” “How long
relations are critical to a job, so is the has the worker been employed?”
interview process. If you are selecting Sometimes interviewers get the
pickers you may dispense with the notion that they should make applicants
interview with little negative squirm with difficult questions,
consequence. Not so when choosing especially those applying for the more
crew leaders who will provide training, stressful or demanding farm jobs, such
discipline, or other supervision. During as farm manager or herdsman. Some
the interview you have an opportunity to interviewers feel “that by asking
gauge an applicant’s leadership qualities offensive questions, they will be able to
and personality. see the applicant’s ‘true colors’ and
As with written tests, face-to-face weed out those whose personalities
questions or exercises can take several won’t fit in the particular work
formats. These include short- and long- environment. The objective, instead,
answer questions, applicant should be for interviewers to look for
presentations, and situational responses ‘grace under fire,’ or the ability of
(“What would you do if . . .?”). Some applicants to juggle a multitude of
questions allow for a broader range of disparate activities simultaneously.” For
replies than others. “Closed” questions instance, what would an applicant do if
ask for specific answers, with little room he discovered half an hour before the
for explanation. Typical closed questions veterinarian arrives on her scheduled
may solicit true-or-false, yes-or-no, herd check visit, that a milker did not
multiple-choice, or even fill-in-the-blank show up and there is no one to take his
answers (for example, the name of an shift and that the milk tank refrigeration
insect). Other questions are “open” and is malfunctioning? “The idea is to see if
generally allow more flexibility in the the applicant has the ability to deal with
response. The interview is an ideal details so you don’t miss deadlines, but
context for open questions. also the ability to always see the big
The interview gives you a chance to picture and not lose sight of the farm’s
probe when unsure about an applicant’s goals.”13
answers, capabilities, or work Although only one person will be
philosophy. Questions might cover the hired, the rest will go back out into the
applicant’s previous employment or community and talk about the farm and
responses to written test questions. their experiences as an applicant.
Farmers may ask situational queries that Anything that can be done to give
in turn stimulate applicants to ask applicants a positive experience
questions of their own. Candidates can throughout the selection process will
often be evaluated by the kinds of pay off in the long run. Farmers who
questions they ask. The best type of have a specific product or label, for
questions that take advantage of the instance, may give a sample to each
interview process are those that give applicant to take home. One dairy
applicants only part of the information. farmer gave applicants gift certificates to
While some applicants will attempt to the local dairy cooperative store where
answer the question with only partial numerous varieties of cheese were sold.
data, the really good ones will begin to
ask you questions. Step 5: Check references
Chris Nelson of San Felipe Ranch
Reference checking involves
showed supervisory applicants a
obtaining information about applicants
videotaped scene of an employee
P R AC T I C A L S T E P S TO E M P L OY E E S E L E C T I O N • 23
desirable. When offers are made orally, At times it becomes obvious to both
follow-up letters of confirmation help the new employee and farmer that the
avoid misunderstandings. Additionally, relationship will not work. For whatever
although a starting salary and other reasons, a farm manager who loses the
working conditions may have been newly selected employee may still be
discussed, this is a good time to confirm able to attract one of the other top
these agreements. contenders to avoid starting over at the
Usually both parties want the new recruitment stage.
job to start immediately, but
traditionally, applicants are allowed to Step 2: Oversee the post-offer pre-
give their present employer advance placement physical ability testing16
notice of their departure (e.g., 2 weeks).
A well-planned physical and
Some workers may need additional time
physical ability exams require that the
to relocate or for personal reasons.
examining physician and physical
Others may even need to take a short
therapist understand the job
vacation as part of the transition. It is
requirements. Some doctors and
unwise to pressure an individual to
therapists are willing to work closely
begin the job immediately. Such an
with agricultural enterprises to develop a
employer may obtain compliance at the
job-related physical examination. Tests
cost of good will. He may give the
of important factors such as blood
impression of being disorganized or
cholinesterase level, hearing ability,
unconcerned about workers.
lifting strength, and tolerance for
Unfortunately, too often candidates
wearing a respirator will be useful in
who are not selected for a position never
making employment decisions. Data
hear from the employer. Others may find
may also be important to managing
out a position was filled when they see
workers’ compensation as well as farm
the new employee. In addition to
illness and injury programs. Denying
common courtesy, a reason for promptly
employment merely because of a
notifying all applicants is that farm
conceivable propensity to disease or
employers may want to stay in touch
injury—without any history of it—may
with top contenders to fill future
raise ethical and legal questions as well.
openings. Do not commit yourself to
Dr. Alexis Dasig, who practices
calling all the candidates and letting
occupational medicine at the Gould
them know if they got the job or not.
Medical Foundation in Modesto,
When you telephone candidates, this
California, explained: “Because of the
will raise their hopes, only to be let
physical demands of many jobs in
down a moment later. I prefer to send
Dear Applicant: agriculture, a pre-placement medical
letters to those who were not selected. A
evaluation is a wise investment. A farm
thoughtful rejection letter might be
Thank you for your interest in worker was sent to us after his second
worded along the lines of the one in
the farm manager position with our day on the job. He had hurt his back on
Figure 2-3.
farm. We regret to inform you that the job and has been off for the past year
Despite all your efforts to ensure that
you were not selected. There were now. I am sure [the employer is]
the best worker is hired, it is still
over 12 applicants, and we could spending thousands of dollars on
possible for unexpected challenges to
choose only one of the several workers’ compensation. If he had been
develop. For instance, the chosen
well-qualified candidates. We given a pre-employment physical, we
applicant may not accept the job offer.
enjoyed meeting you and were might have discovered that he already
Perhaps the applicant’s current employer
particularly impressed with your had three chronic lower back problems
gave him a large raise to avoid losing
interpersonal and mechanical skills. and that he was not physically fit to
him, or personal reasons kept him from
Please keep us in mind in the perform that kind of work.”17
taking the job.
future. Thanks again for your time Physical therapist, Lyle Andersen,
If the new employee is not able to do
and interest. We wish you well in also from Modesto, adds, “We perform a
part of the job as originally designed, he
your career. thorough muscle/skeletal/postural
may be able to compensate in other
evaluation. While the participants lift
ways. These changes may need to be
FIGURE 2-3 and carry progressively weighted objects
reflected in a revised job description.
we are evaluating fatigue levels and
Sample rejection letter.
P R AC T I C A L S T E P S TO E M P L OY E E S E L E C T I O N • 25
A comprehensive employee
selection process does not
guarantee the selection of
the right person, but it does
help avoid many common
mistakes.
IMPROVING SELECTION
RELIABILITY
For a selection process to be valid, it
must also be reliable. That means the
process must measure what it is
designed to measure, and do so
consistently over time. For instance,
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solely on the basis of speed. The the selection process. This approach is
motivation for people to perform during useful to the degree that the selection
the application process and in the course process and the job are related. Thus, it
of the job might be quite different. makes sense for a herdsman who
There can still be a benefit to a selection performs artificial insemination (AI) to
approach that measures performance in be checked for AI skills, for a farm
a very different job environment. Even clerk-typist to be given a typing test, and
when hiring for an hourly wage crew, so on. The pitfall of this method is that
for instance, a pruning test under piece people tend to be examined only in
rate conditions may be used to eliminate those areas that are easiest to measure. If
workers whose speed or quality are important skills for the job are not “Face validity” describes
below a cutoff standard. tested, the approach is likely to be
what a selection process
ineffective.
appears to measure on the
MEETING VALIDITY Face validity surface. For instance,
REQUIREMENTS
“Face validity” refers to what a candidates for a foreman
Two important means of establishing selection process (or individual position will readily see the
the validity of a selection instrument are instrument) appears to measure on the
surface. For instance, candidates for a connection between
the statistical and the content methods.
A related consideration is “face foreman position will readily see the questions based on labor
validity”—though not really a validation connection between questions based on laws and the job.
strategy, it reflects how effective a test agricultural labor laws and the job.
appears to applicants and judges (if it is
ever contested in court). Ideally, a
selection process is validated through
multiple strategies. Regardless of which
strategy a farmer uses, a rigorous
analysis of the job to be filled is a
prerequisite.
(Even though the emphasis of this test speed and quality, however. Some fast
was on statistical evaluation, it clearly and some slow pruners did better-quality A statistical validation
would also qualify as a content-oriented work than others. strategy shows the
test: workers had to perform the same Job performance data. On-the-job
relationship between the
tasks during the test as they would on performance data was obtained from
the real job.) each farm’s payroll records for two test and job performance.
Selection test data. Workers were randomly selected days and two For example, a 46 minute
tested twice, each pruning period lasting randomly selected grape varieties. To
vineyard pruning test was
46 minutes. Pruners were told to work avoid influencing supervisors or crews
as fast as they could yet still maintain in any way, on-the-job data was shown to be a good
quality. A comparison of the results examined after the pruning season was predictor of worker
between the first and second test periods over. Workers who had pruned quickly
performance on the job.
showed high worker consistency. There on one day tended to have pruned
was a broad range of scores among quickly on the other. Likewise, slow
workers: in one group, for instance, the workers were consistently slow.
slowest worker pruned just 3 vines in Validity. Significant valid
the time it took the fastest to prune 24. relationships were found between the
No relationship was found between test and on-the-job performance
38 • L A B O R M A N AG E M E N T I N A G R I C U LT U R E : C U LT I VAT I N G P E R S O N N E L P R O D U C T I V I T Y
measures. That is, workers who did well identified.7 In developing a testing
on the test tended to be the ones who strategy, particular attention was paid to
did well on the job. The test was a good artistic layout and secretarial skills that
predictor of worker performance on the would be needed on a day-to-day basis.
job. Similar results were obtained with An advertisement specifying
hand-harvested tomato picking.6 qualifications—including a minimum
Some may argue that it matters little typing speed of 60 words per minute
if one hires effective workers as all are (WPM) and artistic ability—ran twice in
paid on a piece rate basis anyway. Some the local paper. Other recruitment efforts
of the money farmers save as result of were made at a nearby college.
hiring fewer, more competent employees Of the 108 complete applications
includes: (1) reducing the number of received, only a few reported typing
supervisors needed, (2) reducing fixed speeds below 60 WPM. These were
costs expended per worker regardless of eliminated from consideration. All other
how effective the worker is (e.g., applicants were invited to demonstrate
In a content-oriented vacation, training, insurance) and (3) their artistic layout ability. The quality
strategy, the content of the establishing a reasonable piece rate. If of the artwork varied considerably
some workers are very slow, the piece among applicants, and was evaluated by
job is clearly mirrored in the
rate will need to be raised for all three raters. The 25 applicants who
selection process. Thus, it workers for these to be able to make a performed at a satisfactory or better
makes sense for a herdsman reasonable (or even a minimum) wage. level were scheduled to move on to the
next hurdle.
who performs artificial Content strategy: secretarial selection What applicants claimed they could
insemination (AI) to be type was at variance with their test
Our second case study illustrates a
checked for AI skills, for a scores (Figure 3-2). The average
content-oriented validation strategy—
claimed typing speed was 65 WPM, the
farm clerk-typist to be given used to hire a secretary to assist in my
average tested speed about 44 WPM.
work for the University of California.
a typing test, and so on. The discrepancy between claimed and
Specific job requirements were
actual typing speeds was large (perhaps
our test was more difficult than standard This content-oriented study also had
typing tests). More importantly, the test “face validity” because the test was
showed that some typists claiming directly related to the performance
higher ability than others, ended up required on the job. The selection
typing slower. While there was an process revealed the differences among
applicant claiming very fast speeds, and more than 100 applicants. Had
she indeed almost made her typewriter applications been taken at face value and
sing as she typed so swiftly, one could the apparent top candidates interviewed,
place little confidence on what it is likely that a much less qualified
applicants said they could type. candidate would have emerged.
As a non-native English speaker, I Moreover, the excellent applicant who
still have some difficulties with sentence was hired would normally not even have
construction. For instance, I need to be been interviewed: she had less
reminded that I do not “get on my car” secretarial experience than many others.
as I “get on my horse” (there is no such
distinction in Spanish). We designed an SUMMARY
appropriate spelling, grammar, and
Agricultural managers interested in
80 cultivating worker productivity can
begin with the selection process. Any
70 tool that attempts to assess an
applicant’s knowledge, skill, ability,
60 education, or even personality can itself
Actual Words per Minute
Guadalupe Alegría has been a valued employee in a large poultry farm for twelve
years—but she may not be for much longer. She was promoted to a temporary
managerial position. What was originally supposed to be a few weeks on the job has
stretched to well over a year now. Guadalupe, a salaried employee, has put in extra
hours every week without added pay, leaving her with less time for family and friends.
Recently, Guadalupe found out that she had been passed over for the permanent
management position. To add to her disappointment, she will have to train the new
manager. Her boss does not know it yet, but Guadalupe is looking for another job.
ADVANTAGES
• Employees get to experience
many jobs on the way up the
promotional ladder, provided that
they stay long enough and
openings develop. Jobs can be
grouped into different ladders
such that experience on one job
constitutes good training for the
next.
• Cooperation between workers is
generally not hindered by
competition for subjectively
determined promotions.
• Workers need not seek to gain
favor with supervisors (through
someone has to make a judgment about good job and the enterprise is
an employee’s relative merit. Employees economically viable.
may find it difficult to make a Farmers may opt for a mix between
distinction between merit—because it is seniority and merit considerations in
so hard to measure in an objective laying off employees. Certainly, in
way—and favoritism. considering such a mix, greater weight
Benefits and disadvantages of merit is probably given to seniority
systems are outlined in Figure 4-2. considerations in layoff than in
promotion decisions. Please note that I
Seniority and merit together in am not suggesting that seniority is more
promotions important than merit.
Arguments that favor making layoffs
A farmer may combine seniority and
in reverse order of seniority, that is, the
merit in the promotion process to obtain
last hired, the first to go include:
a different mix of benefits. In doing so,
(1) The longer employees have
there are many possible variations
worked for a farm enterprise, the more
leading to different results. For example,
loyalty they are due. Other employees
you could promote the most senior
will observe and be affected by how
person minimally qualified for a job, or
senior employees are treated.
you could choose the most senior of the
(2) Senior employees who lose their
three best-qualified workers.
jobs may have greater difficulty finding
Issues of seniority and merit are also
another job at the equivalent pay and
pertinent in discussions of other policy
benefit level than younger workers.
areas such as pay (Chapter 7) and
(3) Layoffs by merit may lead to age
layoffs (discussed next). Leaving the
discrimination law suits if older workers
possibility open of hiring the best
are disproportionately terminated.
qualified for the job, even from outside
The principal argument favoring
the farm, is discussed later in this
merit to determine layoff decisions is:
chapter.
Management should retain the best
people to do the job, especially when
SENIORITY VS. MERIT IN functioning with fewer employees.
LAYOFFS Employers sometimes offer special
retirement packages to entice more
Layoffs are normally considered senior personnel to retire. This is often
terminations based on lack of work or done in an effort to save money in
capital, rather than on poor employee situations where senior personnel earn
performance. Layoffs are often disproportionately higher wages
temporary. They occur with the (Chapter 7). In terms of recall decisions
expectation that workers will be hired farm employers can recall personnel in
back if and when they are needed. the inverse order of laying them off, or
When all workers are laid-off at the in some other order when it is time to
Layoffs are normally same time, there is little need to discuss rehire.
considered terminations seniority and merit considerations. But In agriculture it is more often
based on lack of work or when partial or gradual layoffs take seasonal employees who are involved in
place, difficult decisions have to be layoff and rehire decisions. On farms
capital, rather than on poor made. where few seasonal workers return from
employee performance. Layoffs of year-round employees season to season, layoff and rehire
Decisions involving the layoff may require a different approach than policies are less important than on farms
that of seasonal workers. Decisions with more stable work forces. Although
of non-seasonal personnel involving the layoff of non-seasonal there is still a feeling of mutual
may well be the hardest labor personnel may well be the hardest or obligation between employer and these
management decision most heart wrenching labor management seasonal workers, it is less intense. On
decision you have to make. The the other hand, “If an employer is often
managers have to make. expectation with year-round faced with the layoff problem, it is
employment is that workers will hold on important to select a policy that works
to their positions as long as they do a best on a repeated basis. Changing
P RO M OT I O N S , T R A N S F E R S AND L AYO F F S • 45
Promotion policies may affect may perform better after promotions success after promotion to
employees’ hopes for advancement and because they were bored by the previous a new position. The skills
the productivity of your workforce. job, but their enthusiasm may be short-
lived. that make for an
Often employers feel compelled to
promote from within their workforce, Policies that all but guarantee outstanding milker, for
fearing the loss of the loyalty and promotions to present employees may instance, may have little
enthusiasm of present employees. discourage worker development. When a
farmer is under time constraints to get relation to the skills called
Promotion from within encourages
employees to view the organization as some work done, she may promote a for in a supervisor's job.
one offering them career growth. worker on a temporary basis until a
Unfortunately, a tradition of promoting more careful hiring decision can be
from within may also mean forgoing the made. To avoid future disappointment of
most vital management prerogative: the promoted employee, however, the
filling positions with well-qualified temporary nature of the position should
personnel. be emphasized (Chapter 2).
It is a mistake to assume that Occasionally, you may have to
superior performance in one job will consider the demotion of a worker who
always translate into equivalent success has not succeeded after being promoted.
after promotion to a new position. On one ranch, farm workers who were
Personnel who move from technical jobs promoted to supervisory posts
to supervisory ones, or from “doing” immediately lost their seniority or any
jobs to managing ones, may not always right to return to their previous job. In
46 • L A B O R M A N AG E M E N T I N A G R I C U LT U R E : C U LT I VAT I N G P E R S O N N E L P R O D U C T I V I T Y
Job enlargement and enrichment plant material, or how to care for plants
coming out of tissue culture. A cowboy Job enrichment, involves a
If the employee seeks it, more
may be given the added charge of “vertical” loading, giving a
responsibility within the same job can
selecting his own horses to work with, worker more responsibility
be provided through (1) job enlargement
and a greater hand in animal health-care
or (2) job enrichment. In either case, for making decisions related
decisions.
added responsibility should normally be
to the present job. A cowboy
accompanied with added pay.
Transfers and job rotation
Job enlargement consists of may be given the added
“horizontal” loading, or of giving an Transfers and job rotation are forms charge of selecting his own
employee more to do with the types of of enlargement entailing movement from
horses to work with, and a
skills he is currently using. Adding one job to another of comparable
twenty more cows to a string to be responsibility. Transfers usually last for greater hand in animal
milked would be an example of job a longer term while job rotation may health-care decisions.
enlargement. So would asking an imply several short term job changes. In
equipment operator to harvest the addition, some rotations are cyclical and
safflower in addition to the wheat crop. involve going through the same set of
Job enrichment, in contrast, involves jobs over and over.
a “vertical” loading, giving a worker In a dairy, for instance, workers may
more responsibility for making decisions be part of a job rotation cycle from
related to the present job. A lab milking to cow feeding to calf feeding.
technician who is responsible for berry Besides alleviating possible boredom,
culture might be given the added transfers and job rotations expose
responsibility of heading a customer workers to more tasks. When an absence
education effort on the best stage to buy or turnover occurs, it helps to have other
48 • L A B O R M A N AG E M E N T I N A G R I C U LT U R E : C U LT I VAT I N G P E R S O N N E L P R O D U C T I V I T Y
Hiring the right people can this chapter we will discuss two types of
substantially reduce the total amount of skill transfer. The first focuses on
required training time. Even so, farm training and the second on coaching and
supervisors are often likely to find mentoring.
themselves training, mentoring and
coaching employees. Some of these EMPLOYEE TRAINING
tasks may be delegated to a third party.
Most workers enjoy a job where they The first step in designing training is
can continually expand their technical to translate an apparent need (e.g.,
and interpersonal skills. introduction of new piece of farm
Training needs may become apparent machinery) into clear, specific learning
through (1) employee selection data; (2) objectives (e.g., after training,
review of employee performance; (3) equipment operators will know how to
worker skill, ability, and knowledge in- service and operate machinery safely).
ventories; (4) introduction of new work Some objectives may be more
methods or machinery; (5) planning for quantifiable, such as “95 percent of fruit
future vacancies or promotions; and (6) picked will meet packing grade.”
laws and regulations requiring training. Provisions for evaluating how well
It helps to plan ahead and provide training objectives are met should be
training opportunities to employees who established from the outset.
may apply for future job openings. In
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You will want to identify any gaps Transferring knowledge and skill
between employees’ present competence
The training process consists of (1)
and the training objectives. Lack of
explaining and demonstrating correct
assessment up front may mean repeating
task performance; (2) helping workers to
information workers already understand.
perform under supervision; (3) allowing
Even more likely, trainers may err by
personnel to perform alone; (4)
assuming employees know more than
evaluating worker performance; and (5)
they do.
coaching employees based on evaluation
Simply asking employees if they
results. These steps may have to be
have the skills needed to carry out a
repeated a number of times before an
particular task may elicit a less than
employee will sufficiently grasp what
truthful response. Some may not want to
needs to be done. Once an employee has
While explanations and admit ignorance in order to avoid
mastered the required performance, (6)
embarrassment; others realize that the
demonstrations are important he can further cement his skill by
request entails a possible prospect for
coaching another.
in training, workers are more advancement. Assessment of worker
There is an important difference
likely to retain information competence needs to be conducted so
between telling workers how to do a
workers perform independently, rather
when they can put it to use. task and successfully transferring skills,
than lean on someone else’s abilities.
ability or knowledge. Ineffective training
Unfortunately, this vital step Opportunities for an employee to
may lead employees to remove much of
is often eliminated because it demonstrate practical skills should be
the fruiting wood in pruning or to
provided without demeaning the worker
takes time. destroy a dozen rows of young tomato
or endangering his safety.
plants with a cultivator. Some concepts
H E L P I N G W O R K E R S A C Q U I R E S K I L L S • 51
otherwise find she does not have the of us may need to fight the tendency of
authority to implement concepts trying to cover too much material for the
learned—or that the prescribed ideas time allotted. On the whole, presentation
may go counter to established company of materials without increased
philosophy. participant involvement often fails to
A publicly funded farm worker stimulate. Notable exceptions are very
training program is described in Sidebar short presentations and extremely
5-1—you may have an opportunity for dynamic speakers. It is good to
input into the design of such a program remember that people want to discover,
in your community. not just be told. Equally unsatisfactory is
engaging participant interest, increasing
A few words to instructors receptivity to learning, and then failing
to deliver needed, useful information.
In some way or another, we are all
Many worthwhile books have been
teachers. I have found that there is a fine
written on increasing participant
balance between participant involvement
involvement. We can continue to
and presentation of new material. Some
54 • L A B O R M A N AG E M E N T I N A G R I C U LT U R E : C U LT I VAT I N G P E R S O N N E L P R O D U C T I V I T Y
improve our skills by observing talented learning process. There are a number of
presenters, reading and thinking about ways to involve workers in learning,
our teaching. Although sometimes such as through questions, cases, role
painful, it also helps to evaluate our plays and group activities.
workshops and classroom teaching by Well-crafted probes are an effective
Mentors may act as looking carefully at suggestions for way of promoting discussion. Asking a
counselors, coaches, improvement. It is more useful to focus question to the whole group is not as
on what worked well, as well as what effective, however, in promoting
personal trainers, or advisors
we can do better next time, rather than participation, as having employees
and may also be responsible on how we performed compared to other discuss an issue in small groups of 3 to
for passing on subject matter speakers. 5 individuals. Small groups get everyone
The sooner workers in a workshop talking and involved.
knowledge, skills, and
have the opportunity to participate, the I like short cases where a story is
abilities. Mentors also model more engaged they will be in the told, rather than a written case where
desirable behaviors that presentation. Perhaps, because it will participants read it and finish at different
then not be your presentation as each times. Perhaps this is because I am a
employees can imitate.
person will take ownership over the slow reader myself. In one of my
courses, we were given a case with an
amusing line. People laughed as they got
to the humor. By the time I laughed, I
was far behind. Everyone looked at me,
and we all exploded in laughter together.
After an oral case is shared,
participants can ask questions and all
have the advantage of having the issues
clarified. After questions have been
answered, workers can then sit in groups
to solve or discuss the problem that was
presented. A written handout can be
given to support rather than to supplant
the oral explanation. Longer and more
complicated group activities can be very
effective in teaching important
principles to participants, especially
those for which no satisfactory
substitute can make up for lack of
practice.
It is good to stop the activity before
people are through discussing the issues,
and while they are still having fun with
it. A fatal mistake is to ask each group
to report their findings, as there is
unnecessary repetition. Much better is to
ask for a few comments from
individuals after the groups have
disbanded, and then move on. While
many people are hesitant to be involved
in role playing, I have found that if the
role playing is pertinent to real life or
has “face validity,” people will be much
more likely to want to participate. In
role playing, I prefer to explain the
situation aloud and coach my actors,
rather than provide written instructions.
H E L P I N G W O R K E R S A C Q U I R E S K I L L S • 55
.
An ideal coach or mentor is one who (1) is not
easily threatened by an employee who becomes
successful, (2) has a high tolerance for the
employee trying out different approaches, and (3)
encourages the employee to take initiative in terms
of how much and at what rate to absorb new
information.
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After employee selection, carried out, can help to fine tune and
performance appraisal is arguably the reward employee performance. In this
most important management tool a farm chapter we (1) discuss the purpose for
employer has at her disposal. The the performance appraisal, (2) introduce
performance appraisal, when properly the negotiated performance appraisal
60 • L A B O R M A N AG E M E N T I N A G R I C U LT U R E : C U LT I VAT I N G P E R S O N N E L P R O D U C T I V I T Y
approach, and (3) talk about the steps to Validating and refining organizational
achieving a worthwhile traditional action
performance appraisal.
Employee selection, training and just
Strengths of the negotiated
about any cultural or management
performance appraisal are its ability to
practice—such as the introduction of a
promote candid two-way
new pruning method or an incentive pay
communication between the supervisor
program—may be evaluated in part by
and the person being appraised and to
obtaining worker performance data.
help the latter take more responsibility
The evaluation may provide ideas for
for improving performance. In contrast,
refining established practices or
in the traditional performance appraisal,
instituting new ones. For instance,
the supervisor acts more as a judge of
appraisal data may show that a farm
employee performance than as a coach.
supervisor has had a number of
By so doing, unfortunately, the focus is
interpersonal conflicts with other
on blame rather than on helping the
managers and employees. Some options
employee assume responsibility for
include (1) paying more attention to
improvement.
interpersonal skills when selecting new
Does that mean that the traditional
supervisors, (2) encouraging present
performance appraisal approach should
supervisors to attend communication or
be discarded? Not at all. Experts in the
conflict management classes at the local
field have often suggested that the
community college, or (3) providing the
performance appraisal should not be tied
supervisor one-on-one counseling.
to decisions about pay raises. When
Data from performance appraisals
appraisals are tied to pay raises, they
can also help farmers (1) plan for long-
argue, employees are more defensive
term staffing and worker development,
and less open to change. So how should
(2) give pay raises or other rewards, (3)
pay raise decisions be made, then, if not
set up an employee counseling session,
through the performance appraisal? I
or (4) institute discipline or discharge
would suggest that the traditional
procedures.
performance appraisal can still play a
For validation purposes (Chapter 3),
critical role in management and is ideal
it is easier to evaluate performance data
for making pay raise decisions. But it is
when large numbers of workers are
in the negotiated approach where
involved. Useful performance data may
employees can truly come to grips with
still be collected when workers are
what it is that they need to do to
evaluated singly, but it may take years to
maximize performance, potential career
obtain significant data trends.
advancement and earnings.
For the employee to have enough
Employee need for feedback
time to respond and improve, the
negotiated performance appraisal should Although employees vary in their
take place at least 9 to 12 months before desire for improvement, generally
the traditional one. There are no such workers want to know how well they are
strict time requirements when the performing. A successful farmer recalled
traditional approach (used to make with sadness how as a youth he had
decisions about pay) precedes the worked very hard, along with his
negotiated one (used as a coaching tool). immigrant family, for a farmer who
never seemed to notice the effort. Years
WHY PERFORMANCE later he met the former employer and
asked why he had never made any
APPRAISAL? positive comments about their work. The
response from the former boss was, “I
Performance appraisal is a vehicle to feared you would stop working as
(1) validate and refine organizational hard.”1
actions (e.g. selection, training); and (2) People need positive feedback and
provide feedback to employees with an validation on a regular basis. Once an
eye on improving future performance. employee has been selected, few
P E R F O R M A N C E A P P R A I S A L • 61
(2) areas where the worker has shown Although the appraisal process can
recent improvement (perhaps over the take place between supervisor and
last year); and (3) areas where the employee alone, the use of a third party
worker feels weak, or thinks his can greatly facilitate the success of the
supervisor would like to see approach. The message is thus clearly
improvement. It is appropriate to give sent to all involved that this process is
the employee time to think through important to the farm organization. The
these lists, and so you may want to give third party is there mostly to listen to
employees a couple of weeks to each individual in a separate meeting (or
complete the assignment. pre-caucus), and help them brainstorm
Because you as the supervisor will and prepare for the joint meeting.
also fill out the three lists, employees During the joint meeting, the third party
are more likely to bring candid can, using the negotiation process
responses to the table. It is critical to outlined in Chapter 13, help the
announce your intention, to the em- stakeholders improve their working
ployee, that you will also complete these relationships and focus on needed
lists. I like saying something like: “I will changes rather than defending positions.
fill out these three lists also,” and then This third party role may be played by
repeat the purpose of each list again. your veterinarian, agricultural advisor,
“That is, (1) areas where you perform or interpersonal relations consultant.
well and what you contribute to the
organization from my perspective; (2) The performance appraisal joint
areas where you have shown recent meeting
improvement; and (3) weak areas where
When the time has arrived to sit and
you still need to improve.” The key
discuss the employee’s performance, a
point here is that employees will hear
relaxed, positive atmosphere should
you say that there are performance areas
prevail before entering into the
you value in their work, and just as
substance of the performance appraisal
importantly, that the employee can still
meeting. A location without distractions
improve in other aspects of the job.
or interruptions is essential.
This latter point is particularly
The worker is asked to read each list,
critical from a psychological
beginning with the first. Managers
perspective. It is human nature not to
should listen intently and take notes if
want to bring up our faults; but it is also
needed, but should not interrupt the
human nature to prefer to point out our
employee except to ask questions that
own shortcomings rather than having
help clarify an issue. Interrupting to
someone else do it. This process allows
clarify one’s understanding is almost
the subordinate to think in terms of both
always a good move. If the employee It is human nature not to
his own performance expectations and
says something you find strange, want to bring up our faults;
perceived supervisor expectations.
troubling, or that we do not understand,
There is a fourth list, just as vital as but it is also human nature to
it is good to ask the employee to
the first three. While we will talk about
amplify or explain a point. People prefer to point out our own
this list later, it is important to include it
seldom mind being interrupted when it shortcomings, rather than
as an assignment ahead of time so the
means having the opportunity to offer
employee has time to think about it and having someone else do it.
clarification. Such questions should not
come prepared. The fourth list is the
put the employee on the defensive, nor
employee’s response to the question:
should they be comments disguised as
“What can I do differently, as your
questions (see Chapters 12 and 13).
supervisor, so you can be more effective
First list. The main purposes of the
in your job?” If a supervisor is not truly
first list are to (1) recognize employees’
willing to listen to what the employee
strong points and let them know these
may have to say here, the negotiated
have not passed unobserved, (2)
performance appraisal will not work as
honestly build up employees so they can
it should, and a more traditional
be more receptive to constructive
performance appraisal would work
criticism (an employee who is so
better.
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for the employee to feel empowered to done just right, that you wish to express
accept, modify or reject the suggestions. your opinions. And we certainly want to
For instance, in one performance keep hearing them. The challenge, as I
appraisal an employee felt he was not see it, is how do we encourage others to
always truthful and straightforward. The feel that their opinions are important?
dairy farmer suggested, “I realize that Especially those who are shy about
when telling untruths has become giving their opinions to begin with?”
somewhat ingrained, it won’t be easy to There comes a point, however, that
change from one day to the next. Let’s more good can be done by continuing
do this. If you ever tell me something the appraisal at a different time. It is at
that is less than the truth (and that will these points when supervisor and
bother you, and you will know when employee may want to set a date to meet
that happens), let’s agree that you will again (say, in two or four weeks) and
come back and tell me the rest of the brainstorm potential solutions. While the
story.” The employee felt comfortable supervisor may give a couple of
with the solution, and the proof is that potential ideas to the employee to get
within a week he took advantage of the him thinking, she needs to make it clear
dairyman’s offer and, thus, took that it is the employee who has to buy
responsibility for what he had done. into the solutions and bring as many
The more concrete and specific the potential ideas to the next meeting as
solutions, the greater the potential for possible.
success. An employee in charge of the Depending on the extensiveness and
shop came to an agreement with his importance of the challenge involved,
supervisor on how to make tools thinking through a particular work
accessible to others and at the same time process and all the likely places where
reduce the unorganized way through problems may be introduced may be
which tools were leaving the shop and helpful in better understanding the
not returning. Another employee agreed complete problem. The effectiveness of
to give colleagues a five-minute notice brainstorm sessions may depend on the
that he would need them rather than willingness of participants to think
demand instant help, unless, of course, it outside traditional solutions.
involved the safety of the farm animals If the process has functioned well,
or the situation was critical. there will be fewer negative points that
By the time the employee and have to be brought up by the supervisor.
supervisor are reviewing the third list, Any issues on the supervisor’s third list
both individuals may be emotionally that have not been aired, need to be
drained. There is the temptation to solve brought up now. However, there will be
a difficulty with haste and expediency. situations where this technique will not
Also, the employee may begin to get work, and the supervisor may be forced
defensive, negating all the good that was into a more traditional approach.
said in the beginning of the meeting. Sometime before ending this part of
Periodically remind the employee of the performance appraisal meeting, it is
something discussed in the first list good to review exactly what has been
(what the employee does well). agreed to (a copy of these decisions may
Take, for instance, a situation where be printed out and given to each
you have been discussing an employee’s participant for further review and for a
tendency to be a little self-righteous and record of the meeting) as well as
discount other people’s opinions. You pending issues for future solution.
sense the employee is beginning to feel Without specific goals and objectives
somewhat discouraged and deflated. You with timetables for their execution, the
want the discussion to be more positive performance appraisal most likely will
in an effort to find a viable solution. do more harm than good. Following
“You know, Kenny, I realize that it is through on the timely achievement of
because you care so much about this these goals is just as vital.
operation, because you take pride in In providing feedback on below-
your work, because you want things standard performance, it is unfortunately
68 • L A B O R M A N AG E M E N T I N A G R I C U LT U R E : C U LT I VAT I N G P E R S O N N E L P R O D U C T I V I T Y
each can answer the question for the excellent job of making it clear what
other of how to best provide mutual each party has to do to achieve that
help. And they do so in a collaborative success. When introducing a sensitive
rather than competitive environment. topic, the farm supervisor may want to
Follow-up to negotiated approach. remind the employee of her good points
This negotiated approach to and potential. The discussion, then, is
performance appraisal can, perhaps, about specific points that are standing in
make the most visible contributions the way of the employee reaching her
where an employee’s performance has full potential.
been sub-standard. You may get the
most benefit for the time spent on the
appraisal from the employee who is ACHIEVING A WORTHWHILE
giving you the biggest challenge. TRADITIONAL PERFORMANCE
However, managers often have a
tendency to forgive deficiencies, almost
APPRAISAL
to a fault. But once a supervisor decides
Here are some key steps you can
that enough is enough, he may have
take toward achieving effective
trouble seeing and recognizing positive
performance appraisals—ones that can
employee progress. One farm operator
be used to validate the selection process
spent considerable time and money in an
as well as to make decisions about pay
effort to help an employee improve,
or promotions:
including sending him for counseling on
(1) Select what performance data to
interpersonal relations. This effort came
collect.
too late, however, because the farm
(2) Determine who conducts the
operator terminated the employee
appraisal.
without allowing enough time to see if
(3) Decide on a rating philosophy.
counseling would work.
(4) Overcome rating deficiencies.
A follow-up meeting a month or two
(5) Create a rating instrument.
after the initial performance appraisal to
(6) Deliver useful information to
discuss where the employee has
employees.
improved, as well as areas that need
special attention, can often be profitable. Select what performance data to
At one ranch, an employee had collect
improved in a number of areas, but
several key weak areas soon surfaced— One way to classify on-the-job
including some that were not discussed worker behavior is by considering the
in the original meeting. The farm three Ps—productivity (what was done),
operator was highly frustrated and personal traits (how it was done,
wondered if this employee could be conduct) and proficiency (skill).
rescued. Fortunately, they met once Productivity can be measured in
again for a successful follow-up terms of specific performance
appraisal. accomplishments. Examples include
In many ways, the follow up is reducing calf mortality, increasing yield
similar to the original meeting. The of the alfalfa crop, or diminishing
employee who was appraised should bruises in the cherry harvest.
have the opportunity to come prepared Personal traits such as motivation,
to discuss what has worked and has not willingness to take criticism,
worked for him thus far. The farm cooperation, initiative, dependability,
supervisor likewise prepares the same and appearance (dress and grooming)
way. Focusing first on the positive is as may be considered. Personal trait ratings
critical to the success of the follow-up are useful, even though they sometimes
meeting as it was to the original one. say more about how supervisors get
The idea is to prevent blaming and along with an employee than how well
defensive behavior. While the negotiated the employee performs on the job.
approach to performance appraisal does Farmers are unlikely to want to reward
not guarantee success, it does an performance—no matter how excellent
70 • L A B O R M A N AG E M E N T I N A G R I C U LT U R E : C U LT I VAT I N G P E R S O N N E L P R O D U C T I V I T Y
it is—if a worker only performs of his daily performance and how it can
grudgingly and after repeated be improved. Employees can be the
admonitions. most important persons in the evaluation
When personal traits are considered process, as we saw in the negotiated
as part of a performance appraisal, approach. Nevertheless, employees have
specific characteristics should be related a vested interest in making positive
to the job. Often, a personal trait issue comments about their own performance,
can be translated into an achievement. and can usually benefit from outside
Instead of talking about worker evaluation.
dependability (personal trait), for Co-workers. At times co-workers
instance, one may want to address how have a better grasp for a colleague’s
well an employee reports on assignment performance than the supervisor, but co-
completions (productivity). worker evaluations have a tendency to
Proficiency—skill, knowledge, and be lenient or overly harsh. Sometimes
ability—plays an important role in co-workers hope management will read
worker performance. When appraisals between the lines and praise irrelevant
address worker proficiency factors (e.g., or insignificant factors. Peer review is
AI skills for a herdsman), they help usually anonymous and several peers are
assure worker interest in overcoming involved in the evaluation. This
deficiencies that may be blocking future anonymity, while often needed, can also
performance or growth. A farm lend itself to abuses.
personnel manager may be appraised in Supervisor. Performance appraisal
terms of understanding labor data obtained from the immediate
management principles, knowledge of supervisor is the most common rating
applicable labor laws, skill in source. Supervisors are often in the best
conducting interviews, or ability to position to give workers an honest
counsel employees, for instance. evaluation. The danger in supervisory
evaluations is the substantial amount of
In evaluations, farmers need to strike power and influence wielded, often by
the right balance between productivity the hand of a single rater.
and personal traits. Jobs vary in the Subordinate. Formal evaluation by
importance that can be attached to such subordinates is unusual, although from
factors. An equipment operator who time to time subordinates may be asked
spends hours preparing land, for input into the evaluation of their
furthermore, has less need for teamwork supervisor. When subordinates have an
than two milkers who work side by side. input into their supervisor’s evaluation,
Over-emphasis on personal traits may supervisors have been known to improve
increase compliance at the expense of their interpersonal relations and reduce
both creativity and performance. management by intimidation. Issues of
Stressing achievement over personal anonymity and adequate sampling of
traits may lead to a philosophy where subordinates may be important in
the end justifies the means—no matter traditional appraisals.
how dysfunctional or unethical the Outside the organization. Evalua-
behavior. tions by outside clientele may be useful
in instances when there is much
Determine who conducts the appraisal personal contact with outsiders or when
Input into the appraisal of worker the person being evaluated knows more
performance may come from many about aspects of the job than the farmer
sources including the employee, co- or supervisor.
workers, supervisors, subordinates, or
even persons outside the organization. Decide on a rating philosophy
Ratings from multiple sources usually Performance appraisal data can also
yield more reliable performance be classified according to whether
appraisals. employees are compared against others
Employee. Usually, but not always, or are rated against a standard.
the employee has a good understanding
P E R F O R M A N C E A P P R A I S A L • 71
praisal, establishing a rating philosophy, 5. For instance, see Carroll, S. J., and
overcoming typical rating deficiencies, Schneier, C. E. (1982). Performance
creating a rating instrument, and engag- Appraisal and Review Systems: The
ing the employee in making decisions Identification, Measurement, and
Development of Performance in
on future performance changes.
Organizations (p. 40). Glenview,
An effective negotiated performance Illinois: Scott, Foresman, and Company;
appraisal helps the employee take Strauss, G., and Sayles, L. R. (1980).
additional ownership for both continuing Personnel: The Human Problems of
effective performance and improving Management (4th ed.) (pp. 522-23). New
weak areas. Employee goals set through Jersey: Prentice-Hall; and Kujawski, C.
performance appraisals should be J., and Young, D. M. (1979). Appraisals
difficult but achievable, as goals that are of ‘People’ Resources. In ASPA
overly ambitious are doomed for failure. Handbook of Personnel and Industrial
Relations (pp. 4-193, 4-193).
Some employees tend to boycott their
Washington D. C.: The Bureau of
own progress by setting impossible
National Affairs.
goals to achieve. Finally, employees 6. Schlei, B. L., and Grossman, P. (1983).
want to know what you think of their Employment Discrimination Law (p.
work. Letting workers know that you 531). Bureau of National Affairs.
have noticed their efforts goes a long 7. For instance, see the work of Dion, K.;
way towards having a more motivated Berscheild, E., and Walster, E. (1986).
workforce. Perhaps the most important What Is Beautiful Is Good, Journal of
contribution of the negotiated approach Personality and Social Psychology, (24:
285-290). ; and Bull, R. (1986). In
to performance appraisal is improved
Brown, Roger. Social Psychology: The
communication between supervisor and
Second Edition (p. 391-393). New York:
subordinate, often permitting The Free Press.
conversations in sensitive areas that may 8. Landy, D., and Sigall, H. (1974). Beauty
not have been discussed in the past. Is Talent: Task Evaluation as a Function
of the Performer’s Physical
Attractiveness, Journal of Personality
CHAPTER 6 REFERENCES and Social Psychology (29: 299-304). In
Brown, Roger (1986). Social
1. Kubo, H. (1990, February 14-16).
Psychology: The Second Edition (p.
Improving Employee Communications.
393-394). New York: The Free Press.
Pacific North West Orchard Business
9. Carroll, S. J., and Schneier, C. E. (1982).
Shortcourse. Washington State
Performance Appraisal and Review
University and Oregon State University.
Systems: The Identification,
2. Scholtes, P. R. (1988). The Team
Measurement, and Development of
Handbook: How to Use Teams to
Performance in Organizations (p. 121).
Improve Quality (p. 6-25). Joiner
Illinois: Scott, Foresman, and Company.
Associates.
10. One popular performance appraisal
3. Latham, G. P., and Locke, E. A. (1983).
approach of the “descriptive” type is the
Goal Setting–A Motivational Technique
behaviorally anchored rating scale (or
That Works. In Contemporary Problems
BARS). These scales are anchored with
in Personnel (3rd ed.) (pp. 313-324). descriptive alternative behaviors. For
Edited by Pearlman, K., Schmidt, F. L., every given category of behavior or
and Hamner, W. C. New York: John performance, statements are ordered in
Wiley & Sons. an ascending or descending order of
4. I refined this approach working with an excellence. One challenge to BARS is
agribusiness firm during a VOCA/US the great number of descriptive category
AID labor management mission to areas needed. Another difficulty is
Uganda, East Africa, in 1996. While one ordering observations so each statement
of the top managers suggested that I was of higher performance excellence
wasting my time with this approach, subsumes the others.
after she met with her boss for a
performance appraisal using this list
approach, she thanked me explaining
that she had never had a more
productive meeting with the owner /
operator.
7
Internal Wage Structure
Physical
Total
Education
sibility
however, does not automatically result Wages may begin at the same level but rise
in higher performance and lower labor steeper at one farm.
costs. Even when well paid, workers
may not see the connection between
wages and their performance. Farmers
Wage Line I
who pay too much may find it difficult
Rate of Pay ($)
Wage Line I
C D
CC
Wage Line II
Few pay grades (broadbanding), with taller Flatter slopes lead to increased overlap.
rate ranges. Note: Wage Line II is flatter than Wage Line I,
and thus contains more overlap.
E
D E
Rate of Pay ($)
C
B D
Job “Importance”
FIGURE 7-6 Job “Importance”
Many pay grades with shorter rate ranges. FIGURE 7-8
Seniority-based raises
Systems providing periodic raises
regardless of evaluated merit may be
based on the assumption that ability
grows with time on the job, which
simply is not always true. Many
companies use pay increases to reward
workers for “belonging” and for their
length of employment with the farm. As
long as worker performance meets
minimum standards, they continue to
receive periodic raises.
Personnel value the certainty of
seniority-based pay, and workers’ needs
for increases in pay through time are
served well. Seniority-based pay also
promotes continuous service and may overpaid, must be large enough to
reduce turnover. motivate employees to stay. A herdsman who has one
Employers who give raises on the cow and has earned a
basis of seniority value the maturity and Merit-based raises second one will be very
experience of senior workers, but they Merit wage increases are designed to
are sometimes relieved when senior pleased, while one who has
recognize improved worker performance
workers leave. In some instances, senior many will hardly notice the
and contribution to the organization. In
workers cost organizations theory, in a merit system workers earn addition of one more cow to
disproportionately higher wages and wage increments proportional to their
benefits (e.g., longer vacations) than the herd (Weber’s Law).
performance. As with the seniority
their contribution to the organization. When it comes to pay
system, however, once someone climbs
This is not a reflection on the senior to a given wage level his wages are increases, those at the lower
employee, but rather, on a system that rarely reduced. Incentive pay plans
undervalues the new employee with the end of the pay scale may ask
(Chapter 8) can solve the problem of
promise that in due time, new personnel for a specific dollar amount,
giving “permanent” raises based on
will be able to earn greater amounts. present and past performance. while those at higher levels
In order to avoid having employees Incentives, however, can have a
climb the pay scale too quickly, smaller tend to speak in terms of
disrupting effect on an internal wage
but more frequent pay increases may be percentage increases.
structure. Employers who use incentive
given early in an employee’s career. pay systems for some jobs and not
Increases later on are given at a slower others may find workers in some lower
pace. These increases, without being “value” jobs earn more than those in
84 • L A B O R M A N AG E M E N T I N A G R I C U LT U R E : C U LT I VAT I N G P E R S O N N E L P R O D U C T I V I T Y
higher level ones.15 Companies some- understand how they will be evaluated.
times abandon their incentive programs That is where the negotiated approach to
or expand them to cover more jobs. performance appraisal can play a key
Where pass/fail merit reviews are role along with the more traditional
conducted at specified time-service appraisal.
intervals—and where employees tend to
pass—the process may be viewed as a Promotion pay
“glorified seniority system.” Length of How much of a pay increase should
employment and wages are closely accompany a promotion? If there is a
correlated within each job category. In pay structure policy, the boundaries of
such a system workers would experience such a decision already exist. A tall rate
the same positive and negative benefits range or steep wage structure may
of a seniority system. permit room for larger wage increases
Managers may feel unduly after raises or promotions. The wage
constrained when given a choice differential will also depend on the
between recommending a worker for a height of rate range occupied by the
full step raise or nothing. To deserve no employee within the present pay grade,
raise an employee must have performed as compared to the height in the grade
quite poorly. If the choices were even promoted to. Obviously, a greater pay
slightly expanded to include half or increase will accompany those
quarter steps (e.g., half step, step and a promotions where the employee moves
quarter), managers may be more likely up more than one pay grade.
to reward workers commensurate with Any time there is an overlap between
their performance. jobs, some workers in a lower grade
Whenever performance reviews may earn more than some workers on
affecting raises are given at specified the adjacent higher grade. If workers are
time intervals, merit systems seldom promoted from one grade to
automatically include a seniority factor. another, this structural characteristic
Alternatively, performance reviews for rarely creates a dilemma.
raises could be triggered by other When workers move from one grade
events, such as specific performance to another, difficulties may arise. There
accomplishments, or skill acquisition might be some pay overlap between the
(skill-based pay). jobs of “assistant mechanic” and
Some workers may merit faster “mechanic.” Consider an assistant
advances to the top of the pay scale than mechanic who, because of many years
others. Unfortunately, employees who of work, has reached the top of his scale
advance too quickly may not have any and makes more than a journeyman
further economic increase to look mechanic who has been working for a
forward to, and experience a feeling of couple of years. The journeyman
stagnation. The only growth may mean mechanic is likely to tolerate the wage
trying for a promotion—or a job discrepancy because even though the
elsewhere. assistant is earning more temporarily,
In order to avoid having employees due to seniority, in time the wages of the
climb a merit scale too quickly, upper journeyman are likely to surpass those
levels of the scale must be harder to of the assistant, due to the higher
achieve. Also, if the merit system potential earnings in the journeyman’s
incorporates seniority (i.e., performance pay grade.
reviews are triggered by time spent on a The challenge arises when this
given pay step) reviews need to take assistant mechanic, who has topped out
place less frequently as people move up in his grade, decides to seek a
the pay scale. promotion to mechanic. The assistant is
It turns out, then, that there are fewer unlikely to want to start at the bottom
differences than expected between step of the mechanic scale where he
seniority and merit based pay systems. would be making less than in his
In order to fully take advantage of merit previous job.
based pay, it is critical that employees
I N T E R N A L W AG E S T R U C T U R E • 85
CHAPTER 7 REFERENCES
1. The Executive Program for Agricultural
Producers (TEPAP) (1994, January).
Year II participant comments, Texas
A&M University, Austin, Texas.
2. Adams, J. S. (1965). Inequity In Social
Exchange. In Advances in Experimental
Social Psychology (Vol. 2: 267-299).
Edited by L. Berkowitz. New York:
Academic Press, Inc.
3. Adams, J. S. (1965). Inequity In Social
Kathy Kelley Anderson collection
There is much that farmers do not have control over, and what they do
control, they control through people. How these people are hired,
managed and motivated makes a huge difference. Labor management is
much more than forms and paperwork. It is more about finding creative
new ways of increasing productivity and reducing loss.
8
Incentive Pay 1
Ed Perry
“My labor costs went down 50 percent for the same amount of production .... The
hard-working person was making [twice, on a per hour average, than the slower ones].
I use incentive pay for other jobs as well [besides plants balled, dug, and burlapped],
such as potting plants—I wish I could use it for everything!”2
Public praising of an
employee may cause
jealousy between workers.
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faster than those paid by the hour. of the whole organization, but profits
Hourly-paid crews require an average of can be fickle. This is true for any
26 man-hours per acre pruned, in organization, but it is especially true in
contrast to only 19 man-hours per acre farming where there may be a rash of
for piece-rate paid crews.6 Farmers who good years followed by bad ones.
have successfully established piece-rate Risk sharing is related to profit
pay have been able to also control for sharing. Here employees are given
quality (more under loopholes) of higher profit-sharing bonuses in good
production. years in exchange for getting a lower
base pay than normal in unprofitable
Step No. 2. Link pay with years. That is, in contrast with the
performance normal system of profit sharing, in bad
years the employees not only did not
Some farmers offer end-of-season
earn a bonus, but also lost part of their
profit sharing plans “because we did
base salary; in good years, they earned
well this year.” Lamentably, there are
bonuses much greater to what they
too many factors that affect farm profits
would have earned normally. It is not
besides worker productivity. Weather
surprising that companies favor risk
and market are two external concerns,
sharing ventures more than employees
while farm accounting procedures can
do: “[The employee] gambles along
be an internal one. Personnel must trust
with the company... Clearly, at-risk
that the farm enterprise will report
plans shift some of the risk of doing
profits in a fair and honest way.
business from the company to the
Workers do not always see a link
employee.”7
between their efforts and profits.
Any time employees are rewarded or
Another danger is a streak of ever
punished for that which they cannot
increasing profits followed by several
control, farm employers are asking for a
years of deficits. While many workers
cynical or disillusioned workforce. All
will be very understanding at receiving a
this having been said, some farmers may
reduced profit-sharing paycheck for a
wish to have a very small profit-sharing Instead of being a motivator,
year, few will tolerate a longer drought
bonus as a teaching tool for top and
without experiencing considerable profit sharing can discourage
middle management. Much better than
dissatisfaction. One manager shared
profit sharing, however, is breaking employees. Not only are
with me his excitement about a
down all elements under the control of profits dependent on the
substantial profit-sharing bonus. As a
employees or management that affect
result, he worked much harder the next efforts of the whole
profits and rewarding personnel for
year and felt defrauded when that check
achieving results. organization, but profits can
ended up substantially reduced when
A Fortune 500 executive, after be fickle. This is especially
compared to the first year. He soon left
explaining three of his most important
that enterprise. true in farming where there
goals—making an important
In another instance, a worker at an
contribution to society, developing may be a rash of good years
equine and cattle facility explained, “I
excellent products, and making the followed by bad ones.
put the same effort each month, but in
some I get the added bonus of getting a
profit-sharing check.” The ranch
employee was explaining that he did not
do anything special to try and get a
higher bonus, but that some months he
would get one while in others he would
not. Since he was not putting any effort
into obtaining the bonus, the employee
felt that it was a windfall in those
months when he would get something.
Instead of being a motivator, profit
sharing can discourage employees. Not
only are profits dependent on the efforts
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include the herd manager who reduced Allowing workers to “go home”
the average number of breedings per (with a full day’s pay) when they finish
conception, but did so by culling several a fixed amount of work has the same
of the best milk cows; and the field motivating effect as most output-based
foreman who increased yields but spent incentive pay systems—and similar
more on production than what the extra problems. The incentive is to get done
yields meant in profits. as quickly as possible and go home.
Dairy workers rewarded for spacing that could affect worker speed.
detecting cows in heat (as part of a Yet vine vigor and vine age both
breeding program) may find an unusual contribute most of the differences in
number of cows in heat. Instead, pruning difficulty.10 There appears to be
workers could be paid for detecting a reasonably good fit between required
cows in heat that are later confirmed effort in vineyard pruning and brush
pregnant. weight (within a given training system).
The number one loophole for Piece-rate pay could be based on the
quantity production incentives is often pruning brush weight of a random
quality. Growers who choose hourly pay sample of vines within a block.
over piece-rate pay often cite quality as Deciding pruning costs for vines that are
the main reason for doing so. A number affected by eutypa or other disease, very
of approaches are either in use or have young vines, or vines that are in their
been suggested to motivate crew prime becomes much easier to deal
workers while maintaining quality (see with, so it is fair to all involved. Crop
Sidebar 8-2). density can likewise be used to make
decisions about harvest piece-rate pay.
Step No. 4. Establish standards and In one orchard operation,11 crop density
determine pay is also used to determine how to pay for
This process involves clarifying thinning fruit load.
expected performance, considering Elimination of incentives. The
agricultural variations, noting when it is specific circumstances for eliminating
fair to eliminate incentives, incentives should be clearly related to
contemplating potential savings and the incentive and articulated ahead of
gains, determining base wage versus time. Employees on a milk quality
incentive pay, anticipating effects of incentive could lose incentive earnings,
technological or biological change, and for instance, if (1) the milk got hot
converting standards into pay. because no one turned on the cooler, (2)
Clarifying expected performance. cows with antibiotics were milked into
The first task is to establish and define the bulk tank, or (3) line filter changes
standards. were neglected.
• Does pruning a vine include It makes little sense to eliminate a
removing suckers? Clearing berry picking quality incentive for
cuttings from the bottom of the employees who commit unrelated
vines? Tying canes to the wire? infractions (e.g., come in late, get into a
Sawing off dead wood? fight). Any prolonged elimination of
• Will mortality calculations incentives risks surrendering any
include all calves—even those motivational effect the incentive
born dead or killed by lightning? program may have had. If the breach is
Or, will a veterinarian conduct a so serious, perhaps the farmer should
calf autopsy and decide if it was consider worker discipline or
a preventable loss? termination.
• How full must picked Potential savings and gains. A dairy
boysenberry boxes be? farmer trying to reduce calf mortality
• How will the number of stemless, may ask: how much does it cost me
pitted, bruised, or low color every time a calf dies?12 Unfortunately,
cherries per sample affect quality many employers think more in terms of
grade? how much they expect workers to earn
in an hour—rather than what the
Agricultural variation. Variations in incentive program does in reducing costs
crop load, vine vigor, or conditions that (e.g., costs per acre). In a well-designed
may affect worker performance need to incentive pay program, a farmer should
be considered. Each commodity has its feel that the more his employees earn,
own idiosyncrasies. In grape pruning, the better off he is.
there are multiple possible variations There may be a point where
from variety to training method to improvements beyond a certain level
I N C E N T I V E P AY • 101
Step No. 5. Protect workers from them more as casual incentives; they
negative consequences provide positive feedback and a feeling
of belonging to a team. If incentives are
Employees have a number of
not proportional to the amount of work
reservations related to the use of
involved, however, they are unlikely to
incentives. These include such things as
provide the intended motivation.
fear of job loss, unfair pay, and rate
Tell employees how much they are
reductions. In the section on loopholes
earning. Cucumber pickers at one
we considered how to protect the farmer
California farm did not find out what the
when incentives are used. To protect
piece rate was until the end of each day
employees:
when they got paid—which was strictly
• Provide a fair wage.
on a per bucket basis. A worker thinning
• Tell employees how much they
peaches did not know how much he was
are earning.
earning per tree. In a third example,
• Maintain fair standards.
workers in Voronezh, Russia, who were
• Hire fewer workers for longer
putting boxes together for packing fruit,
periods.
did not know how much they would get
• Protect senior workers.
paid per box until the end of the month.
• Provide timely performance
In each of these cases, the farmer, the
feedback.
farm labor contractor, and the enterprise
• Be sensitive to physical demands.
manager respectively explained, “Our
• Encourage workers to take rest
workers trust us.” It became obvious,
breaks.
however, that the more buckets picked
• Provide a safe environment.
by the cucumber crew, the more trees
• Avoid chance incentives.
thinned, or boxes built, the less they
Provide a fair wage. Workers are were going to get paid per unit. One of
more likely to feel incentives are an the workers in the thinning crew
excuse for low wages when they do not expressed frustration at not knowing
receive a fair base wage to begin with. what the piece rate was and pointing to
They see incentives as either requiring the end of the long row said, “If I knew
unachievable goals in order to make a how much I was getting paid per tree, I
competitive wage, or only partially would have already finished the row and
under their control. In contrast, when would be on my way back.”
added to a generous base wage, Maintain fair standards. Even after a
incentives may be quite small and still piece rate or other incentive standard is
be well received. Workers may look at fixed, workers may be hesitant to show
farmers their full performance potential. manager may not want to use a practical
A call from a grower will best illustrate test to improve the number of superior
what I mean. He expressed the crew workers because of the wrongful
frustration that his employees were dependence on costs per hour as a Growers will not derive the
earning too much. “I have been thinking productivity gauge. It just wouldn’t look full benefits of piece-rate pay
of reducing what I pay per grapevine good to his supervisors if workers
until crew workers are
from 32 cents per vine to 28,” he started earning more.
explained. I explained to the grower that The changes in standard may not be confident that high earnings
the piece rate should not be diminished, blatant. For instance, when hourly paid today will not translate into
that half his crew was apt to leave—the crews get a cost-of-living raise, farmers
reduced rates in the future.
better half—and the other half would may reason piece-rate paid crews do not
never trust him again. “I was just putting
you to the test,” the grower retorted. “I
reduced the piece rate last week, and
half the crew already left ...”
Crew members sometimes exert
pressure on overly productive coworkers
to have them slow down. They fear
standards will be increased (i.e., they
will have to put in more effort to make
the same amount) either now or in
future years. A worker described how on
a previous job he had been offered $1
per box of apricots picked. When he
picked 100 boxes for the day within a
few hours the rate was suddenly
changed to 50 cents per box. Another
worker explained, “If we are making too
much on piece rate we are told to also
weed, and that reduces our earnings.”14
At a large orchard operation, top
management was mistakenly focusing
on average earnings per hour (by
translating piece rate costs into hourly
wages). Instead, they needed to focus on
cost per acre or cost per job. When
piece-rate paid workers made what to
top management seemed like overly
high wages, their pay rate was reduced
with disastrous results: the best
employees left, and trust was destroyed
for those who remained.
In order to counteract management’s
tendency to lower the piece rate, a clever
production manager formed crews
where high earning workers were
balanced out with slow ones. This kept
top management satisfied (because the
average cost per hour was not too high)
and yet allowed fast workers to earn
more with less fear of having their
wages cut.15 This practice, of course,
does not solve the real problem, nor
does it entirely overcome the
disincentive to faster, more effective
work. For instance, this production
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need one as they are already earning about half an hour more per milking
double the wages. Without the raise, the shift to improve milk quality, the
premium for effort given to piece-rate incentive should pay more than the half
paid workers is thus reduced. Yet those hour per shift the dairy farmer would
on piece rate exert considerably more have had to pay on an hourly basis.
effort, as can be attested by anyone who Hire fewer workers for longer
has seen piece-rate paid pickers running periods. Workers are less likely to slow
through the field as they carry lugs or down when they realize there is plenty
buckets of fruits or vegetables. of work to do. When time frames are not
The design of the incentive may be critical, it is often preferable to hire
poor, also. For instance, one nursery fewer, better-qualified people to do the
grower gave employees an incentive for job. You can manage to save money
achieving a percentage of improved while providing a longer season and
productivity over previous performance, higher pay rates for employees.
and noted that employees “reached an In agriculture, there is often little
expected threshold and there was no continuity in crews from one year to the
further change” after that. The more next. While normally this presents a
workers improved, the harder it would training challenge for growers, here it is
be to surpass previous performance an advantage. The farmer introducing an
levels and gain an incentive reward. This incentive pay system is free to set a
employer dropped his incentive crew size small enough to have plenty of
program. I wonder if performance work for the season. Farmers will want
reverted to a lower level, too. to work toward reducing seasonal
To conclude this set of examples turnover, and keep some of these
with a more positive one, a prominent excellent employees. Producers who hire
California vineyard operator called in year-round workers, on the other hand,
frustration: “We have an employee who can have a policy of reducing their work
is earning $45 per hour by the piece! We force by attrition rather than by
must be doing something wrong!” Like terminations.
the other farmer, they wanted to cut Protect senior workers. Farm
piece rates, but fortunately these employers may, through a careful
growers called before making the selection process, avoid hiring
change. I was able to explain that $45 employees who cannot perform the job.
per hour for the best employee was not Those who employ workers without first
out of line to what the research testing them may want to encourage the
indicated. The best farm worker in a most productive workers to come back
crew was capable of four to eight times each season. Farmers who have poor
the performance of the worst. I performers in their staff may wish to
congratulated this farm enterprise, they deal with this issue before introducing
had achieved trust from the workers! an incentive pay program.
Sometimes farmers get paid less for Sooner or later farmers need to deal
their commodities. When producers are with long time employees who are no
forced to cut incentive wages in order to longer in their prime. Many farmers
stay in business, they are likely to lose rightfully feel a sense of responsibility
workers’ trust. Part of an effective labor for these workers and often find less
management policy is to carry over farm strenuous tasks for them. For instance,
income to protect workers’ future some growers employ older workers on
earnings. This will help balance out an hourly basis to sort or check for fruit
some of the rough spots so inherent in missed during the harvest. It is not
agriculture. uncommon for senior workers to outdo
Some jobs require extra effort while younger ones, of course, and
others mean extra time (e.g., time spent assumptions about worker capabilities
improving quality). Incentives should based on age are often unfounded.
compensate employees for the extra Provide timely performance
amount of time required to accomplish a feedback. Effective performance
job. For instance, if employees spend appraisal and communication is critical.
I N C E N T I V E P AY • 105
For a worker paid on a piece rate, being more than one shift or additional
sent back to redo a job as a result of workers.
poor quality means reduced earnings. Encourage workers to take rest
Supervisors need to provide effective breaks. One disadvantage of piece-rate
training and appraise worker pay is that most employees forego their
performance in a timely fashion. breaks.18 Making sure employees take
Farmers who have workers earn the their breaks is likely to reduce injuries
right to work on an incentive pay crew and mistakes as well as increase worker
(see Sidebar 8-2) by showing complete preference for piece-rate paid work.
understanding of quality issues ahead of While those who perform hourly paid
time, are likely to end up with fewer tasks take breaks on the farmer’s time,
miscommunications with their those on piece rate would have to do so
employees. on their own time. One way to
The simple act of making a list of encourage employees to take breaks
criteria that are important to you and when paid by the piece is to bring warm
sharing those with workers will go a bread or cold sodas out to the crews.
long way towards improved quality. Even more effective, is to insist that
Taking the next step, of sharing with workers take a rest and pay them for the
employees how well they are doing, can break time, either on an hourly basis or
cement good habits. It also helps to as a proportion of their piece-rate paid
provide samples of what is considered earnings.
good quality work. For instance, one can Provide a safe environment. The hard
provide a color-coded chart to illustrate pace of piece rate may increase back or
minimum or maximum color other work-related injuries.19 Farmers
requirements, or what a completed job should consider ergonomic measures
should look like. that facilitate, to the greatest extent
Be sensitive to physical demands. possible, a work environment free of
The physical demands of piece-rate paid injury and illness. Some suggest worker
work are such that workers need to work pace should be limited to protect
fewer hours than when paid by the workers from injury. Unfortunately, as
hour,16 or risk health problems. This is we said when discussing this issue as it
especially so with more physically related to quality, limiting the total
demanding jobs in the summer heat. performance of workers would only be
Generally, the maximum workers can effective on a worker-by-worker basis,
perform when paid by the piece is seven as optimum pace varies among
to eight hours. It is important to provide employees.
plenty of cold water and have it Injuries at the beginning of the
sufficiently close to the work being season when workers may have had long
performed so workers will drink it. It periods of inactivity need to be guarded
may be necessary to provide worker against, also. Employers may want to go
training on the importance of drinking to an occupational medicine facility to
sufficient water. Encouraging workers to design an appropriate warmup or
drink early (before they become thirsty) stretching exercise program for workers.
and at frequent intervals may reduce Effective employee selection, training,
body fatigue.17 and supervision can also do much to
Sometimes farm employers are reduce injuries.
pressured to get crops in but need to Avoid chance incentives. Chance
resist pressuring workers into staying incentives use luck (e.g., a chance at
longer. Some farmers have been winning a TV or trip) to reward specific
effective in getting employees to stay worker behaviors or results. Often those
when rain threatens to destroy a crop. who are poor are especially attracted to
They have done so by raising the piece gambling, hoping for things they are
rate substantially (which works fine in unlikely to achieve unless they get
this case, as the workers will get the lucky. Employers who use chance
next day off and can rest). In some incentives are gambling for the
cases, an alternative would be to use employee.
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I N C E N T I V E P AY • 107
In the short run, some chance before results showing success are clear.
incentive programs may produce the Added demands for positive two-way
specific behaviors or results employers communication, feedback, and
are looking for. But how appropriate— teamwork will increase. If interpersonal
or to use a stronger word, how ethical— conflicts already exist, they should be
is the use of such chance incentives? worked out first (see Chapter 13), rather
Key questions farmers might ask than hoping they will dissipate after the
themselves before implementing a incentive program is established.
chance incentive are: Is it fair to each Explain the program. A simple
worker? Who benefits from the program will help build trust. At
incentive? Is the incentive being offered minimum, all workers need to know
because paying each worker would cost what is expected of them and how their
too much? Or because what each worker performance will translate into pay. It
would get would seem too little? Are all helps when the incentive plan is
workers rewarded for their work efforts? presented to workers for review and
comments before implementation.
Step No. 6. Improve communications Workers might spot not so obvious
shortcomings or obstacles, and they are
To improve communication with and
more likely to accept the performance
between employees:
challenge when they are involved (see
• Build positive interpersonal
Chapter 10). Better yet, is to involve
relations.
workers in the design of the incentive
• Explain the program.
pay program from the outset.
• Prepare a bargaining style.
If an expectation is set that
• Provide feedback.
employees can easily make the top
• Be open for suggestions.
incentive goal (e.g., for improving
quality), the incentive may act as a
Build positive interpersonal
demotivator. Instead, farmers should
relations. Positive interpersonal relations
encourage employees to try their best
between management and employees, as
and begin by shooting for the lowest
well as among employees, are a must
level. If the accomplishment exceeds the
before installing a successful incentive
workers’ expectations, all the better.
pay program. Incentives often add some
Prepare a bargaining style. Some
tension and stress, especially at first,
negotiation on pay rates may be
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traditional. In seasonal agriculture some workers, (2) haggling with the crew, or
growers begin with lower pay than what (3) taking a chance on a confrontation
they feel is fair to the workers, knowing that may get ugly and out of hand. A
that tradition demands they raise wages farmer who expects not to have to
throughout the season. Others prefer to haggle over wages needs to be sure that
let workers know they do not want to the wages she offers are fair to begin
play rate-setting games. Still others set a with.
fair wage along with a healthy end-of- Provide feedback. Producers need to
season bonus that discourages provide frequent feedback to employees,
employees from leaving or threatening regardless of the usual pay interval. For
to leave in mid season. instance, crew workers may be paid on a
When a grape grower announced he weekly basis but receive daily
was paying $0.30 per vine, crew performance feedback. Feedback may
members protested. They could not be given in person or posted to
afford to work for this small amount, safeguard worker anonymity.
they argued. It appeared workers would An effective method of providing
refuse to work. The farmer stood cool meaningful feedback is through a
and firm, and soon the workers smiled separate paycheck, or “adder,”20 for the
and said the wage was just fine, in fact, incentive. For greatest effectiveness,
a cent better than the previous year. adders should be given at a different
A grower offered pruners $0.28 per date than the usual payday, or at the
grapevine. Workers adamantly refused to very least, in a separate check. This
work for this wage. The farmer then reminds the recipient that the extra
labeled each row and offered the same compensation is for a specific purpose
crew $22.40 per row instead. The (e.g., such as a wet winter or harvest
pruners gladly accepted. This farmer had months involving long hours) and will
just multiplied the 80 vines in the row last only as long as the condition merits.
by $0.28 to end up with the identical Be open for suggestions. After the
final price per vine. With this approach, incentive is in place, workers may not be
however, a farmer may be gaining short- pleased with it. A dairy farmer who
term success at the expense of future employed five workers was approached
trust. by two of them. They asked for a raise
Another grower encountered stiff and the elimination of the incentive pay
resistance from crew members after program set up a year earlier.
announcing the pay rate. They pointed The producer, rather than ask the
out the neighbor’s higher wages. The other workers if they also wanted to
farmer aggressively told workers they eliminate the incentive, asked everyone,
could look for work elsewhere if they “What can we do to improve the
did not like the rates. This situation incentive pay system?” In the end, he
ended up in a labor dispute, as workers ended up with a successful program,
felt they had been constructively with workers earning $300 a month in
discharged (i.e., forced to quit) in order incentives.21
to save face.
Instead, this farmer could have Step No. 7. Periodically review the
calmly explained how he arrived at the program
pay level and told employees he hoped
Record keeping and statistical
they would be able to work for him at
analysis are critical to determine the
this wage. Perhaps the neighbor pays
success of the incentive pay program.
more but keeps employees for a shorter
Good controls are crucial so incentive
season or does not provide as many
pay results can be isolated and correctly
benefits.
attributed to the pay system. If a farmer
Not everyone can handle the high
introduces other changes
pressures of negotiating with a crew. I
simultaneously, she may never know the
would prefer to post wages where they
impact of the incentive program. There
can be readily seen by all applicants.
are a number of statistical tools that may
The farm employer avoids (1) surprising
I N C E N T I V E P AY • 109
of Agricultural Economics, University 17. You may want to review the American
of California. College of Sports Medicine Position
11. Saldaña, A. (1998, April 14). Personal Stand on “Exercise And Fluid
communication. Naumes Orchard Replacement.” Among the suggestions
Divisions. Modesto, CA. offered there, for instance, include the
12. Collar, C. (1991, February 5) Incentives idea of keeping water cold and “flavored
for Reducing Calf Mortality. Employee to enhance palatability and promote
Incentive Pay in Dairies conference. fluid replacement.” Make sure to consult
University of California. Modesto, CA. with your physician, however.
13. Billikopf, G.E. (1995, January-February). 18. Billikopf, G. E. (1996, November-
High piece-rate wages do not reduce December). Crew workers split between
hours worked (Vol. 49-1) (pp. 17-18) hourly and piece-rate pay (Vol. 50-6)
California Agriculture. (pp. 5-8). California Agriculture.
14. Billikopf, G. E. (1996, November- 19. Sandoval, L. (1990) Personal
December). Crew workers split between communication. Agricultural Workers’
hourly and piece-rate pay (Vol. 50-6) Health Center.
(pp. 5-8). California Agriculture. 20. Belcher, D. W. (1974). Compensation
15. Saldaña, A. (1998, April 14). Personal Administration. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
communication. Naumes Orchard Prentice-Hall.
Divisions. Modesto, CA. 21. Wagner, R. (1991, February 5). Dairy
16. Billikopf, G.E. (1995, January-February). Farmer Experiences With Incentives.
High piece-rate wages do not reduce Employee Incentive Pay in Dairies
hours worked (Vol. 49-1) (pp. 17-18) conference. University of California.
California Agriculture. Modesto, CA.
9
Supervisory Power
My ranch foreman was selling beer and sodas at a high profit margin. He would
coerce workers into buying from him. I don’t drink alcohol so I asked for a soda. “The
sodas are for the women,” he informed me. “You will have to buy a beer.” I refused.
When the farm owner took a week’s vacation, the foreman retaliated and fired me.
SOURCES OF POWER
Foreman Foreman
Supervisors and workers alike bring
Crew Crew a certain amount of power to the job.
Powerful supervisors are more likely to
be able to influence subordinates. But
FIGURE 9-2
where does this power come from?
Multi-level organization. A supervisor’s power is affected by
the perceived value of a host of factors,
intermediate supervisory levels. Figure contributions, or inputs,1 such as a
9-2 shows a larger agricultural enterprise person’s:
with three levels of supervision. • leadership position
Changes in complexity are most abrupt • education
when an organization expands to one • seniority
For supervisors to be layer of supervision from none, and • skill, ability, and knowledge
effective, responsibility and from one layer to two layers of • friendliness and interpersonal skills
power must be balanced. supervision. Additional layers of • charisma
supervision also add complexity. • gender
• race
• nationality
• attractiveness
Organizational scholars2 often divide
these factors into (1) organizational and
(2) personal power bases.
Organizational Power. Supervisors
have several tools available to facilitate
and manage the performance of others.
In theory, supervisors play a role in
every aspect of labor management,
including job design, employee
selection, evaluation, pay, orientation,
training and development, worker
involvement and discipline. In practice,
high-level managers may not take
advantage of the full array of options to
manage employees. At lower levels,
supervisors may be more limited. For
Jack Kelly Clark
Jesús Valencia
them without first checking with higher It may be directed up or down the
management. organization toward the farmer or When the supervisor is angry
For supervisors to be effective, employees. The supervisor is placed in a at the grower, mistrusts him,
responsibility and power must be powerful position as he acts as an or feels his main loyalty is to
balanced. It is difficult to hold a interpreter between organizational
supervisor responsible if she does not levels. The proper handling of messages the workers, he is more likely
have the authority to reward superior can make a difference between a smooth to misrepresent the farmer.
work or discipline poor performance. running operation and one full of Supervisors also may
Many supervisors feel as if they have to conflict.
act with one hand tied behind their Messages sometimes get distorted in misrepresent messages
backs. At the other extreme, unchecked the process. A communication game you arising from an unpopular
organizational power can lead to a have probably played consists of quickly employee, or one that
potentially more serious problem— passing a message along from one
abuse of power. person to the next. One person makes a threatens the supervisor's
Personal Influence. Personal power statement and whispers it to her sense of power or control.
is brought to the job by the incumbent neighbor who, in turn, passes it on. The
rather than given to the supervisor by final message seldom bears any
the organization. A supervisor’s self- resemblance to the original. The greater
esteem and personal discipline may also the number of people a message must
play an important role on her ability to travel through, the greater the chances of
use power appropriately. distortion. While in the game the
outcome is often comical, message
THE SUPERVISOR AS AN distortions are seldom amusing in an
organizational context.
INTERPRETER Language barriers may be an
additional source of possible distortions
With added layers of supervision, the (see Sidebar 12-2 for suggestions on
role of the supervisor becomes more dealing with interpreters). Consider the
complex. Communication challenges sign at a national park warning
may increase. Essential information backpackers of dangerously swift
passes through agricultural supervisors. waters. A deadly waterfall lies meters
114 • L A B O R M A N AG E M E N T I N A G R I C U LT U R E : C U LT I VAT I N G P E R S O N N E L P R O D U C T I V I T Y
verbal exchange and eventually the someone of the opposite (or even the
worker would not talk to her anymore. same) sex. Sexual harassment is often
The grower suggested a public apology, classified as either (1) quid pro quo
which worked out well. This case had a harassment, or (2) hostile work
positive ending, as eventually they environment.
ended up being good friends. More Quid pro quo means to interchange
importantly, this and other supervisors something for something else, such as
reported that they had learned not to be sexual favors in return for a job or for a
so verbally explosive. raise. A hostile work environment may
Other workers are more direct in involve anything from a poster display
expressing their feelings. “I talked to of skimpily clad females, to jokes or
[my foreman] right away without bad physical contact of a sexual nature, to
language but with a firm voice, and he leering.
did listen.” Sometimes it was tit-for-tat Kurt would not be guilty of sexual
loudness. “I told him not to embarrass harassment for asking Tamara out to a
me in front of other workers. He asked dinner date or a movie, even if he is
me to follow him away from the crew refused. It becomes sexual harassment if
and told me that people would not Kurt insists, despite the rejections. The
respect him otherwise. I told him this term unwanted means, in theory, the
was his problem and that we should get person receiving sexual attention shares
the manager involved, to which he in the responsibility of letting others
refused.” By offering this as a know what is offensive.
suggestion, the worker was telling the Sexually explicit jokes, obscenity,
supervisor that he felt he had a source of and revealing posters, however, are
power, if reason alone was not sufficient always in bad taste—even if no one
to put the problem to rest. seems to object. (Even though not
Workers prefer to be spoken to in a categorized as sexual harassment, the
calm way (slower speed, low volume). same can be said of profane, sexist, or
They are offended by scolding, harsh racist language.) Nor should anyone
words, shouting, angry, quick speech assume it okay to solicit, or sexually
and finger snapping. They dislike touch another, or to act in an immoral
foremen who come to work in a surly or way—because they have not been told it
bad mood, or use vulgar, profane or foul is unwanted.
language. Workers are also hurt when A good management policy is to ask
they are corrected through put-downs, employees to leave romantic interests
criticized about trivial details, or for after work hours. A special danger
threatened. Criticism is especially exists where a supervisor dates a
painful when it is considered unfair, subordinate. It is almost impossible to
when workers feel they do not have avoid appearances of favoritism. If the
control over results, or when action is relationship breaks up, it is too easy for
taken against them without an supervisors to retaliate—or give the
explanation. Poor supervisors may be impression of doing so.
impatient or rush through explanations Favoritism involves giving
and do not like to be asked questions. preferential treatment to family
Furthermore, workers are concerned members, friends or employees from the
about possible foreman reprisals. It has same region in Mexico, for example, in
been suggested that farm employers hiring, assigning jobs, payment, or
exercise care in selecting foremen and handling other employment decisions.
that these foremen be trained to treat Dishonesty. There are many forms of
workers well, give orders properly, avoid dishonesty, including directly or
acting superior, not shout at or scold indirectly stealing from the farmer or
workers, and know how to perform the workers. As an example, recall the
job well themselves. foreman who made workers buy beer or
Sexual harassment involves soda from him (in the chapter
unwanted sexual attention. It may be introduction). Some foremen have been
directed towards men or women by known to charge employees for the job,
118 • L A B O R M A N AG E M E N T I N A G R I C U LT U R E : C U LT I VAT I N G P E R S O N N E L P R O D U C T I V I T Y
SUMMARY
Supervisory power stems from both
organizational authority and personal
influence. Supervisory responsibilities
must be matched with corresponding
power, such as the right to hire or
discipline personnel.
In organizations with more than one
level of management, supervisors may
find themselves in the powerful position
of acting as interpreters, filtering
information and passing on the
essentials. Supervisors need to be of a supervisor is a form of abuse of
sensitized to the importance of not authority. This abuse may be manifested Rotate crew leaders from
distorting information. through impatience, lack of kindness, one crew to another from
Unchecked organizational authority raised voices, or a number of other
can lead to abuse of power. Stanley time to time.
ways. Furthermore, while large
Milgram’s study shows normal people differences in status between supervisor
may be coerced into doing something and employee may cause workers to
they will later regret. It is not necessary accept discipline today, they are likely to
to have a threat expressed to feel resent the supervisor later. In the next
coerced. The line between cooperation chapter, we will look at empowering
and coercion may be a thin one. Doing employees by involving them in
what is right takes increased inner decision making.
strength. Employees may obey today,
but resent tomorrow.
Organizations, supervisors and CHAPTER 9 REFERENCES
individuals can take steps to avoid abuse
1. Social Psychologists call these
of power. Abuse of power is not always
“investments.” For an excellent
something that can be recognized discussion see Brown, R. (1986). Social
immediately as some ghastly act. There Psychology: The Second Edition. New
are many shades of abuse. Farm workers York: The Free Press.
suggest that lack of respect on the part
122 • L A B O R M A N AG E M E N T I N A G R I C U LT U R E : C U LT I VAT I N G P E R S O N N E L P R O D U C T I V I T Y
2. Tosi, H. L., Rizzo, J. R., and Carrol, S. J. 5. Brown, R. (1986). Social Forces in
(1986). Managing Organizational Obedience and Rebellion. Social
Behavior (p. 516). Marshfield, MA: Psychology: The Second Edition. New
Pitman Publishing Inc. York: The Free Press.
3. Billikopf, G.E. (1999, January-February) 6. Belilos, C. (1999, April). E-mail
Farm workers positive about their jobs, communication through Academy of
but suggest improvements (Vol. 53, No. Management HRnet, and personal
1) (pp. 33-36). California Agriculture. communication
4. Milgram, S. (1974). Obedience to 7. This section was slightly adapted from a
Authority: An Experimental View. New written communication sent to me by a
York: Harper and Row. An excellent concerned farm manager and was first
presentation of Milgram’s work is also posted in AG-HRnet:436, 1999, March
found in Brown, R. (1986). Social 15. Is contention always bad?
Forces in Obedience and Rebellion.
Social Psychology: The Second Edition.
New York: The Free Press. More details
may be found at http://www.cnr.
berkeley.edu/ucce50/ag-labor/7article/
article35.htm
INVOLVING WORKERS IN
DECISION MAKING1
Decision making is the crux of
management in any enterprise. In most
business organizations, responsibilities
are divided between “those who think”
and “those who do.” Though farmers
typically engage in more “doing” than
the average executive, often they also
carry the whole thinking load.
A strict separation of manager and
employee roles sends the message to
workers that they are only responsible
for what they are specifically told to do.
increasingly difficult tasks, more can be
While workers should feel a But how much stock might be saved,
delegated. When delegating, it is a
damage avoided, and work improvement
need to work out day to day wonderful feeling to know the employee
generated if the minds connected to all
issues directly with the farm will do the job just as well, if not better,
those hired hands were tapped?
than you would. To accomplish this, the
foreman, the door should be Involving people in decision making
supervisor needs to test for employee
transfers power to subordinates.
left open for workers to understanding before delegating.
Some supervisors think failing to
sense that the farmer can One dairy farmer wanted to delegate
maintain tight control may be seen as a
to a working herdsman some decisions
listen to them, too. sign of weakness. Others simply find
based on cow body condition. They had
their use of authority very satisfying.
been working together on this project
Finally, there are those who are
for some time. This dairyman selected
concerned their subordinates would not
one hundred cows and evaluated their
make decisions or discharge
body condition. Then, after explaining
responsibilities well.
what he was doing, gave the same list of
cows to the herdsman and had him do
Levels of involvement
his own evaluations from scratch. The
two were then able to compare notes A supervisor may usefully include
and discuss each cow individually. others in virtually every decision. When
When a farmer employs a new and to what extent to involve workers
supervisor, rather than having this are key management choices. There are
individual evaluate the employees several approaches to decision making.
directly, it is preferable that both go out At one extreme is the traditional use of
together to look at the work. Once managerial authority in decision making
removed from the employees, they can or the “boss-centered” style. At the
talk. The grower should first ask the opposite extreme is a management style
supervisor for his opinion and only then with high worker involvement, an
offer his own. After coming to an “employee-centered” style. Five
agreement, both can return to view the approaches within such a continuum are
jobs being carried out, but this time, discussed in this subsection to illustrate
rather than keeping quiet about the the differences in decision-making
quality of work being performed, the philosophy.2 This categorization of
farmer allows the supervisor to be the decision-making approaches can be
one who gives the feedback. This way applied to any kind of management
the farmer can make sure the supervisor decision.
E M P OW E R M E N T AND D E L E G AT I O N • 125
skills are critical when dealing with 1. The problem itself. More
employees, especially when difficulties involvement is called for when (a)
arise. information relevant to the problem is
Individuals respond differently to widely dispersed in the organization,
decision-making opportunities. It is and (b) employee acceptance is critical
crucial to remember, however, that most to the implementation of whatever
employees are capable of significantly decision is made. Identifying the cause
expanding their skills. How they develop of a rash of equipment breakdowns
is partly influenced by their supervisor’s cannot be done alone in the comfort of
expectations. one’s own office.
Hispanics and other minorities are Complex decisions require broader
often mis-categorized as coming from involvement, but simple ones may be
cultures not appreciating participation. delegated directly to those employees
Despite cultural differences, people of who have the necessary information.
all cultures display a broad range of Who is better situated than the tractor
behavior. When it comes to worker driver to decide when to fill its gas tank?
participation, Hispanic and minority Most decisions recurring routinely,
workers are just as interested—or such as tank filling, supply ordering, and
uninterested—as their majority stock culling, are permanently delegated
colleagues. through job descriptions. Managers can
The foreman with enough confidence exert considerable control over
to delegate part of an important decision delegated decisions by narrowing the
is likely to be rewarded with both an decision maker’s area of discretion.
immediate contribution and a more An observant labor contractor once
experienced, confident employee to noted his workers took much better care
whom she can delegate even more of their own equipment than his.
tomorrow. You have probably heard Similarly, people are more likely to
about a “troublemaker” or “goof-off” accept and implement decisions they
from one ranch who moved on to have participated in making.
become a highly valued performer at 2. Time pressures. In the short run
another. Though personal circumstances shared decision making generally takes
often play a role in such turnabouts, so longer than unilateral action. It is not
do different management styles. Some surprising to find crisis-ridden ranches
workers give the job their best as long as that often operate with a highly
the supervisor stays away. authoritarian management style. The
Involving employees is usually more pattern perpetuates itself since boss-
productive if workers possess: centered responses to crises do little to
• knowledge and experience develop staff capacity.
relevant to the issue at hand, 3. Organizational traditions and
• interest in the issue and values. Organizations tend to select,
appreciation of its importance, promote, and retain people who fit in
• understanding of, and overall with their prevailing management
agreement with, goals of the philosophy. “The way we’ve always
business, done it here,” has a profound impact on
• desire for autonomy, how it will be done in the future.
responsibility and growth,
Research has found that participatory
• tolerance for uncertainty and
approaches are, in general, associated
ambiguity, as opposed to need for
with higher levels of employee
firm structure, and
motivation, acceptance of and
• previous involvement in decision
adaptability to change, managerial
making.
decision quality, teamwork and morale,
and individual employee development.
Attributes of the situation
When decision-making responsibilities
Finally, the appropriate approach are shared, slumbering organizations
varies with the situation. often “wake up.” Workers will increase
E M P OW E R M E N T AND D E L E G AT I O N • 129
feel involved, and part of the farming unrealistic assignments. For instance, Date submitted: ___/___/___
enterprise, their appetite for shared they may want to negotiate for a later
decision making is likely to grow. completion date. In time, employees will Date wanted: ___/___/___
grasp what is most important to you, Date completed: ___/___/___
DELEGATION FOLLOW and you can skip the “date wanted”
section. Re: _______________________ Please:
THROUGH In some cases you may want to go Breed Call Veterinarian Purchase
over assignments with employees and Fix / Treat Trim hoofs Check
The previous discussion dealt with ask for their input on a reasonable
the who, what, and why of delegating See me
completion date—or a timetable with a
decisions. Following through is just as series of sub-goals. If it is a job that will Comments:
important but much simpler. Despite require a progress report at specific
such simplicity, however, projects often intervals, you may indicate this on the
fail because of lack of follow through. It form, too. If several unrelated tasks are
helps to get into the habit of noting in delegated, it helps to use different forms Thanks, Andrea ____________ TNX ____
your agenda or calendar those situations to track each one.
that may require a possible follow up The middle part of the form consists FIGURE 10-1
call or reminder from you. of typical tasks you delegate to the Work Order form.
Whether delegating menial jobs or employee, as well as space to provide
high-powered decision-making specific instructions. The list of
assignments, there are some basic delegated tasks may be refined with
requirements. At the very least, time, so you may not want to print too
employees need to understand clearly many forms the first time.
what is expected of them and when their The bottom left of the form has a
assignments are due to be completed. space for you to initial your request. The
Do you find yourself delegating employee will, upon completion of the
work but sometimes wondering when or assignment, also initial and date the
if it got done? Do you ever feel uneasy form. Finally, to complete the feedback
about checking up on the employee, process, you will initial the form
fearing you may convey a feeling of Employees experience the
(bottom right) thanking the employee.
mistrust? If you answered yes to either From time to time, you may want to add satisfaction of completing,
of these questions, you may want to try an extra word of positive feedback and and being thanked for,
a work order form (see Figure 10-1). encouragement to express your
You can design a form to fit your needs. specific assignments.
gratitude, such as, “well done!”
A separate form can be used per job, or
a single one can serve for many
positions.
The form is not a substitute for clear
communication. With new employees or
tasks, you will want to provide training
and close supervision. Employees who
do not understand what is expected of
them need to feel comfortable asking for
clarification.
The form provides a place to tell
employees what you want them to do,
how important this task is in comparison
to other tasks assigned to them, when
the request was given, and how soon
you expect it to be completed. The
priority code along with the “date
wanted” helps employees prioritize their
Jack Kelly Clark
SUMMARY
Shared decision making can lead to
better decisions, increase
communication with employees, bolster
worker motivation, and increase
11
Conducting Effective Meetings
“I can still remember arriving early to staff meetings at one ranch I worked for. I
wanted to make sure to sit where I could look out the window and ‘escape’ from the
meeting. I can also recall a job where the meetings were effectively planned and carried
out. Unfortunately, most of the meetings I have attended have fallen into the unbearably
unproductive category.”
Cattle Ranch Employee
Napa, California
expense. Meetings, then, are held to meeting may be, “What are we going to
inform people about policies or do differently because we met?”
operations, gather information, conduct
training, resolve problems, or make Planning
decisions.
All too often meetings take place
What makes for an effective
without an express purpose, are too
meeting? Having a purpose, preparing
long, and little is accomplished. A clear
ahead of time, setting goals during the
understanding of objectives to be
meeting, and making provisions for
accomplished is essential to an effective
follow-through and assessment
meeting. Once the purpose is apparent,
afterwards are critical. A successful
questions as to who will attend, and
meeting is like a team that carefully
where (and when) the meeting will take
cuts, trims and prepares a portion of
place can be dealt with.
meat to be hung by a hook. A hook is
Agendas may include time for (1)
added, the meat is lifted and placed on a
review of notes from past business; (2)
rail, and sent on its way. Oftentimes,
discussion of new issues; and (3)
however, much work takes place in
evaluation of progress toward goal
meetings but challenges are not really
achievement. Supervisors are cautioned
solved. The participants may have cut,
not to be overly optimistic about what
cleaned and even lifted the heavy
can be accomplished in a single
carcass, but they have failed to put it on
meeting.
the rail. Next time, they will have to
Several short meetings may work
clean and lift it again. That is, much
If people know that a subject best for some objectives. Participants are
time and effort is spent in meetings but
that is important to them will more likely to absorb training material,
this time is often wasted because
for instance, when they can apply it
be raised, they are less likely specific assignments were not made and
between one meeting and the next. This
follow through is seldom carried out.
to interrupt and derail the flexibility may not exist when a decision
Despite the potential solutions that may
meeting. This is perhaps the has to be made before adjourning. Also,
arise during the meeting, it is likely that
a single yet longer meeting may be
most important contribution the same problem will continue to raise
preferable when participants have to
its head over and over in the future. An
of the agenda. travel distances to attend or need to
important question to ask after a
C O N D U C T I N G E F F E C T I V E M E E T I N G S • 133
All too often people take ownership Any business that is not fully dealt
of a suggestion and allow their self- with will tend to appear again and again
esteem to be affected by the results. until a concrete decision is made. The
They take acceptance or rejection of key, then, is to manage meetings so
their solution personally. Instead, team specific issues are discussed and solved.
members need to take joy in coming up These should be quality solutions that
with a solution that works. have a positive effect on the future.
You know you are on the way to Finally, asking participants what
success when individual team members worked well and what could be
are able to see both the pros and the improved next time—in terms of how
cons of a proposed solution. That is, the meeting was conducted—can help
An individual is beginning to
when a participant can point out the meetings become more productive and
think like an effective good in a solution that is not his useful.
manager when he can point preferred and the shortcomings of one
that is. This, in fact, shows individuals SUMMARY
out the good in a solution
are growing and beginning to think like
that is not his preferred; and effective managers. Meetings can be a positive
the shortcomings of one that communication tool. Planning will help
Setting goals and following through a meeting accomplish more in less time.
is.
Solving problems, setting goals, and Everyone will not always agree on the
making concrete plans to follow through best way difficulties should be solved,
are the purposes of decision-making and but friendly disagreements about
problem-solving meetings. A decision is solutions can be beneficial. A meeting
worthless if no plans are made to assure will be a waste of time, however, unless
its implementation. Responsibility for concrete action plans are made to solve
follow-through can be delegated to problems. Specific dates for goal
accountable individuals. accomplishments can be set and
Throughout the meeting, participants followed up later.
need to be vigilant in recognizing action
items—those matters that call for CHAPTER 11 REFERENCES
specific steps toward a solution. These
action items generally are the most 1. Cranes, W. T. (1980). Effective Meetings
important reasons for the meetings. for Busy People: Let’s Decide It and Go
Otherwise, it is just too easy to always Home (p. 26). New York: McGraw-Hill
hope for better days, complain about Inc.
challenges, but do nothing to solve 2. Elgin, S. (1983). More on the Gentle Art
of Verbal Self Defense. Englewood
difficulties. In such cases, it would have
Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall Inc.
been better not to have had a meeting.
Participants need to be
vigilant in recognizing
action items—those
matters that call for specific
steps towards a solution.
Otherwise, it is just too
easy to always hope for
better days, complain
about challenges, but do
nothing to solve difficulties.
12
Interacting with Employees
involved. From one individual we may to get ready for the veterinarian who is
find these gestures comforting, yet coming today.” This stroking still
resent the same coming from another. validates the employee’s existence while
The need for personal validation is simultaneously acknowledging more is
great. People may prefer negative owed. A drastic change in ritual length
attention to being totally ignored. Try to or intensity, for no apparent reason, may
imagine how awkward it would be to affect a person’s self-esteem or make
meet a fellow farmer or supervisor and them wonder what is wrong with the
not greet him in any way, through either other.2
gesture or word. The opposite of a
stroke is the “cold shoulder” treatment.
A farmer was so uncomfortable when
CULTURAL BARRIERS
his otherwise excellent mechanics In 1993, I had my first opportunity
stopped talking to each other, that he to visit Russia as a representative of the
was ready to fire them both. University of California. I was there to
Before job-related information is provide some technical assistance in the
communicated, an exchange of strokes area of agricultural labor management.
normally takes place. At the same “Russians are a very polite people,” I
organizational level either person can had been tutored before my arrival. One
initiate or terminate a stroking exchange. of my interpreters, once I was there,
In contrast, most workers understand it explained that a gentleman will pour the
is the supervisor who often controls the limonad (type of juice) for the ladies
length of exchange. and show other courtesies.
Even so, workers expect some sort of Toward the end of my three week
greeting from their supervisor. For trip I was invited by my young Russian
example, a manager began to give orders host and friend Nicolai Vasilevich and
to a foreman but after his long his lovely wife Yulya out to dinner. At
explanation, the foreman simply the end of a wonderful meal Yulya asked
responded, “¡Buenos días (good if I would like a banana. I politely
morning)!” In essence, the worker was declined and thanked her, and explained
saying, “You forgot the ritual: I am not I was most satisfied with the meal. But
your horse, nor your tractor; I am a the whole while my mind was racing:
person.” “What do I do? Do I offer her a banana
Some strokes may be quite neutral or even though they are as close to her as
uncommitted, such as “I see.” Others they are to me? What is the polite thing
show more care or interest: “I heard to do?”
your daughter is getting married, that’s “Would you like a banana?” I asked
exciting!” Body language and tone of Yulya.
voice also play an important role in the “Yes,” she smiled, but made no
intensity of stroke exchanges. Generally, attempt to take any of the three bananas
when individuals know each other well, in the fruit basket. “What now?” I
have not seen each other for a while, or thought.
when there has been a catastrophe or “Which one would you like?” I
other special circumstances, a more fumbled.
forceful stroke is expected. “That one,” she pointed at one of the
At times, the intensity of a stroke bananas. So all the while thinking about
may make up for its brevity. For Russian politeness I picked the banana
instance, a herd manager may realize Yulya had pointed at and peeled it half
special circumstances call for a longer way and handed it to her. Smiles in
stroke exchange, yet he may not be able Yulya and Nicolai’s faces told me I had
to deliver at the moment. The herd done the right thing. After this
manager may enthusiastically welcome experience I spent much time letting the
the employee returning from a vacation, world know that in Russia, the polite
“Hey, I’m so glad you’re back, you’ll thing is to peel the bananas for the
have to tell me everything about your ladies. Sometime during my third trip I
trip at lunch! I’ve got to be running now was politely disabused of my notion.
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When one adds language barriers to Employees are very sensitive about
cultural differences, as we have said, having their weaknesses discussed in
additional challenges are posed. front of others, such as co-workers, even
Sometimes farm employers wonder if if the co-worker is acting as an
they should use an employee as an interpreter. There may be some
interpreter to train others or deal with competitive feelings among employees,
sensitive issues such as performance also, that can be exacerbated by placing
appraisal and employee discipline. It is one of them, the interpreter, in a power
Assuming you want to speak best to use an outside interpreter, unless position.
more than you want to read the employee who is bilingual also Below are suggestions (Sidebar 12-
happens to be the supervisor of the other 2) for working with interpreters when
a new language, perhaps the
employees. dealing one-on-one with another
best way is the way children The convenience and short-term individual. Some of these suggestions
learn: first by listening, then savings of using a present employee as can be adapted for working with
an interpreter are outweighed by the multiple participants. The objective is
by repeating or speaking.
negative consequences of doing so. for those holding the conversation to be
able to forget they are working through
an interpreter.
CONVERSATIONAL SKILLS
Longer speaking exchanges may take
place as required by job-related
assignments or by social interaction
(e.g., at a company picnic, during a long
cattle drive). Poor conversational skills
may hinder interpersonal as well as
working relations.
What makes a person difficult to talk
to? People are apt to be dull
conversational partners when they are
interested in only one topic, tend to be
negative, are overly competitive (that is,
anything you say they want to outdo),
talk excessively about themselves, resort
to monosyllabic answers, or talk too
much. Certainly, any of the traits above
make it difficult to carry on an
interesting conversation.
Some conversations are much more
animated than others, involving some
interruption, exchange of stories, and
experiences. “Talking and listening is a
unique relationship in which speaker
and listener are constantly switching
roles, both jockeying for position, one’s
needs competing with the other’s. If you
doubt it, try telling someone about a
problem you’re having and see how long
it takes before he interrupts to tell you
about a problem of his own, to describe
a similar experience of his own, or to
offer advice—advice that may suit him
more than it does you (and is more
responsive to his own anxiety than to
what you’re trying to say).”4 While this
I N T E R AC T I N G WITH E M P L OY E E S • 145
competition for sharing ideas and issue,” and then indicate who the turn
feelings can be invigorating at times, all will go to next,10 “Inesa, what do you
too often both parties may feel think of that?”
discounted and dissatisfied. Social conversation may include
Having an interest in what others discussion of a matter of interest to the
have to say is a key to being a good individuals involved such as talking
conversationalist. Not only having an shop, sports, health, weather, family,
interest, but showing it, by attending to recreational activities, food, travel, or
what the other individual is saying. In discussion about a mutual acquaintance
the words of Alfred Benjamin, “Genuine or experience.
listening is hard work; there is little Almost any topic can be of interest
about it that is mechanical .... We hear as long as people realize they do not
with our ears, but we listen with our have to stay on that subject forever.
eyes and mind and heart and skin and People do tire quickly of the dark clouds
guts as well.”5 In the process of of negativity, though. Often people talk
attending or empathic listening, it is not about a subject of interest to all
enough to be able to repeat back what participants. If not, there is an unspoken
another has said, but it is just as agreement, “we will talk about what
important to show such an individual interests you now, and later we will talk
that she is important enough to give her about what interests me.”
our undivided attention. To “suspend our
own needs”6 for a moment, while we VALUING EMPLOYEES
truly absorb what the other person is
telling us. In Chapter 9 we said supervisors and
An effective conversationalist is also employees place a value on each other’s
able to take and pass along talking inputs (or “contributions,” such as a
turns.7 Keeping comments short and person’s job, education, skills, or
checking to make sure the other person efforts). We also said the best way of
is still interested are two essential preserving the value of our own inputs is
conversational skills. In a mutually by valuing the inputs of others.
productive discussion, individuals will A farm manager may be considered
normally share equally in speaking and charismatic by most, hold a position of
listening. leadership, represent the establishment,
Difficulty arises when people take and be highly skilled and knowledgeable
more than their share of the talking in agriculture: those are her inputs. Even
time. This may happen when individuals though she may not spend much time
feel others are not listening or when with the workers, what time she does
they suffer from lack of self-esteem.8 If spend is greatly valued by them. The
they let someone else speak, they fear value placed on a person’s time is a
they may not get another turn. Of good proxy for power, and this helps
course, there are also times when people explain why quality time spent with
have a need to be listened to, rather than employees by the supervisor, manager,
for conversation. or farmer is so meaningful to
Whatever the reason, regularly employees.
monopolizing a conversation is likely to Careful selection, training, and
alienate others. To combat this vicious appraisal of employees are ways for
cycle, it is more effective to fully listen management to show it values its human
for a few minutes than to half listen for resources. So is paying good wages,
a longer period.9 providing safe and sanitary working
At the opposite extreme, it also conditions, and communicating
reflects negatively on a person when she company policies. Equally critical are
is given a turn to speak but pouts or factors affecting interpersonal relations
refuses it. A person who has nothing to such as involving workers in decision
say or is not sure she can express her making, effective communication styles,
feelings at the moment, can instead say listening to employees, and avoiding
something like, “That is an interesting one-way communication.
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about the loss of your father,” for at his formal education as an asset. A
Having an interest in what
instance, is better than “I’m sorry about second supervisor may view his
your loss.” It is preferable to do seniority, or having worked up through others have to say is a key to
something concrete for someone than the company, as his asset. Neither may being a good conversation-
just offering to help. At the very initial value the other’s assets. Both may fight
alist. Equally important is to
stages of grieving, when it is hard to for resources on the basis of their
know what to say, sometimes a hug says perceived contributions. Instead, both show, through body
it all. would be better off by acknowledging language, close attention to
Another way to value employees each other’s strengths.
what the other individual is
(besides treating them as human beings Reducing another’s value may also
with needs, desires, aspirations, come from a misunderstanding of saying.
heartaches, and successes) is to find cultural values. A Mexican cowboy in a
ways of putting aside traditional sets of cattle ranch cooked up a special native
inputs or contributions (such as meal and took it to the American ranch
positions of organizational power). You foreman. Unfortunately, the foreman did
may want to take advantage of the not accept the gift. The worker was
opportunity to participate next time acknowledging the value of the ranch
workers invite you to join them in a foreman’s organizational position and,
soccer game, or challenge you to a race perhaps, his membership in the
on foot or horseback, or to a game of predominant racial group. The feelings
chess. In these instances traditional of the Mexican cowboy were hurt. Now
assets related to societal position may he has little loyalty for the foreman and
lose importance. is less concerned with being helpful.
as who offers help cheerfully and where you could not concentrate on
without condescension. Asking for help work?
includes possible disclosure of sensitive There are plenty of personal
personal matters. difficulties, as well as events in the
There is an additional cost when community and elsewhere, that may act
competitive behaviors are involved. as distracters. These may trouble
Competitive conduct seeks to establish workers and affect their ability to
predominance in a given field and many perform on a given day. Some workers
see asking for help as a sign of may not have anyone to turn to outside
weakness, or as a way of recognizing of work. Many people lack social
the other person’s superiority. networks of family and friends with
Those who are asked for help also whom to share difficulties. Trends show
weigh the advantages and disadvantages the numbers of divorced and single-
of fully helping, offering a brief parent families are increasing.
suggestion or two, or withholding help. Accepting an occasional request for
Rewards an expert may gain from a sympathetic, listening ear, or for
helping include increased self-esteem advice, is simply part of a supervisor’s
and a good feeling from being of job. A supervisor who can help workers
service. Costs may include time and cope with their difficulties may deflect
encouraging overly dependent behavior. industrial accidents or serious errors.
Experts with poor self-esteem may fear The sooner workers cope with their
they may reduce the knowledge gap problems, the sooner they can
Depending on individual and
between themselves and the person concentrate on their jobs. This is not a
being helped. suggestion to set up a counseling
cultural differences a number Those who ask for help often rotate practice, nor should supervisors
of rites of passage requests among several people. The routinely snoop into the personal lives of
observances, such as
degree of reward experienced by experts workers.
normally decreases with each Some difficulties may be quite
birthdays, quinceañeras subsequent helping episode—unless serious, such as feelings of employee
(15th birthday and coming of these are sufficiently well spaced13 or depression or family related challenges.
age celebration for young
there is a mentor relationship. Workers may also turn to their
supervisor for help in dealing with an
women), weddings and alcohol or chemical dependency. Sudden
EMPLOYEE NEEDS performance deterioration or unusual
funerals can be quite
significant to employees. A few workers seldom ask for help, behavior may also demand attention. At
unwilling to admit they do not know other times, performance may worsen
how to approach a work challenge. Even over a long period of time. A supervisor
though it is not their intention to do so, may inquire about the drop in
these employees sometimes ruin performance, but it is up to the
equipment, animals, or crops through employee to choose to talk about
their attempts at self-sufficiency. Other personal problems. Although supervisors
workers often exasperate their supervi- may not have the background to be able
sors by their apparent lack of confi- to fully help in many of these situations,
dence. They need to be constantly re- much good can be done by someone
assured that what they are doing is right. who is willing to listen. A referral to a
Often supervisors feel uncomfortable professional counselor may be required.
about even listening to an employee’s Yet supervisors, especially at the farm,
personal difficulties. In one agricultural do wear some interesting hats—
packing company, a first-line supervisor everything from delivering children to
adamantly felt workers should keep their providing psychological first aid. If
home-related problems at home, and performance does not improve,
work-related challenges at work. As supervisors may need to resort to the
ideal as it sounds, this goal may be disciplinary process (Chapter 14).
difficult to attain. Have you ever been so Supervisors vary in their approaches
devastated by a personal challenge or by to answering requests for advice or help.
a tragedy that it left you numb? One Some prefer to have employees take as
I N T E R AC T I N G WITH E M P L OY E E S • 149
S IDEBAR 12-3
time limit to be over their grief, “Odd
Helping Employees Deal With
you haven’t got over it yet; it’s been six
Grief11
months.” Or, “Go see a movie. Take
your mind off yourself.” Co-workers
A study was conducted in an
and supervisors need to be sensitive to
attempt to find answers to difficult
the emotional needs of the survivor. A
questions surrounding how we treat the
person who lost a child was told, “You
death of an employee’s family member.
can have another child.” She wrote in
For the most part, employees did find
response, “I could have ten more but
support in the workplace. People
there will only ever be one Jonni.” I
attended funerals, provided food, sent
suspect that those employees who were
flowers or cards, offered time off and a
allowed to fully grieve were more
good listening ear, reduced workloads,
likely to return to work sooner and
and helped in many other ways.
concentrate better than those who
Support tended to wane, however, after
lacked support.
the initial mourning period. Employees
Those who are grieving, when
who found little support in the
ready, may want to talk to you about
workplace were deeply hurt, even
the loved person rather than be
several years later. In a number of
sheltered from the pain. One person
instances, the lack of backing ended up
wrote, “Virtually nobody initiates
with the employee quitting or being
conversation about our daughter... I
fired. Some had difficulty concentrating
think they just don’t want us to hurt,
or needed more time off. “[Those I
but by doing that, we’re being robbed
worked with] let me grieve for about
of the only thing we have tangible, and
two weeks, and then I was expected to
that’s to talk about memories of her.”
give 100 percent and act like nothing
Finally, employees going through
happened ... I resigned my position
divorce12 or other personal challenges
three months later.”
also need to feel care and
Some felt they had been given a
understanding at work.
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how to properly mix it, and how to Often, people appear to be asking for
calibrate the nozzles for spraying. The help but only want someone to listen.
supervisor might answer these questions They may even tell the person who tries
and provide other useful advice. An to help to be quiet and listen. Likewise,
important part of the process is employees may be more interested in
ascertaining how much the person impressing you with the impossibility of
knows before starting to give advice. It solving the problem than in finding a
often happens that people asking for solution. Such a person may respond
help may have already given the matter with a “Yes, but,” to every suggestion
much thought. you make, as if to say, “I dare you to
Supervisors may hold very definite find a solution to this problem.”16 If you
opinions. At times they may be sure of sense this trap, it is a good indicator that
what approach they would take while you may be trying to answer as an
realizing others may benefit from a expert when a listener is needed instead.
different approach. Counselors should
not suggest their clients violate their Listener approach
own principles or beliefs. Nor should
The listener approach is one where
advisors be expected to be amoral.
the supervisor is more focused on
Sometimes, as a helper, supervisors may
attending to the needs and feelings of
find alternative solutions reprehensible
the employee than in trying to solve a
or unethical. Supervisors will want to let
problem. Most often, it is about
employees know when this is the case.
celebrating one person’s success or
The employee can then choose to seek
sharing in another’s sadness. If the
help from someone else if he so desires.
situation does involve a challenge that
Often, however, people will seek a
needs solving, the supervisor should
supervisor’s opinion because they
realize that the challenge is owned by
respect her values.
the employee. The rule of thumb here is
Supervisors who are asked for advice
that relationship issues, as well as
in the workplace have the advantage of
challenges that have existed for a long
knowing more about the situation—
time, may require a listening approach.
compared to outsiders. This can also be
The listening or counseling approach
an obstacle. Someone who is too close
can be frustrating to the employee who
to the situation may already be part of
wants an expert. In the listener
the problem, have preconceived ideas, or
approach, the assumption is that the
may have trouble listening carefully.
solution lies within the person with the
The expert method does not always
problem—this may not be the case.
work well. It can be frustrating to the
We spoke earlier about empathic
employee who has “her problems
listening, which requires that we
solved” in a manner incompatible with
suspend our own needs and
her philosophy or style. Diagnostic
preoccupations for a moment, while we
skills vary, and experts may also fail to
truly absorb what the other person is
properly detect “where it hurts.” As we
telling us. Empathic skills are critical to
have alluded to earlier, the expert
the listener. There are no shortcuts here.
approach may contribute to over-
People can tell when they have been put
dependence on the advice giver.
off.
Increasingly, people want multiple
There are those who assure us that
expert opinions and do not want to rely
they can listen and do something else at
on a single outlook. Supervisors who are
the same time, such as work on the
asked for advice should not be so
computer, read a newspaper, train a
invested in their own recommendations
horse, or attend to other business. While
that they take offense when these are not
it is true that some individuals are better
followed. Those who seek advice would
at multi-tasking than others,
do well to explain that they are seeking
nevertheless, the message that is given
guidance from several people and will
to the speaker is discomforting: “You
make a decision after weighing the
are not important enough at this moment
different options.
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S IDEBAR 12-4
irritated when problems did not get
Your Monkeys15
resolved as quickly as they wished.
One weekend while at work taking care
One clever analogy compares
of their monkeys, she saw four very
problems to monkeys. Everyone carries
familiar faces playing soccer. After
a few on their back. One day four
some serious thinking she devised
employees came to see the farm
ground rules for employees: “At no
manager who agreed to look into each
time will your problem become my
of their difficulties. The employees left
problem,” she told them. While she
each of their monkeys in the manager’s
agreed to discuss the challenges that
care. A manager who in one day
employees faced, she was less quick to
accumulated four monkeys must, over
take the monkeys off their backs. Since
time, have a jungle’s worth of them.
then, she learned the important
The manager had less time for her
difference between listening to
family and was not really helping the
employees and agreeing to take their
workers either. Employees were
monkeys.
for me to attend exclusively to your was the conference interpreter and was
needs.” in a position to observe the audience.
There is yet another way we discount One older man told his sad story, and
the needs of others. And that is by the speaker used his line at the right
sharing our own story of loss, moment, it seemed. The participant
disappointment, or of success, before the leaned back and stopped talking. I could
individual has had the opportunity to be see in his eyes and body posture that he
heard in his story. We may feel that had felt empathy from the therapist. The
sharing our own story is proof that we man had been touched and now felt
are listening, but instead, the other understood. I was impressed. It seemed
person feels we have stolen the show.17 to me, however, that with each
This is not to say that there is no room subsequent use of “I can see you are
to share our story with others, but rather, hurting,” the catchy phrase became
to make sure that they have actually increasingly artificial. Fewer people
finished sharing theirs first. We were convinced of its sincerity and the
encourage others by empathic listening, line soon meant “be quiet, I want to
by showing the person with body move on.” If we do not have time to
language, or by a “hmm,” “go on,” or listen at the moment, it is better to say
“tell me more,” that we are still listening so.
and interested. Often people begin with the intention
When a person is not listening we of listening, but get derailed along the
can often see it in his body language: way, but not necessarily because they do
“The automatic smile, the hit-and-run not have time. There is a natural but
question, the restless look in their eyes unfortunate tendency to switch from a
when we start to talk.”18 Some advice listening to a directive approach in the
givers may come across as experts even course of a counseling session. The
though they have used no direct listener may want closure, or forget that
statements. For example, they may use individuals tend to have their own
questions such as, “Don’t you think ...?” problem-solving styles. People often say
or, “Have you tried ...?” Advice givers things like, “If I were in your position, I
will want to avoid being direct while would have ....” Maybe so. Perhaps we
trying to come across as an open- would have solved the problem had we
minded listener. been in her place. Different personality
I observed a speaker, a therapist by types may approach specific challenges
training, who freely used the line, “I can in predictable ways, with likewise
see you are hurting,” with those who foreseeable results. For instance, some
were asking questions at a conference. I people would not dream of complaining
I N T E R AC T I N G WITH E M P L OY E E S • 153
S IDEBAR 12-5
are expecting an important call, you
Let the Phone Ring!
may want to let the worker know right
away: “I can’t talk very long right now,
The next time a worker comes in to
I’m expecting a call.” This can be
talk to you give him your full attention
followed by an offer to reschedule the
if you can or reschedule a meeting for a
visit for a more appropriate time. If the
time you can. Show the employee you
employee decides to speak to you now,
are concerned about his time, too. Turn
he knows the importance of being brief
off your cellular phone if you are in the
and the risk of interruption. Of course,
field, and if you are in the office, ask
there are exceptions, but letting the
your secretary to take messages rather
phone ring often makes good sense. If
than allow interruptions. If the
you are always too busy for employees,
telephone rings, well, let it ring! If you
something else may be wrong.
his advice?” “What are you trying to with the difficulty in an attempt to come
accomplish?” “What will happen if you up with multiple and creative solutions.
take a month before acting?” “Have you Each solution’s positive and negative
ever told him you felt this way?” “What contributions are only examined after
are you planning to do if that does not brainstorming. It is best if the person
work?” “How is this challenge affecting who owns the challenge offers the most
you?” brainstorming ideas. At the onset, none
The listener approach is one
After listening for a while, if you are of these ideas are either defended or
looking for a positive closure, an criticized. Then, the supervisor asks the
where the supervisor is more effective question to ask the employee worker to evaluate each alternative by
focused on attending to the is, “So, what do you plan to do now?” listing its pros and cons. Perhaps a
needs and feelings of the
This question allows the employee to solution that is a combination of
have the last word, summarize what he strategies will be chosen. The supervisor
employee, than in trying to is feeling, and take back ownership of may help in this process, but at the end
solve a problem. Often the challenge. This is especially the worker is left to weigh the various
people begin with the
important if we have fallen into the easy solutions himself Although it takes more
trap of giving unwanted advice and thus tact and skill, an excellent helper
intention of listening, but get stolen the problem from the employee. encourages people to go past simply
derailed along the way, but If, as a listener, you have more time speaking about their difficulties, to
not necessarily because they
and feel comfortable with the helping making specific plans to reduce or
process, you may take the process eliminate them.
do not have time. further by brainstorming with the person Those we are attempting to help may
have developed blind spots. Blind spots
prevent us from seeing our own faults.
For instance, we do not always see how
our actions may be contributing to our
difficulties. As long as blind spots exist,
we tend to blame everyone but ourselves
for our predicaments. Not everyone can
challenge these blind spots. A helper
must earn the right to do so,21 by
showing empathy and true concern. Nor
can the challenge appear judgmental.
A final point is the need for strict
confidentiality. There may be a few
exceptions where information may need
to be shared with other individuals on a
need-to-know basis. Specifics often need
not be mentioned. Permission may be
I N T E R AC T I N G WITH E M P L OY E E S • 155
solicited from the affected worker if active listening approach would be more
appropriate. A supervisor may also want effective. A good listener helps by
to seek advice from a qualified letting people get problems off their
professional on how to handle sensitive chest, rather than by solving specific
or troublesome topics. challenges for others.
Part of being a good listener may
require consciously fighting to keep an CHAPTER 12 REFERENCES
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she may ask herself: Am I ... Berne for a discussion on stroke
• allowing the person with the intensity, cultural differences, and
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see how our actions may be Monkey? (pp. 75-80). Harvard Business Narrative Mediation: A New Approach
Review. to Conflict Resolution (pp. 126-128).
contributing to our difficulties. 16. Hendricks, J. J. (1986, Spring). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Organizational Development and Group 20. Nichols, M. P. (1995). The Lost Art of
Dynamics course. California State Listening: How Learning to Listen Can
University, Stanislaus, and Berne, E. Improve Relationships. New York: The
(1964). Games People Play: The Guilford Press.
Psychology of Human Relationships. 21. Benjamin, A. (1974). The Helping
New York: Grove Press, Inc. Interview (2nd Edition) (p. 21). Boston:
17. Nichols, M. P. (1995). The Lost Art of Houghton Mifflin Company.
Listening: How Learning to Listen Can
Improve Relationships. New York: The
Guilford Press.
13
Conflict Management Skills
You tell me that when you get angry and lose control you may say some things you
don’t mean, and that by tomorrow you will have forgotten all about it. But the workers
tell me they hurt for a long time.
Richard Bruce, Consultant
Northern California
Beth just got turned down by Carlos, interpersonal conflict? Perhaps. The
the mechanic. She had asked Carlos to seeds of conflict are planted when
plan on working a couple of overtime disharmony is felt within any one of the
hours this coming Thursday and Friday participants. Next time Beth approaches
evenings. Beth’s nose was a bit bent out Carlos she may change her approach.
of joint. She wondered if Carlos did not She may be more abrupt, leading Carlos
yield to her because she was too kind to wonder if Beth got up on the wrong
when she asked. Or, because she was a side of the bed. Carlos may then, in
woman. Or, because Carlos was envious turn, react negatively to Beth, thus
that she got the supervisory position for escalating the conflict. Individuals
which both had competed. Carlos was sometimes encounter stress and negative
uncomfortable with the interaction, too. emotion out of an interaction—whether
If Carlos had no clue that Beth was or not they ever confront each other
upset, would this scene still constitute about their feelings.
158 • L A B O R M A N AG E M E N T I N A G R I C U LT U R E : C U LT I VAT I N G P E R S O N N E L P R O D U C T I V I T Y
potential solution can make the takes place in the pre-caucus. The more
The pre-caucus consists of a
difference between an agreement that deep-seated and emotional the conflict,
will fail or succeed. the greater this need. separate meeting between
While there are hundreds of factors At a dairy operation, I had just been the mediator and each of the
that can affect the successful resolution introduced to one of the stakeholders by
stakeholders, before the
of a conflict, the pre-caucus is one of the the farm owner. As soon as the farmer
pillars of conflict management.4 left us alone to begin our pre-caucus, the stakeholders are ever
Although any talking between the stakeholder broke into tears. A similar brought together into a joint
mediator and one of the stakeholders situation took place at a row crop farm
session. Because people,
alone can be perceived as suspect and enterprise where one of the farm
potentially influence the neutrality of the managers began to cry, ostensibly especially those who are
mediator, such fears assume a mediator- because of other issues pressing heavily involved in conflict, have
directive approach where the third party upon him. Had these men come
such a high need to be
wields much power and often acts as a immediately into a joint meeting with
quasi-arbitrator. When the mediation their respective contenders, their understood before they can
process is understood—from the feelings of vulnerability might just as focus on the needs of others,
beginning—as one where each of the easily have turned into anger and
this session is fundamental
stakeholders retains control over the defensiveness.
outcome, less importance is given to One manager told me that the pre- to an eventual positive
mediator neutrality. caucus would be very short with a outcome.
The pre-caucus provides each milker who was not a man of many
stakeholder an opportunity to be heard words. The milker spoke for almost two
and understood. One of the reasons why hours. By the time we finished, he felt
conflict situations are so challenging, is understood and had gained confidence,
the natural tendency of stakeholders to and by the time we were into the middle
each want to express their respective of the joint session with the other
perspectives first which to some degree stakeholder, this same employee was
164 • L A B O R M A N AG E M E N T I N A G R I C U LT U R E : C U LT I VAT I N G P E R S O N N E L P R O D U C T I V I T Y
even laughing when it was appropriate. I confirm hunches and reconcile facts, the
have found that these “silent types” will third party realizes that stakeholders
often open up during a pre-caucus. often bring to mediation an olive branch
When a stakeholder feels along with their anger and despair. Thus,
understood, an enormous emotional stakeholders often hold the very keys to
burden is lifted; stress and defensiveness the reconstruction of broken
are reduced. This makes people more relationships and to the solving of
confident and receptive to listen to the challenges. But the mediator has to have
other party. enough confidence in people and in the
Separating the people from the process to allow these issues to surface
conflict. Winslade and Monk in and to be on the lookout for them so
Narrative Mediation argue that while they do not go unnoticed.5
people are theoretically free in terms of During the pre-caucus, the mediator
what they say in a conversation, most notes as many issues as possible from
often stakeholders feel their responses each stakeholder (they often overlap
are influenced by the remarks of the considerably) and later introduces them
other. They often see themselves in a systematic fashion for the
entrapped within the conflict cycle. stakeholders to discuss in the joint
Winslade and Monk ask individuals session. The more issues raised, the
how they might have felt forced by the greater the opportunity for discussion
conflict to do or say things that they and the less likelihood that important
wish they had not. Or, how the conflict issues will be left out.
has affected them negatively in other
ways. By placing the blame on the Increasing and evaluating participant
As effective as mediation conflict itself, the mediator allows the interest in solving challenge through
can be, under certain stakeholders to save face and slowly mediation
distance themselves from the conflict-
circumstances more harm There seems to be a pattern in deep-
saturated story. Such a situation can help
seated organizational interpersonal
than good can result from stakeholders detach themselves from the
conflict: each stakeholder is overly
bringing parties together. conflict long enough to see that each has
distracted with the stress of the conflict,
a choice as to whether he wants to
The purpose of mediation is has difficulty sleeping at night, and is
continue feeding the conflict. The
generally thinking of quitting.
not to simply provide a safe authors further suggest that if the
Sometimes individuals may be in denial
place for stakeholders to mediator listens with an ethic of
about the negative effect that contention
curiosity, unexpected benefits are likely
exchange insults! has in their lives. One manager claimed
to arise. Instead of merely listening to
that he just got angry and exploded, but
that his anger did not last long. He
explained that he did not hold grudges,
that by the next day he had put aside any
bad feelings for the other person. During
a mediation session this same manger
admitted that a recent confrontation with
the other stakeholder had made him so
angry it left him sick for a couple of
days. Part of the role of the mediator in
meeting individually with each
stakeholder is to help individuals
visualize a life without that stress.
In the process of meeting with the
stakeholders, the mediator can make a
more informed determination as to
whether to proceed with mediation or
recommend arbitration or another
approach. As effective as mediation can
be, under certain circumstances more
C O N F L I C T M A N AG E M E N T S K I L L S • 165
harm than good can result from bringing such an individual in a pre-caucus and
parties together. The purpose of asked the second stakeholder, during his
mediation is not to simply provide a safe pre-caucus, for the positive
place for stakeholders to exchange characteristics of the first. When the
insults! answer was “none,” I shared the positive
Transformative opportunities. In The things that were said about him by the
Promise of Mediation, Bush and Folger first employee and asked again. Because
suggest that mediators watch for and stakeholders want to seem reasonable,
recognize transformative opportunities especially after hearing something
in terms of recognition that can be positive about themselves, I was
offered between participants. Such surprised by a second refusal by the
recognition may involve compliments or more reticent stakeholder to find
showing understanding, empathy, or anything of value about the other.
other forms of mutual validation.6 A “Well, if there is nothing positive
fruit grower, almost as an aside, had you can say about the other employee,
something positive to say about the there is no purpose in attempting a
other party, “One thing I really value conflict management session together,” I
about the farm manager is that he shows explained. I suggested a short break.
pride in his work—something I really When we returned, the taciturn
admired in my father.” The grower stakeholder had prepared a long list of
reacted negatively to the idea of sharing positive attributes about the other
this with the farm manager, yet decided employee.
to do so on his own during the joint Repairing past injuries.
session. Occasionally, it helps to role play to
Looking for the positive. While a identify potential pitfalls ahead of time.
number of issues can affect the likely For instance, at one farm operation, a
success of a joint mediation session, manager’s angry outbursts were well
perhaps none is as telling as asking each known. Martin, the manager, had
stakeholder what they value in the other minimized the seriousness of his
contender. This question should be problem. A co-mediator role-played the
asked after the participant has had a other party in the contention. “Martin,”
chance to vent, and the mediator has she began. “When you get angry at me,
shown understanding for the challenges shout at me and use profanity, I feel
from the stakeholder’s perspective. very badly.”
There is a human tendency not to “Well, I am so sorry I have used bad
find anything of value in a person with language with you and been angry at
whom there has been deep-seated you,” Martin began nicely. “But ....” And
contention. After a person feels then Martin began to excuse himself and
understood by the mediator, there is a to place conditions on controlling his
greater likelihood that the stakeholder anger. At this moment I had to interrupt.
will see a little light of good in his An apology with a comma or a but is
contender. not a true apology, but merely a
Without this tiny light of hope, statement of justification, I explained. In
without this little olive branch, there is total frustration Martin turned to me and
no point in proceeding. If there is said, “Look, everyone has their style.
nothing of significance that one person Some people deal with disagreement
can value about the other, more harm this way or that. I am an expert in
than good can come out of the intimidation. If I can’t use intimidation,
mediation. And it is not enough to say what can I do so I don’t get run over?
that the other person “is always on Am I supposed to just sit here and tell
time,” “drives a nice pick up,” “is him how nice he is and not bring up any
attractive,” or “does not smell.” of the areas of disagreement?”
Sometimes one of the stakeholders When mediators have done their
will be more noble than the other, a little homework during the pre-caucus, the
more prone to see good in the other. On joint session can be very positive. This
one occasion, I had already met with case involving Martin was one of the
166 • L A B O R M A N AG E M E N T I N A G R I C U LT U R E : C U LT I VAT I N G P E R S O N N E L P R O D U C T I V I T Y
statements for examples of times when circumstance and not in another. People
the other individual acted in may resort to dysfunctional tactics when
inconsiderate, overbearing, the force of their argument does not
untrustworthy or selfish ways. These stand on its own merits.
behaviors can later be discussed in the Along with labeling, threats—both
joint session. direct and veiled—can reduce a
Name-calling can have a very stakeholder’s negotiating power. When
negative effect. For instance, a Mexican these intimidation tactics are bluffs, then
dairy employee called another employee the loss of negotiation power is further
a racist. That is a pretty big word, with magnified.
very strong connotations. The other The mediator may also coach
stakeholder, a Portuguese milker, was employees into owning up to their
very hurt by the use of such a word. The feelings by using “I” statements.8 “I feel
mediator stopped the conversation to upset when you change my radio station
make sure all were defining the word in while I am milking,” is preferable to
the same way. “Are you saying that this “You make me angry when ....”
milker treats you different because you Only one person should speak at a
are Mexican and he is Portuguese?” time, while the other makes every
After the term was well explained and a possible effort to understand what is
few more questions asked, the Mexican being said. One defensive tactic is to
milker ended up apologizing, and the change the topic. While sometimes two
Portuguese employee had the topics are so closely related that they
opportunity to tell a story that illustrated cannot be separated, generally new
he was not racist. It is not the role of the topics can be placed on a “list of other
mediator to reject such an accusation matters” to be brought up later.
without allowing stakeholders to speak Workers involved in highly charged
what is in their mind. conflict situations frequently try to
Beside name-calling, the use of other ridicule their contenders by distorting or
labels can increase contention. Calling exaggerating what has been said. I call
someone by a label, even when the this distorted mirroring. For instance, an
person identifies with such (e.g., a employee may inaccurately mirror a
person’s nationality), can be offensive comment, such as: “So you are telling
depending on the tone and context. A me that you never want me to... ,” or, “I
more subtle use of labeling, one that can get it, you think you are the only one
have the same negative effect, is who ...,” “You used to be [something
describing our own perspective as positive] but now [negative statement],”
belonging to a desirable label (e.g., a “It seems that you are always ... these
particularly cherished philosophy, days.”
principle or belief), while assigning that Participants may sometimes seek
of another to an undesirable one. shelter from a true give-and-take with
Stakeholders also look for ways to such statements as, “That’s just the way
enlist even theoretical others into I am,”9 or, “Can’t you take a joke?”
supporting their views. They may While a mediator cannot force someone
attempt to inflate the importance of their out of his shell, he may help participants
opinions with such statements as, understand the detracting effects these
“everyone else agrees with me when I statements may have. The earlier the
say that ....” Or, attribute a higher source mediator disallows distortions or
of authority to their words: “According manipulative tactics, the sooner
to such and such (an author, or respected employees will realize that this is not a
person)...” A stakeholder may wish to verbal battle.
discount the opinion of others by A mediator may also need to coach
speaking of their experience: “In my employees on how to formulate
twenty years of experience ...” Once questions and comments. Participants
again, the tone and context of the need to talk without putting each other
conversation may make some of these on the defensive or coming across as
statements appropriate in one accusatory. Especially when under the
168 • L A B O R M A N AG E M E N T I N A G R I C U LT U R E : C U LT I VAT I N G P E R S O N N E L P R O D U C T I V I T Y
stress of a conflict, people will be quite exchange eye contact can be powerful
sensitive to intended and non-intended medicine toward reconciliation. A table
statements of double meaning. A critical may be appropriate in some
It is good to talk about the role for the mediator may be to ask for circumstances.
clarification or coach stakeholders in The mediator sits far enough away
past. A discussion of past
properly reflecting statements. that stakeholders would have to turn
behaviors is essential to their heads if they wished to make eye
analyze patterns of conflict Coaching participants during the contact with him. It is not easy for the
joint session. stakeholders to check if they have
and help participants find
“scored a point,” or to enlist the
The time has come to bring both
constructive ways of mediator to their side. If the
stakeholders together into a joint
handling future stakeholders make such an attempt, the
session. A mechanical aspect to
mediator reminds them that the person
disagreements. Without mediation that is extremely powerful is
they need to convince is the other party.
the seating arrangement. Have the two
understanding the past, it is The seating arrangement described
parties sit facing each other such that
hard to prepare for the above is such a powerful tool, that I
they are in a position to have good eye
have seen people apologize to each
future. At some point, contact, yet making sure there is enough
other, be more considerate, call each
space between them so their personal
however, the focus of other by name, and use many positive
space is not violated. This arrangement
discussion turns to that of behaviors even when the complete
underscores the message that they are
mediation approach outlined in this
future behaviors, rather than there to talk to each other. Because
chapter was not used. The seating
people who are in conflict often
past injuries. arrangement is another basic mediation
discount the other person, having to
pillar.
C O N F L I C T M A N AG E M E N T S K I L L S • 169
S IDEBAR 13-1
Participants brainstorm ways of
Positions vs. Needs13 in Conflict
fulfilling all the needs (in some cases
Management
solutions may not be obvious at once
and stakeholders may want to sleep on
it). For brainstorming to be effective,
Position A Position B possible solutions should not be
evaluated at the time, and even
outlandish and extreme possible
* Need A-1 * Need B-1 solutions should be entertained. Only
later, are these solutions examined for
* Need A-2 * Need B-2
the positive and negative factors that
* Need B-3 they contribute.
Participants should resist solutions
where they no longer have to interact
with each other. To avoid each other
Participants divide a paper,
takes little creativity and is seldom the
chalkboard, or wipe board into four
best solution. Instead, participants need
sections (as shown above).
to seek creative, synergetic solutions.
Participants seek to understand and
Tentative co-authored agreements
record each other’s position (i.e.,
are evaluated and refined in light of
stance).
potentially difficult obstacles that such
Participants are free to restate,
solutions may yet need to endure.
modify, or further clarify their position
Agreements—including a possible
at any time.
co-authored new position—are
Participants now seek to understand
recorded.
and record each other’s needs. Taking
Participants consent to evaluate
the time to ask effective questions of
results at pre-determined time periods.
each other (see Chapter 12) is an
Fine tune agreements as needed and
important part of reaching such
work on other challenges together.
understanding.
C O N F L I C T M A N AG E M E N T S K I L L S • 171
Stakeholders should not come to the care for anyone other than himself. As a
Each stakeholder needs to
table ready to expose or impose their tactic, setting a trap to see if someone
solution. In negotiation it is critical for will get caught, is hardly a good idea, of be vigilant in making sure
stakeholders to first focus on defining course. The more emotion involved, the that a solution will meet the
and understanding the nature of the less likely that the other stakeholder will
other person’s needs, as well
challenge. It is often when stakeholders step back. Another manipulative
are not able to move past their positions approach is for a stakeholder to “give as his own. It is a mistake,
or stances that negotiations break down. in” just to be able to hold it against the for instance, to be quick to
Also, stakeholders want to feel that they other later on.
accept the defeat from
have some control over the decision- Negotiation will not be satisfactory
making process. This is hard to do when when a person is more intent in: another individual who yields
decisions are made by others before the • punishing another rather than his wishes to ours.
problems are fully explored (Chapter coming to an agreement or
18). modifying future behavior
Each stakeholder needs to be vigilant • winning rather than solving the
that a solution will meet the other challenge
person’s needs, as well as their own. Sometimes negotiation is attempted
Stakeholders need to remember, that for but people’s basic needs are
the most part, the only good solutions incompatible. This may be especially so
are those that will work for all the when no distinction can be made
individuals involved. between a person’s need and her
Furthermore, sometimes people will position.
yield to another as a test. These When negotiation has failed—for
individuals want to see if the other whatever reasons—a clear need for
stakeholder has the minimum amount of resolving the dispute through arbitration
172 • L A B O R M A N AG E M E N T I N A G R I C U LT U R E : C U LT I VAT I N G P E R S O N N E L P R O D U C T I V I T Y
may develop. Bush and Folger suggest, parties listen and communicate with
however, that if a door is left open for each other. She may also need to draw
continued conversation, and if individual out an employee who is having
empowerment and mutual recognition difficulty expressing himself.
have taken place, then mediation was A stance from either party indicating
not a failure. Much more of a failure, a lack of interest in (1) talking about the
The supervisor as an arbiter they argue, is for a mediator to be so problem, or (2) the other person’s needs,
focused on having stakeholders come to would indicate unwillingness to be
may listen to complaints but, an agreement that the agreement is involved in the negotiation process.
at the end, will make a forced, reducing the chances that it will Mediators can suggest that the joint
judgment that the be long lasting.14 session take place in a location that is
neutral and private—without telephone
employees are expected to Equalizing power or any other sort of interruptions.
follow. It helps for a
Participants may bring different
Helping participants plan for future
supervisor to be slow in amounts of power into a situation. As
interaction
taking on the role of an long as both are interested in negotiating
a solution, power is essentially It is easier for employees to improve
arbiter.
equalized. The effective mediator helps communication when aided by a
competent mediator. Part of the
responsibility of the mediator is to help
employees anticipate some of the
challenges they will face in the future.
One difficulty is to take the time to
listen and communicate. Principal
among the needed skills, is for sensitive
listening. It is difficult to always be on
the alert for such sensitive listening and
interaction as has been discussed
throughout this and the last chapter.
It sometimes takes years for
employees to get into a pattern of
negative interaction. It is unlikely that
one session will cure this no matter how
outstanding the mediator or the
participants involved. One or more
follow-up sessions with the mediator
may help participants refine skills and
evaluate progress made.
ARBITRATION
The supervisor as an arbiter may
listen to complaints but, at the end, will
make a judgment that the employees are
expected to follow. It may be clear from
the outset that employees expect the
supervisor to take the role of an arbiter.
Or, it may become increasingly evident
as mediation is taking place, that an
arbiter will be needed. The supervisor
needs to clearly communicate his role. If
the role changes, workers need to
understand that, too.
Because it is normally preferable for
all parties involved to have a conflict
C O N F L I C T M A N AG E M E N T S K I L L S • 173
solved at the mediation rather than It takes little skill, and even less
arbitration stage, it helps for a strength of character, to arbitrate in this
supervisor to be slow in taking on the manner. Instead, a supervisor who
role of an arbiter, especially when these arbitrates with fairness is more apt to be
two individuals will have to continue to respected by employees in the long run.
work together. During the process of After difficulties are worked out,
listening to the various perspectives, and employees often find that their
before making a decision, an arbiter relationships have been strengthened.
may wish to offer employees the
opportunity to work out their own SUMMARY
problem, or to work out difficulties
through mediation. Wherever there are choices to be
At times, a judge and a judgment are made, differences may provide
needed. Supervisors who have to challenges or opportunities. One
arbitrate should avoid trying to make difficulty is the possibility that
both parties happy with the decision. differences will result in increased
Most of the time it is simply not contention. Supervisors may have to act
possible. It may be an admirable goal as mediators and arbitrators from time to
for mediation, but not for arbitration. time. The advantage of mediation is
Instead, the arbitrator is required to be maintaining responsibility for problem
impartial (there is no room for solving and conflict resolution at the
favoritism) and fair (even if this seems level of those who own the challenge.
one sided). Selecting an outside mediator often
The well-loved story of wise makes sense.
Solomon of old is an early example of Several roles taken on by the
arbitration: Two harlots had given birth. mediator include understanding each
Some time after that, one of the women, participant’s perspective; setting ground
while she was sleeping, rolled over her rules for improved communication;
child and suffocated him. When she coaching participants on effective
woke up that night and found the dead interaction styles; equalizing power; and
infant, she traded him for that of the helping participants plan for future
other. When the second woman woke interaction.
up, she found the dead child by her. But When the supervisor acts in the role
when morning came, she could clearly of an arbitrator, it is more important to
behold that this was not her child. Each make a fair judgment than to try to
woman claimed to be the true mother of please all workers involved.
the baby that was still alive, and took
their conflict before King Solomon. The
king simply asked for a sword, and then CHAPTER 13 REFERENCES
ordered: “Divide the living child in two,
1. Covey, S. (1989). Seven Habits of Highly
and give half to the one, and half to the
Effective People. New York: Simon &
other.” While the false mother thought Schuster.
this was a fine idea, the true mother 2. Fisher, R., Ury, W., and Patton, B. (1991).
asked the king to save the child—even if Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement
this meant giving the infant to the other Without Giving In (2nd ed.). Penguin
woman. Solomon thus determined who Books, and Deetz, S. A., and Stevenson,
the real mother was, and returned the S. L. (1986). Managing Interpersonal
child to her.15 Unfortunately, Solomon’s Communication. New York: Harper &
Row Publishers.
pretended initial solution to the
3. Rackham, N. (1999). The Behavior of
contending mothers (to divide the baby Successful Negotiators (3rd ed.) (p.
in half) is often carried out by 348). Negotiation: Readings, Exercises,
supervisors in their modern day and Cases. Edited by Lewicki, Saunders
arbitrator role. In their effort to try and and Minton. Boston: Irwin/McGraw-
please both workers, they create a Hill.
compromise that is often unfair, and 4. Billikopf, G. E. (Spring 2002).
frequently unworkable. Contributions of Caucusing and Pre-
174 • L A B O R M A N AG E M E N T I N A G R I C U LT U R E : C U LT I VAT I N G P E R S O N N E L P R O D U C T I V I T Y
The employee must have been very bored. He took the ear notcher and notched our
family dog’s ears. I fired the worker. Moments later the herd manager asked me to let
the worker stay until the end of the day. Not long after that, my son argued the worker
was too valuable to let go. My decision was thus reversed and the employee stayed.
A great deal has been said in As a first step, a supervisor will want
previous chapters about cultivating to honestly consider if his own behavior
superior worker performance. A is causing problems. When an employee
systematic employee selection process has a supportive supervisor, he has the
can do much to help us hire effective potential to stretch far, to feel greatly
employees who are capable of doing an valued, and to continually grow on the
outstanding job. Likewise, regular job, making this a positive reinforcing
performance appraisal meetings, open cycle.
communications, well designed pay Unfortunately, the opposite can be
systems and good supervision all just as true. The first instinct of most
contribute to promoting good work. But supervisors is to “tighten the reins” and
at times, workers simply do not seem to increase control over those who are
meet expectations. perceived as having failed to meet their
176 • L A B O R M A N AG E M E N T I N A G R I C U LT U R E : C U LT I VAT I N G P E R S O N N E L P R O D U C T I V I T Y
discarding the new in-line filters while destroying employee trust and prevent
trying to give the appearance that he was the supervisor from looking foolish in
changing them on a regular basis) or the eyes of employees. Permitting the
threats of workplace violence. In the employee to speak first also helps
model each of these infractions would reduce tension and emotions.
call for a different response. Minor If emotions are running high, it may
violations would begin with an informal be necessary to set up a later time to
discussion. Moderate and serious meet. It may be better to delegate the
violations would receive more serious interview to another member of
consequences, such as a written warning management who can keep calm,
or suspension. however, than to postpone it. If too
When any infraction is repeated, the much time goes by after the incident,
severity of the reprimand can the facts of the case may change in
progressively increase until a repeat everyone’s mind.
offender is eventually terminated. I The purpose of the investigation is,
prefer to adapt the model, however, so in part, to determine if there were any
no specific infraction—no matter how mitigating circumstances that could
hideous—will result in immediate reduce, but not necessarily eliminate,
termination before an investigative disciplinary action. Could the
suspension takes place (see section on employee’s action have some
corrective action). justification? Take a farmer who adheres
to the correct process when a worker
Conduct a fair investigation repeatedly comes to work late.
Explanations are followed by oral and
Listen to the accused employee’s
written warnings and, eventually, by
story first. A preliminary interview
suspension. The employee understands
should be conducted with the employee
the next time he comes late he will be
before assigning penalties—from the
terminated. An interview with the
least to the most serious infractions.
worker could show that this time the
This interview may be part of a more in-
employee was justified in being tardy, as
depth investigation. It is not uncommon
he stopped to provide first aid to
to see a supervisor begin to lecture, nag,
children in an overturned school bus.
accuse, or scold an employee first, and
In the initial interview with the
then, almost as an afterthought, ask for
subordinate, the supervisor’s objective is
the employee’s perspective. By then, the
to try to see things from the worker’s
damage has been done. The employee
perspective. Privacy, and a respectful,
may have had a very good reason for her
professional climate are essential. The
behavior. While some supervisors may
supervisor can control the environment
now apologize (which, while nice, will
by asking the worker to meet in either
not totally remove bad feelings nor
more neutral territory (e.g., walk out
prevent the erosion of trust and good
into the orchard) or in the supervisor’s
morale), others are just as likely to
territory (e.g., at the supervisor’s
continue to chastise the worker in an
pickup).
effort not to lose face before her.
The call for privacy needs to be
A supervisor who truly gives the
balanced with the requirement to protect
accused worker an opportunity to
the supervisor’s safety and reputation.
explain first, will often find that there is
For instance, when as a supervisor you
no need for discipline. The worker never
seek privacy in a situation that involves
has to know, indeed, some of the
someone of the opposite sex, it is not a
possibly unkind or judgmental thoughts
bad idea to move away enough from
and concerns passing through the
other workers so that they cannot hear
supervisor’s mind. Permitting employees
the conversation, yet not so far away
to explain their perspective first is the
that they cannot see both of you. Good
most important principle in employee
judgment will necessitate asking a
discipline, and more than any other, one
second person to be present under some
that will save the supervisor from
circumstances.
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facts being investigated. With just a little offering, even if it is not accepted, helps
effort, this could have been avoided. For the person who has been victimized to
instance, one member of management feel a return of some degree of control
could have stayed with the first milker over her life.
until the interview with the second had “I have been the victim of sexual
begun. harassment,” explains Rebecca Lopez, a
Peter Mlynek suggests investigators training manager. “Had an attempt to
are sometimes in too much of a rush to mediate been made in the very
focus on the mechanics of investigation, beginning—at the first sign of trouble—
such as documentation, to do what is I think that there may have been a Unlike a regular suspension,
really important—focusing on listening chance that it could have worked and the the purpose of a cooling-off
and caring. Mlynek argues that where department could have been salvaged. or investigative suspension is
minor cases have not gotten out of hand, Many women do not like that I did not
all individuals should be helped to save want the guy to have to “pay” for what to prepare for a possible
face. Peter Mlynek’s approach to he did. My personal opinion is that we termination rather than to
problem solving is one that puts people as a society have become way too give the employee yet
above procedures (Sidebar 14-1), which willing to let the legal system handle
is something we need to do much more things that we can sometimes handle on another chance to improve.
frequently. All too often there is very our own. All I wanted was for it to stop, During this suspension time,
little humanity in human resource (HR) and I think, at least on my behalf, you can conduct needed
departments and the attorneys they successful mediation would have done
follow-up interviews and
employ. In an effort to protect the the trick.”18
employer, HR is too quick to resort to “Dependent upon the length of time, touch bases with your
discipline, rules and decrees. Instead, a the severity of the harassment and what attorney and labor
lot of listening and a little talking often the complainant wants as resolution,
does more good. management specialist.
mediation will work,” says Howie
If one reads Mlynek’s suggestions
literally, it might seem that employers
should not bother documenting
disciplinary issues. I suspect that this is
not what he intended. Documenting
does not have to be mutually exclusive
to caring and showing empathy. Most
individuals expect us to take notes on
what they are saying. Not taking notes
may actually come across as if we are
dismissing an individual’s concerns. And
yes, we may well need those notes down
the road.
When we can listen with empathy,
the documentation process will fall into
place naturally. If we come across as
only trying to protect the organization
from a future lawsuit, but do not care for
the people involved, we are likely to fail
at all levels.
Should mediation be offered in cases
of sexual or racial harassment? This is
another challenging question. Most
people would probably say it is not such
a good idea to have the accuser and
victim meet face-to-face. Why submit a
victim of harassment to feel doubly
victimized? Yet, there may be situations
where such a meeting would be
mutually beneficial. The very act of
184 • L A B O R M A N AG E M E N T I N A G R I C U LT U R E : C U LT I VAT I N G P E R S O N N E L P R O D U C T I V I T Y
Wright. “I had great success in mediat- offending employee. If the nature of the
ing complaints that had not traumatized harassment was serious enough, and if
the complainant. If the complainant the organizational options are limited
agrees with mediation that was always (such that both individuals would be
my first choice. I would coach the forced into frequent interaction), I would
complainant on what to say (e.g. how strongly weigh the victim’s desires in
they felt when the incident(s) occurred), this case. In a case of similar magnitude,
what they are looking for (e.g., probably but in an organization with multiple
wanting the behavior to stop). We would locations, serious consideration to
frequently role play so the individual transferring the perpetrator along with
would gain a comfort level. an appropriate disciplinary response
“I would also coach the accused and (e.g., suspension, written notice) may be
conduct a role play so that they would a better option. Certainly, vengeance
have some idea of what was going to should not play a role.
take place,” Wright explained. “At this My inclination would be to offer the
point I would bring the two parties opportunity for mediation before making
together. I would sometimes start the a disciplinary disposition regarding the
discussion but usually the complainant guilty party(ies). Obviously, early
would lead off the conversation. I have intervention is the key, in terms of
found that the accused did not always preventive workshops and catching
realize that what had happened was problems before they fester.
upsetting to the complainant. If I
believed that was true I would coach Balance consistency and flexibility
them to say that to the complainant.
A disciplinary program seeks to treat
Helping someone gain the courage to
workers in a consistent manner. Few in-
have a face-to-face discussion is very
fractions are exactly the same, however.
rewarding for all involved as it usually
Factors to consider include the severity
always reduces the tensions and brings
of the incident, the employee’s attitude
back more control to the complainant.”19 and his previous history, and mitigating
At times, sexual or racial harassment circumstances. An excessive number of
can be complicated and not so straight exceptions, though, can diminish efforts
forward, as in the case we already to achieve fairness and improve morale.
mentioned where the victim had been Exceptions should be clearly defensible.
unknowingly flirting with the harasser. Once again, it helps to make rules with
Furthermore, intercultural issues the best employee in mind.
complicated the situation. It is possible, If you find yourself having to
then, that there is more to the mediation apologize for applying a rule, the rule
process than a one-way apology. should not be applied in this instance. A
Mediation could potentially be very few years ago I learned this lesson the
therapeutic for all the individuals hard way. I was refereeing a soccer
involved, if handled properly. I would match between two young women’s
add a caution, however. Do not place the teams. There was a new FIFA rule
burden on the harassment victim to requiring the expulsion (red card) of a
decide what the organizational response player who fouled another when the
should be to the perpetrator, if found fouled player had a clear chance at
guilty. In one case the victim may scoring a goal. One girl tripped another,
simply desire an apology and a stop to more out of clumsiness than meanness.
the negative behavior. While the Instead of awarding a direct kick to the
perpetrator may be given the opportunity opposite team or giving the offending
to apologize, the organization may take player a yellow card (which would have
additional steps such as a written been the appropriate consequence under
warning, suspension, or even employee the circumstances), I found myself
termination if the situation was serious apologizing to the young woman while I
enough. gave her a red card. I felt so bad about it
In a different case, the victim may that I later asked her back into the game
strongly call for termination of the
D I S C I P L I N E • 185
(no rule in soccer allows for such a One of the most valuable lessons I
thing, however, and I took deserved have learned in this respect is to trust
flack for my poor refereeing). my feelings. If I feel uncomfortable
Consistency of application may be jumping in to point out a fault, or
improved when supervisors discuss discipline an employee, it is for a
among each other critical incidents reason. It is critical to communicate and
representing worker misconduct. When connect with the employee as a person
possible, incidents should be modified to before talking about behaviors that need
preserve the anonymity of those correcting. If we skip this step now, we
involved. Incidents may be presented to are likely to pay the price later in terms
supervisors who can discuss possible of increased stress and reduced
ways of handling them. After evaluation, interpersonal effectiveness and trust.
rules may need to be added, clarified, Clear communication that leaves
changed or dropped. little room for misunderstanding is vital,
and even more so when dealing with a
Use corrective—not punitive—action faltering worker. People can, and
regularly do, give wholly different
After the investigation, if the incident
meanings to vague statements. At one
is worth documenting, it is serious
ranch, an employee told her co-workers
enough to take official disciplinary
she had no idea why she had been
action. A consequence must be
terminated, despite an earlier two page
formulated keeping in mind the purpose
letter from management detailing her
of the disciplinary process. To obtain
poor performance record. In an effort
both maximum management and legal
not to offend, supervisors tone down
benefits from discipline, the response
their messages to a point where workers
ought not be punitive in nature. The
would have to read between the lines to
supervisor must act as if truly interested
get the point. For instance, telling an
in helping the worker with the problem.
employee what needs to be done does
To do so effectively, a friendly tone
not mean that the worker has done it
ought to be maintained throughout. It is
incorrectly. Nor does telling a person
a good idea, after listening to the
that something needs to be done at his
employee and determining that the
“earliest convenience” signify that you
employee will be receiving formal
mean for the task to be done by
discipline (see below), to point out some
tomorrow, today, or before lunch break.
of the qualities of the employee before
Instead, if timeliness is important, let
getting into the disciplinary formalities.
someone know exactly by when it is
This will help set the right tone for a
needed, and ask him to contact you
positive, non-confrontational discussion.
ahead of time if at any time it seems that
Just as important, after the process is
your assignment will not be completed
completed, is to once again focus on
on time. Explaining why something is
some positive aspects of the employee.
urgent also helps.
The employee needs to feel the
A related communication issue is
supervisor’s concern for her. These
that of maintaining control throughout
positive comments may be needed over
the process. The supervisor needs to
the next few days, also. Large
remember who is in charge of making
differences in status between supervisor
management decisions. One dairy man-
and employee may cause workers to
ager explained that after he had disci-
accept chastisement now, but resent the
plined an employee, that this employee
supervisor later. Most important, the
tried to push him into a corner. The
supervisor who makes it clear that this is
employee had tried to get the manager
not something personal against the
to fire him. The dairyman was well
employee, but just against a specific
prepared and kept an even temper
behavior, is more likely to succeed as a
throughout the conversation, and pointed
coach and mentor. While the supervisor
out that this discussion revolved around
will want to be firm, there is no need to
helping the employee improve his
create an enemy in the process.
performance rather than on dismissal.
186 • L A B O R M A N AG E M E N T I N A G R I C U LT U R E : C U LT I VAT I N G P E R S O N N E L P R O D U C T I V I T Y
Termination without the suspension is Eduardo: That may be so, but I think
preferable under these circumstances, it would make a lot of sense for you to
but this in no way reduces the obligation get some sleep. You will probably have
of the employer to carefully investigate, another long night at the hospital, too.
document, and coach the employee. Will you take the time off?
Unlike a regular suspension, the Rogelio: You are right. I had not
purpose of this cooling-off or thought about that. And I am really
investigative suspension is to prepare for tired.
a possible termination rather than to give Had Eduardo jumped right in on
the employee yet another chance to Rogelio when he arrived late, he would
improve. The employee must understand have missed a wonderful opportunity to
that when he returns to work he will be show consideration for the employee,
informed as to whether or not he has a and would have also made a fool of
job—a sobering thought in either case. himself when he would eventually find
The suspension can be for a few out about Rogelio’s tragedy.
days, but is rarely justifiable if it is Now, let us assume, for the sake of
longer than a week, unless it is a this example, that a few weeks later
suspension with pay. Workers usually Rogelio has come in late again a couple
know when they deserve to be of times, for several unrelated issues.
terminated. During this suspension time, Any one of them on their own would
you can conduct needed follow-up have been a good excuse, but when put
interviews, touch bases with your together within such a short period of
attorney and labor management time, Rogelio’s tardiness has begun to
specialist, make a careful decision, and disturb some of the farm operations. In
if needed, prepare for the termination talking to Rogelio it is clear that there
interview (Chapter 15). has not been a major issue involved
here, but nevertheless, the problem has
EXAMPLE OF A DISCIPLINARY increased. Today, Rogelio arrived in late
again.
INTERVIEW Eduardo: Good morning Rogelio.
Rogelio: Good morning!
Perhaps an illustration of a positive Eduardo: Hey, did you watch the
handling of a tardy crew worker, game between México and Uruguay?
Rogelio, by his crew boss, Eduardo, Rogelio: I did, that was some goal in
would be instructive. the last five minutes of the game!
Eduardo: Rogelio, good morning! Eduardo: It sure was. Hey, is
Rogelio: Good morning. I am sorry I everything OK? I noticed you were late.
am late. Rogelio: I am sorry I came in late, I
Eduardo: What happened? had another problem with the alarm
Rogelio: I just came from the clock. I don’t think I heard it go off.
hospital. My son has been there most of Eduardo: Sorry to hear about that.
the night. We talked last time about the importance
Eduardo: Oh, I am so sorry to hear of punctuality, Rogelio. Do you have
about that! How is your son now? What any ideas of what you might do to deal
happened? with this problem?
Rogelio: Well, actually I am really Rogelio: I think I am just going to
relieved. He is doing much better right have to be more careful.
now. [They continue to talk about Eduardo: Any specific ideas?
Rogelio’s son for a while.] Rogelio: Well, I tried putting the
Eduardo: It sounds as if you did not alarm closer so I would hear it better,
get any sleep last night! but I don’t remember it going off.
Rogelio: Well, I didn’t get much. Eduardo: So what do you plan to do?
Eduardo: Why don’t you take some Rogelio: Maybe I’ll just have to go
time off and get some rest. to bed earlier.
Rogelio: Right now I feel really fine, Eduardo: Sounds like a good idea.
don’t worry. Let me tell you what I do. I set two
D I S C I P L I N E • 189
alarms when I have something really consequence. But before doing that
important. I put one right close to me Eduardo gave Rogelio the opportunity to
and try to get up with that one. And then offer his own suggestions rather than
I put a back up alarm in the bathroom. jumping to give possibly unwanted
That forces me to get out of bed. advice. Also, before assigning a
Rogelio: Sounds like a good plan. consequence, Eduardo lifted Rogelio up
I’ll try that. I really don’t like letting and made it clear that he was not acting
you down and coming in late. against the person of Rogelio, but acting
Eduardo: Rogelio, I wanted to let against the unacceptable behavior.
you know how much I appreciate your Eduardo made it clear that the incident
work. You are one of our best pruners— was documented, and what the
and not just because you are fast, but consequence would be if Rogelio comes
also because of your care for quality. I in late again. When parting with
also appreciate your willingness to help Rogelio, Eduardo makes sure once
others who don’t have as much again, to do so in a positive note.
experience. Thanks.
Rogelio: Thank you. I’ll really try SUMMARY
and make sure I don’t come in late
again. Effective discipline can protect the
Eduardo: Thanks, Rogelio. It is agricultural enterprise, the supervisor
important for you to be on time because who enforces the rules, and the
once I give everyone their pruning subordinates subject to the regulations.
assignments, I have several other matters Everyone benefits when rules and
to attend to. It also makes it more consequences for violations are carefully
difficult to calculate your pruning speed formulated, clearly communicated, and
per hour for our daily records. I will consistently carried out. Many potential
write down that we had this challenges are often resolved before
conversation and that we discussed the they get out of hand.
importance of being on time and have Confronting employees during a
you initial it, if you would. This will disciplinary (or termination, Chapter 15)
serve as an oral warning, and next time, interview takes much interpersonal skill
if you come in late, I will need to give and preparation. Throughout, it is
you a written warning. important to distinguish between the
Rogelio: I understand, it won’t employee as a person and any unwanted
happen again. behavior to avoid building artificial
Eduardo: I know. And thanks again walls between the supervisor and
for the effort you put into your work. It worker. If the employee needs to be
is always a pleasure to look at the disciplined or terminated, this is best
quality of your pruning. See you a little done while permitting the employee to
later, Rogelio. preserve as much dignity as possible.
Eduardo has managed to cover each Management can help coach and
of the key points in a formal disciplinary mentor an employee into improving his
process and do it without getting angry performance or behavior, but at the end
or using any harsh language or negative it is the worker who must decide if the
tone of voice. Eduardo had rightly job is worth the effort. The responsi-
forgiven previous tardiness where bility to improve must remain with the
Rogelio had an excuse, and did not take
employee.
these against him as they talked. He was
firm and fair. First he talked to Rogelio
until he felt that Rogelio would be ready CHAPTER 14 REFERENCES
to discuss the problem, rather than come
right to the point. He then gave Rogelio 1. Manzoni, J., and Barsoux, J. (1998,
a chance to explain, once again, the March-April). How bosses create their
reason for the tardiness. Only after own poor performers: The Set-Up-to-
Fail Syndrome (pp. 101-113). Harvard
Eduardo found the excuse unacceptable
Business Review.
did he go on to a disciplinary
190 • L A B O R M A N AG E M E N T I N A G R I C U LT U R E : C U LT I VAT I N G P E R S O N N E L P R O D U C T I V I T Y
Employee termination is often the a capable employee), the greater are her
last step in an unsuccessful attempt to rights to the job.
help a worker meet work standards. Perhaps a better analogy is that of
Clear management implications include workplace divorce. Like in divorce, the
the cost associated with the selection parties involved can choose to be
and training of a new employee; the combative or cordial. While it is a
effect the termination may have on the mistake to take any analogy too far,
morale of the discharged employee as there are other aspects of marriage that
well as those who remain; and the merit comparison: both parties share
consequences on unemployment some responsibility for having chosen
insurance costs. each other, and for making the
Terminating personnel has been relationship grow and succeed
called the “death penalty of afterward.
employment.” Employees readily accept From a legal perspective, firing an
an employer’s right to choose who to employee may lead to wrongful
hire (as long as no illegal discrimination termination charges. In the past, the “at-
takes place). Once hired, however, most will doctrine” controlled most
workers feel an employer’s right to fire terminations in the United States. For
should be limited: the longer a person is instance, the California Labor Code
permitted to stay on the job (even if not states, “an employment, having no
192 • L A B O R M A N AG E M E N T I N A G R I C U LT U R E : C U LT I VAT I N G P E R S O N N E L P R O D U C T I V I T Y
specified term, may be terminated at the you.” Some have taken the extreme
will of either party ...”1 Employers had position that even the term
the right to fire an employee at any time “probationary period” may imply a
or for almost any reason. Likewise, the hurdle giving employees rights to
employee could quit “at will.” At-will permanence once it is passed. With time,
termination rights have eroded however, even those employers who do
substantially, however, as a result of not have a formal probationary period
both statutory provisions and court eventually come to “own” their
cases. employees. The longer an employee
There are both management and works for a farmer, the more the farmer
legal implications of terminating an has implied that this employee has
employee. Even when taking such “passed the test” and is able to do the
drastic action, a farmer who has required work.
followed the process outlined here and Even though personnel policies were
in Chapter 14 can sleep better at night. “not expressly bargained for by the
Such a farmer knows the worker was employees at the time they took their
fully aware of the unwanted behavior jobs,” courts have reasoned “they are
and its consequences—yet still decided enforceable because they give the
to engage in it. employer a benefit. What is the benefit?
A stable, loyal work force.”2
Erosion of the “at-will” doctrine Having a probationary period is a
fine idea if there is a structure set up to
Both public policy and litigation
carefully appraise the performance of
have combined to erode the “at-will”
the new employee before the period
doctrine. The law prohibits the
expires. An employer ought not feel
discipline and termination of employees
forced to make a pass/fail decision at the
(just as it does in other aspects of the
time. Just as viable is to extend the
employment relationship) based on
probationary period when such a
protected factors, such as sex, race, age.
measure is warranted. Only then is a
Nor can employers retaliate against
probationary period meaningful to the
workers who have turned them in
employee and a positive tool for
(whistle blowing) for violations of
management.
public policy.
In states where agricultural labor can
“At-will” vs. “just cause” policies
unionize, both union and non-union
workers alike are normally protected by Most labor attorneys and consultants
the exercise of their rights to “protected are advising growers on how to guard
concerted activity.” Any time employees their “at-will” rights. They suggest farm
act on behalf of two or more persons to employers include “at-will” statements
request better working conditions or pay, in job applications and employee
they are protected from recrimination. handbooks and eliminate any reference
The farmer is under no obligation to to job security.
comply with the request, however. Typical at-will statements include:
Promises or statements made to “We reserve the right to fire a worker at
workers when they are hired, in any time, with or without cause,” and
conversations with supervisors, and in “We reserve the right to terminate an
employee handbooks have also given employee at any time and for any
rise to much litigation. If farmers use the reason, just as the employee has the
term “permanent employee,” instead of right to quit at any time and for any
“regular” or “non-seasonal,” for reason.” These right-to-fire affirmations
instance, they may end up with the are intended to make clear to arbitrators
worker as a permanent fixture. and judges that the farmer has not given
Likewise, a farm manager may also away any legal rights to terminate at-
have to defend the right to fire an will.
employee if he tells him: “as long as To successfully defend an “at-will”
you do a good job we will have work for policy, farmers cannot simply hide the
T E R M I N AT I O N • 193
policy in the fine print of an application manager reported that “several employ-
or handbook. Nor can they have it both ees grumbled and complained to the
ways by maintaining a written “at-will” [owner] about being told that they could
policy while they contradict it verbally be dismissed for no reason [and that]
or in practice. The courts may construe one employee went so far as to hand out
the oral promises to be a waiver of the fliers which are printed from the ACLU
written policies. website calling for legislation requiring
Plastering “we-can-fire-you-when- for employers to have cause for all
we-want” statements on applications and dismissals.” Soon thereafter, the owner
handbooks can have a negative effect. In decided to retract the policy, but much
their zeal to protect farmers from of the damage had already been done.6
wrongful discharge suits, attorneys may In contrast, a just-cause approach is
be inadvertently encouraging employers likely to increase fairness and thus
to violate management principles with reduce the number of wrongful
serious consequences. Workers may feel termination suits. Employees do not
subjected to arbitrary treatment and a have to be distracted by a climate of
lack of job security, the very reasons uncertainty and fear. A just-cause
often leading workers to unionize philosophy does not mean workers
despite good wages.3 Furthermore, cannot be terminated. It does, however,
“union organizers sometimes say that force the grower to better manage his
employers’ personnel practices are the human resources by informing
unions’ greatest organizing weapon.”4 employees of sub-standard performance
I have for years spoken against “at- and, when appropriate, by giving them a
will” policies. In 1985, I predicted that chance to improve before being ousted.
these policies would have a negative A recent trend has been to establish
effect on employee morale, and that the binding arbitration to work out cases of
almost hidden one-liner would just worker termination. The remedies
Once the decision to
simply not be enough.5 My fears have imposed by an arbiter are binding on
not been without foundation. Beginning both parties. Advantages of arbitration terminate has been made, it
in the late 1990s many attorneys began over judge and jury rulings include (1) is best to proceed fairly
to suggest that the one line become a faster decisions;7 and (2) costs may be
quickly rather than putting it
paragraph. More recently, one manager limited to back pay and reinstatement,
explained that her lawyer had tacked on while avoiding punitive damages.8 off until after the busy
a lengthy notice (over a page) to the at- Another very popular movement, one season when it will be more
will policy, and required employees to with a great possibility of success, is the
convenient.
acknowledge these changes. The increase in the use of alternate dispute
Jesús Valencia
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feelings the employee held towards the can land a farmer in court. So can giving
supervisor, farm enterprise or job and negative references. Workers who lose
the longer the period of employment, the their jobs and cannot find other
more poignant these feelings may be. employment are the ones most likely to
Before discussing the details of the file charges. Because of this, a farmer
termination interview, we need to may prefer not to disclose the reasons
assume that the decision has already for the termination to others—for
been made with much care; that it will maximum benefit, workers need to be
not be a surprise to the worker (it is vital notified of this policy.10 The terminated
that the employee has previously worker can likewise be asked not to
received an explicit written notice that discuss the issue with others in the
his termination is being considered); that community or workplace, but reassured
appropriate and well documented that it is his decision to make.
disciplinary, counseling and coaching After the termination, management
measures have already taken place; and must encourage personnel who have
that you are working with the help of a questions to speak directly with the
qualified labor attorney (there are legal employee. It is sometimes hard to resist
questions to be answered at every step) the temptation of broadcasting
and labor management specialist. management’s side of the story.
If it has become clear that the Employees who remain with the firm
employee ought to be terminated, how will reason that the confidentiality and
and when does one best face the dignity afforded to a co-worker is but a
employee to deliver the bad news? A reflection of how they themselves may
few decisions need to be made before be treated in the future. The principle
actually meeting with the employee. that “your good name is safe in my lips”
This is one of those situations where needs to be followed.
there is no substitute for total One employee who could not find a
preparation. new job hired a detective to determine
why he had been terminated. In the
Pre-meeting decisions and interview the former boss did not spare
preparation his negative feelings toward the
The decision to terminate an
Talking about termination after it employee. Equipped with the tape-
recorded conversation, the ex-employee employee should be made
happens. A major concern of people
who are terminated is the fear of what took the employer to court, and the jury with much care.
will be said about them behind their awarded him $1.9 million.31
backs. It is a good policy to reassure
workers that except for the management
team involved in the termination, or
others on a need-to-know basis, that the
issue will not be discussed with
employees. Once the decision is made to
terminate an employee, those who
supervise her need to be informed on a
need-to-know basis. All individuals have
to understand the importance of not
talking about the situation with others,
as well as coming across in a consistent
manner (i.e., not giving mixed
messages). Individual supervisors need
to fight the temptation of saying things
to the to-be-terminated employee that
will only be understood later, in the
context of the dismissal.
Telling prospective employers the
reason for an employee’s termination
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responsibility for the poor performance. wounded, rather than get involved in a
The same can be true if an employee has protracted disciplinary process.
been permitted to perform at a lower Separation bonus. Employers expect
than acceptable level for some time workers who quit to give two-weeks A potential tool to avoid
without documented efforts to help the notice or more. The same courtesy is
wrongful termination charges
individual improve. Termination owed to the worker, except that it is
agreements are most likely to succeed better to simply pay that time as a are termination agreements
when the employee is aware that the separation bonus and give the employee with a severance package.
organization is not pleased with her past the time to look for another job. It is
Employers pay workers
performance, and the realization does best to “relieve the employee of any
not come as a surprise. Employees may further responsibility but to separation pay in exchange
welcome the opportunity to resign now themselves.”14 When explaining this for the worker's agreement to
with a few months of extra pay and their policy to the employee, the stress needs
resign and not sue.
self-esteem bruised but not as deeply to be placed on helping the employee
emotional issues and challenging task to someone other than the direct
interpersonal communication.16 In an supervisor. The ideal, however, is for the
informal survey, I found most workers direct supervisor to speak with the
prefer to be let go at a time they can employee. Having a second member of
collect personal belongings from their management present can serve several
worksite in private, without having to important purposes: (1) there is an
face co-workers. Being able to dismiss implication of unity in the decision, (2)
employees earlier in the day, and the second person can act as a witness,
privately, is generally easier to do with (3) in some cases a second person may
field rather than office personnel. With possess interpersonal skills that may
office personnel, the only practical help in the situation, and (4) having two
approach is often to wait until near persons may reduce the likelihood of a
closing time. If this is not possible, violent outbreak.
rather than forcing employees to face After the main termination meeting,
their colleagues, you may give them the paperwork issues can be delegated if
option of having their personal there are questions that can be best
belongings mailed to them. If the answered by someone else. Management
employee chooses such an option, two may wish to offer counseling or
people should be present when personal placement services to some employees,
belongings are collected17 to avoid depending on the situation and length of
charges of dishonesty. employment with the firm.
At the time of dismissal, depending Pay and Papers. Pay, including any
on the situation, employees who want to benefits and unused vacation, needs to
say good-bye to co-workers can be be delivered on the spot. This is good
encouraged, within reason, to call or business practice and frequently is the
even arrange to visit the worksite at a law. Likewise, if an employee has
later date. While few employees will earned part of a bonus, this should also
take advantage of this offer, this policy be paid. It is better to err on the
can help alleviate feelings of rejection generous side. If papers need to be
and loss to terminated personnel. Of signed related to any continuing benefits
course, there are circumstances where or other like matters, they should be
former workers would not be welcome available right away. Any unfinished
(e.g., those terminated for sexual paperwork can be taken care of by mail
harassment, workplace threats, theft), rather than inconveniencing the
but for most employees there is no need employee by requiring her presence at
to create further artificial barriers by the job site. In the case of an
labeling them as persona non grata. investigative suspension that results in
Once the decision to terminate has termination, the employee also needs to
been made, it is best to proceed fairly be paid for “reporting time”18 when she
quickly. Some employers try to justify comes back to work for the final
putting the termination off until after the termination meeting.
busy season when it will be more Escorting the employee. When it is
convenient. Yet, the longer the employee time for the employee to turn in ranch
is allowed to stay on the job, the greater property, some employers escort the
the implication that performance worker to his workplace. When sensitive
challenges have been overcome. Further, matters are involved, or the possibility
the poor performer is likely to be of sabotage exists, such a policy not
distracted and be involved in a costly only protects the enterprise but also the
mistake or serious workplace injury. employee. It is human nature to blame
Significant legal issues may surface others, especially the terminated
when a worker is fired shortly after employee, of having caused anything
filing a workers’ compensation claim. that goes wrong around the period of his
Who should terminate the employee? termination. Of course, this needs to be
Terminating an employee is stressful explained to the employee. In cases
and takes effective interpersonal skills. where termination decisions are being
There is a temptation to delegate this considered during an investigative
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am sure you have a lot on your mind. be done sincerely. When it is time to
Are there any feelings or questions you indicate the interview is over, the
want to share or discuss with me at this supervisor can stand and extend her
time?” If the employee does not hand,19 and escort the employee to
immediately answer, the supervisor empty his belongings.
should resist the temptation to jump to Anything that reduces the totality of
another subject. Even a couple of the separation is likely to be appreciated
seconds will seem like an eternity to the by the terminated employee. Depending
supervisor, let alone a sufficiently long on the degree of friendship developed
pause, yet it is important to give the over time, a follow-up card or note, or a
employee time to formulate an answer. phone call from time to time may help
If the employee does speak, the the former employee through this
supervisor needs to fight the even difficult transition.
greater temptation to interrupt, defend or
contradict (even when the supervisor
may think the perspective is twisted).
SUMMARY
While stoic silence is not what is Employee termination is often the
generally called for and could easily be last step in an unsuccessful attempt to
counter-productive, the supervisor help a worker meet work standards.
should remember that this is the There are both legal and management
employee’s chance to do most of the implications to employee termination.
talking and venting. The employee Two opposite approaches to
should be listened to in an empathic terminations are “just cause” and “at
manner and thanked for sharing her will.” Just cause requires more
perspective. management preparation and control but
Thanking employees for the good normally has a greater potential to
they have done is always in good taste, reduce cases of arbitrary treatment,
as well as bringing up the employee’s eliminating some wrongful discharge
positive contributions and qualities. The cases before they happen.
sincerity, or lack of sincerity, of these Where the employer shares some of
comments will be easily felt by the the fault for the employee’s poor
terminated employee. A supervisor has performance, a termination agreement
to find the right moment to make these can be a very powerful tool. Such an
positive comments, however. This agreement may meet some of the needs
should not be done when it could appear of the employer and the terminated
that the employee is being appeased, or
employee.
while the employee is crying.
Furthermore, if these things are brought
up too early in the meeting, there is a CHAPTER 15 REFERENCES
danger that either the employee may
misunderstand the nature of the 1. California Labor Code (Article 4, Section
meeting—and somehow think he is 2922).
being called into the office to be 2. Herman, J. (1981, March 12-13).
Company Policies And Procedures (p.
commended—or think that you may be
25). In Proceedings of the 1st Annual
talked into giving him another chance. Agricultural Personnel Management
One supervisor reported, for instance, Forum. Ventura, California.
that the right moment for the positive 3. Sagaser, H. A. (1982, March 11).
comments came as he walked the Presentation to the Agricultural
employee to his pickup. Perhaps a good Leadership Group. Fresno, California.
way to start is, “Before you leave, I did 4. Milkovich, G. T., and Boudreau, J. W.
want to thank you for ... and compliment (1994). Human Resource Management
you for ....” (7th ed.) (p. 662). Burr Ridge, Illinois:
Irwin.
Some words to the effect that the
5. Billikopf, G. E. (1985, March 16). At-will
terminated employee is likely to be doctrine may erode workers’ morale (p.
successful elsewhere, despite the lack of 32-H). California Farmer. This article
match here, should be offered if it can was also published by several other farm
202 • L A B O R M A N AG E M E N T I N A G R I C U LT U R E : C U LT I VAT I N G P E R S O N N E L P R O D U C T I V I T Y
“I employ one person at a time, and I’ve had as many as eleven persons in one
year ... maybe I’m not paying them enough.”
San Joaquín Valley Dairy Farmer
Employee turnover can hurt the to do the work. Many farm employers
overall productivity of a farm and is feel it takes about two years to train a
often a symptom of other difficulties. year-round employee.
One dairy manager put it this way: Some employment separations come
“Every time a milker leaves, I lose about quickly and as a surprise to both the
one cow.” Turnover in livestock worker and employer (e.g., the
operations upsets routines, makes employee may be offered a job at
animals uncomfortable, and affects the another farm). Other separations are
health and safety of the herd. known long in advance by the worker,
Other costs of turnover are farmer, or both.
associated with the processes of Many employees experience
selecting, orienting, and training new reluctance, ambivalence, and stress
workers. While an employee is being about leaving a job in pursuit of another.
replaced, a substitute (sometimes you, Some workers would rather retain a
the farmer or manager) has to be found disliked job than venture into the
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Knowing the reasons why workers leave can give farmers an edge in
improving working relationships.
E M P L OY E E T U R N OV E R • 205
40
35
= 1953
30
= 1983
25
20
15
10
0
Dairy economic
problems
Job
duties
Personal
problems
Working
schedules
Compensation
and benefits
Relations with
co-workers
Relations with
management
Fired
Housing and
transportation
“Sierra Gold Nurseries takes accident prevention and safety enforcement very
seriously. We have a strong and comprehensive Injury and Illness Prevention Program
(IIPP), and consider it an important Nursery objective to prevent employee accidents
wherever possible. We firmly believe that all nursery jobs can be performed safely and
efficiently. Unfortunately, accidents may still happen. Should you have an accident, even
a minor one, or become ill at work, notify your supervisor immediately.”
While every chapter in this book can Often, even simple problems have many
be used as a reference for policy alternative solutions. One such policy
formulation, in this chapter we provide a area, sick leave benefits, is discussed for
conceptual framework for thinking illustration purposes.
about policies. An outline of possible
topics to include in a personnel
handbook is provided. Not everything DEVELOPING POLICIES1
that goes in a handbook is a policy, such
as the inclusion of a “Historical In general, policies are guidelines to
Statement.” Farm employers are urged decision making—once in place, each
to be cautious in the creation of policies. decision does not have to be made anew
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S IDEBAR 17-1
Lindemann Farms History
years the land has evolved from native
We welcome you to Lindemann pasture to a highly productive irrigated
Farms and want to tell you about our ranch. For over 50 years Lindemann
company. Rudolf H. Lindemann was Farms has provided the people of
one of the original “Westside” farming California, the United States, and the
pioneers who began farming and world with high quality products. These
developing the ranch in the 1920s. He products include fruits, vegetables,
was succeeded by his son, Rudy fiber, meat and milk. We are one of the
Lindemann, who continued his foremost producers with a reputation of
successful farming practices. Presently, growing and marketing high quality
George and Tom Lindemann, products. This success is principally
grandsons of the founder and third due to the interest, enthusiasm and
generation California farmers, are efforts of our employees. We welcome
managing the family farm. Over the you to this dedicated team.
George & Tom Lindemann
Purpose of sick leave. Sick leave is sick leave. Will it be used only for the
An effectively designed sick an optional benefit provided by illness of the worker or will it include
leave policy does not reward employers. Employees are paid for days family sick leave, bereavement, or
not worked due to illness or injury of a participation in “wellness-oriented”
employees for being absent.
nonindustrial nature. (Workers’ fitness or sport programs?3 In some
Compensation insurance procedures cases, it is even provided for “mental
normally dictate the compensation and health days” taken whenever an
treatment of industrial injuries and employee feels overly stressed by work
illness.) Farmers provide paid sick leave or life’s pressures.
to protect workers from losing pay. In a Employers who allow for paid
study of more than fifteen hundred mental health days or time off to
workers,2 sick leave was the second participate in a fitness program are
most important fringe benefit received thinking of the long-term health of their
by employees. Only health insurance work force. Others feel vacation rather
was more important. than sick leave should be used for such
Accrual. You determine how many purposes, and in some cases call it
hours of sick leave workers can accrue “personal time off” to underscore its
per month. Some employers use the purpose. Employers who allow workers
“use-it-or-lose-it” approach. They do to use sick leave for family sickness,
this by either limiting the number of bereavement, or other alternate uses may
earned sick leave days employees can limit the number of days that can be so
carry over from year to year, or by charged.
eliminating pay for days not taken Misuse. If workers take sick leave
before job termination. only when they are truly ill, the “use-it-
Allowable use of benefit. Farmers or-lose-it” method works relatively well.
need to determine the legitimate use of It may, however, tend to reward workers
POLICIES AND H A N D B O O K S • 213
who are sick over those who do not miss there is a catastrophic illness or injury
work. Some healthy workers may take that keeps an employee away for a long
days off simply not to lose them. While period of time.
the original intent for sick leave was to A variation of the alternative above,
provide increased pay security for is to require workers to accumulate and
employees, in practice it has often maintain a minimum balance of unused
turned into extra days of personal time sick leave days (e.g., four to eight
off. weeks). After this period an employee
When misused, sick leave can could opt to either receive the added
translate into company-sponsored benefit immediately in terms of cash or
absenteeism. There are costs of finding personal time off, or when he separates
and training a replacement who may from the job.
function at a less productive level for a The idea is to underscore that these
time. Workers who know fellow days are given to reward good
employees are abusing the system often attendance. One possibility would be to
become resentful, or decide to join attach an additional day of sick leave
them. within an employee’s account, for every
Diminishing misuse. An employer ten days of regularly accumulated sick
may attempt to thwart the use of sick leave. One caution, however, would be
leave for an occasional “day off” by not to make the incentive to come to
disallowing pay for any sick leave of work so high, that employees would
less than two or three consecutive days. come when everyone’s needs would be
This may force employees into staying better served had they stayed home.
home to more fully recover when they
have been ill. Others may require a SUMMARY
doctor’s note verifying the worker’s
illness, even for one-day absences. Policies help guide decisions. While
Many physicians, however, will readily individual supervisorial style should not
approve absences. be stifled, inconsistency in approach in
For longer absences (a week or some areas may have negative effects on
longer), it may be a good idea for a worker morale. Policies can be a fine
policy requiring a medical excuse. tool in reducing perceptions of arbitrary
Medical opinions will be particularly treatment of employees. To obtain
crucial when a worker’s disability may maximum value, policies need to be
jeopardize her return to work. understood by both supervisors and
Some of the traditional approaches workers. Policies can be shared with
used in preventing sick leave abuse employees during the orientation period,
become less necessary when incentives through meetings, and through
are given to be on the job. Farm handbooks.
employers may prefer to provide “well To be effective, policies need to be
pay” rather than “sick leave.” Farmers adjusted to meet the changing needs of
concerned mainly with covering workers the organization. Policies constructed
for short-term illness may prefer to without sufficient deliberation may be
provide added vacation days in lieu of regretted later. Sick leave is one policy
paid sick leave. Some workers are more area discussed in this chapter to provide
likely to be sick on the employer’s time an example of the numerous alternatives
than on their own.4 that can affect employees and the
Along with the idea of paying organization. Sick leave policies can be
employees for being well, rather than designed to protect workers from losing
sick, employers can establish a system income when sick while also rewarding
whereby they pay workers for unused individuals who do not misuse the
sick leave days upon their quitting, privilege. Carefully crafted policies,
retiring or being terminated. This will then, can help farmers act based on a
benefit everyone, as employees will then concern for both production and
accumulate a large number of days over personnel.
the years, which can come in handy if
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Not everyone finds the interest-based answered rather curtly, “Right now?”
concept easy to swallow, however. She was not going to be intimidated, and
“Traditional negotiation techniques responded, “That will work great for
suggest you hide your true business me, thanks!” John continued to show
needs and goals...,” explains a grape difficult behaviors with other
grower who looks at the idea of interest- individuals, but from then on never
based negotiation with a certain amount showed Daniela any discourtesy. I am
of distrust. “Once the other side gets a not suggesting that Daniela took the
hold of your real needs, they will very best approach available, but it
strangle you with that knowledge.” served her well on that occasion.
A little caution, if not cynicism, may The catch is that once people get
well be necessary to survive. While we caught up in competitive negotiation, it
can attempt to model effective is often hard to step back and see clearly
negotiation strategies when dealing with enough to work through difficulties in a
others, at times we may have to resort to collegial manner. A third person to help
a more traditional approach. Research mediate may be needed (see Chapter
has demonstrated, for instance, that 13). Traditional negotiation approaches
those who are willing to “play to win,” have sometimes been described as
if so forced, yet prefer a mutually including competition, yielding,
productive approach, may be more withdrawal, or compromise. No one
credible negotiators. approach is always right or wrong.
Daniela, a young employee in one Competing means one person gets
corporation, had heard of the difficult his way. Or at least it seems so at first.
reputation developed by John, one of the In the long run both parties often end up
agricultural technicians, but she had losing. It does little good, for instance,
never had any difficulties with this to get a wonderful contract for your new
individual. Daniela approached John one swine facility, if the contractor is left
day and found him sitting with his feet with such a small profit margin that she
up on a table, reading a magazine. She goes out of business before completing
apologized for disturbing him, assuming it.
that perhaps this might have been his At one dairy, the incentive was to get
break period. done quickly. Employees were paid for
“John, when you can, could you the full shift even if they got done early.
please pick up some parts for me in As one milker was washing his boots
town?” Daniela asked politely. John and preparing to go home, his
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supervisor asked if he could work into commitment. Losers often hold grudges
In some situations yielding
the next shift. When the milker got his and find ways of getting even.
can be a virtue, but not paycheck, he was not given credit for Should not a farmer try to obtain a
always. When we stop the free time he had accumulated (as a good price for her apricot crop? Or get
result of quickly finishing his first shift). the best possible deal when buying that
caring, we often withdraw
No amount of arguing helped convince new piece of farm machinery? What
physically or emotionally. his supervisor of how unfair this about one-time situations, where you
seemed. The milker refused any will never see another again in your life?
overtime work in the future. This is a Hidden in these questions are deeper
perfect example of a win-lose outcome issues. Surely, there are times when we
turning into a lose-lose scenario. bargain with the idea of getting the best
Competition tends to focus on a possible results. In some cultures,
particular episode, rather than on long- people are offended if you pay the
term viability; on the present goal, asking price without bargaining.
rather than on the long-term However, many times in life we think
relationship. I know a retired manager we are dealing with a one-time situation
who brags that his subordinates soon only to find that we have to negotiate or
learned “he was not always right—but interact with that individual again.
always the boss.” Although this manager Yielding (unilateral concessions at
may have obtained worker compliance the expense of the person doing the
from his winning tactics, I doubt he got giving in). We are most likely to yield if
much in terms of employee we feel there is little chance of winning,
C R E AT I V E N E G O T I AT I O N • 221
to leave the toilet seat down. In others, kills creativity quicker than anger, pride,
the polite thing is to leave it up so it can embarrassment, envy, greed, or other
stay clean. In some Hispanic sub- strong negative emotion. Anger is often
cultures it is rude for a man to greet the an expression of fear, or lack of
wife of a friend with a kiss on the confidence in our ability to get what we
cheek; in others, it is rude not to. think we want. Emotional outbursts tend
While we want to make every effort to escalate rather than solve a conflict. If
to be polite, it is best to avoid being we can improve our ability to manage
judgmental about other people’s our emotions and respond without
behavior. At one ranch, one of the getting defensive, we have gone a long
partners tended to assume that the other way toward creative negotiation. A
two partners were talking about him friend once said, “When we permit
when he saw them conversing. This is negative emotions, such as anger, to take
called negative attribution. It is all too control of us, this is a sure sign we are
easy to incorrectly interpret another about to step into a trap.”4
person’s innocent behavior and assume It is extremely difficult to hide our
the worst. Contention breeds mistrust. It emotions, especially when we feel there
is good not to be easily provoked, is much in the balance. Our body
especially when no offense was language, particularly our facial gestures
intended. and voice tonal qualities, often give us
Some years ago I was asked to talk away. We are not emotionless robots,
to a group of young adults. I noticed nor is it advantageous to completely
that as I spoke, a young man would lean hide our emotions. However, it is better
toward the young lady beside him and to describe our negative emotions (e.g.,
whisper. I found this to be very a feeling of disappointment) rather than
distracting. I feel very strongly that only to show them.
one person should speak at a time, and
so it was that every time he began to
talk, I stopped. When I stopped, he
UNDERSTAND TIME
stopped, and so it went. I later found out PRESSURES
he was interpreting for a foreign visitor.
On another occasion, I attended a Deadlines are often self-imposed.
meeting where my supervisor was How often do we feel obligated to
pointing out some problems. I began to respond right away when facing a
defend myself. “We were not talking difficult situation? People can ask for a
about you,” the supervisor said calmly. little more time to study out a matter, or
It is embarrassing to run at “the sound to accomplish a task. Do not be afraid to
of a shaken leaf” when no one pursues. ask, “This is a tough one, can you give
It is good to avoid assumptions or me until 3 p.m. tomorrow to get back to
becoming defensive. you?” Or, “It is now 7:15 a.m., and I am
An effective tool, instead of tied up for the next two hours. If I call
assuming the worst when we do not you between 10 and 10:30 a.m., will
know how to interpret something, is to that work for you?” This type of detail
describe what happened and let the other only takes a few minutes longer to
person explain. Such a description negotiate.
should avoid inferences as to why “I will call you back as soon as I
someone did something. We will often can,” on the other hand, leaves much to
find out there was a good reason for be desired. As a recipient of that
what took place, or at least give each message we may wonder, does that
party the opportunity to explain her mean I will receive a call in the next
perspective. half hour, two hours, or week? Although
not intended as such, this may well
come across as an avoidance tactic. To
CONTROL EMOTIONS be credible, then, it is important to agree
on a specific time wherein we will get
Our emotions get in the way of
back to a person. We also need to be
effective negotiations regularly. Nothing
C R E AT I V E N E G O T I AT I O N • 227
stakeholder the feeling of not having any to come to the bargaining table with the
control. Research has shown5 that idea of studying the problem and
people often prefer an outcome that is individual needs, rather than imposing a
not as beneficial, yet one where they solution.
sense greater control over possible This approach of coming right out
outcomes. with a fair solution, but doing away with
Even if a stakeholder has gone out of all the bargaining, is known to most of
his way to find a fair solution for all us as the “take it or leave it” tactic. In
involved, when such a solution is collective bargaining, it is called
presented as firm, it tends to put other Boulwarism, named after former
stakeholders on the defensive. In one General Electric Vice President Lemuel
such case, a rancher who was presented R. Boulware. What management would
with such a stance (i.e., given the do was to propose a final offer to the
solution) felt coerced to do all the union right up front. Management went
compromising. What this stakeholder out of their way to study all the facts
did not realize until later is that the that could pertain to the contract, and to
solution being presented was already a make it fair for all involved, “trying to
huge concession and compromise on the do right voluntarily.” They refused to
part of the other stakeholder who budge from their position, however,
presented it. The timing and approach unless any “new facts” of sufficient
had been ineffective, however. strength were presented. Such an
An individual with an excellent idea approach was highly resented by the
needs to wait until the predicament that union, which felt undermined. Two
has brought everyone together has been “new facts” played key roles against
carefully discussed and until the needs Boulwarism: (1) the practice was found
of all the stakeholders are understood. to some degree, to constitute bad-faith
Only then can the solution be presented, bargaining by the National Labor
and this needs to be done in a very Relations Board and the courts; and (2)
tentative fashion. “Would such and such the union also made a very strong point
an idea meet your needs, or can we play against the tactic through a successful
with the concept and twist it a bit so it strike.6
does?” When we are the ones being
Where there is an emotionally presented with a possible solution, it is
charged atmosphere, or when there is good to be slow to find fault. If
much riding in terms of consequences someone’s proposal is quickly followed
for individual stakeholders, this by our counterproposal, the other
approach may make a difference individual is likely to feel slighted. Two
between success and failure. An key reasons for avoiding quick
effective negotiating technique, then, is counterproposals include (1) the other
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to get more of what they need by break up and remove the concrete so we
working together. The foundation of can start over, the better off we are.
effective problem solving is Sometimes we may feel over-
understanding the problem. Otherwise, it invested in terms of an idea. It may be
is all too easy to build solutions on a as hard to admit we were wrong as it
false foundation. After such was to break up that concrete. People
understanding, creative negotiation who are willing to admit a mistake are
involves looking for the hidden more likely to be considered
opportunities presented by challenges. trustworthy. A proper apology is
Having said all this, it is not easy to extremely powerful. So is sharing a goal
be creative. It takes work. The following we have in terms of a new approach to
five-step process has been suggested to dealing with issues. If we have been
get the creative juices flowing: (1) extremely critical in the past, it helps to
actively consider all alternatives, (2) let people know we will be working to
digest and rearrange the data, and (3) set improve that negative trait.
the challenge aside and wait. Wait for To be genuine, an apology must not
what? ... for a (4) sudden flash of come across as a justification for what
inspiration, which needs to be (5) we have done wrong. A true apology is
rigorously tested.8 These steps are also accompanied with an offer to make
important, as they recognize the restitution when that is possible.
importance of looking at a challenge Furthermore, a sincere apology implies
from all angles, studying out a problem, a willingness to make the appropriate
and then putting it aside for a time. changes commensurate with what we
Sometimes steps one through three may have done wrong. When it is warranted,
need to be repeated several times until I like the idea of asking a person to
that inspiration comes. whom I am apologizing, “Will you
As we practice creative negotiation, accept my apology?”
faith in our ability to turn challenges When someone expresses regret but
into opportunities will increase. This makes no effort to change, this is hardly
self-confidence will help us focus on an apology. As powerful as an apology
problem solving and reduce the chances can be, when someone takes back that
of falling back on contention, negative apology by word or deed, this puts such
emotion or competitive negotiation. an individual in a position of greater
disadvantage than if she had expressed
no regrets at all. Such is the situation,
ADMIT ERROR AND for instance, in many cases of domestic
APOLOGIZE violence (physical or verbal). It is not
uncommon for a man to be contrite after
We mentioned earlier that strong beating his wife today. But by tomorrow
negative emotion can lead us into he has begun to minimize the damage,
psychological traps. So can and not long thereafter is striking her
overinvestment in an idea. If the again.
foundation is wrong, we may have to A person who is willing to accept an
undo all our work and begin from apology and forgive another is, likewise,
scratch. Depending how far into a in a better position than one who is not.
project we are, this can be quite painful It is also hard to trust a person who will
and expensive. We have to first not acknowledge an apology. An
recognize that we have been wrong individual who has truly forgiven
before we can make things right. another does not continually remind the
If we notice that the concrete other of that fact. Some comments and
foundation to the dairy barn we are deeds are so hurtful in their nature,
building is faulty, we can close our eyes however, that it may take extensive time
and continue construction only at our before a person can truly feel free of the
own peril. As painful as it may seem associated pain.
now, the sooner we recognize our error
and make the necessary expenditures to
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BE TENTATIVE ABOUT
READING PEOPLE’S FEELINGS
Attributions should be neutral or
tentative, such as “I sense there is
something wrong here.” Avoid
attributing negative emotions to another
person, such as “You are angry.” Nor
should one ascribe a reason along an
attribution, “You must be hurt because
we switched to 3x milking.” Instead, just
describe the emotion in more neutral
ways, and with some degree of
tentativeness, allowing the other
stakeholder to either validate these
feelings, or offer their own explanation:
“I sense that something is still not right
Jack Kelly Clark
Jesús Valencia
A Anchor-based performance
appraisals, 73, 74
Abuse of authority, 115–118, 121, Andersen, Lyle, 24–25
176 Anecdotes. See also Negotiation
preventing, 118–120 scenarios
principled responses to, 118, “I’m the best” story, 1
119–121 banana-peeling story, 139–140
Action by management. See beer-selling story, 111
Management action ear-notching story, 175
ADA (Americans with Disabilities employee refuses to work for
Act), 13, 30 foreman, 225
Adders, 85, 108 foreman delays lunch, 221
Admitting error, 231 horse breeder helps employee
Adverse impact, 30 move out, 222
Advertising job openings, 13, 15. husband refuses chance to do
See also Recruitment things his way, 233
Advising employees. See Counseling Mexican restaurant story, 56, 58
employees piece-rate reduction, 103, 104
Age discrimination, layoffs and, 44 soccer refereeing story, 184–185
Agendas, for meetings, 133 time sheet alteration story,
Agricultural work, attitudes about, 120–121
14 tractor drivers ask for a raise, 219
Alternate dispute resolution. See also upside-down vines story, 3–4
Mediation waterfall sign story, 113–114
termination disputes, 193–194 Apologies, 165, 231
Americans with Disabilities Act, 13, Application forms, 15. See also
30 Biodata
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G I
Getting to Yes (Fisher and Ury), 160 Identity negotiation, 166
Gift giving, 146, 147 Illness, work-related, 7. See also
Goal setting, 62, 136 Health and safety
in performance appraisals, 66–67, In-basket exercises, 20
74 Incentive pay, 6, 14, 75, 91–109. See
Green rates, 86 also Bonuses; Piece-rate pay
Grief, helping employees deal with, anticipating undesirable
146–147, 149 consequences, 98–100
Grievance procedures, 7, 118, 208 casual rewards, 91–92, 94
Grievances, 7 chance incentives, 105, 107
Group dynamics combined with hourly wages,
incentive pay and, 96–97, 98, 103 83–84, 101
meetings and, 135 communications and, 107–108
supervisory abuses and, 118 determining appropriateness,
Group incentives, 98 95–97
earned right to, 99, 105
eliminating incentives, 100
H employee control over work
Handbooks. See Employee quality, 97, 101
handbooks ensuring success, 102–105, 107
Harassment investigations, 180–181, establishing standards and setting
183–184. See also Sexual rates, 100–101, 107–108
harassment explaining program to employees,
Hazing, 27 102, 107
Health and safety, 6, 7 feelings about, 94, 102
breaks and, 105 group incentives, 98
employment test issues, 21 linking to performance, 97–98
physical demands of piece work, maintaining fair standards,
105 102–104
safety incentives, 95, 96 negotiation scenario involving,
229
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Studies T
content-oriented selection, 38-39
criterion-oriented selection, 36-38 “Take it or leave it” negotiation
dairy employee turnover, 205–206 tactics, 229
logging industry performance, 62 Tape recording of disciplinary
statistical selection approach, 36- interviews, 180
38 Teamwork, group incentives and, 98
wage goals among piece-rate Technology, influence of, 5
workers, 102 Telephone interruptions, during
Subordinates employee interviews, 154
categorization of, by supervisors, Telephone interviews, 17
176 Temporary employees, 10
performance appraisal by, 70 Temporary layoffs. See Layoffs
responses to decision-making Temporary promotions, 45
opportunities, 126, 128–129 Termination. See also Layoffs
responses to supervisory abuses, at-will doctrine, 191–192
118, 119–121 at-will vs. just cause policies,
Substitution effect, 102 192–193, 201
Suggestions cautions for employers, 192, 193,
rewards for, 92, 95 195, 196, 199
soliciting, 108, 208 constructive discharge, 108, 196
willingness to offer, cultural difficulty of, 9, 194
differences, 135, 141 disciplinary terminations, 178,
Supervisors 184, 187–188
as arbiters, 172–173 dispute resolution methods,
categorization of subordinates, 193–194
176 by employees. See Quitting;
compensation of, 79, 99 Turnover
as counselors, 148–155 employer preparation for,
decision-making styles, 125–126 195–200
definitions, 111 explaining reasons to employee,
as interpreters, 113–115, 121 196
job rotation for, 118–119 layoffs as excuse for, 196
as mediators, 162, 173 paperwork, 199
newly-hired, 124 paying terminated employees,
Supervisors’ handbooks, 210 194, 197–198, 199
Supervisory performance privacy/confidentiality issues, 195,
appraisals by subordinates, 70 199
inviting subordinates’ input about, resignation vs., 196–197
63, 68 return of company property, 198,
Supervisory power, 111–121 199–200
abuses of, 115–118, 121 termination meeting, 194, 199,
communication issues, 113–115, 200–201
121 timing of, 198–199
preventing abuses, 118–120 turnover and, 206
principled responses to abuses, who should perform the
118, 119–121 termination, 199
sources of, 112–113, 121 wrongful termination charges,
Supervisory responsibilities, 6 191–192, 196, 201
Supervisory skills, 6 Termination agreements, 196–197,
Surveys 201
wage surveys, 80–81, 86 Termination interviews, 194, 199,
worker satisfaction surveys, 208 200–201
Suspensions, 178, 179, 184, 186, Termination notices, 196
187–188. See also Investigative Tests. See Employment tests;
suspension. Practical tests; specific test types
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